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Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks Second Edition
Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks
Second Edition
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Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks
Second Edition
B.B.S. SinghalFormerly Professor, Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
R.P. GuptaProfessor of Earth Resources Technology, Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
This is a revised and updated edition of Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks, Kluwer Academic Publishers (now Springer), 1999.
ISBN 978-90-481-8798-0 e-ISBN 978-90-481-8799-7DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-8799-7Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010932876
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Cover illustration: Fig. 2.1 in this book and a schematic of triple porosity model in carbonate rocks: groundwater occurs in the inter-pore spaces, along fractures and joints and in larger subsurface conduits (by Ravi Gupta and Mukesh Kumar Singh).
Cover design: deblik, Berlin
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Dr. B.B.S. SinghalFormerly ProfessorIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeDepartment of Earth SciencesRoorkee, [email protected]
Dr. R.P. GuptaProfessorIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeDepartment of Earth SciencesRoorkee, [email protected]
Verily, all this is water. All the created beings are water. The vital breaths in the body are water. Quadrupeds are water. Edible crops are water. Ambrosia is water. The luminaries are water. Vedic formulae are water. Truth is water. All deities are water.
– from Mahanarayan Upanishad
Those who take managerial action to conserve and use water from glaciers, mountains, rivers, wells and also rainwater prosper all the time.
– from Atharva Veda
Note: Upanishads & Vedas are ancient Indian scripture originally in Sanskrit.
Preface to the Second Edition
The main objective in producing the second edition of “Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks” is to incorporate in the book recent advances in this field. In this new edition, topics such as tracer and isotope techniques, groundwater contamina-tion and groundwater modeling have been enlarged into full-length chapters. Besides, additional information has been incorporated in nearly all the chapters particularly for updating latest techniques and information in geophysical exploration, satellite remote sensing sensors, hydrogeology of crystalline and carbonate rocks, well hydraulics, and groundwater conservation and management, with numerous examples. The criti-cal suggestions from colleagues and esteemed reviewers of the first edition have been taken into consideration to the extent possible.
We are thankful to a number of persons for their suggestions, inputs and con-tributions in this edition, particularly to D.R. Galloway, USGS, Thomas Hahmann, German Aerospace Center, O. Batelaan, University of Brussels, Jiri Krasny, Charles University Prague, M. Thangarajan, National Geophysical Research Institute, A.K. Saha, Delhi University, Sudhir Kumar, National Institute of Hydrology, and G.C. Mishra, Ashwani Raju, D.C. Singhal, R.K. Tewari and A.K. Singh of IIT Roorkee. We appreciate the cooperation extended by the faculty of the Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Roorkee. Mukesh K. Singh assisted in designing the cover page sketch. Thanks are particularly due to Sarvesh Kumar Sharma for softcopy preparation of the manuscript.
Roorkee B.B.S. SinghalFebruary 2010 R.P. Gupta
Preface
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Preface to First Edition
In recent years, particular attention has been focused on the hydrogeology of low per-meability rocks as is evidenced by a large number of seminars, symposia and work-shops held on the above theme, throughout the world. The hydrogeological aspects of such rocks have attracted greater attention of scientists and engineers, both as a source of water supply, mainly in developing countries, and also for the potential repositories for the safe disposal of high-level radioactive waste, particularly in Europe and North America. Development of geothermal resources is another area of interest.
While teaching graduate and post-graduate students of Earth Sciences and Hydrol-ogy at the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, and in several other specialist courses, we realized the need of textbook devoted to fractured rock hydrogeology—to empha-size various aspects of exploration, development, water quality, contamination and assessment, including the application of newer tools remote sensing and geographical information systems etc. to the problem. With this in view, we have endeavoured to all earth scientists and engineers engaged in the field of fractured rock hydrogeology.
Scientific tools and methods of study in fractured rock hydrogeology include a number of aspects, viz. structural mapping, remote sensing, geophysical exploration, geographical information systems, field and laboratory hydraulic testing, including drilling, pumping tests, modeling, and assessment etc. Each of these is a topic in itself, such that separate books are available on individual topics. We have, however, endeavoured to strike a balance so that the reading material is suitable for a gradu-ate/post-graduate level study.
Parts of the manuscript were reviewed by a number of colleagues—A.K. Bhar, S. Balakrishna, D. Kashyap, G.C. Mishra, B. Parkash, A. Prakash, G. Ramaswamy, R.G.S. Sasrty, D.C. Singhal and B.S. Sukhija. We are greatly obliged to them for their help and comments in arriving at the final presentation. We are specially indebted to C.P. Gupta who has contributed Sect. 17.7 of the book. The financial support to one of us (BBSS) received from Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Govern-ment of India, during 1993–1994 and from Association of Geoscientists for Interna-tional Development (1994–1997) is gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to the University of Roorkee, for extending the facilities. We also appreciate the assistance provided by Yash Pal and N.K. Varshnay in typing and drafting of the work.
Finally, we are also indebted to our families for enduring four years of our pre-occupation with this book.
Roorkee B.B.S. Singhal R.P. Gupta
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Contents
ix
1 Introduction and Basic Concepts ............................................................... 11.1 Need and Scope of the Book ................................................................ 11.2 Hydrological Cycle ............................................................................... 21.3 Classification of Subsurface Water ....................................................... 61.4 Classification of Water with Respect to Origin ................................... 71.5 Hydrological Classification of Geological Formations ........................ 8
1.5.1 Types of Aquifers ..................................................................... 8 1.6 Methods and Stages of Investigations .................................................. 10Further Reading ............................................................................................. 11
2 Fractures and Discontinuities ..................................................................... 132.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 132.2 Discontinuities—Types, Genetic Relations and Significance .............. 13
2.2.1 Bedding Plane ........................................................................... 132.2.2 Foliation .................................................................................... 142.2.3 Fractures and Joints .................................................................. 152.2.4 Faults and Shear Zones ............................................................ 202.2.5 Other Geological Discontinuities ............................................. 23
2.3 Fracture Characterization and Measurements ..................................... 242.3.1 Number of Sets ......................................................................... 242.3.2 Orientation ................................................................................ 242.3.3 Spacing (Interval) ..................................................................... 262.3.4 Persistence (Fracture Length) ................................................... 272.3.5 Fracture Density ....................................................................... 272.3.6 Fracture Area and Shape .......................................................... 282.3.7 Volumetric Fracture Count ....................................................... 282.3.8 Matrix Block Unit ..................................................................... 292.3.9 Fracture Connectivity ............................................................... 302.3.10 Rock Quality Designation (RQD) ............................................ 302.3.11 Aperture .................................................................................... 302.3.12 Asperity .................................................................................... 312.3.13 Wall Coatings and Infillings .................................................... 31
2.4 Methods of Field Investigations ........................................................... 312.4.1 Scanline Surveys ....................................................................... 322.4.2 Areal Surveys ............................................................................ 32
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2.4.3 Borehole Surveys ...................................................................... 332.4.4 3D Methods ............................................................................... 33
Further Reading ............................................................................................. 33
3 Hydrogeological Investigations ................................................................... 353.1 Geological Investigations ...................................................................... 353.2 Geomorphological Investigations ......................................................... 35
3.2.1 Landforms ................................................................................. 363.2.2 Drainage Characteristics ........................................................... 36
3.3 Geohydrological Investigations ............................................................ 383.3.1 Water-level Measurements ........................................................ 38
3.4 Hydrogeological Maps .......................................................................... 413.4.1 Regional Maps .......................................................................... 413.4.2 Map Media—Hard Copy and Electronic ................................. 413.4.3 Special Purpose Maps .............................................................. 42
Further Reading ............................................................................................. 44
4 Remote Sensing ............................................................................................ 454.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 454.2 Physical Principles ................................................................................ 464.3 Remote Sensors .................................................................................... 47
4.3.1 Photographic Systems ............................................................... 474.3.2 Line Scanning Systems ............................................................. 484.3.3 Digital Cameras ........................................................................ 484.3.4 Imaging Radar System ............................................................. 49
4.4 Important Spaceborne Sensors ............................................................. 504.5 Interpretation Principles ....................................................................... 524.6 Interpretation of Remote Sensing Data ................................................ 53
4.6.1 Panchromatic Photographs and Images .................................... 534.6.2 Multispectral Image Data ......................................................... 544.6.3 CIR Photographs and Composites ............................................ 544.6.4 Thermal IR Image Data ........................................................... 554.6.5 SAR Imagery ............................................................................ 56
4.7 Groundwater Indicators on Remote Sensing Data Products ............... 574.8 Thematic Applications .......................................................................... 58
4.8.1 Features Associated with Recharge Zones ............................... 584.8.2 Features Associated with Discharge Sites ............................... 594.8.3 Soil Moisture ............................................................................. 594.8.4 Vegetation ................................................................................ 604.8.5 Topography and Digital Elevation Model ................................ 604.8.6 Landforms ................................................................................. 614.8.7 Depth of Weathering and Regolith ........................................... 614.8.8 Lithology ................................................................................... 614.8.9 Geological Structure ................................................................. 624.8.10 Lineaments Including Joints and Fractures ............................. 634.8.11 Faults and Shear Zones ............................................................ 674.8.12 Soil Type ................................................................................... 684.8.13 Drainage Characteristics .......................................................... 684.8.14 Special Geological Features ..................................................... 69
Contents xi
4.9 Digital Image Processing ..................................................................... 694.9.1 Introduction and Methodology ................................................. 694.9.2 Digital Image Enhancement of Groundwater Indicators ......... 70
4.10 Application of Remote Sensing in Estimating other Hydrological Parameters ....................................................................... 71
4.11 Emerging Developments and Applications .......................................... 71Further Reading ............................................................................................. 73
5 Geophysical Exploration ............................................................................. 755.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 755.2 Electrical Resistivity Methods ............................................................. 75
5.2.1 Basic Concepts and Procedures ................................................ 755.2.2 Delineation of Rock Anisotropy .............................................. 79
5.3 Electromagnetic Methods ..................................................................... 825.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 825.3.2 EM Method—Frequency Domain ............................................ 825.3.3 Transient EM Method ............................................................... 83
5.4 Combined EM-Resistivity Surveys ...................................................... 845.5 Complex Conductivity Measurements ................................................. 845.6 Seismic Methods ................................................................................... 84
5.6.1 Basic Concepts and Procedures ................................................ 845.6.2 Azimuthal Seismic Refraction Method .................................... 85
5.7 Radon Survey ........................................................................................ 865.8 Radar Methods ...................................................................................... 865.9 Gravity and Magnetic Methods ............................................................ 875.10 Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) ................................................ 895.11 Geophysical Tomography ..................................................................... 895.12 Subsurface Methods ............................................................................. 90
5.12.1 Exploratory Excavation and Drilling ...................................... 905.12.2 Geophysical Well Logging ..................................................... 91
Further Reading ............................................................................................. 94
6 Geographical Information System (GIS) .................................................. 956.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 95
6.1.1 Why GIS for Groundwater Studies? ......................................... 956.2 Basics of GIS ........................................................................................ 97
6.2.1 Location Data ............................................................................ 976.2.2 Attribute Data ........................................................................... 976.2.3 Basic Data Structures in GIS ................................................... 98
6.3 GIS Methodology ................................................................................. 986.3.1 Data Selection and Acquisition ................................................ 986.3.2 Data Preprocessing ................................................................... 996.3.3 Data Management ..................................................................... 1006.3.4 Data Manipulation and Analysis .............................................. 1006.3.5 Data Output ............................................................................... 1046.3.6 Sources of Error ........................................................................ 104
6.4 Thematic GIS Applications in Groundwater ....................................... 1046.4.1 Study of Water-Table Behaviour and Seepage Pattern ............. 1046.4.2 Evaluation of Well Distribution in Different Aquifers ............ 105
xii Contents
6.4.3 Groundwater Exploration and Recharge ................................ 1066.4.4 Chemical Quality and Water Use ........................................... 1076.4.5 Groundwater Pollution Potential and Hazard Assessment .... 1086.4.6 Salinity Hazard Mapping ....................................................... 1106.4.7 GIS and Groundwater Modelling ........................................... 1116.4.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 112
Further Reading ........................................................................................... 113
7 Principles of Groundwater Flow and Solute Transport ........................ 1157.1 Groundwater Flow .............................................................................. 115
7.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow .................................................. 1157.1.2 Darcy’s Law ............................................................................. 1167.1.3 General Equation of Flow ....................................................... 117
7.2 Groundwater Flow in Fractured Rocks .............................................. 1187.2.1 Parallel Plate Model ................................................................ 1197.2.2 Double Porosity Model ........................................................... 1237.2.3 Equivalent Porous Medium Model (EPM) ............................. 1257.2.4 Discrete Fracture Network Models ........................................ 1257.2.5 Equivalent Parallel Plate Model ............................................. 126
7.3 Flow in the Unsaturated Zone ............................................................ 1267.3.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Porous Media ............................. 1277.3.2 Flow Through Unsaturated Fractured Rock ........................... 128
7.4 Principles of Solute Transport in Fractured Media ........................... 1307.4.1 Mechanism of Solute Transport .............................................. 130
Further Reading ........................................................................................... 138
8 Hydraulic Properties of Rocks ................................................................. 1398.1 Basic Concepts and Terminology ....................................................... 1398.2 Hydraulic Conductivity of Fractured Media ...................................... 144
8.2.1 Relationship of Hydraulic Conductivity with Fracture Aperture and Spacing ............................................................. 145
8.2.2 Effect of Stress on Permeability ............................................ 1468.2.3 Relationship of Permeability with Depth ............................... 1498.2.4 Influence of Temperature on Permeability ............................. 1508.2.5 Effect of Fracture Skin on Permeability ................................ 1518.2.6 Interconnectivity of Fractures ................................................ 151
8.3 Anisotropy and Heterogeneity ........................................................... 1518.4 Representative Elementary Volume (REV) ....................................... 152Further Reading ........................................................................................... 154
9 Estimation of Hydraulic Properties of Aquifers .................................... 1559.1 Laboratory Methods ............................................................................ 155
9.1.1 Indirect Methods ..................................................................... 1559.1.2 Direct Method ......................................................................... 156
9.2 Field Methods ..................................................................................... 1579.2.1 Packer Tests ............................................................................. 1579.2.2 Slug Test .................................................................................. 1629.2.3 Pumping Tests ......................................................................... 1659.2.4 Pumping Tests in Fractured Rock Aquifers ........................... 185
Contents xiii
9.2.5 Cross-hole Tests .................................................................. 1889.2.6 Variable-Discharge (Step-drawdown) Test ........................ 1899.2.7 Hydraulic Tomography (HT) .............................................. 191
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 192
10 Tracer and Isotope Techniques .............................................................. 19310.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 19310.2 Types of Tracers .............................................................................. 193
10.2.1 Dyes and Salts .................................................................... 19410.2.2 Organic Compounds .......................................................... 194
10.3 Tracer Injection Tests ...................................................................... 19510.3.1 Groundwater Velocity Method ........................................... 19510.3.2 Point Dilution Method ....................................................... 195 10.3.3 Well Dilution Method ........................................................ 19610.3.4 Forced Gradient Tracer Tests (FGTTs) ............................. 197
10.4 Isotopes ............................................................................................ 19810.4.1 Stable Isotopes .................................................................... 198
10.5 Radioactive Isotopes ....................................................................... 19910.5.1 Recharge Estimation .......................................................... 20010.5.2 Age Dating ......................................................................... 202
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 203
11 Groundwater Quality .............................................................................. 20511.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 20511.2 Expressing Water Analysis Data ..................................................... 20511.3 Isotopic Composition ....................................................................... 20611.4 Dissolved Constituents .................................................................... 20611.5 Graphical Presentation of Chemical Data ...................................... 207
11.5.1 Hydrochemical (Isocone) Maps ......................................... 20711.5.2 Hydrochemical Pattern Diagrams ...................................... 208
11.6 Modification of Chemical Characters of Groundwater .................. 21211.6.1 Ion Exchange ...................................................................... 21211.6.2 Membrane Effect ................................................................ 21311.6.3 Sulphate Reduction ............................................................ 213
11.7 Hydrochemical Zoning and Hydrochemical Facies ........................ 21411.7.1 Hydrochemical Zoning ....................................................... 21411.7.2 Hydrochemical Facies ......................................................... 214
11.8 Quality Criteria for Various Uses ................................................... 21611.8.1 Domestic Use ...................................................................... 21611.8.2 Quality Criteria for Other Uses ......................................... 219
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 220
12 Groundwater Contamination ................................................................. 22112.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 22112.2 Movement of Contaminants ............................................................ 22112.3 Sources of Groundwater Contamination ........................................ 223
12.3.1 Geogenic Sources ............................................................... 22312.3.2 Anthropogenic Sources ...................................................... 22512.3.3 Radioactive Waste Disposal .............................................. 227
xiv Contents
12.4 Organic Contaminants .................................................................... 23012.4.1 Transport of LNAPLs ........................................................ 23012.4.2 Transport of DNAPLs ........................................................ 23112.4.3 Remediation ....................................................................... 233
12.5 Miscellaneous Sources of Groundwater Contamination ............... 23512.6 Evaluation of Contamination Potential and Hazard ...................... 235Further Reading ......................................................................................... 236
13 Hydrogeology of Crystalline Rocks ....................................................... 23713.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 23713.2 Landforms and Drainage ................................................................ 23813.3 Groundwater Occurrence ................................................................ 240
13.3.1 Weathered Profile ............................................................... 24013.3.2 Fractured Media ................................................................. 242
13.4 Hydraulic Characteristics ................................................................ 24213.5 Water Wells ..................................................................................... 246
13.5.1 Well Yields ......................................................................... 24613.5.2 Optimum Depth of Wells ................................................... 249
13.6 Assessment of Groundwater Recharge ........................................... 25113.7 Groundwater Quality ....................................................................... 252
13.7.1 Effect of Lithology ............................................................. 25213.7.2 Hydrochemical Zoning ....................................................... 25313.7.3 Groundwater Contamination .............................................. 254
Further Reading ......................................................................................... 255
14 Hydrogeology of Volcanic Rocks ............................................................ 25714.1 Weathering, Landform and Drainage ............................................. 25714.2 Hydrogeology .................................................................................. 259
14.2.1 Plateau Basalts ................................................................... 25914.2.2 Volcanic Islands—Submarine Eruptions .......................... 26114.2.3 Dykes and Sills .................................................................. 262
14.3 Groundwater Occurrence ................................................................ 26214.4 Hydraulic Characteristics ................................................................ 26414.5 Groundwater Development ............................................................. 26614.6 Groundwater Recharge .................................................................... 26714.7 Groundwater Quality ....................................................................... 267Further Reading ......................................................................................... 268
15 Hydrogeology of Carbonate Rocks ........................................................ 26915.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 26915.2 Weathering and Landforms—The Karst ........................................ 26915.3 Springs ............................................................................................. 27415.4 Hydrogeological Characteristics ..................................................... 27715.5 Assessment of Groundwater Recharge ........................................... 28215.6 Groundwater Quality ...................................................................... 28515.7 Groundwater Development .............................................................. 286Further Reading ......................................................................................... 289
Contents xv
16 Hydrogeology of Clastic Formations ..................................................... 29116.1 Unconsolidated Sediments .............................................................. 291
16.1.1 Fluvial Deposits .................................................................. 29116.1.2 Glacial Deposits ................................................................. 292
16.2 Consolidated Sediments .................................................................. 29416.2.1 Sandstones .......................................................................... 29416.2.2 Shales and Siltstones .......................................................... 29616.2.3 Groundwater Development ................................................. 296
16.3 Water Quality .................................................................................. 297Further Reading ......................................................................................... 298
17 Water-wells ............................................................................................... 29917.1 Types of Wells ................................................................................. 299
17.1.1 Dugwells ............................................................................. 29917.1.2 Borewells ............................................................................. 30017.1.3 Horizontal Borewells .......................................................... 30117.1.4 Dug-cum-Borewell and Collector Well .............................. 30217.1.5 Infiltration Galleries (QANAT) .......................................... 303
17.2 Criteria for Siting Wells .................................................................. 30417.3 Methods of Well Construction ........................................................ 306
17.3.1 Cable Tool Method ............................................................. 30717.3.2 Direct Circulation Hydraulic Rotary Drilling ................... 30817.3.3 Reverse Circulation Rotary Method .................................. 30817.3.4 Air Rotary Method ............................................................. 308
17.4 Well Development ........................................................................... 30917.4.1 Development Techniques in Unconsolidated
Formations .......................................................................... 30917.4.2 Development of Wells in Hard Rocks ............................... 310
17.5 Hydraulic Characteristics of Wells ................................................. 312Further Reading ......................................................................................... 315
18 Geothermal Reservoirs and Hot Dry Rock Systems ........................... 31718.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 31718.2 Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Systems ....................................................... 31818.3 Flow Characteristics ........................................................................ 31918.4 Reservoir Properties ........................................................................ 319
18.4.1 Single Well Tests ................................................................ 32018.4.2 Interference Tests ............................................................... 32018.4.3 Tracer Tests ........................................................................ 321
18.5 Ground Subsidence ......................................................................... 32118.6 Water Quality .................................................................................. 32218.7 Origin of Geothermal Waters ......................................................... 322Further Reading ......................................................................................... 323
19 Groundwater Modeling ........................................................................... 32519.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 32519.2 Defining the Model’s Purpose ........................................................ 32519.3 Model Conceptualization ................................................................ 326
xvi Contents
19.4 Setting-up a Numerical Groundwater Model ................................. 32619.4.1 Model Grid ........................................................................ 32619.4.2 Defining Model Boundaries .............................................. 32719.4.3 Inputting Model Parameters ............................................. 327
19.5 Modeling of Homogenous Porous Aquifer ..................................... 32919.5.1 Mathematical Formulation ................................................ 32919.5.2 Solution of Mathematical Equation .................................. 32919.5.3 Modeling Software ............................................................ 33019.5.4 Model Calibration and Validation .................................... 33119.5.5 Case Studies ...................................................................... 331
19.6 Modeling of Fractured Rock Aquifer System ............................... 33419.6.1 Groundwater Flow Equation for Parallel Plate Model ..... 33519.6.2 Particle Tracking Approach for Solute Transport ............ 33619.6.3 Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) Model ........................ 33619.6.4 Dual Porosity (DP) Model ................................................ 34119.6.5 Stochastic Continuum (SC) Model ................................... 34119.6.6 Computer Codes ................................................................ 34119.6.7 Case Studies ...................................................................... 342
19.7 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................... 344Further Reading ......................................................................................... 344
20 Assessment and Management of Groundwater Resources ................. 34520.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 34520.2 Water Budget and Groundwater Balance ....................................... 345
20.2.1 Hydrological Balance ........................................................ 34520.2.2 Groundwater Balance ........................................................ 34620.2.3 Estimation of Various Components of
Groundwater Recharge ...................................................... 34620.3 World’s Water Resources ................................................................ 34920.4 Groundwater Resources of India .................................................... 35020.5 Groundwater Level Fluctuations .................................................... 354
20.5.1 Recharge from Rainfall and Snow-melt ........................... 35420.5.2 Losses due to Evapotranspiration ..................................... 35520.5.3 Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................... 35520.5.4 Ocean Tides ....................................................................... 35520.5.5 Earthquakes ....................................................................... 35520.5.6 Underground Nuclear Testing ........................................... 35620.5.7 Urbanization ...................................................................... 35620.5.8 Perennial Irrigation ........................................................... 358
20.6 Land Subsidence ............................................................................. 35920.7 Fresh–Seawater Relationship in Coastal Areas .............................. 361
20.7.1 Subsurface Groundwater Discharge (SGD) to the Sea .... 36120.7.2 Seawater Intrusion ............................................................. 362
20.8 Groundwater Management and Artificial Recharge ...................... 36620.8.1 Terminology ...................................................................... 36620.8.2 Artificial Groundwater Recharge/Management
of Aquifer Recharge .......................................................... 36720.8.3 Interbasin Water Transfer .................................................. 370
Contents xvii
20.9 Transboundary Aquifers ................................................................. 37120.10 Impact of Climate Change ............................................................. 37220.11 Groundwater Governance ............................................................... 373
20.11.1 Water Rights ..................................................................... 37320.11.2 Water Pricing ................................................................... 37420.11.3 Groundwater Legislation ................................................. 374
Further Reading .......................................................................................... 375
Appendix ........................................................................................................... 377
References ......................................................................................................... 379
Index .................................................................................................................. 401
AGU American Geophysical UnionASCE American Society of Civil EngineersAWRC Australian Water Resources CouncilBGS British Geological SurveyCGWB Central Ground Water Board, Govt. of IndiaCSC Commonwealth Science CouncilEPA Environmental Protection Agency, USAGSI Geological Survey of IndiaIAH International Association of HydrogeologistsIAEA International Atomic Energy AgencyIAHS International Association of Hydrological SciencesIGC International Geological CongressIGW Proceedings International Workshop on Appropriate Methodlogies for
Development and Management of Ground Water Resources in Develo-ping Countries, NGRI, India.
NGRI National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, India.NRC National Research Council, USAUN United NationsUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationWHO World Health Organisation
Abbreviations
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