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Appraisal and Its Application to Counseling
COUN 550Saint Joseph College
Ability, Intelligence, Aptitude and Achievement Testing
For Class #8
Copyright © 2005 by R. Halstead. All rights reserved.
Class Objectives
Overview of Ability and Intelligence TestingTheories of Intelligence and the Binet Scale
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
Other Individual Tests of Ability
Aptitude Tests
Achievement Tests
Alternative and Authentic Assessment
Overview
One of the most controversial areas of testing is the measurement of intelligence.
Consider the following factors:
The nature vs. nurture debate
Overall validity of these tests
Cultural bias
Models of Intelligence
It is important to remember that the concept of intelligence is just that – a concept that we have constructed and given meaning.
Another way to think about this is as a mental model for something that we believe to exist.
Psychological researchers often have differing opinions about such things and therefore different models for intelligence have been put forth.
Models of Intelligence
Hierarchical Theory – VernonConceptualizes intelligence as existing operationally in a
stepwise fashion
Guilford’s Model of Intelligence
Multifactor model – that looks at six different operations, five types of content, and six products
This results in a three dimensional cube that contains 180 cells reflecting the interplay of these factors.
Models of Intelligence
Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized IntelligenceThis is also a two factor theory.
Fluid Intelligence involves tasks of adaptation
Sequential reasoning, induction, quantitative reasoning
Crystallized Intelligence is specific to content knowledge in a specific area
Information coding and recoding processes
Models of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Cognitive ApproachesFocus of this model is on a theory of information
processing – metacomponents, performance components, performance components, and knowledge acquisitions components.
Models of Intelligence
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentStages
Sensoimotor PreoperationalConcrete operational
Formal operational Function Factors
maturationexperience transmission equilibration
Models of Intelligence
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence - Combines Analytical and Information ProcessingSeven Forms of Intelligence
Verbal/Linguistic
Logical/Mathematical
Visual/Spatial
Body/Kinesthetic Musical/Rhythmic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal/Environmental
Types of Intelligence Tests
Individual Intelligence ScalesStanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Five FactorsCrystalized KnowledgeFluid Reasoning Quantitative ReasoningVisual Spacial ProcessingWorking Memory
Types of Intelligence Tests
The Wechsler Scales (WISC-IV)Index Scales
Verbal comprehensionPerceptual ReasoningWorking MemoryProcessing Speed
Full Scale IQ
Group Intelligence Tests - various Paper Pencil - Less complex to administer and score
Aptitude Testing
Aptitude is defined as an individual’s ability to learn certain skills or tasks if given the opportunity
Aptitude tests are used to provide an estimate of future performance on tasks that may or may not be similar to the tasks measures on test
Differences
The content of intelligence, achievement, and aptitude tests overlap.
The primary difference is HOW the tests are used. Generally, aptitude and abilities tests are used for
PREDICTIVE purposes.
Achievement and intelligence tests measure are used for DESCRIPTIVE purposes.
Multiaptitude Batteries
Used in business and educational contexts
Measure a number of relatively broad ability areasi.e. verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning,
mechanical reasoning, and abstract reasoning
permit INTRAINDIVIDUAL comparisons
Characteristics
Multiaptitude battery subscales ideally should have low-intercorrelations
Predictive validity has been determined by longitudinal studies
Fundamental component of comprehensive career counseling program Results help students assess aptitudes, predict academic +
occupational performance, select career exploration activities + make tentative career choices.
Most widely used Multiaptitude batteries:
Armed Services Vocational Apt. Battery (ASVAB)
Differential Aptitude Test Battery (DAT)Useful in exploring academic and vocational possibilities
General Aptitude Battery (GATB) one of most widely used batteries for assessment in
vocational counseling
Career Ability Placement Survey (CAPS)assess abilities for a majority of jobs in 14 occupational
clusters
Career Ability Tests
Career Ability TestsAbility tests assess the maximum performance of
individuals and their present ability to perform a task. Aptitude tests assess the future level of the individual to perform a task.
Admission Tests (SAT/ACT)
Graduate School Admission Tests (GRE/MAT)
Specialized Batteries
MCT Minnesota Clerical Test
Bennett Mechanical Comprehension TestClerical Ability
Mechanical Ability
Psychomotor Ability (fine and gross motor skills and manual dexterity)
Artistic
Musical
Computer
Issues and Problem Areas with Aptitude Tests
The trait and factor approach has been an esteemed theme in career guidance, rooted in psychology of individual differences, applied psych., and differential psych.
Aptitude, achievement, personality, and interest dimensions are identified through objective psychological testing and can be profiled to represent the individual’s potential.
Emphasis now focusing more on decision-making and career and educational choice (less focus on solely using aptitude testing)
Achievement Testing
Achievement Tests - Measure the degree or extent of the knowledge, info, skills, and the competencies that a person has acquired thru training, instruction, or experiences.
Types of Achievement Tests
Survey Batteries / Ach. Tests – most widely used ach. tests, the survey battery is part of most school testing programs. # of subtests and measures the objectives that are typically addressed in grades K-12. Provides a picture of what student has learned. Coordinated w/ standardized admin. + scoring procedures, common format. CAT ITBS SAT9
Criterion-Referenced Tests – domain-referenced tests, measure specific objectives and skills. Differ from norm-referenced + survey in that they FOCUS on MASTERY of given objective or skill, usually include many items on obj. Used to evaluate curriculum, identify topics
Types of Achievement Tests cont.
Item Banks – commercial and public domain test item banks are available for educational purposes. Allow school districts to custom-design achievement tests for specific objectives
Minimum-Level Tests – Require mastery for a student to pass to next grade level. Absolute standards often 75% Criterion-referenced
State Assessment Tests – administered in selected grades. Sometimes focus on essential skills, survey student knowledge, skills, and understanding in given subject. Purpose to help districts identify problem areas and evaluate curriculum.
Types of Achievement Tests cont.
NAEP – National Assessment of Educational Progress assess knowledge, skills, and attitudes of 4th, 8th + 12th graders
Subject Area Tests – provide more reliable and valid info. Performance compared against national norms. ACT
Individual Achievement Tests – used to assess a client’s achievement and cog. processes. Useful info on attitudes and motivation BASIS, PIAT, Woodcock-Johnson
Use of Achievement Test Results
(1) instructional
(2) selection and placement decisions
(3) growth
(4) criteria to evaluation curriculum
Authentic and Alternate Assessment
Major trend replacing traditional norm-referenced testing that relies on multiple-choice questions. Alternative Assessment involves assessing performance
through portfolios, interviews, observations, work samples, etc. Ex: Woodcock-Johnson
Authentic/Performance Assessment - involves assessment of individual on particular work tasks, no inferences are made, directly related to on the job. Ex: firefighters
Applications
Curriculum-Based Measurement – CBM alternate approach to monitoring stud. progress in academic areas. Screening, referrals, identification.
Adult Achievement Tests - GRE
Diagnostic Tests – One major purpose of achievement testing is to diagnose strengths and weaknesses. Diagnostic tests are based on essential skills + competencies needed for success and use numerous items to measure skill.
Alternative & Authentic Assessment
Growing dissatisfaction with traditional testing procedures and movement toward alternative and authentic assessment techniques
Qualitative, alternative assessment Observations
Interviews
Observational Approaches
Test Behavior Observational Scales
Clinical Observations
Unstructured (open-ended) versus unstructured (deliberately systematic)
Participant Observer versus Unobtrusive
Problems in ObservationLack of clarity, problems tracking and coding
Methods of Data Collection
Anecdotal Recordsbrief accounts of behavior recorded in a log, written
description of an observed event
Behavior tallying and charting
Checklists
Rating Scales
(Note: the above are methods of collecting data and not testing procedures)
Interviewing
Standardized interviewsStructured and unstructured interviews can be useful in
assessment and diagnosis (Bio-Psycho-Social Intake Assessment or Use of DSM-IV-TR Assessment)
Other Structured Interviews - Children’s Assessment Schedule (CAS), Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA)
One needs to be well-trained in the procedures.
Cautionary Note: The “Halo-effect” can cause the rater to rate examinee high on dimension not clearly observed because performed well on another dimension. Therefore, one must strive for objectivity.
Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessment focuses on the development of assessment exercises that are not biased against any group of students and can be reliably scored and validly interpreted.
Involves authentic learning and emphasizes real-world experiencesEx: Portfolio assessment