Chapter 10 – A New Civilization Emerges in Western Europe 212

Wonder was the motive that led people to philosophy…wonder is a kind of desire in knowledge. It is the cause of delight because it carries with it the hope of discovery.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, c. 1266

The Flavor of the Middle Ages: Inferiority and Vitality 214

What was the impact of Western Europe’s interaction with the Arabs?There are two perspectives when considering medieval Western Europe:

It should be compared to societies that borrowed from established civilization centers.One must identify the important aspects that would continue its influence after the post-classical

period. Western European societies were backward compared to the civilizations in the Middle East and Asia.

Their bodies are large, their manners harsh, their understanding dull and their tonguesheavy….Those of them who are farthest to the north are the most subject to stupidity,grossness and brutishness.

A 10th-century Arab geographerMedieval backwardness led Europeans to be more fearful of the Arab world and even after the Arab

threat died out, the Europeans constantly sought to limit their interaction with the Arabs. This fear led to the Crusades and a search for trade routes away from Arab-controlled areas.

The Middle Ages also served as a period in Western European history for the formation of institutions and values. Thanks in part to new knowledge from the Arab world, the West grew greatly in population,

economic growth, more stable political units, artistic and intellectual life.Technologically speaking, there were, in Europe, water-driven mills and improvements in iron

casting (seen in the making of bells). From the Middle Ages emerged institutions like universities, architectural forms (towers and vaulted

arches) and new ideas of limited government.

Stages of Postclassical Development 215

The Manorial System: Obligations and AllegiancesWhat allowed the manorial system to emerge in Europe? What slowed European development during the “dark ages?” What was the relationship requirement between the peasants and the landlords?From 550 to 900, Western Europe suffered from a series of problems:

The fragmented Italy, in the aftermath of the collapse of Rome, led to a collapsed economy and diminished intellectual life (Italy’s weakness would continue until the late 19th-century).

The Arab-controlled Spain, which led to the vibrant intellectual and economic life there but it was a society out of Western mainstream culture.

The center of the postclassical West lay in France, the Low Countries (modern-day Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg), southern/western Germany with England being drawn in.These were places where civilization was new.

Western Europe’s slow development was made slower by the constant invasion by the Vikings from Scandinavia (modern-day Finland, Sweden, Norway and Iceland).Any intellectual life remained only in the Church where officials could do no more than

translate and keep alive ancient documents.

European serfs toil the land under the direction of the lord

Manorialism was a system of economic and political relations between landlords and peasant laborers.Serfs were farmers who worked land owned by landlords.

Serfs gave portions of what they earned to landlords and got protection in return.This system came about due to a lack of a large political structure and the landlords

operated as a “government.”Life was difficult and technology was limited until the 9th-century but some were seen

and came from eastern Europe and Asia:Moldboard – curved plow made of iron that worked well with the heavier soil of

Germany and France.New horse collar – allowed horses to be yoked without being choked.

Landlords also used horses to create military dominance.3-field system (today called crop rotation) allowed farmers to save half of their

land to restore the nutrients. Monks also helped with agricultural techniques, a contrast to eastern European

monks who were not connected as much on earthly matters. August and September were the harvest time for summer crops, a very busy time.October was for the preparation of land for winter crops.In November, farmers killed excess livestock, usually to feed to the remaining

animals. In February and March, the farmers plowed the land for spring crops.The early summer was the most relaxed period for peasants but work remained.

Catholic holidays were the basis of many of the celebrations and festivals.The big three were Christmas, Easter and Pentecost (descent of the Holy Spirit

to Jesus’ disciples fifty days after His resurrection). Village priests played an important role but were often peasants themselves.

Women held a particularly difficult job; they were expected to work in the fields and manage the household as well.Their ability to manage the household determined the survival of the family.

Most peasants had simple cottages, many containing one room, with a few having two.These cottages had few or no windows and no chimney (smoke went through cracks or

the thatched roof).The peasant diet, when food was available, was adequate.

Bread was dark and hard in texture, including rye, barley, wheat, millet and oats.Vegetables, berries, fruits and eggs were often used along with bread.Meat, if eaten, was usually only done during the festivals or holidays.

Life was secure as long as they upheld their obligations to the landlord.People could own a home and pass it down through inheritance – these same folks

established their own villages that was a home to the cultural scene of festivals and political structure that allowed them to solve disputes.

The Church: Political and Spiritual PowerWhat allowed for the power of the Church? What were the roles of monks? What was the call for Benedict of Nursia? What is the importance of Clovis I?The Roman Catholic Church was working in place of a large political structure to administer

Christendom – as with manorialism, the Church operated as it did because of the lack of a strong central government.The bishops oversaw regional churches with supposed allegiance to the Pope.Popes fought off heresies and oversaw missionary work throughout world.

Christianity spread throughout Germany and by the 900s, into Scandinavia.In 496, Clovis I converted to Christianity to gain advantage over his rivals.Clovis, with his conversion, had control over the Franks in modern-day France.

Conversions like this convinced religious leaders that their authority rose above that of the political sphere.

The Church also developed a series of monasteries like the Benedict of Nursia (Italy) which began a series of Benedictine monasteries that assisted Christians and welcomed those who wanted to devote life to prayer and religious discipline and to get away from the misery of everyday life.Monks also served as an example of holy life but also tended to more earthly concerns

like improving cultivation of the land and leading movements towards education and literacy.

Charlemagne and His Successors

The map shows Charlemagne’s territory upon becoming emperor (tan) and

his territory at the time of his death (green)What was the hope of Charlemagne with the formation of the Carolingian empire? What led to the short duration of Charlemagne’s line of succession? What things began to fall into place leading to larger regional monarchies?There was an increase growth of the political sphere and an early one that expanded form its original 4

size was the royal house of the Franks (based on northern France, Belgium and western Germany). In the 700s, a new family, the Carolingians, took over the monarchy.Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer) was one member of this line who stopped the Muslim

advancement into France though that had more to do with the overextension of the Muslims than the strength of the Franks.

Around 800, Charles the Great or Charlemagne established an empire in France and Germany and called themselves holy roman emperors. Let my armies be the rocks and the trees and the birds in the sky.

CharlemagneCharlemagne looked as if he would restore the Roman Empire but his empire did not survive his

death as his successors did not have the leadership ability as he did.The empire split into three parts among Charlemagne’s sons: the kingdom of Charles,

Lothiar and Louis. The political history of Europe began to form with the gradual growth of regional monarchies.

Western Europe had a strong cultural unity, centered on Catholic Christianity. Church officials used Latin but elsewhere, other languages emerged combining Latin and

the Germanic languages.Beginning in the 800s, new identities grew around languages that began to coincide with

emerging national identities.Regional monarchies could not build up a strong rule and allowed local lords to go their own

way (a trend was particularly seen in Germany and Italy) – this allowed for the aforementioned manorialism discussed above.

New Economic and Urban VigorWhat was the impact of greater economic advancements? How did the increase of trade change urban centers in Europe? How did the increase economic and trade possibilities help and alter the cultural scene in Europe?From the 900s-1200s, a combination of agricultural improvements and political stability led to a great

population boom in western Europe. Part of this stability was seen in an old European foe – the Viking raids slowed due to stronger

states in Europe and Christianity settled down the Vikings from their wilder past. As economic innovation and prosperity grew, other things changed.

The relationship between the serfs and landlords changed as serfs earned more rights from having more options to make money in the town markets.

New crops emerged from other areas including durum wheat (from North Africa and a key ingredient for pasta) and alfalfa (from Persia).

Increased urbanization and agriculture worked hand in hand to lead to a greater population.While still well behind the advanced civilizations in Asia, western Europe was growing and

getting stronger.In parts of Italy and the Low Countries where trade was more significant, the urban population

grew to 20% of the total population by the 1200s (13th-century).

Conditions also led to greater cultural advancements as education and universities began to cater to training potential clergy and church officials.Some universities specialized in medicine, law and other areas that borrowed from the Greeks

and the Arabs.

Feudal Monarchies and Political AdvancesWhat was the feudal structure and who did what for whom? How did France emerge from feudalism? How was it that England developed it so quickly? How did England manage to maintain centralized control? How was England and China similar in their governmental structure?Feudalism was a key political and military relationship in Western Europe that linked the military elites

(mostly landlords) who could afford horses and the weaponry necessary for war.The greater lords provided protection and aid to lesser lords (vassals).

Vassals owed their lords military service, some goods and payments and advice.Charlemagne’s empire was basically an enlarged form of this feudalism with rewarding and

paying his lords with large estates.Feudalism ebbed the growth of strong central states, with the concentration of power at the

lower, local levels, but it also prevented local warfare. The kings of France grew out of the feudal system, starting with the control in and around Paris and,

through growing strengths and marriages, extending their control into the countryside.Slowly, a growing bureaucracy began to emerge and by the early 14th-century, the king could

make the church pay taxes (a big bone of contention for the Church).A bureaucracy refers to the people who make up and run the government, as well as

goes out into the population to enforce or enact government policy.Kings could print their own money and employ professional soldiers, apart from the

feudal armies that still did most of fighting.Initially, a feudal monarchy in England occurred more abruptly when the Duke of Normandy (who had a

strong feudal domain in northern France) invaded England in 1066.William the Conqueror tied the great lords of England to the royal court, giving them estates to

induce loyalty.Some royal officials, called sheriffs, helped supervise the administration of justice

throughout the kingdom.The merging of feudal principles with a centralized approach included a standardized

national law codes issued by the court.Therefore, in England, the feudal system was not as strong as seen earlier in France

because of William’s subjugation of local lords to a central power.Again, the transition was similar to China with the development of an explicit bureaucracy with

specialized functions and sending emissaries to outlying provinces.Kings tended to choose urban businesses and professional people to fill their bureaucracy over

the landlords because the former would be loyal to the one who appointed them.

Limited GovernmentWhat prevented strong monarchies from developing in parts of western Europe? What is the Magna Carta? What three estates made up the developing parliaments?Strong monarchies were slow to develop evenly throughout Europe.

Germany and Italy were split into regional states which were operated by feudal lords.The pope directly controlled central Italy.

In the Low Countries, a big trade and manufacturing region, territory was divided into regions.The Church remained a major stumbling block, keeping monarchies in check by refusing to subjugate

themselves under monarchial rule.Feudalism was the second limitation as aristocrats still had a powerful voice and their own military

forces. King John of England was forced to back down in the face of an aristocratic protest, leading to

the Magna Carta or Great Charter which protected aristocrats from unlimited monarchial power.John could not pass taxes without the Lords’ permission nor appoint bishops without

the Church’s permission.This relationship eventually led, in late 13th-century, to the creation of a Parliament made

up the House of Lords and House of Commons (elected representatives voted on by wealthy citizens).

No freeman shall be arrested, or detained in prison, or disseised (deprived of his property) or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way molested, neither will we set forth against him or send against him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the law of the land. To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny or delay, right or justice.

Magna Carta, Clauses 39 and 40, 1215Parliaments had already popped up in Catalonia (Spain) and Iceland and would later develop in

France, Spain and Scandinavia.Parliaments represented three key estates: the church, nobles and urban leaders.

This was nothing compared to modern democracy but it would set a precedent for future western democratic institutions.Japan developed differently with a focus on group loyalty than to develop checks upon

the centralized government and its power.Monarchies did establish administrations and were easily offended which led to wars (yet still

very much behind some Asian civilizations). The Hundred Years’ War was a long battle between the national monarchies of France

and England.

The West’s Expansionist ImpulseHow did the attempt to regain Rome’s greatness change Europe? What was the purpose of the Crusades? Who was Saladin? How were European commoners convinced to join the Crusades?Western European expansion was based on population increase and motivated by a hope to recover

Rome’s greatness and Christian zeal.Meanwhile, Germanic kings and settlers moved into the sparsely populated eastern Germany and

Poland. Northern Christian Spanish groups pushed south and began to slowly take back parts of

the Iberian peninsula by conquering major Arab areas like Toledo.Vikings pushed across the Atlantic into Iceland, Greenland and eventually into Canada.

The biggest expansion were the Crusades – a series of attacks by European armies (who were no longer fighting themselves and looking for action) to take the Holy Land from the Arabs.Saladin was one Arab ruler that managed to defeat the Europeans through superior strategic

skills and intellect.The Europeans turned a series of Crusades into an excuse to take land and kill for God

but, beyond the first Crusade, the Europeans made very little headway or progress.

The first Crusade started and called for in 1095 by Pope Urban II.All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested.

Pope Urban II on those who sign up for CrusadesThe Crusades showed the aggressive nature of Western European groups and exposed the West

to massive amounts of information and science from the Middle East and Asia.Oh, what a great and beautiful city is Constantinople! How many churches and palacesit contains, fashioned with wonderful skill! Their tradesmen at all times bring by boat allthe necessities of man!

A Crusader on his impressions of Constantinople

Religious Reform and EvolutionWhat was the reaction to the Church’s corruption and greed?The Catholic Church went through changes as monks and priests were falling into a trap of wealth of

the Church and becoming feudal lords in their own right.St. Clare of Assisi established the Order of St. Clare or the Poor Clares, devoting their lives to

piety, poverty and prayer.She patterned her group after St. Francis of Assisi whose monastic order vowed the same.Various miracles were attributed to St. Clare and she was canonized in 1255 – in

1958, Pope Pius XII declared her the Patron Saint of television because she heard a Christmas mass taking place across town.

Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085) pushed to distance the Church from state control and for a greater holiness on the part of church officials.He pushed for the celibacy of priests and place the Church outside the control of the

state. A showdown with Henry VI of the Holy Roman Emperor ended in the Church’s favor.

This served as the foundation of western tradition of the separation of church and state.

And just as the moon gets her light from the sun, and is inferior to the sun…so the royal power gets the splendor of its dignity from the papal authority.

Pope Innocent III, 1198 on church reforms

Western Culture and Christianity in the Postclassical Era 225

Theology: Assimilating Faith and ReasonWhy were Abelard’s theories so controversial? How did Bernard combat Abelard? What was the inspiration of men like Thomas Aquinas? What is humanism and scholasticism and why were these approaches significant? In the centuries before 1000, Christian leaders and political patrons pushed to collect and translate

ancient Christian texts from guys like Augustine.While the efforts of these translators developed a greater understanding of faith through their

works though they did not push through new ideas or concepts.They also pushed to translate ancient texts on the matters of philosophy and science.

After 1000, the push for logic and reason led many to use it in the pursuit for a greater understanding of the faith.Pierre Abelard of Paris brought reason, logic and criticism onto religion with delight.

While he stated he did not want to distance from God, Abelard had a contrarian nature.The first key to wisdom is defined, of course, as assiduous and frequent questioning.

Pierre AbelardSoon, the logical-rationalist approach did not go unchallenged as a powerful monk, St. Bernard of

Clairvaux, pushed for an approach to God using reason alone.He believed men like Abelard and his ideas were dangerous and God should be approached

only with faith.Both Christian and Muslim circles struggled with the idea of merging intellectualism and religion.

Religious intellectuals tried to include other approaches that would not infringe on religion.The combination of ideas led to an explosion in the universities (this led to an increase of job

opportunities for lawyers) as students paid their teachers directly to learn about a particular subject (students, take note – the payment of teachers directly).

This was different in China where universities were tied into one bureaucracy – in essence, theteachers in China, like in present-day United States, were government employees.

The postclassical intellectual drive was spurred on by the revealed intellectual development from the Middle East. Works of past Muslim and Jewish scholars fired up the learning centers in Europe.These works combined the ideas behind Aristotle, Hellenistic science and Arab rationalists like

ibn-Rushd. Thomas Aquinas, an Italian-born monk who taught at the University of Paris, felt that faith

came first but reason could be used to understand the natural order and the nature of God.All knowledge could be organized in an understanding way and he produced Summas

(or “higher works”) that used logic to eliminate all possible objections to the truth as revealed by reason and faith.

Considered one of the founding humanists, he favored Aristotle, calling him the greatest of the philosophers.

Beware of the person of one book.Thomas Aquinas

Humanism is a theory and practices that emphasizes reason and scientific methodology tounderstand the natural world as a way towards human fulfillment.

Scholasticism was a movement where opposing theories were discussed, using logic and reason, to solve controversies and settle arguments.At times, these debates degenerated into silly debates like how many angels can dance on

the head of a pin. At its height, however, it showed confidence in the logical orderliness of knowledge.

Most scientific and medical research was organized and done with an understanding of past knowledge.One exception happened in Oxford where clergy, like Roger Bacon, did research on

optical problems leading to the discovery of eyeglasses. During 1300 and 1400s, researchers advanced knowledge in chemistry and astronomy.

Popular ReligionHow did Christianity change in western Europe?

Not much is known about popular religion and beliefs in western Europe – Christianity ran deep but traditional beliefs were sure to have abound. Some couldn’t understand how their personal behavior would conflict with Christian morality.

Raoul de Cambrai, the hero of a French epic, burned down a convent and refused tosay that his actions were unjust but admitted he did not know it was Lent (a religious observance for Catholics meant for them to refrain from sin).

The growth of cities saw a growth of lay groups who developed spirituality and devotion.There was an increase veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus and various saints that stressed

a merciful nature of God rather than the Jewish version of a vengeful and punishing God.Ordinary folks continued to mix pagan beliefs with Christian ones and festivals included

dancing and general bacchanalia.

Religious Themes in Art and Literature

The Cathedral of Our Lady in Chartres, France is a prime example of Gothic architecture

What was a new development in architecture in Europe? What were the characteristics of literature during this period? Why did the Church reject the literature?Religious art in western Europe began following the example of the Islamic Middle East and Hindu

India with a focus on Christ’s birth and suffering and the lives of saints.By the 14th and 15th-centuries, art became more realistic and stained glass became increasingly

popular. Initially, architecture was copied from the Romans but by the 11th-century, a new style, based loosely on

architectural styles from the Middle East emerged called gothic. Gothic’s spiritual element is seen in the towers and spires reaching towards heaven.

Literature and music was normally a reflection of religious belief.Latin literature dealt with points of law, philosophy or political theory while at the same time,

the development of literature was done in the vernacular (local languages, not Latin as seen in the churches).

A similar development happened in India where Sanskrit developed as a scholarly language but local, popular languages gained in popularity.

Most vernacular literature was secular with writings about heroics and mythical figures.Beowulf in Old English and The Song of Roland in French were the earliest.Later writers in the vernacular branched out with adventure, comedy and poetry.

Early writing caused tension with Christian authorities because early writing focused on the richness and coarseness of ordinary life and made fun of Christians. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales focuses on ordinary life with bawdy behavior.The French poem The Romance of the Rose used explicit sexual imagery. An increased amount of writers who wrote on love, not just romantic love but platonic

love, placed a new focus on what would be a major emotional value in western tradition.

Changing Economic and Social Forms in the Postclassical Centuries 228

New Strains in Rural LifeHow did commercialism change the lives of serfs? Common features described the economic activity and the social structure in western Europe.Western Europe became a commercialized zone as trade revived during the 900s.

Most regions were agrarian and much of what was grown was for local consumption.The Low Countries produced cloth that was sought throughout Europe, especially Italy.They produced wool in England and Scandinavia supplied timber and fur.

Improvements in agriculture after the year 800 brought new aspects of rural life.The Serfs developed into almost free farmers with only a few obligations to the landlords.Vassals still performed military duties but began to refine themselves through trade.

As Europeans began to drift towards it, commerce was seen as money-grubbing and considered demeaning.

As vassals sought to improve their conditions, they pushed serfs to pay more taxes.Tensions led to conflicts between the two groups as serfs talked about the equality

granted them under Christianity.New social strains developed (similar to the popular unrest in China and rural uprisings in

Middle East) where religion promoted egalitarian sentiments.In general, Western peasants’ life improved greatly during the height of the Middle Ages.

While not high tech, western agriculture was not as improved compared to that in east Asia butfar advanced compared to the classical Mediterranean world.

Growth of Trade and BankingWhat was responsible for the increase in banking? What led to greater international trade? What was the Hanseatic League? What was the social difference for merchants in western Europe and in the Middle East? What were the characteristics of guilds and what were their objectives? Urban growth led to specialized manufacturing and commercial activities which in turn led to an

increase in trade.Banking came out of the need to organized money and goods transaction over long-distance.Christians and ordinary folks bemoaned banking because they did not want to lose face-to-face,

traditional style of business.However, banking spread throughout western Europe with the rise in capitalism and investors

always looking for more money.Increase trade took several forms:

Exchanges between western Europe and other parts of the known world.The European wealthy developed a taste for the exotic from Asia like spices and silk.The Crusades did much to bring these exotic items to wider attention in Europe.

Re-developing of the Mediterranean trade was due mainly to Italian merchants.Trade within Europe involved timber and grain from the north for cloth and metal products

manufactured in Italy and the Low Countries.The Hanseatic League was a trade association between northern German cities and

southern Norse (Scandinavian) cities and was a key part to the increase trade,not just in Europe but throughout certain parts of the world, such as the Mediterranean region, including North Africa and the Middle East.

Growing banking facilities facilitated commercial transactions throughout Europe – notably, Jewish businessmen became respected for their ability to loan money to both the king and the church.Trade and banking would serve as the foundation for capitalism in western Europe.

Large cities, like London, were home to groups of powerful merchants who banded together to invest in international trade – making and losing money.Jacques Coeur was a famous example of a merchant reaching the heights of wealth before being

turned against by those in debt to him – he died in military action against the Turks.While European merchants did not enjoy the social acceptance as in the Middle East and in Indian

societies, they had a freer hand in doing business due to weaker government structures. Merchants even developed their own codes of commercial law, administered by city courts.

The rising merchant class developed an unusual powerful and independent role in European society.

While still developing, capitalism did not take root as most landlords and peasants were not involved inthe market economy and city economic ethics stressed group protection, not profit making. The characteristic institution was the merchant or artisan guild which grouped people in the same

business or trade in a single city.Guilds were new to western Europe but enjoyed a greater independence from state control

than similar guilds in Asian societies.Guilds pushed to make sure all members had equal share of all potential profits, running contrast

to the capitalist theory that pushes for maximum profit on the individual level.Guilds monitored and controlled the amount of members and apprentices brought into the guild.Security and rough equality was the goal – not maximum individual profit.Guilds also monitored the quality of products to make sure customers were not stuck with

shoddy and not-up-to-standard work.In western Europe, manufacturing and commercial methods, while not as advanced as in Asia, was

beginning to catch up, especially in iron making and textile manufacturing. Clock making improved due to increased technology and concern for precise time due to wanting

to be on church on time. At the same time, in Italy and the Low Countries, capitalists employed manufacturers and

tradesmen outside of the guilds (working out of their home to utilize raw materials gained through trade).

There were contradictory elements within western Europe’s economy and society:

Commercial and capitalist elements went against the slower pace of the rural economy and the group protectionism of guilds.

The pursuit of individual wealth went against a group welfare mentality.

Limited Sphere for WomenIn what ways were women enjoying new, improved status in Europe? In what ways were women losing status in Europe? In what way were European women better off than Arabic women?As in other agricultural societies, there were new limitations on the conditions of women.

Women had higher status than their sisters in Arab societies.They were less segregated in religious services (though they were not allowed to lead

them). They were not as confined to the home.

They did lose status in commercial and economic ventures, where once they played an importantrole in local commerce and operated craft guilds.They began to be hemmed in by the male-dominated organizations. The more Europe urbanized and moved away from its rural roots, women lost more of

the equality they enjoyed on the farms.Literature came out that placed women’s role as comforters of men and stated their best role in

home – patriarchal ideas were taking root.

The Decline of the Medieval Synthesis 234

Signs of StrainWhat type of changes did Europe go through as it moved out of the medieval period? What was the impact of the Black Death? What did the movement of the Papacy do to the Catholic Church?After the year 1300, some characteristics of medieval life began to give way.

One problem – the major war between France and England during the 14th and 15th-centuries.The Hundred Years’ War lasted longer than its name and showcased an increased

military technology that made feudal lords’ armies impotent.The war ended with a French victory, led in part by Joan of Arc.

At the same time, key sources of western European vitality began to fade:Medieval agriculture could not keep up with population growth and the result was

famines and a decline in population.A series of plagues, beginning with Black Death (Bubonic Plague) in 1348, devastated

Europe. New social disputes increased as did tensions between landlords and peasants.

A side effect of the Bubonic plague was the persecution of Jews, with the worst attacks taking place in Germany – Jews were “outsiders” who remained in their own communities.Some Christians felt that the presence of the Jews and their success had to be reversed in order

for the plague to subside. Because Jews were thought to have poisoned the wells, spreading the Bubonic disease, over 60

Jewish communities were wiped out.On Saturday…they burned the Jews on a wooden platform in their cemetery. There were about two thousand people of them. Those who wanted to baptize themselves were spared. Many small children were taken out of the fire and baptized against the will of their fathers and mothers. And everything that was owed to the Jews was canceled…Their money was indeed the

thing that killed the Jews. If they had been poor and if the feudal lords had not been in debt to them, they would not have been burnt.

An account of persecution in Strasbourg, 1349

A map showing the speed and scope of the plague that hit Europe

The Western economy did not suffer and might have increased during the period due to increasedtechnology in manufacturing and mining.Still, from 1300 to 1500, a transition period developed as old features melted away and new

problems arose. The ruling class of medieval society – land-owning aristocracy – began to lose power.Military might was open to question as professional armies and new weapons made

their ideas irrelevant. Aristocracy did not go away but turned former military skills into games.Chivalry became more popular in western Europe and the aristocracy focused on the

cultivation of pomp and circumstance surrounding chivalry.A jostling of the papacy from Rome to Avignon and eventually back to Rome weakened the church’s

power and influence in western Europe.Church officials became more involved in politics and less into the spiritual guidance of its

followers.A separation of devotion and the Church led to movements that preached a more direct

experience with God without a church. There was also a breakdown of intellectual and artistic synthesis.

The Church began attacking intellectual daring as heretical.And as a result, the earlier blend of rationalism and religion seemed no longer possible.Eventually, the mood turned important thinkers away from the church and consequently,

away from God. Art, which began to focus on a realistic portrayal of nature, began focusing not just on

religious figures but on human features for its own sake.

Church restraints began to push artists away from conventional thinking as they looked for different emphases.