Aquatic Risk Management and Best Practices for Clubs...Aquatic Risk Management . and Best Practices...

Aquatic Risk Management

and Best Practices for Clubs

C.W. Cook, CCM, CCE General Manager/COO

North Hills Club Raleigh, NC

A monograph submitted to the Club Managers Association of

America in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master Club Manager (MCM) designation

2017

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... 4

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................ 6

Statement of Problem...................................................................................................... 8

Background and Literature Review ............................................................................ 10

Why Drownings Occur .................................................................................. 13

Who is Most at Risk ....................................................................................... 16

Solutions and Remedies ................................................................................. 17

Effective Scanning .......................................................................................... 19

Scanning and Emergency Drills .................................................................... 21

Post-Emergency Procedures.......................................................................... 23

Research Methods ......................................................................................................... 25

Results, Discussion, and Implications.......................................................................... 27

Aquatic Incidents ........................................................................................... 34

Lifeguard Training and Responsibilities ..................................................... 36

Lifeguard Preparedness ................................................................................. 43

Emergency Response and Awareness ........................................................... 50

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 54

Checklist/Recommendations ........................................................................................ 56

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist .................................................................................. 56

References ...................................................................................................................... 61

Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 65

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Disclaimer

DISCLAIMER; NOT SPECIFIC ADVICE; USE OF ARTICLE: This article and its checklists are the result of the experience and research of the author and are not intended to provide operational, legal, or other advice applicable to a specific operation or any identifiable person or entity. Instead, this article is intended to provide an overview and guidance regarding pool safety. It is neither operational nor legal advice. Pool operators should consult with their own consultants and legal counsel, as well as professional associations to which they belong, and government agencies having jurisdiction, to obtain advice and guidance applicable to their own situations. In addition, pool operators should regularly communicate with professional associations and governmental agencies to remain fully informed of and current on best practices.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who gave their time, knowledge, and support to me throughout this process.

To my parents Carlos and Sharon Cook: Thank you both for making me who I am today. Your guidance and values are with me always!

To my beautiful wife, Johanna: What an amazing journey we’ve had over the last 25 years! You’ve not only been the love of my life, but also my best friend and biggest supporter. Thank you for being you!

To my beautiful daughters, Gabriela & Elissa: While very excited in the pursuit of this MCM designation, no accomplishment will ever compare with the birth of you each. I have no greater joy in life than being your dad and I hope to always make you proud of me! To Joe Perdue, CCM, CHE: Thank you for guidance and professional encouragement from my early days as a student through becoming a professional club manager. May peace be with you! To my MCM Support group, Jonathan Casper, PhD, Michael Oostman, and Gareth Hedges, JD: Thank you for your patience, guidance, and support in helping me carry out my mission. Without your assistance it would not be possible!

To all the professionals who graciously gave personal interviews: Michael Oostman, President, Oostman Aquatic Safety Gareth Hedges, Associate General Counsel, The Redwoods Group Doug Page, Vice President of Risk Management, The Redwoods Group Brian Sheehan, CEO, Swim Club Management Group Brent Welch, COO, Swim Club Management Group Pat Roselli, President, ClubSafe, Inc. Bonnie Karl, Vice President, ClubSafe, Inc. Mary Beth Ormiston, Principal, MBO Consulting

To all the people who contributed letters of support for my MCM PDF: Lee Smith, CCM, CCE Damon DiOrio, CCM, CCE Todd Cromie, CCM, CCE Doug Shifflett, CCM, CCE Thomas Shonkwiler, CCM C.J. Handron Julie Johnson Sam Sugg Reggie Gillespie

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To my staff and Board of Directors at NHC: Thank you for allowing me the true pleasure of being associated with you. Your unwavering support means more than you will ever know!

To Bill Wagner, CCM, Robert Fordham, CCM, and Andy Singleton, CCM: Thank

you for giving me the tools and resources to become successful in the club industry. I will always be thankful for your mentorship.

To the 126 club managers from across the country who took time out of their busy

schedules to contribute to this survey and research. May you find value in your efforts and find this study worthy of your contributions.

To the MCM Academic Council: Thank you for your guidance, suggestions and

tireless support! To the family of Joseph Osorio: May your son’s memory continue to be a beacon for

helping others.

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Executive Summary

Private club managers are well-rounded in many disciplines as evidenced by the

ten competency areas that define the certification standards for the Club Manager

Association of America’s Certified Club Manager designation. However, without

detailed knowledge of aquatics issues, safe operation of the pool and related amenities

must be delegated to the club’s pool manager or aquatics director.

This monograph explores how well private clubs provide aquatic safety for their

members and guests. The research compares club managers’ behaviors for aquatic safety

and helps to identify best practices.

To investigate the drowning prevention practices and awareness among private

clubs, a survey was sent to 195 club managers. Findings indicated that most clubs have a

high level of awareness surrounding drowning prevention practices and utilize effective

behavioral practices for drowning prevention. Likewise, the findings also showed that

most private clubs are actively engaged in strategies for drowning prevention practices

and preparedness for emergency readiness.

There were however, areas of opportunity as some clubs reported lax controls that

are not consistent with best practices. The most common areas not consistent with best

practices were:

1. Use of a silhouette to validate positioning for and/or to test lifeguards.

2. Swim tests performed on all youth.

3. Non-swimmers not required to be within arms-reach of an adult or required to

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be in a Coast Guard-approved life jacket.

4. Non-lifeguard staff members not included in in-service training opportunities.

5. Club doesn’t promote aquatic safety standards to members.

In addition, the number of reported pool incidents including those which were

fatal confirmed that private clubs are not immune to aquatic safety issues simply because

member demographics typically include higher socio-economic status.

The information gathered through the research and collaboration with industry

professionals was used to create a checklist that can help managers better protect their

members and guests who use the clubs’ aquatics operations. A properly utilized checklist

offers a practical way that club managers can implement effective aquatic safety

measures as a precaution.

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Statement of Problem

Many private clubs throughout the country offer pool facilities as part of their club

amenities. However, as club demographics have shifted to a family focus in many areas,

pools have changed as well with many clubs opting to add splash pads and water features

that would rival most water parks. As these pools have gained in both size and

popularity, so have the risks associated with operating aquatic facilities at these clubs.

This issue is important to the club industry for multiple reasons:

• A drowning fatality rips a loved one’s most valuable possession from them

• It severely impairs a club’s mission

• It permanently impacts staff, members, and guests

• It damages a club and the surrounding club community

• Litigation can financially impact the solvency of the club and its ability to

continue operations

This monograph questions the current level of awareness surrounding drowning

prevention practices in private clubs and the behavioral practices used to prevent

drownings. In addition, it also questions whether private clubs are actively engaged in

strategies to analyze and improve drowning prevention practices and preparedness to

effectively manage emergencies.

As a result of these questions, the research examines and studies best practices used

by some of the most successful aquatics professionals and various programs across the

country. It identifies clubs who have experienced aquatic incidents as well as lessons

learned from unfortunate experiences that have occurred. Likewise, it identifies

exemplary aquatic best practice implementation and evaluation procedures.

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The current study also identifies those who are most at risk at club aquatic facilities,

contributing factors about why aquatic incidents happen, and solutions and remedies to

prevent them from occurring. As well, the study offers recommendations about what

club managers can do to protect their clubs from aquatic incidents and will serve as a

resource for use when evaluating club aquatic programs.

The primary questions that are addressed in this study are:

1) What is the current level of awareness surrounding drowning prevention

practices in private clubs?

2) What current behavioral practices are used by private clubs to prevent

someone from drowning? (Examples include life jackets, fences, lifeguards, and

supervision.)

3) To what extent are private clubs actively engaged in strategies for drowning

prevention practices and emergency readiness preparation?

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Background and Literature Review

In 2009, a six-year old boy who was the guest of a club member drowned in one

of the pools at my club. It was the worst day of my life and one that I hope to never

repeat. Ultimately, as part of the healing process for myself, I vowed to learn as much as

I could about drowning in general and aquatic risk management. My learning journey

continues to this day and, while the memory of that tragedy will never fade, it also

became a catalyst and inspiration for this monograph to help protect others in the club

industry. Although thousands of articles have been written about drownings, very little

has been written about drowning accidents in private clubs. More specifically, there are

no other known studies regarding aquatic safety attitudes among private club managers

and implementation of aquatics best practices in their facilities.

Available resources did provide a good background for the topic, and sources

included:

• The Internet - Search engine keywords including “drowning,” “private club,”

“lifeguards”, “vigilance”, “surveillance”, “swimming pools” and “aquatics” were

used in different combinations to begin the research process for this monograph.

In addition, Google’s Alert feature allowed me to use the keywords “drowning,”

and “private club” to track media reports of drownings and near-drowning events

at private clubs throughout the United States.

• Aquatics-Related Trade Magazines - A few such as Aquatics International and

Parks and Recreation provided relevant aquatic risk management articles

including assessment of lifeguards and their vigilance.

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• Industry Associations – Some articles identified industry associations that have

been very proactive in drowning prevention. These include The National Pool &

Spa Foundation and the National Drowning Prevention Alliance. Both of these

groups have done extensive work on building layers of protection to make pools

safer.

• US Department of Health & Human Services – Some articles referenced

statistical data and research from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), one of

the major components of the Department of Health & Human Services. As the

nation’s health protection agency, the primary role of the CDC is to help save

lives and protect people from health threats. An initial review found valuable data

collection on drowning incidents throughout the United States.

• Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) – This organization provides

standards related to pool equipment and gates along with other safety features that

have been adopted by state and local municipalities across the country.

• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International – This

organization has also developed standards related to the design, construction,

manufacture, and operations of water slide systems that have been adopted into

the codes of some states and municipalities.

• Research Journals – Using an online index (www.googlescholar.com) enabled me

to locate very valuable articles in various research journals. Examples are the

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, Journal of Physical Education,

and The New England Journal of Medicine.

http://www.googlescholar.com/

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• Support Group Members – Two experts on my MCM Monograph Support Group,

Michael Oostman and Gareth Hedges, have investigated more than 1,000

drowning events and provided very useful information included in this document.

One-on-one discussions with aquatic experts and survey input from CMAA members

also provided useful input for this monograph. Unfortunately, drownings occur all too

often. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), drowning is

the second leading cause of unintentional injury death in the United States for youth

under the age of 15 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). Nearly

4,000 drownings occur annually in the United States which is over 10 drownings on

average per day (CDC, 2016).

A drowning incident typically occurs in stages over an average of 2 minutes

(Szpilman, et. al., 2012). The first 10 seconds is related to panic or surprise as the victim

realizes he or she is in trouble. During the next 30 seconds, the struggle begins as the

victim tries to stay above the static water line. This results in involuntary breath-holding

to keep from ingesting water. As a result of this struggle to stay afloat and conserve

oxygen, drownings typically are silent occurrences. Without help, the victim will

eventually tire out and sink below the static water line and become unconscious. It is at

this point that continued life becomes a race against the clock as cardiac fibrillation

begins to occur.

If a victim can be spotted, retrieved, and have emergency services performed

quickly within minutes of a submersion, there is a good chance of revival. The

Foundation for Aquatic Injury Prevention (n.d.) shares that the majority of children who

survive are discovered within 2 minutes following submersion. However, the chance for

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survival goes down dramatically with every passing second and, by the time the clock

reaches 10 minutes after submersion, there is relatively little chance of revival. In those

cases where revival does occur beyond 10 minutes, it is very common for the victim to

have severe neurological impairment from prolonged oxygen deprivation.

Why Drownings Occur

There is a common misconception that, if someone is drowning, others will notice

as the victim screams and flails arms outside the water, but that is not what happens.

According to Dr. Frank Pia (1984), the body instinctively focuses on breathing, not

speech, when in peril in the water. Likewise, observations of some aquatic incidents

indicate an instinctive body response to push down on the water in efforts to become

buoyant and get above the static water line. This movement eliminates the ability to

wave one’s arms outside the water for help. The lack of audible speech and arm

movements outside the water creates the situation where drowning is mostly silent.

Given the silent nature of these tragedies, supervision and vigilance become imperative to

avoid aquatic incidents.

Another reason that drownings occur is that it is often difficult for lifeguards to

spot a victim in distress. Lifeguard blindness plays an important role in vigilance, and

the most common lifeguard blindness situations relate to physical, perceptual, and change

blindness.

Physical blindness can occur when something obstructs a lifeguard’s vision.

Glare on the water is a common culprit as differing light situations create glare on the

water’s surface and makes seeing something underneath it very difficult. Dr. Tom

Griffiths (2006) has demonstrated this with what he calls the disappearing dummy effect.

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He placed a mannequin on the bottom of a pool and photographs taken clearly showed

the mannequin. He then started moving the water slightly to resemble that of a water

return spout in the pool recycling water, and the mannequin became much less visible.

He then agitated the water even more to resemble, for example, many children playing in

the pool or a water slide discharging water into the pool. As he did this, one could not

see the mannequin on the pool’s bottom, and this effectively demonstrated how difficult

physical blindness can be to lifeguard vigilance.

Perceptual blindness can occur when one is not watching for what could be

expected. For a lifeguard, this could be failure to look for active signs of someone

drowning because there is the expectation the incident could not occur. At an aquatic

education session of the National Parks and Recreation Association Annual Convention,

Shawn DeRosa (S. DeRosa, personal communication, September 16, 2015) demonstrated

a picture of a surfer trying to catch a wave. If you looked closely, a large shark was

present where the wave broke. If a surfer’s only focus was on catching the big wave, the

shark would likely not be seen.

Change blindness can occur when there are environmental activities that are

distracting and disorienting. For a lifeguard, they could include a pool with many

different water features such as a diving board, water slide, and spray features combined

with a high swimmer load. Simply trying to scan a zone of water with these things

present can be problematic.

Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons (2010) demonstrated a well-known

experiment to show how one’s intuition can be deceiving. Subjects counted the number

of times a basketball was passed by people on one team wearing white shirts and not by

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people on the other team wearing black shirts. During the experiment, a researcher

appeared in a gorilla suit, and about 50% of the subjects were so focused on the task that

they did not notice the gorilla. The takeaway: persons may not see something that is not

a focus of their attention. Similarly, a lifeguard’s attention may be distracted to watching

children on the diving board instead of watching their zone of protection in the water.

Fatigue can also impact focus and the ability to vigilantly scan the water.

Lifeguards in many locations can earn their certification as young as age 15 and have

very busy lives outside of work. Like other workers, they might come to work without

proper rest and this, along with lack of focus, can be a fatal combination that yields an

aquatic incident.

Dr. Tom Griffiths (2011) says that human beings, like animals and plants, have

biological clocks that predict levels of alertness and fatigue, with both levels fluctuating

and alternating throughout each day. Unfortunately, peak times for alertness may not

coincide with the busiest times at a pool.

Focus creates a challenging dilemma for lifeguards because vigilance is of the

utmost importance. Focus affects fatigue as do other factors including diet, temperature,

light, and sound. One important element regarding focus relates to how long a lifeguard

should remain in the same position guarding a pool.

Norman Mackworth (1948) determined the effects of long term vigilance on the

detection of signals. He created an experimental device (the Mackworth Clock) to

simulate long term monitoring of radar operators in the British Air Force during World

War II. The device has a large black pointer in a large circular background like a clock.

The pointer moves in short jumps like the second hand of an analog clock approximately

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every second. At infrequent and irregular intervals, the hand makes a double jump, e.g.

12 times every 30 seconds. The task is to detect when the double jumps occur by pressing

a button.

Typically, Mackworth's participants performed this task for two hours. His

research established a fundamental finding in the vigilance and sustained attention

literature: signal detection accuracy decreases notably after 30 minutes on task. The test

continues to be used today in in various forms, and this principle has been widely used as

a premise for rotating lifeguards to different stations around a pool to sustain vigilance.

Who is Most at Risk

Drownings occur for a variety of reasons, but this monograph focused on some of

the high-risk factors.

Supervision: As stated above, drownings are typically silent occurrences, and

these events can occur in front of others who are unaware the victim is actively drowning.

Mario Vittone (2010) shares that many victims drown within 25 yards of potential

assistance such as a pool wall that might be grabbed a lifeguard, parent, friend, or another

pool patron.

Water Depth: Many drownings occur when non-swimmers enter water that is over

their heads. The automatic response for most people is to protect children from the deep

end of a pool. However, 85% or more of drownings happen in water depth of 3-4 feet

(Doug Page, personal communication, September 10, 2015). This frequently reflects

improper supervision as many parents and others consider the shallow end of a pool as

being “safe” and then are not actively vigilant over their children.

Gender: The World Health Organization (2014) reports that males are at a much

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higher risk of drowning than females. Global drowning deaths for males are more than

twice that of females. One reason: male youth are considered to be greater risk takers

while females are generally associated with being more risk averse.

Age: The Consumer Product Safety Commission (2016) indicates that, in 2011-

2013 an annual average of 367 drowning fatalities were associated with pool submersions

from children under the age of 15. Likewise, 77% of the drowning victims were under

the age of 5 years old when many children have not learned to swim and are at a higher

risk in swimming facilities.

Medical Condition: While most drownings occur when non-swimmers get into

trouble, older members who lap swim create another high-risk factor for clubs.

Members of this demographic group often go unnoticed by lifeguards and others because

they are good swimmers. However, athletic activity in older age groups can contribute to

cardiac events, and the National Association of Rescue Divers (2006) indicates that the

elderly experience high drowning rates. A cardiac event on land creates significant

challenges, but a cardiac event in the water is many times fatal because drowning can

occur.

Solutions and Remedies

Lifeguard blindness can be minimized or prevented with several actions. The

first action relates to positioning. If a particular lifeguard position has too much glare

that obstructs their zone of protection, they should simply move to a different position to

mitigate the glare.

Years ago, lifeguard chairs were cemented into a fixed position on a pool deck.

However, as the National Lifeguard Lifesaving Society (2012) notes, lifeguard chairs

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today are made to be mobile whether light enough to carry or, in the case of taller

stations, to roll to a new location. Note: some of these chairs can be viewed in attached

Appendix C. The main take away is that lifeguards should not be limited to a very

specific guarding location. Instead, they should have the freedom to move as needed to

best protect the patrons.

The second action to consider for preventing lifeguard blindness involves head

movement. Many times, lifeguards only use eye movement when looking over a zone of

protection. However, this technique can cause eye strain and fatigue. It can also be

difficult to see everything because persons typically see what is in the center of their

vision the best.

Ron Arendas (2010) states:

As the lifeguard performs each visual sweep in a scanning pattern, his or her head

should move in a continuous circular pattern that cuts through the area of

responsibility and traces its edges. This moves the lifeguard’s central vision

through the area while his or her peripheral vision sweeps from bottom to top,

front to back, and side to side, gathering patron information. Scanning must be

continuous, and the scanning pattern should be simple and repeatable.

Arendas also suggests picking a pattern such as horizontal, diagonal, or vertical

when scanning with head movement. Once taught the proper techniques, club managers

and members can observe to confirm that lifeguards are scanning properly.

A third action to consider for preventing lifeguard blindness involves body

movement. If sitting, this can be a simple as changing one’s seated positioning every few

minutes to remain vigilant. Other types of lifeguard body movements include standing

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up and/or strolling to help remain alert and vigilant.

Effective Scanning

Scanning is the primary task of all types of lifeguarding vigilance. The National

Swimming Pool Foundation (Emergency Response Planning, 2010) shares that most

lifeguards follow a simple rule for watching the pool. The 10/20 Protection Rule

provides a lifeguard standard in commercial pool settings. The rule states that a lifeguard

who spots someone in trouble must respond in 10 seconds and reach the person in 20

seconds.

While there are multiple types of scanning objectives, triage scanning is

considered one of the best practices according to Mike Gurtler (2007), and it

complements the general 10/20 protection rule. This technique prioritizes the zone of

coverage and how scanning is applied by the lifeguard.

The first priority is to scan the bottom of the pool as victims underwater are at the

greatest risk. The second priority is to scan the surface of the water, and the third priority

is to manage behavior and deck activity. It is also very helpful to identify the high-risk

guests to understand where problems might occur in the pool. This last task may be

easier for private clubs than public entities since lifeguards see members regularly. This

helps them to know their swimming styles, whether they are non-swimmers, and perhaps

even their medical conditions.

When multiple guards are on duty, one guard may be stationed on an elevated

guard stand with a priority on bottom scanning. Another guard may manage behavior and

deck activity with a priority on surface scanning. When a single guard is guarding alone

http://www.tppc.org/publications_1020.htm

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it may become necessary to close off one or more sections of the pool to facilitate

adequate scanning and zone coverage.

When actively guarding a pool, lifeguards should not be engaged in any ancillary

or personal activities. Mary Beth Ormiston (M. Ormiston, personal communication,

August 23, 2016) stated that many aquatic incidents occur while lifeguards guarding a

pool were tasked with less critical duties such as maintaining guest logs, moving lane

ropes, and testing pool chemicals. Note: this author has personally witnessed lifeguards

viewing cell phones while in seated guarding positions and even saw a lifeguard eating

lunch from a tray while seated in an elevated guard chair with multiple kids in the zone

being guarded. It should be clear that a lifeguard’s duty while guarding must be singular

in nature and that is on vigilant scanning of the water.

Managing scanning priorities and youth swimming skill levels can also be a

difficult challenge. One of the best practices to assist with these responsibilities is used

by the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA). The YMCA is one of the largest

child-serving organizations in the country and is active in youth aquatics.

The YMCA of the Triangle organization, which consists of branches in 19

different locations in North Carolina as well as 3 camps, requires all children to be either

deep or shallow-water tested before entering a YMCA pool. Children are given colored

break-away neck bands identifying their swimming ability: Deep, Shallow, Arms-length

supervision required, or personal flotation device required). This gives lifeguards a visual

cue of colored identification designating the children’s swimming abilities and required

swimming areas.

As referenced by Christopher Mogridge (2008), the YMCA views these

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procedures to be critical for their lifeguards’ effective scanning, and all children are

tested and must wear one of these colored break-away neck bands. Neck bands are

judged better than any other bands including those for the wrist because they are very

visible in the water whereas other bands are difficult to see because they are typically

below the static water line.

Scanning and Emergency Drills

Regular and unannounced drills are very useful practices to maintain a high level

of aquatic readiness and to reinforce victim recognition and scanning skills. Tom

Griffiths (2001) says these drills should be conducted to compliment monthly in-service

training that includes a heavy emphasis on victim recognition, scanning, and the

Emergency Action Plan (EAP). By conducting weekly unannounced scanning drills,

leadership can emphasize and reinforce bottom and top scanning of the water as well as

10/20 protection.

Drills should be executed at different times of the day and week, and high pool

usage times should be included. All drills should be documented by an observer to record

results and for later review. After the drill, procedures should be reviewed and analyzed

to determine effectiveness and then modified, if necessary.

Staff actions in emergency situations are critical and time is of the essence.

Aquatic emergencies are among the most critical emergency situations that can happen in

a club environment as drowning compounds all other causes and conditions. While pools

are more common in country clubs, many clubs also have open dark water areas such as

beaches or lakefronts. Each of these other environments has different challenges that

must also be reviewed and planned for.

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According to Occupational Safety and Health Administration Standard 1910.38

(please see Appendix D), all employers are required to have an Emergency Action Plan

(EAP). Therefore, every club must have a comprehensive and site-specific EAP that

clearly defines roles for each applicable staff member. The EAP should be rehearsed on a

regular basis through emergency drills. Various scenarios can be utilized for these

rehearsals of the EAP.

The EAP should be included in all new staff orientations and in-service trainings.

A record of participation should be maintained in each staff member’s personnel file. I

Pat Roselli (P. Roselli, personal communication, November 10, 2015) stated that local

emergency personnel should review the EAP to ensure effectiveness and compliance with

local protocols. It is important to follow as much of the EAP as possible during a drill to

ensure that all components are effective. Drills should include emergency response staff,

an automated external defibrillator (AED) trainer, oxygen, and a manikin.

One drill that is considered a best practice by numerous aquatic associations is

called a Drop Drill. The term, “DROP,” means Daily testing and Remediation

Observation Program (Appendix E). The purpose of this drill is to emphasize bottom

scanning and submerged victim recognition within 10 seconds. This drill also involves

members and patrons and helps them to understand their roles in aquatic emergency

management.

As presented by The Redwoods Group (2007), this drill involves a skilled

swimmer knowledgeable about silhouette manikin placement. He or she is instructed by

a senior aquatic staff member to deliver the silhouette to the pool bottom while either

swimming or teaching. A signal indicating the silhouette has been released should be

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agreed upon (example: push hair back) and then a stop-watch is started.

Once the lifeguard scans and observes the silhouette, he or she should blow the

whistle to clear the pool and retrieve the silhouette. The stop-watch is then stopped, and

elapsed time is recorded. A record of elapsed time should be maintained for each drill.

Lifeguards who consistently score 10 seconds or less should be immediately praised,

recognized, and rewarded at a future staff meeting.

One key part of the training is also to condition lifeguards that, when an unknown

object is observed on the pool bottom, it should be assumed to be a possible victim. The

whistle should be blown, and the object should be identified and removed. This becomes

proactive reinforcement that “when in doubt – check it out”!

Post-Emergency Procedures

Hopefully an emergency never occurs but it is important to plan for them.

Completing reports and checking and replacing equipment are several required activities

after an emergency and before an aquatic facility can reopen. An incident report must be

completed, and the club’s insurance company should be notified immediately of any

serious injury or death. However, many organizations such as the National Swimming

Pool Foundation (Aquatic Risk Management, 2009) have recognized that an emergency

involving serious injury or death is a very traumatic event. Rescuing a victim can be

especially stressful for a staff member who believes he or she did something wrong or

failed to do something. In these situations, professional counseling may be necessary to

help affected person cope with the stress.

One of the most important things that should happen following an emergency is a

staff debriefing. As Gareth Hedges shared in a personal interview, (G. Hedges, personal

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communication, May 19, 2015) learning from these events is a key element in an

effective risk management plan. Immediate post-incident evaluation is required to learn

exactly what occurred and whether corrective steps can be taken to prevent a future

occurrence.

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Research Methods Drowning prevention planning and emergency readiness is a complex issue.

Different types of drowning prevention efforts and emergency responses require

different knowledge and skills, and each club may implement different prevention and

response tactics.

Information reported in this monograph was generated from four general sources.

First, numerous books, periodicals, case studies, and internet articles were studied. They

provided information to justify the need to research aquatic safety practices in private

clubs.

Second, an aquatic risk management survey of club managers was conducted to

assess drowning prevention practices in private clubs. This survey also was designed to

provide behavioral analysis input about what clubs were doing to prevent drowning and

near-drowning occurrences.

A cover letter (Appendix A) was sent by e-mail to 195 members of the Club

Managers Association of America (CMAA). A list of 145 survey candidates was

generated from the 2014 List of Platinum Clubs ® of America in the country club and

athletic club categories via Club Leaders Forum. One additional club was added to the

list from each of the 50 states chosen at random from the CMAA member directory to

yield the complete list of 195 potential survey respondents.

The cover letter contained a link to an online survey (Appendix B) which consisted

of thirty-five yes/no and multiple choice questions. Space was provided for comments

after various questions where additional input was sought.

Use of an electronic survey via the World Wide Web (www.surveymonkey.com)

http://www.surveymonkey.com/

26

yielded several advantages as it was easy to design the survey, allowed for quick turn-

around time for data collection, and included automatic tabulation with confidentiality

of data. Additionally, the survey could be completed by respondents at any time from

any computer with internet access.

The third source of information in this monograph came from personal interviews

with aquatic industry experts (Michael Oostman, Gareth Hedges, Brian Sheehan, and

Brent Welch) and with club safety experts with aquatic risk management experience

(Doug Page, Pat Roselli, Bonnie Karl, and Mary Beth Ormiston). Their insight,

extensive professional experience, and national reputations were extremely valuable to

this research. Their collective experience encompassed more than 1,000 aquatic

incident investigations, litigation experience from both counsel and expert witness

perspectives, assistance with national best practices, and professional pool

management outsourcing for private clubs and home owner associations.

The fourth source of information for this monograph arose from this author’s

attendance at the aquatic safety sessions of the 2014 Athletic Business Conference, the

2015 National Parks and Recreation Conference, and the 2016 Association of Aquatic

Professionals Conference. Participation in these professional association meetings

provided access to additional industry experts that helped to validate the information

obtained from other sources of monograph information.

27

Results, Discussion, and Implications

The author’s Aquatic Risk Management Survey instrument (2014) was a key source

of information for this research, along with information from personal interviews

conducted to add context to the statistics. The results, discussion, and implications are

organized into the following five segments:

1. Facility Orientation

2. Aquatic Incidents

3. Lifeguard Training and Responsibilities

4. Lifeguard Preparedness

5. Emergency Response and Awareness

The questions were numbered for easy reference within each table. The text that

follows each section discusses implications of survey answers including the best practices

that were identified. Where applicable, reference is made to affected questions in the

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist that appears later in this monograph.

Facility Orientation

Table-1: How many pools do you have at your club?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Count 1 38.71% 48 2 36.29% 35 3 or more 25.00% 41

Answered 124 Skipped 2

Table 1 indicates that the majority of survey respondents have more than 1 pool at

28

their facilities. Since 25% of the respondents have 3 or more pools at their club, this

supports the observation about the greater emphasis on aquatics amenities at many clubs

across the country.

Table-2: What is your deepest pool depth? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count 3-4 feet 6.50% 8 5-8 feet 26.83% 33 9 feet or more 66.67% 82 Answered 123 Skipped 3

Table 2 shows that the overwhelming majority of respondents have a pool depth

of greater than 4 feet. This is not unexpected because of requirements established by the

USA Swimming Foundation (n.d.), which is the governing body for the sport of

swimming in the United States. This organization requires that pools for sanctioned

swimming events must have at least 4 feet of depth for lap swimming, and at least 5 feet

of depth if using starting blocks to dive from into the water for racing starts.

The current survey also showed that over 66% of the respondents have a deepest

pool depth of 9 feet or more which is consistent with having a diving board as revealed in

later survey results.

Table-3: Do you have a fence surrounding the pool as a physical barrier?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Count

Yes 95.16% 118 No 4.84% 6 Answered 124 Skipped 2

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Table 3 reveals that the overwhelming majority of survey respondents have a

fence surrounding their pools as a physical barrier. As noted by the National Swimming

Pool Foundation (Aquatic Facility Audits, 2010), the Consumer Product Safety

Commission has established guidelines intended to reduce the risk of drowning and near-

drowning to children less than 5 years of age by restricting access to swimming pools,

spas, and hot tubs. Over time, many state and local municipalities have adopted these

guidelines and enacted codes that control access to the pool facilities to protect others.

Many codes not only require fencing, but also place restrictions on the style of gate used

(self-closing, self-latching in many cases), including the height of such gate, the direction

in which the gate opens, the style of lock mechanism used, and spacing between the

vertical fence slats. However, the survey also shows that some clubs do not require any

fence around the pool as a physical barrier.

Table-4: What type of fence is it?


Bushes and Trees 1.82% 2 Aluminum/Metal 80.00% 88 Wood 4.55% 5 Chain Linked 13.64% 15 Answered 110

Skipped 16

Table 4 indicates that the most common form of fencing material is aluminum

and/or metal with chain linked fencing coming in a distant second place.

30

Table-5: During the off-season my pool is…


Drained 12.04% 13

Full, but uncovered 48.15% 52 Covered with a safety cover meeting ASTM standards

39.81% 43

Answered 108 Skipped 18

While many club pools are open year-round based on the location and climate,

many pools are shut down following a summer swim season. How the pool is handled

when closed is another aspect of overall aquatic risk management. Table 5 shows

responses for drained, full but uncovered, and use of safety covers. A drained pool

eliminates the hazard element of someone drowning in the water. However, it creates

another kind of hazard: the potential for someone falling into an open cavity that, as

previously reported is typically at least 5 feet deep and can be 9 feet or greater.

Many clubs choose to not drain their pool, but to keep them in a clear blue state of

water for aesthetic reasons. This is more common in areas where the climate does not

have harsh freezing ground temperatures that could ultimately cause pipes to freeze

and/or rupture from keeping the pool full.

Nearly 40% of the respondents keep their pool covered with a safety cover that

meets American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. When properly

installed, this option provides for the greatest form of pool protection out of season since

properly designed pool covers can handle very heavy weights and are generally made of

material that resembles a trampoline cover. Then persons who fall onto a safety cover

generally can simply regain their footing and walk back off to the pool’s deck.

31

Table-6: Do you have a diving board?


Yes 62.90% 78

No 37.10% 46 Answered 124 Skipped 2

As noted earlier, many respondents have a pool depth consistent with having a diving

board, and Table 6 indicates that nearly 63% of survey respondents noted the presence of

a diving board at their clubs’ pools.

Table-7: What size do you have? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Low dive (1 meter height) 83.12% 64 High dive (3 meters height) 0.00% 0 Both 16.88% 13 Answered 77 Skipped 49

Table 7 indicates that over 83% of those responding to the survey question have a

low dive board (less than 1 meter in height) and nearly 17% indicated the presence of

both a low dive and a high dive board (at least 3 meters in height).

While diving boards are entertaining and desired amenities, they create risk as

many injuries have occurred over the years as a result of diving boards. Hitting the board

itself during a dive is a common result of injury as is slip and fall injuries from high dive

platforms where participants are typically wet and climbing up to the top of the diving

board.

32

The resulting injuries, many of which were fatal or caused paralysis, created a

shift from the insurance industry which began excluding high dive boards from insurance

policy coverage (Emergency Response Planning, 2010). As a result, many clubs no

longer have high dive boards at all. In the present survey, none have a high dive board,

and those with a dive board have opted for a low one.

Table-8: Do you have a waterslide? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 25.00% 30 No 75.00% 50 Answered 80 Skipped 6

Table-9: Is it greater than 10 feet in vertical height? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 17.35% 17 No 82.65% 81 Answered 98 Skipped 28

Nationwide the trends in both public and private pool facilities favor the inclusion

of waterslides and other water features versus traditional swimming pools and dive wells.

Table 8 suggests that only 25% of the respondents have a waterslide indicating that the

current trend has not impacted the private club industry as much as their public pool

counterparts. One reason is the high cost of adding a waterslide or modifying a pool to

accept a waterslide.

When asked about waterslide height for those available, Table 9 indicates that

nearly 83% of respondents noted a slide that was less than 10 feet in vertical height which

33

is important for several reasons:

First, the ASTM provides the standard practices for design, manufacture,

construction, and operation of water slide systems. As a result, many state codes require

water slides to be compliant with ASTM guidelines (Appendix F). According to ASTM,

a slide height of greater than 10 feet in vertical height requires a different level of care

and safety precautions. If the slide is greater than 10 feet of vertical height, the use of a

dispatch attendant at the top of the slide to control use and ensure proper positioning of

the riders is required as is a lifeguard positioned in the landing pool area.

Second, the taller the water slide, the more velocity at which riders will ultimately

terminate the slide into the catch basin area of water. This can be a dangerous time for

some riders as the twist and turns of most slides can leave them disoriented as they

terminate the slide. This combined with the potential for those who may not be strong

swimmers becoming disoriented from the proper location of a ladder/steps to exit the

pool requires more engaged supervision. As a result, the American Red Cross (2014), the

largest lifeguard certification agency in the United States, announced the creation of a

new certification. Its Aquatic Attraction Lifeguarding course aims to increase safety at

facilities with extreme shallow water attractions such as winding rivers, catch pools, slide

run-outs, water play areas, and slide dispatches.

34

Aquatic Incidents

Table-10: Have you ever had an aquatic incident at any club facility where someone was found unconscious and underwater in the pool? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 15.63% 15 No 84.38% 81 Answered 96 Skipped 30

Alarmingly, Table 10 reveals that nearly 1 out of every 5 survey respondents

indicated they had an aquatic incident in their club facility where someone was found

unconscious and underwater in the pool. This was a key finding in that it shows that

aquatic incidents can and do happen anywhere including at private clubs.

Early discussions with some of the author’s club industry colleagues suggested a

relatively common opinion that aquatic incidents don’t really happen in clubs. Rather,

aquatic incidents were thought to occur more frequently at public facilities where

participants may not have had access to private swim instruction. However, the present

survey suggests that aquatic incidents can happen to anyone and anywhere.

Table-11: What was the age of the victim?

Responses to the Table 11 question indicated that the ages of victims ranged from

as low as age 2 to a high of 12 years old. However, the majority were between the ages

of 4-6 years old with the mode being age 4. This age group typically consists of children

just learning how to swim and/or those considered as weak swimmers.

35

Table-12: When did the incident occur?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Count General swim hours 53.33% 8 Summer camp 40.00% 6 Pool party 6.77% 1 Answered 15 Skipped 111

Table 12 reveals that the highest frequency of incidents occurred during general

swimming hours. However, incidents that occurred during summer camp were noted to

be a close second occasion. As noted in a Columbia Broadcast System (CBS) News story

(2010), many drownings have occurred at summer camps where parents believe their

children to be safe. This was confirmed in my personal interviews by the author with 3

other club managers who had drowning fatalities at their clubs during summer camp.

Table-13: What area of the pool did the incident occur?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Less than 2 feet in water

6.67% 1 2-4 feet in water depth 80.00% 12 Greater than 4 feet in water

13.33% 2 Answered 15 Skipped 111

According to Table 13, the overwhelming majority of incidents occurred in pool

areas with a depth measured between 2-4 feet. This finding also coincides with the ages

of the victims because typical 4-6 year olds are not tall enough to have their head above

the 4 feet water depth level.

36

Table-14: Was the incident fatal? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 20.00% 3 No 80.00% 12 Answered 15 Skipped 111

Unfortunately, Table 14 indicates that three (20%) of the aquatic incidents

reported in the present survey were fatal. As noted previously, providing quick response

to these incidents is imperative for survival. In a case control study published in

Pediatrics (1994), immediate resuscitation before the arrival of paramedical personnel

was associated with a significantly better outcome in children with submersion injuries.

Lifeguard Training and Responsibilities

Table-15: Current lifeguard certifications are from nationally accredited agencies such as Red Cross, YMCA, or Ellis and Associates


Always 83.15% 74 Mostly 2.25% 2 Rarely 0.00% 0 Never 3.37% 3 No Opinion 11.24%

10 Answered 89 Skipped 37

Note: the discussion of Table 15 is combined with that of Table 16 below.

37

Table-16: Lifeguard skills are tested and approved prior to the first scheduled work shift


Always 67.42% 60 Mostly 12.36% 11 Rarely 5.62% 5 Never 3.37% 3 No Opinion 11.24% 10 Answered 89 Skipped 37

Table 15 shows that the overwhelming majority of lifeguards have earned

certifying credentials from a leading accredited agency such as Red Cross, YMCA, or

Ellis and Associates. Likewise, Table 16 indicates that most respondents also test their

lifeguards’ skills before they allow them to work. These are both very important factors

to help ensure the highest caliber of lifeguards are available to help prevent aquatic

incidents and to respond appropriately, when necessary. Note: results for questions listed

in Tables 15 and 16 support the same questions listed in the “Lifeguard Hiring Practices”

section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist presented later in this monograph.

Table-17: Lifeguards have tasks unrelated to lifeguarding when on watch



38

According to Table 17, most survey respondents do not allow lifeguards to

perform unrelated tasks when on watch. This is a very important aquatic safety factor

because a lifeguard can miss someone struggling in the water when performing unrelated

tasks. Lifeguards on watch should have a singular focus on scanning water and nothing

should distract them from this duty. Note: the results for the question listed in Table 17

support the same question listed in the “Lifeguarding Responsibilities” section of the

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist presented later in this monograph.

Table-18: All lifeguards can explain the meaning of scanning in an aquatic setting



The meaning of aquatic scanning (the topic addressed in Table 18), relates to

moving one’s eyes and head throughout the top, middle, and bottom sections of a zone of

protection (Ellis, 2007), and the majority of respondents stated their lifeguards could

explain this concept. This result is expected given that most survey respondents are using

only lifeguards with certifications from leading accrediting agencies, and they are taught

these concepts as part of the certification process. Note: the results for the question in

Table 18 supports the same question listed in the “Scanning/Zone Validation” section of

the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist presented later in this monograph.

39

Table-19: There are line-of-sight issues for lifeguards (glare, obstacles, people passing by)



Table 19 indicates that most survey respondents noted that line of sight issues for

lifeguards were rare. This is excellent considering that line of sight issues can affect a

lifeguard’s ability to scan appropriately. The results for the question in Table 19 supports

the same question listed in the “Lifeguard Positioning” section of the Aquatic Risk

Analysis Checklist presented later in this monograph.

Table-20: Lifeguards are tested for line-of-sight challenges with a silhouette dropped in their zone of responsibility



One troubling statistic summarized in Table 20 is that the majority of club

40

lifeguards are not tested for line-of-sight challenges in their zone of responsibility. As

noted previously, this is more commonly referred to as a “drop drill” where a silhouette is

dropped in the pool without lifeguard knowledge. The intent is that a lifeguard properly

scanning his or her zone of protection will notice the silhouette and initiate the

appropriate emergency response. Appendix G shows a sample training document to

retain in the employee’s personnel file, and Appendix H shows a sample log to record

drop drills. In a discussion with Brian Sheehan (personal communication, September 20,

2016), he stated that, if an aquatic facility never tests and trains for these events, they are

contributing to a lifeguard’s potential failure. Note: Table 20 results suggest an area of

opportunity with the same question listed in the “Lifeguard Positioning” section of the

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist presented later in this monograph.

Table-21: Staffing is based on the size and shape of the body of water



Note: Table 21 results are discussed in conjunction with Table 22 below.

41

Table-22: Staffing is based on the number of pool patrons



Tables 21 and 22 above indicate that most surveyed clubs staff their pools based

on the size and shape of the pool and also by the number of pool patrons. This is a key

principle because many newer pools have a variety of shapes that are aesthetically

pleasing but create challenges for lifeguards as they can create blind spots where it is

difficult to see if a patron was in distress. As discussed with Brent Welch (B. Welch,

personal communication, September 20, 2016), staffing according to the size and shape

of a pool helps to protect against these challenges.

Likewise, staffing based on the number of pool patrons is a national best practice.

While there is no uniform statute regarding the ratio of lifeguards to patrons across the

country, the American Red Cross is frequently cited in pool protocols regarding this

matter. American Red Cross (2007) standards state that 1 lifeguard is required for every

25 patrons in the water. Therefore, as the bather load increases in the pool so should

lifeguard coverage. Note: results for both questions listed in Tables 21 and 22 support

the same questions listed in the “Pool Guarding” section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis

Checklist presented later in this monograph.

42

Table-23: Lifeguards are rescue ready and clearly identified by shirt, rescue tube, personal protective equipment (hip pack) and whistle




Table-24: Lifeguards use sun protection such as glasses, umbrella, or hat



Table 23 indicates that lifeguards in surveyed clubs are generally rescue ready and

clearly identified by shirt, rescue tube, personal protective equipment, and a whistle. The

rescue tube itself is an essential piece of equipment in the rescue process. Over time,

many lifesavers and the initial victim have died when the latter clutched onto the

lifeguard and obstructed his or her ability to swim. The rescue tube was invented as a

way of thrusting a flotation device at drowning victims which they could then clutch onto

43

while the lifesaver could approach from behind and help pull the victim to safety (Pia,

1974).

In addition, having the personal protective equipment better known as a “hip

pack” is also important and should be considered a required part of the lifeguard uniform.

Most commonly worn around the hip, its elements typically include nitrile gloves and a

resuscitation mask to assist with rescue breathing. Likewise, a whistle is a

communication device needed to get the attention of a patron or signal an emergency.

Table 24 indicates that it is equally important to have adequate protection from the sun,

which helps to prevent blindness as well as fatigue.

The results for both questions in Tables 23 and 24 support the same questions

listed in the “Lifeguard Preparedness” section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist

presented later in this monograph.

Lifeguard Preparedness

Table-25: Are lifeguards allowed any personal activities of any kind when on watch? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 1.16% 1 No 98.84% 85 Answered 86 Skipped 40


44

Table-26: Are lifeguards allowed to have cell phones or electronic items while on watch? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 5.88% 5 No 94.12% 80 Answered 85 Skipped 41

As summarized in Tables 25 and 26, most survey respondents indicated that they

do not allow lifeguards to perform any personal activities or to have access to including

use of cell phones or electronic items while on watch. Both of these policies are

consistent with best practices because distractions impair a lifeguard’s focus which is to

be vigilant and watch the assigned zone of protection Note: the results for both questions

listed in Tables 25 and 26 support the same questions listed in the “Lifeguard Conduct”


Table-27: How frequent are

Lifeguard rotations?


Every 30 minutes or less 65.00% 52 Between 30 minutes to 1 hour 22.50% 18 Greater than 1 hour 13.75% 11 Answered 81 Skipped 45

Table 27 indicates that the majority of survey respondents indicated that lifeguard

rotations occur every 30 minutes or less, which is ideal. The longer a lifeguard stays in

the same position, the less vigilant they become. Much like Transportation Security

Administration (TSA) airport screeners change positions frequently to maintain their

vigilance in detecting unapproved items in luggage, lifeguards must change positions

frequently as well to maintain optimum vigilance (Bierens, 2006). Note: the results for

45

the question in Table 27 support the same question listed in the “Lifeguard Rotations”


Table-28: Are swim tests performed on all youth? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 44.71% 38 No 55.29% 47 Answered 85 Skipped 41

One concern prompted by study of survey results relates to swim testing on all

youth. In Table 28, over one-half of all respondents stated they do not swim test youth at

their facilities. Michael Oostman (M. Oostman, personal communication, May 7, 2016)

stated that, in his role as an aquatic investigator and expert witness in litigation regarding

an aquatic incident involving youth, defense counsels always ask if swim tests were

performed and if not, why not? Many states now require swim testing of youth as a

condition to operate a camp that will involve children getting into water.

For example, Massachusetts was a leader in this area with the enactment of

Massachusetts General Law c. 111, §127A½ (Appendix I) in what is commonly referred

to as “Christians Law.” This law requires that municipal and recreational programs as

well as licensed camps determine the swimming ability of each participant and confine

them to swimming areas consistent with the limits of their swimming skills. It also

requires that personal flotation devices (PFDs) be made available for all non-swimmers in

these programs.

The YMCA of the Triangle organization in the author’s home city of Raleigh,

North Carolina, requires all children to pass a swim test, and the results dictate where

46

they are allowed to be within the pool itself. Non-swimmers are limited to shallow water

while established swimmers are allowed to access deeper water. Note: the results for the

question in Table 28 suggest an area of opportunity with the same question listed in the

“Test-Mark-Protect” section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist presented later in

this monograph.

47

Table-29: Are non-swimmers required to be within an arms-reach of an adult parent/caregiver or required to be in a Coast Guard approved life jacket? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 48.78% 40 No 51.22% 42 Answered 82 Skipped 44

Another issue identified in the present survey (see Table 29) is that approximately

one half of all respondents indicated they do not require non-swimmers to be within

arms-reach of an adult parent/caregiver in the pool or require them to be in a Coast Guard

approved life jacket. This potentially creates a dangerous environment because adult

supervision of children in the pool is often inadequate, and they rely on lifeguards to

effectively watch the children. Given that it only takes seconds for a non-swimmer to get

into trouble in the water, the World Aquatic Babies & Children Network (n.d.) advocates

that the best practice is to require an adult to be close enough to assist children in the pool

(within arms-reach) or ensure they wear a Coast Guard approved life jacket that will

sustain them in the water.

Some parents attach a stigma to their child wearing a lifejacket at the pool, but

they frequently lack sufficient information about the need for this equipment. The

author’s club has purchased devices called Puddle Jumpers which are available for any

member to place on their children (please see Appendix J). These units are of one piece

design and a child slides both arms through it, and it is then strapped in the back so a

child can’t take it on or off without assistance.

These life jackets are available in numerous colors, and each has a cartoonish

48

character on the front so children like them and want to wear them. They are a U.S.

Coast Guard approved Class III lifejacket. Note: the results for the question in Table 29

suggest an area of opportunity with the same question listed in the “Test-Mark-Protect”

section of the c Risk Analysis Checklist found later in this monograph.

Table-30: How often is in-service training performed for lifeguards?

Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Weekly 25.00% 16 Bi-weekly 20.31% 13 Monthly 54.69% 35 Answered 64 Skipped 62

Lifeguards typically spend hours watching the pool during their careers and

perhaps only a few minutes responding to an emergency. However, those few minutes

can be the difference between a successful and an incredibly tragic outcome so it is

critical to train for a variety of possible incidents.

Table 30 notes that over one-half of all clubs surveyed provide only monthly

lifeguard training which is less than the best practice recommendation considering that

most in-service trainings are usually 60-90 minutes in length.

The Redwoods Group (2012) promotes itself as the largest insurer of YMCAs in

the country. This organization recommends four hours of in-service lifeguard training

per month which represents approximately one hour per week.

Attached Appendix K reviews various in-service training topics that can be

addresses annually, and it can be used a guide to assist clubs as they develop their own

training programs.

49

Table-31: Is lifeguard attendance mandatory for in-service trainings? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 90.67% 68 No 9.33% 7 Answered 75 Skipped 51

Considering the importance of in-service training, the findings reported in Table

31 are excellent. Ensuring that staff participates in this training as a condition of their

employment is essential to having staff prepared for emergencies. Note: the results for the

question in Table 31 support the same question listed in the “In-Service Training” section

of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist found later in this monograph.

Table-32: Are other non-lifeguard staff members included in any in-service training opportunities? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 47.44% 37 No 52.56% 41 Answered 78 Skipped 48

Table 32 addresses a training deficiency that can hinder the effective management

of aquatic emergencies. Persons who are not lifeguards can be essential to an effective

emergency response plan. Examples may include those who place 9-1-1 emergency

calls, help to direct emergency service providers to a victim, deliver an automated

external defibrillator (AED), and/or participate in resuscitation efforts. However, to be

most useful, those who may fulfill these roles should participate in some in-service

training opportunities. Note: the results for the question in Table 32 suggest an area of

50

opportunity with the same question listed in the “In-Service Training” section of the

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist in a following section of this monograph.

Table-33: What other staff members are included?

Those responding to the question about non-lifeguards who receive training

(Table 33) most commonly cited food and beverage, fitness, and tennis staff. It is very

important that emergency response planners consider all activities that might be

necessary and helpful when an aquatic incident occurs and ensure that those personnel

who are most likely to provide the applicable assistance receive proper training.

Emergency Response and Awareness

Table-34: Does the pool have a phone dedicated for emergency use? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 78.31% 65 No 21.69% 18 Answered 83 Skipped 43

Table 34 indicates that approximately 78% of respondents indicate that they do

have a phone dedicated to pool emergency use. This number could be impacted by some

municipalities that do not require a dedicated phone for emergency use at the pool

facility. Likewise, the prevalence of individual cell phones may also impact this

response. Note: the results for the question in Table 34 support the same question listed

in the “Communication Devices” section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist

presented later in this monograph.

51

Table-35: Do you have an AED present at the pool facility? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 86.05% 74 No 13.95% 12 Answered 86 Skipped 40

In contrast to those that have a dedicated phone for emergency use at the pool

facility, Table 35 indicates that more survey respondents indicated that they did have an

AED present at the pool facility (over 86%). This is very good as it gives staff members

one of the best tools available for a successful outcome should a cardiac event occur.

Note: the results for the question in Table 35 support the same question listed in the

“Layers of Protection” section of the Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist to be presented

later in this monograph.

Table-36: Does the club have a written emergency response plan? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 83.72% 72 No 16.28% 14 Answered 86 Skipped 40

Table 36 reports that more than 83% of respondents indicate they have a written

emergency response plan for their facility. However, the remaining 17% of clubs are not

in compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) code that

requires all facilities to have a written emergency response plan for their facility (see

Appendix D).

52

Table-37: How often is the emergency response plan reviewed and with whom?

Those who responded affirmatively to the question addressed by Table 37

indicated that their emergency response plan was reviewed annually by the club’s

management team. However, this writer encourages all club managers to, first, have an

emergency action plan and, second, ensure that it is revived and updated as needed. The

best prepared emergency action plan will do no good if it remains on a shelf. Instead, it

must be a living document and practiced routinely to best prepare for success.

Table-38: Does the club promote their aquatic safety standards to members? Answer Options Response Percent Response Count Yes 55.29% 47 No 44.71% 38 Answered 85 Skipped 41

As summarized in Table 38, many clubs miss the opportunity to promote their

aquatic safety standards because only about 55% of respondents indicated these activities

were undertaken. As Bonnie Karl shared in an interview with this writer, (B. Karl,

personal communication, November 10, 2015) the promotion of aquatic safety standards

informs club members about the proactive tactics used to help keep members and guests

as safe as possible. Another advantage: it also helps to reinforce where emergency items

such as AED’s are located.

Appendix L provides an example of how one aquatic management company

informs club members about routinely safety drills as they enter the facility. Appendix M

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shows another form of evaluation used by some clubs. Aquatic Quick Check Cards are

available in the clubhouse, and members are asked to randomly complete them out based

on their observations at the pool. Doing so brings more attention to the pool which is

good for supervision. As well, it creates a level of accountability because lifeguards

know that others are watching them who know the expectations for those performing

lifeguard functions. Note: the results for the question in Table 38 suggest an area of

opportunity with the same question listed in the “Member Awareness” section of the

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist found later in this monograph.

54

Conclusions

The primary purpose of this monograph has been to bring a higher level of

awareness and education to club managers about how to prevent a drowning at their

clubs. This purpose has been accomplished by addressing three questions:

1) What is the current level of awareness surrounding drowning prevention

practices in private clubs?

2) What current behavioral practices are used by private clubs to prevent

someone from drowning? (Examples include life jackets, fences, lifeguards, and

supervision.)

3) To what extent are private clubs actively engaged in strategies for drowning

prevention practices and emergency readiness preparation?

As a result of the current study, this writer has developed a comprehensive

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist of various best practices and recommendations, and it is

included in the following section of this monograph. As a manager who has experienced

a drowning event at my club, I can state that it happened so fast, and I never thought it

would happen to me and my operation. In my conversations with other club managers

during this research who had also experienced drowning fatalities, I can report that they

echoed the same sentiments.

Every manager has a responsibility for what occurs at their club, and it behooves

all of them to practice the best aquatic risk management possible to protect club members

and guests as well as their own career. While I was able to continue on in my career,

others were not as fortunate. From that day forward, the drowning event that I

experienced at my club has been a curse and a blessing. It is a curse from the standpoint

that no matter what, I can’t rewind that day and make it happen differently and, as a

55

result, a family has had to go on trying to live their lives without their precious son. It is

a blessing from the perspective that through this tragedy, I’ve been able to learn so much

more about aquatic risk management and best practices and through this monograph I am

continuing my pledge to try to make a difference so no one else ever has to experience

this level of tragedy and hurt.

Therefore, I encourage everyone to please take to heart and review the

information in this monograph. Know that it can happen at any time and anywhere.

Expect it to happen and then try to prevent it from occurring. Practice frequently so that,

in the event an incident does occur, the staff has been given the best opportunity for a

successful outcome. Last, but not least, hold lifeguards accountable by having them sign

a lifeguard code of conduct each year (Appendix N). I do believe that drowning is

preventable, and by following this information you can make a difference!

56

Checklist/Recommendations

Aquatic Risk Analysis Checklist

Aquatic Risk Checklist Items Yes No N/A Comments

Layers of Protection

Is there a fence surrounding the pool as a physical barrier?

During the offseason, is the pool covered?

Is there an AED present at the pool?

Lifeguard Hiring Practices

Current lifeguard, CPR, & first aid certifications are accepted only from nationally accredited agencies?

Lifeguard skills are tested and approved prior to the individual’s first lifeguarding shift?

All employees receive a facility orientation that includes a review of the emergency response plan?

Lifeguarding Responsibilities

Does the lifeguard have any ancillary tasks when on watch?

Scanning/Zone Validation

Can every lifeguard explain the meaning of scanning in an aquatic setting?

Do lifeguards follow the 10/10 or 10/20 rules?

57


Lifeguard Positioning

Are lifeguards seated or standing where they can see their entire zone of protection?

Can anything hinder their view such as glare, physical obstacles, or people passing between them and the water?

Are they using a drop program to validate their positioning and/or test lifeguards?

If so, are they documenting the results?

Pool Guarding

Do they staff lifeguards based on the size and shape of the managed body of water?

Do they staff lifeguards based on the age, swimming ability, and number of pool patrons?

Lifeguard Preparedness

Are lifeguards rescue ready clearly identified by shirt, rescue tube, personal protective equipment (hip pack) and whistle?

Can every on-watch lifeguard see their entire area of responsibility from their position in an elevated chair or on the deck?

Is every on-watch lifeguard’s area of responsibility visible within a 180 degree sweep without turning the body?

Do lifeguards use sun protection such as glasses, umbrella, hat, sunscreen?

58


Lifeguard Conduct

Are personal activities of any kind allowed when on watch?

Are personal items (non-guarding items) on or near the lifeguard stand?

Are lifeguards allowed to have cell phones?

Lifeguard Rotations

How frequently are lifeguard rotations performed?

When a rotation does occur, are the lifeguards performing a pro-active bottom check to transfer custody of the zone?

Test-Mark-Protect

Are swim tests being performed on all youth?

If so, are they marking all youth by swimming ability?

Do they require non-swimmers to be within an arm’s reach of an adult parent/caregiver or require them to be in a Coast Guard approved life jacket?

Audits/Observations

Are lifeguard observations being documented?

If so, how often?

59


In-service Training

How often is in-service training performed?

Is training focused on advancing lifeguards confidence and skill sets vs. endurance?

Is lifeguard attendance mandatory for in-service trainings?

Are any non-lifeguard staff members included in any in-service training opportunities?

Personal Protective Equipment

Do all lifeguards wear a hip pack while on duty?

Does the hip pack contain gloves and a resuscitation face mask with a one-way valve?

Communication Devices

Do all lifeguards have a whistle?

Does the pool have a phone dedicated for emergency use?

Is the phone clearly marked and visible with the facility address noted?

How is the club’s emergency response plan initiated with staff?

Does the club have a public address system available at the pool facility?

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Safety Signage

Does the club prohibit prolonged breath holding activities at the pool?

If so, do they have signage for this?

Do they have “no diving” signs?

Do they have “no lifeguard on duty” signs?

Do they have “watch your children” signs?

Member Awareness

Are members made aware that talking with a lifeguard on watch should be prohibited?

Does the club promote their aquatic safety standards to members?

Does the club promote that in-service training is ongoing and will typically take place during normal pool operating hours?

Other Comments

Name: Date:

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Appendices

Appendix A: MCM Survey Letter

Appendix B: MCM Survey Questions & Responses

Appendix C: Griff’s Guard Station ® by Paragon

Appendix D: OSHA Standard 1910.38 for Emergency Action Plans

Appendix E: The Redwood Group DROP Drill Program

Appendix F: ASTM Standard F2376-08 for Water Slides

Appendix G: The Redwoods Group, DROP Program Documentation

Appendix H: The Redwoods Group, Aquatic DROP Log

Appendix I: Christian’s Law – State of Massachusetts

Appendix J: Sample of Puddle Jumpers in Use

Appendix K: Sample Annual Aquatics Training Agenda Items

Appendix L: Sample Communication to Members for Safety Drills

Appendix M: ClubSafe, Inc., Aquatic Quick Check Card

Appendix N: Lifeguard Code of Conduct

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