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Aquifer Water QualityGroundwater Hydraulics
Daene C. McKinney
Introduction• Groundwater Quality
– Sampling Plan– Field Measured Parameters
• pH• Alkalinity• Conductance• Salinity• Dissolved Oxygen• Turbidity
– Chemical Equivalence– Laboratory QA/QC– Diagrams
• Piper• Stiff
– Water Quality Classification– Irrigation Water
• Sodium• Salinity
– Arsenic– Iron Bacteria
Water Quality Management Process
• Identify – Problem– Indicators – Target Values
• Assess source(s)• Determine linkages
– Sources Targets
• Allocate permissible loads
• Monitor and evaluate• Implement
Groundwater Quality
• Helps us understand the hydrogeologic system• Indicates comingling of groundwater and
surface water• Helps us interpret groundwater flow dynamics• Delineates groundwater contamination
Basic Water Quality Parameters
• pH• Specific conductance (EC)• Salinity• Total dissolved solids (TDS)• Turbidity • Dissolved oxygen (DO)• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)• Temperature
pH
• Measures hydrogen ion concentration
• Negative log of hydrogen ion concentration
• Ranges from 0 to 14 std. units • pH
– 7 neutral– 0 - 7 acidic – 7 - 14 alkaline
Thanks to Phil Brown
Solubility of Specific IonsBased on Water pH
Toxic metals less available in water at pH 6 to 8.
Conductivity
• Measures electric conductivity (EC) of water
• Higher value means water is a better electrical conductor
• Increases when more salt (e.g., sodium chloride) is dissolved in water
• Indirect measure of salinity• Units are μmhos/cm at 25o
C or μsiemens/cm
Thanks to Phil Brown
Conductivity at Barton Springs• Specific conductance is an indication of the hardness of water. The specific
conductance declines in spring water when rainfall enters the aquifer and later discharges in the spring. Below is a graph demonstrating this effect in Barton Springs. Rainfall is indicated in red, and specific conductance in blue.
Salinity
• Classification of Ground Water• Composition Based on Total Dissolved
Solids Content
Salts in Sea Water
Type of Water Dissolved salt content (mg/l)
Fresh water < 1,000 mg/l
Brackish water 1,000 - 3,000 mg/l
Moderatly saline water
3,000 - 10,000 mg/l
Highly saline water 10,000 - 35,000 mg/l
Sea water > 35,000 mg/l
Dissolved Oxygen
• Amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in water
• Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration, and through photosynthesis
• DO range from 0-18 mg/l• Need 5-6 mg/l to support a
diverse population• DO < 2 mg/l - Hypoxia
Thanks to Phil Brown
Turbidity• Measured in Nephelometric
Turbidity Units (NTU)• Estimates light scattering by
suspended particles• Photocell set at 90o to the direction
of light beam to estimate scattered rather than absorbed light
• Good correlation with concentration of particles in water
Thanks to Phil BrownYSI 556 MPS
HF Scientific MicroTPI – Turbidity Meter
Water UsesUse Typical quality parameters
Public Water Supply Turbidity, TDS, inorganic and organic compounds, microbes
Water contact recreation Turbidity, bacteria, toxic compounds
Fish propagation and wildlife DO, chlorinated organic compounds
Industrial water supply Suspended and dissolved constituents
Agricultural water supply Sodium, TDS
Shellfish harvesting DO, bacteria
Abundance of Dissolved Constituents in Surface and Ground Water
Major Constituents (> 5 mg/L) CaMgNaClSiSO4
2- - sulfateH2CO3 - carbonic acidHCO3
- - bicarbonate
Minor Constituents (0.01-10 mg/L)BKFSrFeCO3
2- - carbonateNO3
- - nitrate
Abundance of Dissolved Constituents in Surface and Ground Water
Trace Constituents (< 0.1 mg/l)AlAsBaBrCdCoCu
PbMnNiSeAgZn others
Water Classification
• How?– Compare ions with ions using chemical equivalence– Making sure anions and cations balance– Use of diagrams and models
• Why?– Helps define origin of the water – Indicates residence time in the aquifer– Aids in defining the hydrogeology– Defines suitability
What is Chemical Equivalence?
• Chemical analysis of groundwater samples– Concentrations of ions are reported by
• weight (mg/L) • chemical equivalence (meq/L)
• Takes into account ionic charge• Equivalent Concentration
Formula weight• Formula weight
– Multiply atomic weight by # of atoms and add together
• E.g., – Formula weight of water
H2O = 2*(Atomic Wt of H) + 1*(Atomic Wt of O)
2*(1.008) + 1*(16) = 18.01
Atomic Weight (Relative atomic mass) is a dimensionless physical quantity, the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
Ion Balance
• If all ions are correctly determined by a lab– sum of cations should equal sum of anions (all in
meq/L) • Errors in analysis and chemical reactions in
samples – 5% difference is considered acceptable– > 5%, question the lab results
Calculating Equivalence
ParameterSandstone Aquifer
mg/L Meq/L
Na+ 19 0.827
Cl- 13 0.367
SO42- 7 0.146
Ca2+ 88 4,391
Mg2+ 7.3 0.6
HCO3- 320 5.245
Total Anions 5.758
Total Cations5.818
% Difference 1%
For instance:
The atomic wt. of Sodium (valence of one) = 22.989
And its charge is one
Dividing the concentration of sodium in the sample (19 mg/L) by its “combining wt.” = 0.827 meq/L or its equivalent concentration.
Use of Diagrams
• There numerous types of diagrams on which anions and cations (in Meq/L) can be plotted. These include:– Piper– Stiff– Pie– Schooler– Depth Profile
Stiff Diagrams
• Concentrations of cations are plotted to the left of the vertical axis and anions are plotted to the right (meq/L)
• The points are connected to form a polygon.
• Waters of similar quality have distinctive shapes.
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yk-31
yk-16
yk-27
yk-101
Stiff Diagrams in Cyprus
Average Composition of Sea Water and Mississippi River water
ParameterSea water
(mg/L)Mississippi River
water (mg/L)
Na 10,500 20Cl 19,000 24
SO4 2,700 51Ca 410 38Mg 390 10
HCO3 142 113
Ground Water Quality in Different Aquifers
ParameterSandstone
AquiferLimestone
Aquifer
Igneous/Volcanic Aquifer
Shale with Salts
Alluvium(Farmland)
pH 7.5 7.8 6.5 7.1 7.4
Na 19 29 184 1220 114
Cl 13 53 6 1980 30
SO4 7 60 7 1000 74
Ca 88 144 34 353 64
Mg 7.3 55 242 159 19
HCO3 320 622 1,300 355 402
NO3 0.4 0.3 0.2 2.4 60
Aquatic Freshwater Protection Criteria (USA EPA Guidelines)
Criteria Recommended Standard
pH 6.5-9.5
Alkalinity 20 mg/L or more
Dissolved Oxygen30 day average 5.5 mg/L
(warm water fish)
Suspended SolidsShould not reduce Photosynthesis by
more than 10% in the water
Drinking Water Criteria(USA EPA Guidelines)
Criteria Recommended Standard Reason
Coliform Bacteria 0 colonies/ml Health
pH 6.5-8.5 Aesthetic
Barium 2 mg/LHealth
Nitrate 10 mg/L Health
Total Dissolved Solids
500 mg/L Taste
T07_04_02
Hardness of Water
WELL SAMPLING
• Calculate Well Volume: – Determine static water level– Calculate volume of water in the well casing
• Purge the well: – A minimum of three casing volumes is
recommended.
ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLES
• Field:– pH, specific conductance, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, and alkalinity• Laboratory:
– Cations: sodium, calcium magnesium, potassium, and iron
– Anions: bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, and chloride
– Trace Metals, Radioactivity
Sodium and Irrigation
• Sodium reacts with soil to reduce permeability.• Alkali soils - High sodium with carbonate• Saline soils – High sodium with chloride or sulphate• Neither support plant growth• Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)
Salinity and irrigation
• Low salinity water – used for most crops
• Medium salinity water – used with moderate amount of leaching (potatoes, corn,
wheat, oats, and alfalfa) • High salinity water
– Cannot be used on soils having restricted drainage. • Very high salinity water
– Can be used only on certain crops and then only if special practices are followed
Arsenic in Groundwater
• Long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking water is directly linked to:– Cancer of the skin, lungs, urinary bladder and kidneys.– Acute gastrointestinal and cardiac damage as well as
vascular disorders such as blackfoot disease. – Sub-lethal effects include diabetes, keratosis, heart
disease and high blood pressure.• Toxicity is dependent on diet and health, but is
cumulative. Arsenic is excreted very slowly by the body through deposition in the hair and nails.
BACKGROUND
• Arsenic (As) – toxic metal widespread in groundwater
• Occurs widely in aquifers – deltaic sediments near mountain uplift zones– deep sandy aquifer layers originating as riverine,
lake or coastal deposits. – Ganges, Mekong and Red River deltas, sandy alluvial
deposits in South Asia, South East Asia, South America, and in many parts of North America and Europe.
Arsenic Contamination
• Associated with fluctuating water tables and flooding cycles particularly in – Acidic sulfate soils or – Iron and/or manganese-enriched layers, – saline-layered aquifers
• Levels in water supplies can vary through a year adding to the difficulties of identification and monitoring.
Drinking Water Standards
• Worldwide 50 ppb limit (1942) • US EPA
– Acceptable mortality = 1 death per 1,000 people for carcinogens
– Lifetime risk from exposure to 50 ppb As • 13 cancer-related deaths per year per 1000 people
(1992)
– Current standard = 10 ppb standard
Arsenic in the United States
Summary• Sampling Plan• Field Measured Parameters
– pH– Alkalinity– Conductance– Salinity– Dissolved Oxygen– Turbidity
• Chemical Equivalence• Laboratory QA/QC• Diagrams
– Piper– Stiff
• Water Quality Classification• Irrigation Water
– Sodium– Salinity
• Arsenic