Final Exam

Review

Slide Identifications

The Seven Wonders

Number 1

The Temple of Artemis at

Ephesus• Date: ca. 550 B.C. – 300 B.C.

• Location: Ephesus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey)

• Material: stone, specifically marble

• Ionic, dipteral, octastyle, distyle in antis

• 127 columns, as described by Pliny (only 1 column remains)

• Said to have been originally built by Amazons, though the structure known as a wonder, shrine D, was built by Croesus.

• Burned on July 21st, 356 B.C., the birthday of Alexander the Great, byHerostratus.

• Alexander offers to rebuild the temple in 333 B.C., though the Ephesians refuse.

• Damaged in earthquake in 262 A.D., finally destroyed by St. JohnChrysostom in 401 A.D. after the Edict of Theodosius.

Number 2

The Workshop of Pheidias• Date: ca. 430 B.C.

• Location: Olympia, Greece (on the Peloponnesus)

• Material: local stone

• Building in which Pheidias built the chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia

• Tools have been found in the building along with a cup with “I belong to Pheidias” on the bottom and scraps of unworkedivory.

• Turned into a Christian church after the Edict of Theodosius; reason the building is so well preserved.

• Excavated extensively by Germans, beginning in the 1950’s

• Details on Pheidias – also built the statue of Athena for the Parthenon, kicked out of Athens for scandals, had a “special friend” named Pantarkes, whose name supposedly appeared on the Statue of Zeus.

Number 3

The Pharos of Alexandria

• Date: ca. 297 B.C. (alternate date of 283 B.C. given by Eusebius)

• Location: Alexandria, Egypt, specifically on the island of Pharos

• Material: white marble

• Built by Sostratus, perhaps at the bidding of Ptolemy I Soter.

• Designed to mark the entrance to the harbors at Alexandria as the coast of Egypt in that area is largely undefined by landmarks and is overwhelmingly flat.

• Consisted of a base 10 meters in height, a square portion 57 meters in height, an octagonal portion 27.5 meters in height, a cylindrical portion 7.5 meters in height, with a statue of Zeus Soter on top 5 meters in height for a total height of 117 meters.

• Would have used mirrors to amplify the light. Said to have had a constantly burning fire, but more likely to have used the light of the sun during the day.

• Described at length by Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammad el-Balawi el-Andaloussi in 1166.

• Damaged by earthquakes in 956 A.D., 1303 A.D., and 1323 A.D.

Number 4

Amazonomachy Frieze

• Date: ca. 353 B.C.

• Location: Mausoleum ofHalicarnassus

• Material: Marble

• Frieze depicting a battle between Amazons and Greeks.

• Shows Amazon women as two-breasted, though they are generally shown with only one breast.

• Adorned the Mausoleum at the top of the base, just below the 36 columns.

• Pieces of the frieze survive when in 1505-1507 they are used for decoration in the Castle of St. Peter, originally built by the Knights of St. John of Malta at Bodrum in 1402.

• When seen by Lord Stratford deRedcliffe in 1846, the pieces of the frieze prompt excavation by the British, most notably under Charles T. Newton.

Number 5

The Ishtar Gate (Walls of

Babylon)• Date: ca. 600 B.C.

• Location: Babylon, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)

• Material: blue-glazed brick with gold animal decoration

• Orignally built by Nebuchadnezzaras an entrance to the city, using his trademark blue-glazed brick.

• Showed various animals from territory controlled by the Babylonians.

• One of the reasons why the Walls of Babylon were originally onAntipater of Sidon’s list of the Seven Wonders.

• Discovered by the Deutches Orientgesellschaft under RobertKoldewey in 1899, along with what he thought were the Hanging Gardens.

• Rebuilt by Saddam Hussein, who used Nebuchadnezzar and his works for propagandistic purposes.

• Partially destroyed by U.S. Marines at Camp Babylon in Iraq.

• Modern reconstruction inPergamon Museum in Berlin.

The Development and

Practice of Classical

Archaeology

Number 1

Temple of Fortuna Virilis

• Date: 2nd century B.C. (Temple);

1508-1580 (Drawing)

• Artist: Andrea Palladio

• Location: Rome

• The work of Andrea Palladio(1508 – 1580) begins to formally study Classical architecture. He very meticulously draws the façades of buildings surviving in Rome and postulates reconstructions with a great deal of thought and study.

• Palladio’s work is centered detailed study of the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius (ca. 80 B.C. – 25 A.D.), especially with respect to proportions for buildings.

• Palladio applies all of this to the design of new palatial homes for the wealthy of his own time.

Number 2

Laocoön Statuary Group

• Date: early 1st century B.C.

• Location: Sculpted on the island

of Rhodes; found in the Baths of

Titus, Rome.

• Based on: the Great Altar of

Zeus at Pergamon

• King Attalos III of Pergamumbequeathed his entire kingdom to Rome upon his death in 133 B.C., and this allowed muchPergamene sculpture to be transported to Rome to decorate the houses of the wealthy and generated Roman interest in the Pergamene style of art.

• The Laocoön group is a good demonstration of this. The twisted body of Laocoön himself bears a striking resemblance to several figures on the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon, and there are also similarities in the sculpting of the sea-serpents.

Number 3

Palace of King Minos

• Date: 19th – 16th centuries B.C.

• Location: Knossos, Crete

(Greece)

• Excavated by: Sir Arthur Evans

and Duncan MacKenzie

• Excavation Dates: begins in

1900

• Excavation of the palace of Minos is Sir Arthur Evans’ claim to fame, but formal and scientific excavation comes only with the assistance of Duncan MacKenzie, a Scottish architect who had excavated the site on the island of Melos (1896-1897)

• MacKenzie is considered the father of stratigraphic excavation.

• The current condition of the palace is an example of archaeology carried to the point of reconstruction, with the result that the original condition of the structure is compromised.

Number 4

The Elgin Marbles

• Date: ca. 450 – 430 B.C.

• Original Location: The

Parthenon, Athens (Greece)

• Present Location: British

Museum

• Obtained by: Thomas Bruce, 7th

Earl of Elgin

• Elgin was the British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 until 1803.

• In 1801, the Turks granted Elgin a permit to remove sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens.

• In 1806, Elgin removes over half of the sculptural decoration from the Parthenon in roughly 200 crates, including:

– 274 feet of the 524 foot frieze

– 15 of the 92 metopes (many were likely damaged when Elgin saw them)

– Various other sculptural pieces, including 17pedimental sculptures.

Number 5

Bust of Pompey the Great

• Date: ca. 50 B.C.

• Location: Rome

• Modeled after: Various busts of

Alexander the Great, especially

one done by Lysippus (ca. 330

B.C.)

• The Roman aristocracy had a great interest in earlier Greek sculpture, especially from the time of the sack of Corinth byGaius Memmius in 133 B.C.. Sculpture is both taken from Greece and copied by Roman artists.

• Pompey makes use of this fact in having a sculpture made of himself to look like Alexander the Great, an earlier general also well known for military conquest.

• Similarities are most well noted in the hair and on the brow.

Pompeii

Number 1

Capitolium of Pompeii

• Date: Originally constructed

in 2nd century B.C.,

renovated ca. 80 B.C.

• Location: Forum

• Modeled After: Temple of

Juppiter Optimus Maximus,

Capitoline Hill, Rome.

• The Capitolium is a

reconstruction of an earlier

Temple of Juppiter

• Higher in elevation than

surrounding buildings to

simulate Capitoline Hill

• Three shrines, for Juppiter,

Juno, and Minerva, each with

a basement beneath.

• Hexastyle, Tuscan style

(non-peripteral).

Number 2

Amphitheatre of Pompeii

• Date: ca. 80 B.C.

• Stonework: Opus Incertum

• Event/Date: Fight between

Pompeians and Nucerians in

59 A.D. (Tacitus)

• This is the oldest stone

amphitheatre in Italy.

• Seating is divided into 3

parts: summa, media, and

ima cavea.

• Partially dug into the ground

and built into the city walls

for support.

• Seated roughly 20,000—

more than the population of

Pompeii

• Used for gladiatorial

combats.

• Pink Floyd plays here in

1971.

Number 3

House of the Vettii

• Date: becomes a single

house in the 1st century B.C.

• Decoration: 4th style

• Excavation: 1895-1896

• Originally more than one

dwelling.

• Owned by freedmen of the

Vettii family.

• Lavishly decorated in the 4th

style, especially in the oeci,

probably after the

earthquake of 62.

• Had a moderate peristylum,

but also a viridarium, or

pleasure garden.

• Most visited structure in all of

Pompeii.

Number 4

Odeon of Pompeii

• Date: ca. 80 B.C.

• Stonework: Opus Quasi

Reticulatum

• Builders: Gaius Quintus

Valgus and Marcus Porcius

(magistrates seeking

election)

• A theatrum tectum, or roofed

theatre.

• Traditional semicircular

theatre design inscribed in a

rectangular building.

• Acoustically superior.

• Used for events such as

mime, dramatic recitation,

musical performance, and

even political speeches.

• Adjacent to the Large

Theatre and the Triangular

Forum.

Number 5

Alexander Mosaic

• Event/Date: Battle of

Alexander the Great at Issus,

333 B.C.

• Location: Exedra in the

House of the Faun

• Dimensions: 19 ft. x 10 ft. 3

in.

• Mosaic is a reproduction of

an earlier Greek painting by

Philoxenus.

• Represents the Battle of

Issus, featuring Alexander

the Great and Darius of

Persia.

• Contained at least 1.5 million

colored tiles (tesserae),

though estimates go as high

as 4 million.

Rome

Number 1

Capitoline Wolf Sculpture

• Date: 5th century B.C.

• Material: Bronze

• Location: Rome

• A bronze sculpture of Romulus, Remus, and the wolf who is said to have raised the twins to adulthood.

• The twins themselves were added during the Renaissance and may or may not have replaced bronze twins originally associated with the statue.

• Romulus, Remus, and the wolf are still used symbolically as the emblem for the Roma soccer team.

• Mussolini gave a copy of the statue to Rome, Georgia in the late 1930’s.

Number 2

Bust of Lucius Junius Brutus

• Date: 1st century B.C.

• Material: Bronze (with ivory and

stone inlay for eyes)

• Location: Rome

• Lucius Junius Brutus was the man who overthrew Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome’s 7 kings, in 509 B.C.

• This changes the Roman form of government from a monarchy to a republic.

• During the time period of the Republic, Rome is governed by 2 men called consuls, who provide a check against one another and are elected yearly. There are also a number of lower magistrates.

• Lucius Junius Brutus is one of Rome’s first consuls.

Number 3

Theatre of Marcellus

• Date: early 1st century B.C.

• Location: Rome

• Current Use: Apartment

Building

• The Theatre of Marcellus was turned into a palace during the Renaissance. More recently, this palace has been converted to apartments.

• The Theatre of Marcellus is an example of an ancient structure which has been preserved because the structure was used for some other purpose during the middle ages. Otherwise, much of the stone might have been quarried.

• Another example would be the Mausoleum of Hadrian, which is now the Castel Sant’Angelo (the fortress of Vatican City).

Number 4

Claudian Era Circus Reliefs

• Date: 41 – 54 A.D. (the reign of

the Emperor Claudius)

• Depicting: the Circus Maximus

• Material: Terracotta

• These reliefs are able to be

dated to the period of the

Emperor Claudius or after

based on Suetonius’ statement

that Claudius improved the

Circus Maximus by gilding the

metae and adding some

decorative relief.

• Before this time, Ovid implies

that the metae are unadorned

and rather like cypress trees.

• Circus racing reliefs were

especially popular during the

mid 1st century A.D.

Number 5

Egyptian Obelisk• Date: brought to Rome in the

late 1st century B.C. (after the

Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.)

• Brought by: Augustus

• Point of Origin: Heliopolis, Egypt

• Original Location in Rome:

Spina of the Circus Maximus

• Augustus brings this and another obelisk to Rome after defeatingAntony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.

• Christian writers like Tertullian associate obelisks with the worship of the Sun or, more likely, of Apollo.

• Augustus derives several benefits from setting up the obelisk in the Circus Maximus:

1) he decorates the barrier of the circus

2) he displays spoils from a recent victory

3) he honors his patron divinity

4) he honors a god who participates in the same event hosted in the circus.

Identifications

The Seven Wonders

“Queen’s Chamber”

• Misnamed by Arab explorers. There is no evidence that a queen was ever buried there or intended to be buried there

• Probably the second intended burial chamber forKhufu.

• 18 ft. 10 in x 17 ft. 2 in x 15 ft. high

• Accessed by a ramp starting just below grand gallery

• On east-west axis

• Unlike the Subterranean Chamber, it was finished

Casing Stones

• Limestone blocks used to smooth the sides of

pyramids by covering square blocks and filling in

gaps

• The only pyramid in Egypt which still has its casing

stones is the Pyramid of Khafre; the casing stones

from the Great Pyramid are gone

Antipater of Sidon

• 2nd Century B.C. writer who composed the list of the

7 wonders of the ancient world

• Originally had the walls of Babylon listed as a wonder

in place of Pharos at Alexandria

• Says he has been to all the wonders

• Picks Temple of Artemis at Ephesus as his favorite

Archimedean Screw

• Pump mechanism described by Strabo as the irrigation machine for the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

• Screw turning within a tube, thus drawing water upwards.

• Supposedly invented by Archimedes in the 300’s B.C., though apparently in use in Babylon in the early 500’s B.C.

• Either not the irrigation method for Babylon, or misnamed because it was in use before Archimedes.

Robert Koldewey

• German excavator working in Babylon in 1899,

leading the Deutsche Orientgesellschaft project.

• Discovered the Ishtar Gate, the walls, the central

ziggurat, perhaps the Tower of Babel.

• Thought he discovered the foundations for the

Hanging Gardens in a series of rooms with vaulted

ceilings, though there are many problems with this

conclusion.

Herostratus

• Burns the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (shrine D,

the Croesus Building) on July 21st, 356 B.C. in order

to try to gain notoriety for himself.

• Commits this act of arson on the same date as the

birth of Alexander the Great.

Dipteral and Octastyle

(+ an example)• Dipteral – with two rows of columns going along the

entire exterior.

• Octastyle – with 8 columns across the front

• Both terms apply to Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.

Chryselephantine

(+2 examples)• Term used to describe statues made of ivory and

gold.

• From Greek “chrysos” (gold) and “elephantos” (ivory).

• These statues are usually constructed around a

wooden frame.

• Examples: Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Statue of

Athena in the Parthenon

Artemisia II of Caria

• Sister/wife/successor of Mausolus of Caria.

• Begins constrcution on the Mausoleum before

Mausolus’ death in 353 B.C. and gains political power

after his death.

• Crushes an attempted rebellion in Rhodes and

supports an oligarchic government there.

• Was known to mix a portion of her husband’s ashes

in her daily wine.

• Dies in 350 B.C. due to her excessive grieving.

Edict of Theodosius I

• Law passed down in 391 A.D. banning structures and

institutions which were pagan in nature.

• Buildings either had to be destroyed or converted into

Christian buildings.

• The Temple of Zeus at Olympia and the Temple of

Artemis at Ephesus were both destroyed as a result

of the edict.

• Institutions such as the Olympic Games were also

banned.

Knights of St. John of Malta at

Bodrum• Christian organization which locates at Bodrum to

protect and house pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land.

• Also known as the Knights Hospitallers

• Built the Castle of St. Peter in 1402.

• Repair the castle from 1494 – 1522 using green volcanic stones from the Mausoleum atHalicarnassus for building and breaking up and burning marble steps and statuary for lime mortar.

• Discover the tomb chamber of Mausolus but get none of the riches; these are stolen by pirates overnight.

The Development and

Practice of Classical

Archaeology

Thomas Bruce

• 7th Earl of Elgin—one of the first 19th century “archaeologists.” Served as the Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 until 1803.

• In 1801, Elgin the Ottoman Turks who control Greece give Elgin a permit to remove sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens

• In 1806, Elgin removes over half of the sculptural decoration from the Parthenon in roughly 200 crates, including:

– 274 feet of the 524 foot frieze

– 15 of the 92 metopes (many were likely damaged when Elgin saw them)

– Various other sculptural pieces, including 17pedimental sculptures.

The Classical Period (including

problems in definition)• Most commonly used to mean something like “related

to the ancient Greeks and Romans,” but can refer to a time period or something more stylistic.

• In some ways problematic as there are few definite boundaries for a “Classical Period,” and there are numerous differences between Greeks and Romans (language, artistic styles, forms of government, and time period).

• The “Classical Period” could begin as early as the 19th century B.C. or as late as the 4th century B.C.

• The “Classical Period” could end as early as the 4th

century B.C. or as late as 1453 A.D.

Greek Independence (+ year)

and Archaeology• In 1829, Greece wins its independence, putting a

stop to the export of antiquities possible under the

Ottoman government. A curator of antiquities is

appointed and the Greek Archaeological Society is

formed to manage archaeological finds.

• Thus, much archaeological work shifts to Asia Minor,

where the export of antiquities is still allowed. This

leads to Newton’s work on the Mausoleum and

Wood’s work at Ephesus.

Heinrich Schliemann

• Schliemann directs a massive excavation at Troy between 1870 and 1890.

• Schliemann took the Homeric story of the Iliad as based on historical fact, and so he believed that if he dug at Troy, he would eventually find the treasure left behind after the fall of the city.

• At first, he simply looks for valuable items and ignores the chronology of the various levels.

• Schliemann at first also smuggles valuable items out of Turkey in the middle of the night to avoid detection.

• Schliemann becomes more scientific in his approach when he gets help from Wilhelm Dorpfeld, a German who is considered the pioneer of stratigrahpic excavation.

Duncan MacKenzie

• Stratigraphic excavation comes to Greece with the

work of a Scottish architect, Duncan MacKenzie, who

excavates the city of Phylakopi on the island of Melos

from 1896 to 1899.

• MacKenzie is better known, however, for his work

with Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos on the island of

Crete. Along with Evans, MacKenzie excavates the

Palace of Minos beginning in 1900. All finds are

carefully recorded, and it is MacKenzie that is largely

responsible for this documentation.

Systematic Surface Survey

(+ 2 types)• Surface survey or fieldwalking, then, can be defined

as “the systematic visual survey of an area to record

evidence of previous human activity.”

• Surveyors may practice an intensive survey, involving

walking all of a potential archaeological site in a grid

pattern, or an extensive survey, which targets only

portions of the established grid, based on completely

random factors, terrain, or any number of other

factors.

Negative Crop Marks

• Aerial photography reveals structures such as walls

and streets in the form of negative crop marks, areas

where the crops do not grow as tall as in areas

without sub-soil structures.

• The result is that the outlines of larger structures are

indicated by crops which grow to a lesser height.

Resistivity Survey

• A resistivity survey measures the resistance in the

ground to the passage of an electric current. This is

able to reveal structures located beneath the soil as

stone, for instance, resists an electrical current to a

greater degree than the soil around it.

• Once data is processed by a computer, outlines of

buildings or large deposits of artifacts may emerge

based on their resistivity profile.

Stratigraphy

• Stratigraphy is a means of interpreting the chronology

of an archaeological site by studying its various

layers or “strata,” assuming that later levels will

overlie earlier levels. Soil levels can often be

distinguished by various differences in color, texture,

or the like. A result can be to establish pottery or

artifact types associated with different levels in an

effort to determine a chronology.

• The stratigraphy of a site is best revealed in slit

trenches or in the baulks of box trenches.

Box Trenches and Baulks

(+ inventor)• The box trench is the most commonly used trench

type.

• Developed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in the 1920’s and 1930’s.

• In addition to the ability to establish the stratigraphyof the site vertically, a horizontal dimension is also added, making it possible to actually unearth artifacts while studying their chronology at the same time.

• Problems with these include excavation of baulks out of sequence, the total area of a site contained in the baulks, and the vulnerability of baulks to collapse.

Carbon 14 Dating• Carbon 14 dating relies on the remains of organic

material at archaeological sites and the rate of decomposition of the isotope Carbon 14 to determine a date or range of dates.

• The half-life of Carbon 14 is 5,730 years, plus or minus 40 years or so, and testable samples could be as old as 70,000 years.

• Usually Carbon 14 testing is done on pieces of burnt wood, though other organic material, such as bone, can be used as well.

• What is measured is the emission of radioactive beta particles, which exit a modern sample at 150 per minute. Thus, if only 75 per minute exit an ancient sample, the sample should be 5,730 years old, plus or minus 40 years.

Dendrochronology

• Dendrochronology involves the study of known tree-ring data from a region with the remains of wooden artifacts to determine a date or range of dates.

• Dendrochronologists begin with a living tree sample from the target area and work backwards, comparing tree cores until they reach a match.

• Problems with dendrochronology:– Only wooden samples can be tested.

– The date revealed by the wood will, at best, give the date when the tree was cut down.

– Unless the piece of wood still has the bark on it, it is not possible to determine the exact year in which the tree was cut down.

– Though testing is done within regions, climate factors make regional lines somewhat blurry.

– There are not always sufficient wood samples to go back to the times being studied.

Pompeii

Samnites

(+ Language Spoken)• The Samnites were a native Italic people from

Central Italy (in the Apennine Mountains) who settled in the region of Campania as early as the 8th century B.C.

• Pompeii is founded by the Samnites in the 6th century B.C.

• Etruscans and Greeks then fight over the region for a while, before the Samnites re-enter the picture after the Greek victory at Cumae in 474 B.C.

• The Samnites, along with the Greeks, maintain control of the city until Sulla defeats the Social League in 80 B.C. at Nola.

• The Samnites spoke a language called Oscan.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the

Social Wars• Lucius Cornelius Sulla was a Roman general and

dictator during the time period of the Social Wars (89 – 80 B.C.), wars fought at first to resist Roman occupation of Campania and later for Roman rights (i.e. voting).

• Sulla unsuccessfully tries to besiege Pompeii in 89 B.C., but a successful resistance is led by LuciusCluentius. He eventually takes control of Pompeii in 80 B.C. after the the Social League, a group of Samnite/Greek allies in Campania, surrender at Nola.

• Sulla leaves a garrison of 2,000 veterans at his newly establish colony, called the Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum, effectively beginning the Roman period of the city.

Eumachia

(+ associated structure)• A wealthy Pompeian woman who constructs the

Building of Eumachia, a sort of union hall for the guild of fullers (weavers, dyers, washers of fabric) in the late 1st century B.C. It is identified based on a dedication from the guild at the base of a statue of Eumachia (in the guise of the Empress Livia) and by the presence of urine basins (used for bleaching fabrics).

• Eumachia is known to have paid for the crypta, chalcidicum, and porticus.

• She uses expensive materials, imperial decoration, and probably non-local craftsmen.

• All of these factors denote her wealth and importance, especially as a woman living in a time when women could not own businesses or even possess their own money.

Opus Sectile (+ where to find

an example)• Opus sectile is a term used to describe a technique in

Roman concrete construction which involves the use

of cut marble laid out in patterns and set in a bed of

concrete.

• Opus sectile is generally found on floors.

• An example in Pompeii can be found on the floor of

the Capitolium, where cut marble was laid out in a

diamond shaped pattern.

Ima Cavea

(+ who would be there)• The Ima Cavea is the lowest section of a Roman

theatre, located behind the orchestra and in front of the Media Cavea.

• This section of seating would have been reserved for the wealthiest and most politically influential members of society as they viewed plays, mime performances, musical performances, and even gladiatorial fights.

• The Ima Cavea was generally accessed by a separate entrance.

• Each of Pompeii’s 3 major theatres (the Large Theatre, the Odeon, and the Amphitheatre) had an Ima Cavea.

Opus Quasi Reticulatum

• Concrete structures were often faced in opus quasi

reticulatum, common to the time around 80 B.C. and

featuring concrete walls with roughly squared stones

placed in a somewhat diamond-like pattern.

• This style replaces the earlier opus incertum and

precedes opus reticulatum, which entirely regularizes

the diamond-mesh pattern of the stonework.

• The Odeon at Pompeii was constructed in opus quasi

reticulatum.

Impluvium and Compluvium

• The impluvium was a shallow pool located in the middle of the atrium of a Roman house. It was designed to catch rainwater which could be used for household functions such as basic cleaning.

• Corresponding to this was the Compluvium, a hole in the roof which allowed rainwater, air, and light to enter the atrium, serving as the primary light source for the front portion of the house. The roof sloped in towards this compluvium.

• Together, the impluvium and compluvium, along with the opening in the roof above the peristyle, formed a Roman air-conditioning system.

Patron-Client Relationship +

Salutatio• A wealthy man (usually one seeking political office)

would agree to be a patron giving large sums of money to clients who needed such funds, generally in exchange for votes. The clients in-turn could become lower level patrons on their own, using their patron’s money.

• Clients frequently included poets, writers, artists, and the like who were well educated and influential, but lacking in funds.

• One major responsibility for a client was to visit his patron at his home, in the tablinum, each morning, a visit called a salutatio. During the visit, the client would wish his patron well and ask if there was anything he could do for his patron.

Opus Signinum

• A masonry technique used for the floors of Roman houses.

• This technique utilizes mortar with fragments of terracotta amphorae (large, two-handled wine/oil jugs) mixed in.

• Sometimes, these floors would be painted as well, most often either red or white.

• This is the most common flooring technique seen in Pompeii, and it is known to have been significantly less expensive than techniques such as opus sectile, which used expensive marbles, or mosaic, which involved especially skilled artisans.

House of the Faun• The House of the Faun was the largest home in Pompeii,

at 3,000 sq. meters, occupying an entire city block.

• The house is named for the statue of a dancing faun which was found in the impluvium in the larger of the two atria.

• The house has two atria, two peristyles, at least five rooms which could have been used as dining rooms and had four shops across the front. This was probably a fusion of two earlier homes.

• The decoration is largely in the first style, denoting the classy simplicity of the home’s owners who desired to keep the home decorated in an older style, even after the earthquake of 62. The floors are done in opus sectile.

• The house also had its own bathing complex and is especially well known for the quality of its mosaics, most notably that of Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus.

Viridarium

• A smaller version of a peristyle. A very small garden

on the interior of the house, though with an open roof.

• Comes from the Latin word “viridis,” which means

green.

• Sometimes referred to as a pleasure garden.

• Often only small in comparison with the peristyle of a

house.

• The best examples of viridaria can be found at the

House of the Vettii and the House of Loreius

Tiburtinus.

Triclinium (+ furnishings)• The dining room of a Roman house. Many Roman

houses would have more than one, often seasonal (related to whether sunlight would or would not enter the door at mealtimes).

• Furnishings consisted of three couches with a fairly low table in the middle. In order to accommodate these couches, the door was almost always off-center, making the room easy for archaeologists to identify. The Romans reclined while dining, three people to a couch.

• The triclinium was often the best decorated room of a Roman house as the Romans took a great deal of pride in their dinner parties. Floors were almost always done in mosaics (sometimes depicting fallen table scraps), and the wall paintings often depicted literary themes designed to show the intelligence and taste of the homeowner.

Rome

Romulus and Remus

• Legendary founders of the city of Rome, descendants of Aeneas, a Trojan who escapes the ruin of Troy at the end of the Trojan War.

• Romulus and Remus were supposed to have been killed by Amulius (who was trying to usurp their eventual throne), but the slave who was supposed to drown them in the river rather left them on the bank, to be raised by a she-wolf.

• Romulus kills Remus upon the foundation of the city. Although the brothers try to determine who will name the city by augury, a fight still ensues, and Remus dies.

• Romulus names the city and serves as the first king, from 753 until 715 B.C.

Roman Monarchy (+ number

of kings and duration)• The Roman Monarchy lasts from 753 B.C. until 509

B.C., when Lucius Junius Brutus kills Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, last of Rome’s kings, and Rome becomes a Republic.

• During the 244-year span of the Roman monarchy, there are a total of 7 kings, each of whom would have to have reigned for an average of 35 years each, which would have been unlikely at this time, when life expectancy was closer to 40 – 45.

• The 7 kings, in order, were: 1) Romulus; 2) Numa Pompilius; 3) Tullus Hostilius; 4) Ancus Marcius; 5) Lucius Tarquinius Priscus; 6) Servius Tullius; 7) Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.

Palatine Hill

• One of Rome’s 7 hills, located near the city center.

• The Palatine was the hill chosen by Romulus as an

observation station for birds as he and Remus (who

chose the Aventine) tried to resolve the matter of

whose name the city should bear.

• The Palatine is later home to the wealthiest of

Rome’s citizens, including the Emperor Augustus,

who also builds a Temple of Apollo on the site.

• The Palatine Hill overlooks the Circus Maximus

Rape of the Sabine Women

• Romulus’ plan to ensure that the city of Rome would have a second generation. Because the earliest residents were all men, there was no possibility for offspring.

• Romulus invites Rome’s Sabine neighbors, who were known for their adherence to religious observance, to attend a festival in the newly founded city and to bring their wives and daughters.

• At a given signal, each man picked up a woman and ran home to begin production of Rome’s next generation.

• A war follows this event, which is ultimately ended by the intercession of the Sabine women themselves.

Lucius Junius Brutus

• Lucius Junius Brutus was the man who overthrew

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome’s 7

kings, in 509 B.C.

• This changes the Roman form of government from a

monarchy to a republic.

• During the time period of the Republic, Rome is

governed by 2 men called consuls, who provide a

check against one another and are elected yearly.

There are also a number of lower magistrates.

• Lucius Junius Brutus is one of Rome’s first consuls.

Mussolini and Roman

Archaeology• Archaeology in Rome owes a great deal to former

fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who used the

monuments of the Roman Empire as symbols of

national pride during World War II.

• Mussolini in many ways saw himself as an emperor

attempting to recreate the Roman Empire of old.

• The result of this propaganda machine was the

excavation of numerous sites, including the Forum of

Julius Caesar, the Forum of Augustus, and others.

The Popes and Roman

Archaeology• Archaeology in Rome has been threatened in the

past by the various Popes.

• Most Roman buildings were constructed of quality stone and lavishly decorated with marble. Much of this stone and marble finds its way into St. Peter’s or other churches throughout Rome.

• Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, with permission from his uncle, Pope Paul III, utilized 4,000 men in a single day to rob the Colosseum of its stone.

• This stone was used in the construction of the Palazzo Venezia, St. Peter’s, and the Church of St. John Lateran.

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

(+ monument built)• Lucius Tarquinius Priscus was Rome’s 5th king, from

616 – 589 B.C.

• He is most well known for his early construction of the Circus Maximus.

• The site is originally marked out by Romulus at or around the time of the Rape of the Sabine Women, but the first permanent structures are put in place by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus in roughly 600 B.C.

• The structure becomes considerably more grandiose as time goes on with additions being made by most politically influential people in Rome (i.e. consuls, emperors, etc.)

Carceres and Herms

• Carceres were the starting gates in a Roman circus.

These were generally made of metal and opened by

means of a pulley system (usually involving the use

of animal sinews)

• The Romans insisted that the gates be opened

simultaneously to enforce fairness at the races.

• The herms were small pillars with statuary heads on

top which were placed between each of the gates.

The herms served to cover up the pulley mechanism

which was used to operate the gates.

• “Carcer” in Latin can also mean prison.

Augustus and

The Circus Obelisk• Augustus brings this and another obelisk to Rome

after defeating Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle ofActium in 31 B.C.

• Christian writers like Tertullian associate obelisks with the worship of the Sun or, more likely, of Apollo.

• Augustus derives several benefits from setting up the obelisk in the Circus Maximus:

1)he decorates the barrier of the circus

2)he displays spoils from a recent victory

3)he honors his patron divinity

4)he honors a god who participates in the same event hosted in the circus.

Pulvinar (+ implications of

Augustus’ presence there)• A pulvinar was the imperial box. Augustus notes in

his Res Gestae that he built the imperial box at the Circus Maximus.

• There was probably already a structure called apulvinar before Augustus since the term can simply refer to something above ground level and is also related to the term pulvinarium, which can be defined as a couch on which images of the gods were placed.

• It would also have been a daring maneuver for Augustus to sit in a structure which had a name resembling that for a resting place for a god’s image in that he characteristically did not allow himself to be considered a god within his own lifetime.

Eggs and Dolphins

(+ cosmic associations)• The ova and delphini, “eggs” and “dolphins” adorn the euripus primarily to serve as a means for counting the seven laps of a race. Each circus had both sets of ornaments, one on each end of the euripus.

• These features were able to be turned up or down to symbolize the completion of a lap. According to some accounts, the dolphins were actually fountains which poured water into the euripus.

• Cassiodorus tells us that the eggs are present because they give birth to the next lap and that the dolphins relate to the water in the central barrier.

• Tertullian suggests that the dolphins spout in honor of Neptune and that the eggs are sacred to Castor and Pollux, who were born from an egg.

Exercises

(Maps/Diagrams to be Used)

Exercise 1

**Be able to

answer

questions

about the

relative ages of

the items in

this diagram.

Exercise 2

**Be able to identify: 1) carceres; 2) spina/euripus; 3) metae;

4) obelisk; 5) cunei/gradus; 6) pulvinar

Exercise 2 (continued)

**Be able to identify: 1) orchestra; 2) ima cavea; 3) media cavea;

4) summa cavea; 5) proscenium; 6) scaenae frons; 7) tribunalia;

8) parodoi

Exercise 3

**Be able to identify these

decorative/construction

techniques.

Exercise 4

**Be able to identify the locations of: 1) Great Pyramid of

Giza; 2) Hanging Gardens of Babylon; 3) Temple of

Artemis at Ephesus; 4) Statue of Zeus at Olympia;

5) Mausoleum of Halicarnassus; 6) Colossus of Rhodes;

7) Pharos of Alexandria

Exercise 4 (continued)**Be able

to identify

each of the

7 Hills on a

blank

version of

this

diagram.

The 7 Hills:

1) Palatine

2) Aventine

3) Capitoline

4) Quirinal

5) Esquiline

6) Viminal

7) Caelian

Essay

Essay Question

• The essay question will center around the impact of the following on archaeological excavations and research in the ancient world:

a) Literary Evidence

b) Natural Processes

c) Politics and Propaganda

d) Christianity

e) Advances in Science

f) Post-ancient treatment of structures

• Be prepared to cite specific examples for each of the above.

Study Hard,

and Good Luck!