ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE EXAMINATIONNORTH YARD OF THE LORING-GREENOUGH HOUSE
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS
CENTER FOR CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORYUNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON
CULTURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT STUDY NO. 11
2004
Cover Illustration: The Loring-Greenough property as depicted by the Historic AmericanBuildings Survey in 1937 (Courtesy Detwiller 1998)
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE EXAMINATIONNORTH YARD OF THE LORING-GREENOUGH HOUSE
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS
Prepared forThe Jamaica Plain Tuesday Club Inc.
ByJ.N. Leith Smith and Katherine Howlett
Center for Cultural and Environmental HistoryUniversity of Massachusetts Boston
Cultural Resources Management Study No. 11
2004
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CENTER FOR CULTURAL ANDENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY
Established in 1996, the Center for Culturaland Environmental History’s missionincludes research, public service, and edu-cational initiatives. The Center maintainsarchaeology and conservation laboratoriesand supports research in landscape andenvironmental archaeology, historicalarchaeology, and environmental history.
Center projects often have an applied focus,seeking to promote and protect the culturalheritage and historic landscape of theCommonwealth of Massachusetts and thesurrounding region. As a public serviceunit of the Department of Anthropology, theCCEH also serves an important educationalrole at the University of MassachusettsBoston, creating opportunities for studentsto participate in public service projects.
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ABSTRACT
A phased program of stabilization andrestoration for the Loring-Greenough Houseand property located in Jamaica Plain, asuburb of Boston, MA, called for recon-struction of porches, construction of anentrance walk and new foundations for thecarriage house. This program also includedlandscaping and rehabilitation of gardenplantings in the north yard. Archaeologicaltesting was conducted to identify culturalresources that would be impacted by theproposed project and to search for evidenceof early garden features that could be usedto guide landscape restoration. The firstphase of research focused on house porch-es, walkway installation and foundationwork in the carriage house (Mohler andKelley 2000). The second phase of work,reported herein, focused on the temporalassessment of existing planting beds andidentification of historic planting features.A total of five 1 m x 1 m units and four 1 mx .5 m units were excavated in the northyard. Investigations revealed the presenceof an intact buried A-horizon in the east andsouth portions of the north yard that con-tains eighteenth and early nineteenth centu-ry artifacts. Sand walkways were laiddown in the early to mid nineteenth centuryand may have corresponded with otherhouse improvements made around 1840.Such improvements may have included thecreation of a formal garden with beds laidout in a geometric pattern. These gardenfeatures were covered over with landscap-ing fill sometime after 1937 when a plan ofthe property was made by the HistoricAmerican Buildings Survey. The present
parallel garden beds may have been createdsimultaneously with the geometric garden.The parallel beds have been maintainedwith slight twentieth-century modificationup to the present. The irregular lilac bedsat the north edge of the property appear todate to the late nineteenth or early twentiethcenturies, while the herb bed was created inthe late twentieth century. Evidence of sev-enteenth to eighteenth century garden fea-tures consisting of a series of small plantingholes was identified below the south end ofthe parallel beds and associated walkway.The program of archaeological testingrevealed the presence of a well-preservedburied A-horizon across much of the prop-erty that is associated with the eighteenthand early nineteenth cenury occupation ofthe property. In addition evidence of eigh-teenth century gardening activity lies at thebase of the buried A-horizon. An earlynineteenth century pathway was found onthe surface of the buried A-horizon. Due tothe presence of well-preserved arcaeologi-cal deposits recommendations for proposedgarden restoration focused on the need tolimit the depth of new planting holes to pre-vent disturbance to the buried A-horizon.Because tree planting and erection of postsfor arbors require greater depths, it was rec-ommended that the new planting and postlocations should be archaeologically exca-vated to mitigate potentially adverseimpacts. The excavated holes will then beused for specific trees and posts. The thirdphase of archaeological investigation asso-ciated with the foundations of the carriagehouse north wall joists will be reportedunder separate cover.
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MANAGEMENT SUMMARY
The Jamaica Plain Tuesday Club Inc. con-tracted with the Center for Cultural andEnvironmental History to conduct anarchaeological site examination at the his-toric Loring-Greenough House in theJamaica Plain neighborhood of Boston,MA. Subsurface testing conducted in 1999under State Archaeologist permit no. 1826tested areas to be disturbed by porch reha-bilitation, walkway construction and foun-dation work in the carriage house. The sec-ond phase of investigation in April and Mayof 2002 under State Archaeologist permitno. 2145 focused on the temporal assess-ment of existing planting beds and identifi-cation of historic planting features in thenorth yard of the property. Testing of thenorth wall of the carriage house includedunder this permit will be reported on underseparate cover.
The initial phase of testing revealed intactarchaeological deposits including a buriedA-horizon, sand bed walkway and two peri-ods of porch footings on the west side ofthe house. In the area of the carriage housewere foundations and associated builders
trenches, deep deposits of mixed fill, possi-ble refuse pits and a brick walk that pre-dates the 1811 carriage house. The depth ofdeposits suggests significant landscapemodification in the eastern portion of theproperty.
The second phase of testing in the northyard revealed the presence of a buried A-horizon associated with the eighteenth andearly nineteenth century occupation as wellas sand walkways that may have been laiddown between the 1820s and 1860s whenother changes were made to the house.Landscaping fill was spread across much ofthe property in the late nineteenth to earlytwentieth centuries, and this was followedby additional capping with fill in specificareas after 1937. The site examinationfinds represent an important contribution tothe overall understanding of landscape useand alteration of the property. Limitingexcavation depth to 16 inches was recom-mended for the proposed garden restora-tion. Due to the need to place trees andposts below this depth, the holes for thesenew fixtures were recommended to bearchaeologically excavated to mitigatepotential damage to subsurface resources.
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TABLE O F CONTENTS
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vManagement Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viTable of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiList of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiiList of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiiI. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1II. Project Location and Environmental Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4III. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
A. Native American Cultural Context of Southern New England1. PaleoIndian Period (ca. 12,000-10,000 B.P. (Before Present))2. Early Archaic Period (ca. 10,000-8,000 B.P.)3. Middle Archaic Period (ca. 8,000-6,000 B.P.)4. Late Archaic Period (ca. 6000-3000 B.P.)5. Early Woodland Period (ca. 3,000-1,600 B.P.)6. Middle Woodland Period (ca. 1,600 –1,000 B.P.)7. Late Woodland Period (ca. 1,000-450 B.P.)8. Contact Period
B. Native American Archaeological Sites Around the Project Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8C. Historic Development of Jamaica Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8D. Loring-Greenough House History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10E. Archaeological Potential of the Loring-Greenough House Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
IV. Previous Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15A. Proposed South Entrance WalkwayB. Proposed West Entrance Proch and StairsC. Carriage House South Wall JoistsD. Carriage House East Wall FoundationE. Carriage House North Wall
V. Archaeological Site Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18A. Research DesignB. Scope of WorkC. Field MethodologyD. Site Examination Results
VI. Interpretations and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24A. Garden Walk and Parallel BedsB. Planting Holes Below WalkwayC. Irregular BedD. Herb BedE. Summary
VII. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30References Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Appendix A: Artifact Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36Appendix B: Artifact Catalog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure I-1. Project Area on USGS Boston South Quadrangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Figure I-2. Historic American Buildings Survey (1937) plan of the Loring-Greenoughproperty with additional captions (courtesy Detwiller 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Figure III-1. Watercolor view of the Loring-Greenough House ca. 1815-1827 (Detwiller1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Figure III-2. Plan of Loring-Greenough property in 1853 (Norfolk Registry of Deeds)(Detwiller 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure III-3. The Loring-Greenough property as depicted by Hopkins Insurance Co. in1874 (Detwiller 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Figure IV-1 Archaeological testing locations from the 1999 site examination. . . . . . . .16
Figure V-1. Photograph of the north entrance showing the north walkway and parallelgarden beds ca. 1900 (Detwiller 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Figure V-2. North Yard site examination unit locations (adapted from Due North LandSurveying property map 2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Figure V-3. South wall profile of Units 1-4 at the south end of the Parallel Beds. . . . .22
Figure V-4. Plan of units 1-4 at 46 cmbs showing planting holes in the B-horizon surface. . . . . . .23
Figure V-5. South wall profile of Units 5 and 6 at the north end of the Parallel Beds. .23
Figure V-6. East wall profile of Unit 5 in the Irregular Planting Bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Figure V-7. South wall profile of Units 6 and 7 under the Herb Bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Figure VI-1. North walkway as it appeared in 1937 (HABS) (Detwiller 1998). . . . . . .26
Figure VI-2. Comparison of the north walkway as it appeared in profile at its southend (upper) and north end (lower). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Figure VII-1. Existing Conditions Plan, Loring-Greenough House…. . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Figure VII-2. Illustrative Master Plan, Loring-Greenough House…. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Site Examination Excavation Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
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is the only surviving example of a colonialcountry estate in Jamaica Plain (Fig. I-2).
A phased rehabilitation program for boththe house and grounds that commenced inthe spring of 1999 included repair of porch-es, installation of a handicapped accessramp, replacement of deteriorating posts inthe carriage house and landscape restora-tion. This work was determined to have thepotential to negatively impact subsurfacecultural resources. As a result, an archaeo-
I. INTRODUCTION
The Jamaica Plain Tuesday Club Inc. ownsand maintains the historic Loring-Greenough House located at 12 SouthStreet in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts (Fig.I-1). The house is a Massachusetts andNational Register Historic Landmarkbecause of its historical connections to theAmerican Revolution and its exemplifica-tion of colonial architecture. The mansionwith adjoining carriage house and gardens
Figure I-1: Project area on USGS Boston South Quadrangle.
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Figure I-2: Historic American Buildings Survey (1937) plan of the Loring-Greenough prop-erty with additional captions (courtesy Detwiller 1998).
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logical site examination under StateArchaeologist permit no. 1826 was carriedout in the summer and fall of 1999 by theCenter for Cultural and EnvironmentalHistory (CCEH). This work focused on theexterior of the mansion house and carriagehouse and along the front (west) entrancewalk (Mohler et al 2000). The JamaicaPlain Tuesday Club is now in the process ofcompleting the structural rehabilitation ofthe carriage house and initiating the pro-gram of landscape restoration. KatherineCipolla of the Jamaica Plain Tuesday Clubcontacted the CCEH in December 2001 tosolicit archaeological services for the finalphase of rehabilitation associated with car-riage house post replacement and restora-
tion of plantings in the north yard. Anarchaeological site examination of the northyard was carried out under StateArchaeologist Permit No. 2145 betweenApril 19 and May 3, 2002. Final investiga-tion of the carriage house is awaiting fund-ing and will be reported on under separatecover. This work was performed in compli-ance with Section 106 of the NationalHistoric Preservation Act of 1966 (36 CFR800), Massachusetts General Laws Chapter9, Sections 26-27C, as amended by Chapter254 of the Acts of 1988 (950 CMR 71).University of Massachusetts staff whoworked on the project included KatherineHowlett and Leith Smith.
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II. PROJECT LOCATION ANDENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT
The Loring-Greenough property consists ofnearly two acres in the Boston neighbor-hood of Jamaica Plain in Suffolk County. Itis bordered by Greenough Avenue on thenorth, the intersection of South and CentreStreets to the west and by houselots to theeast and south. Well-known landmarks inthe vicinity include Jamaica Pond to thenorth, Franklin Park to the southeast andthe Arnold Arboretum to the south west.
The parcel is situated on an upland plainsurrounded by gently rolling landscape thatis punctuated by low hills. The closestwater source is Muddy River, the headwa-ters of which are associated with JamaicaPond that lies approximately 700 m to thenorthwest. The Muddy River flows gener-ally northward to the Charles River nearly 5km to the north. Water sources to the southconsist of small ponds and streams thatflow into the Neponset River 5 km to thesoutheast and into the upper Charles Riverjust over 6 km to the west and southwest.
The plain on which the site is located iscomposed of nearly level and undulatingMerrimac soil that is generally deep andexcessively drained (USDA 1989). A typi-cal soil profile consists of 23 cm of darkbrown fine sandy loam overlying approxi-mately 36 cm of yellow brown fine sandyloam that grades to a yellowish brownloamy sand. The C horizon consists of alight yellowish brown coarse sand andgravel. Much of the area is designated asUrban Land where the soil has been cov-ered with impervious surfaces. A low hillimmediately west of the property is charac-terized by Canton soils that are very deepand well drained and occur on the sides ofhills and ridges on uplands. Soils locatedapproximately 200 m south of the propertyhave been designated as Urban Land due tothe excessive amount of disturbance andcovering by construction. The area border-ing the south end of Jamaica Pond consistsof Merrimac fine sandy loam with 3 to 8percent slopes. This soil is deep and occurson gentle slopes associated with majorstream valleys.
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III. BACKGROUND
A. Native American Cultural Context ofSouthern New England
The history of Native American occupationin the area of Jamaica Plain and the broaderregion as a whole derives in part from astudy conducted for the Olmstead ParksSystem (Loparto 1986), a sewer project inArnold Arboretum (Donta et. al. 2002) andwork conducted in the Neponset River val-ley (Ritchie 1994) that utilizes palynologi-cal data collected within the middleNeponset drainage in Canton and Milton.
1. Paleo-Indian Period (ca. 12,000-10,000 B.P.)
New England was first occupied by humanssoon after the retreat of the Wisconsin icesheet around 13,000 B.P. The environmentat the time was rapidly changing as the gla-cial margins slowly moved northward.Forests came to be dominated by spruce,birch and alder. Fauna would have beencharacterized by cold adapted speciesincluding mastodon, mammoth, caribou, elkand a variety of birds and smaller mam-mals. While big game would have been animportant source of food (Ritchie 1980,Snow 1980), smaller species probably madeup the bulk of the diet along with a widevariety of plant foods (Curran 1987; Curranand Dincauze 1977; Dincauze 1990;Dincauze and Curran 1984; Donta et al2002). Nothing is known of human socialstructure from this time, but it likely wascharacterized by small family groups thatbanded together to move frequently aboutthe landscape in search of food. Thismobile hunting and gathering lifeway led toliving sites that were typically occupied forshort periods of time. Artifact assemblages
from such sites are dominated by stonetools that include scraping tools, drills,gravers fluted projectile points and largequantities of flakes from stone working,some of which are utilized. Many of thetools are manufactured of exotic, finegrained stone that was carried for long dis-tances from their sources of origin. Withthe exception of isolated finds (Elia andMahlstedt 1982) few archaeological sites ofthis period have been found in NewEngland (Loparto 1986). Bull Brook inIpswitch, the Neponset site in Canton(Carty and Spiess 1992), and the ShattockFarm site in Andover (Spiess and Bradley1996) are a few.
2. Early Archaic Period (ca. 10,000-8,000 B.P.)
Although little is actually known of thisphase due to a scarcity of well-documentedsites, a lifeway characterized by mobilehunting and gathering is believed to havecontinued during the Early Archaic with anemphasis on seasonal settlement patterning(Ritchie 1980). The environment remainedcool, but through a slow warming trend for-est species in the Boston area came to bedominated by pine, oak and birch (Ritchie1994). The manufacture of stone tools outof locally available materials suggests atrend toward occupation of particularregions with a decrease in long distancemobility and trade. Differences in the lithictool kit characterized by the manufacture ofbifurcate-base projectile points have beeninterpreted by some researchers to suggest adiscontinuity with the precedingPaleoindian Perid (Donta et al 2002;Ritchie 1969; Snow 1980), while otherssuggest a general continuum of develop-ment (Custer 1984).
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3. Middle Archaic Period (ca. 8,000-6,000 B.P.)
During the Middle Archaic the NewEngland landscape began to resemble thatof today with the establishment of a decidu-ous forest and increased diversity of plantand animal foods (Dincauze 1976;Dincauze and Mulholland 1977). The num-ber of archaeological sites from this periodincreases dramatically in comparison withthe past period, suggesting a significant risein population. The Merrimack River Valleyassociated with northern Massachusetts andsouthern New Hampshire, in particular,contain the best known sites of the period.These include the Neville and Smyth sitesin New Hampshire (Dincause 1976;Kenyon 1983) and Shattuck Farm inAndover (Mahlstedt 1981; Leudtke 1985)
Settlement in and exploitation of a varietyof environments is clearly indicated by bothfaunal remains and tool kits and this wasincreasingly associated with seasonalresource availability (Dincauze andMulholland 1977; Barber 1979).Andromous fishing at falls was clearly theprimary attraction at a number of localitiesincluding the Neville site that revealed evi-dence of reoccupation over a period oftime. The lithic tool kit during this periodis characterized by three distinctive projec-tile point styles (Dincauze 1976). Theseinclude the Neville, Stark and Merrimackthat are joined by atlatl weights, knives,perforators, axes, adzes, scrapers, abraders,ulus, gouges and harpoons (Donta et al2002).
4. Late Archaic Period (ca. 6,000-3,000 B.P.)
The greatest number of Native Americanarchaeological sites in New England isassociated with the Late Archaic. Seasonaltemperatures were slightly higher than
today and an oak-hickory forest came todominate southern New England (Loparto1986:7). The period is characterized by rel-atively high populations that occupied theentire range of available environments forthe purpose of exploiting an equally widerange of plant and animal resources.Seasonal settlement patterns continued, buttoward the end of the period populationsbecame more settled on the landscape asevidenced by shell middens and fish weirs.Coupled with this sedentism was limitedcultivation of plant foods such as squash,gourds and sunflower.
Three different lithic traditions suggest thepossible development of regional ethnicdiversity (Dincauze 1974, 1975) or of dif-fering tool kit functions. The Small-Stemmed point tradition is most widespreadand is associated with indigenous popula-tions that had long inhabited the region.The Laurentian tradition may represent amigration of peoples from the Great Lakesregion where such tool kits are common.The Susquehanna tradition is generallyassociated with groups that derived fromthe Middle-Atlantic region. The mixture ofthese traditions in single sites suggests thecoexistence of the three groups andexchange of technologies (Dincauze 1976;Ritchie 1969; Snow 1980; Custer 1984;Bourque 1995). Evidence of religiousbeliefs from burials becomes more commonduring this period due to the use of particu-lar practices that includes red ocher andburial goods.
5. Early Woodland Period (ca. 3,000-1,600 B.P.)
The Early Woodland is generally associatedwith a period of population reduction and aclustering of sites in valleys along rivercourses, but this characterization may be aproduct of sampling error. An expansion of
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spruce and slight decline in oak may havebeen associated with a cooling trend duringthe period (Ritchie 1994). Coastalresources, particularly fish and shellfish,take on greater importance, but the mostsignificant development during this periodis the transition from simple cultivation tohorticulture, and the development of ceram-ic technology that coincided with anincreasingly settled lifeway. The Small-Stemmed and Susquehanna projectile pointtraditions continue in this period and werejoined by the more common Meadowoodand Rossville projectile points. The latter isassociated with indigenous development,while the former may derive from the west-ern interior (Loparto 1986). The EarlyWoodland is also known for increasinglycomplex burial customs that incorporateartworks including gorgets, pottery pipes,copper beads as well as red ocher (Ritchie1965; Ritchie and Funk 1973; Spence andFox 1986). These goods imply a rich beliefin the afterworld.
6. Middle Woodland Period (ca. 1,600-1,000 B.P.)
The general lifeway established during theEarly Woodland continues in the Middlewith a subsistence and settlement focus onmarine and riverine environments. Livingsites by this time were semi-permanent oryear-round habitations, where surpluses ofcultivated foods began to be preserved instorage pits (Donta et al 2002; Snow 1980).Ceramic use expanded and came to includethe use of decoration, thought in somecases to signify ethnic identity. The majortechnological innovation of the period wasthat of the bow and arrow that ushered in anew repertoire of small projectile points.
7. Late Woodland Period (ca. 1,000-450 B.P.)
By the Late Woodland Period Native popu-lations are living in settled communities,some of which were occupied throughoutthe year. Some seasonal movement contin-ued to occur, particularly for the exploita-tion of migratory species. In addition,small groups may have traveled varyingdistances for the purpose of hunting as wellas gathering of plant foods. While wildfood resources remained a large componentof the diet, cultivated species came to beproduced in fields cleared specifically forthat purpose. The development of regionalhome bases by this time also led to the for-mation of ethnic diversity reflected in thegrowth of linguistic and cultural traditionsunique to individual groups. The BostonHarbor area came to be occupied by theMassachusett-speakers, while southeasternMassachusetts was home to theWampanoag (Simmons 1986; Goddard andBragdon 1988). The Nipmuc andPawtucket (or Pennacook) were present tothe north and west of the Massachusett, andto the west and south were the Narragansettand Pequot. Together these groups becameknown as the Eastern Algonquians.
8. Contact Period
The Contact Period commenced with thearrival of Europeans on the coast. Basquefishermen were among the first to arrive asearly as the sixteenth century. These werefollowed by explorers such as Champlain in1605 (Champlain 1907) and later by groupswith the express purpose of settlement andexploitation of New World resources.Thus, the actual period of contact along thecoast lasted for nearly a century. The peri-od closes with the establishment of perma-nent settlements. For the Native Americanpopulations, this was a period of tremen-
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dous change and transition. European-borne diseases for which the Natives had noimmunity, may have killed as much as nine-ty percent of New England populations(Spiess and Spiess 1987; Carlson et al.1992). This tremendous loss in populationhad particularly negative effects on the abil-ity of remaining community members tocarry on long established traditions(Johnson 1997). This effort was mademore difficult by the prejudicial Europeanattitudes of Native peoples as uncivilized,leading to restricted use of hunting grounds,enforced Christianization (Cogley 1999)and forced removal from traditionallyoccupied lands.
B. Native American Archaeological SitesAround the Project Area
Much of the landscape in the vicinity of theLoring-Greenough property has beenseverely impacted by urban development.Nevertheless, evidence of Native Americanoccupation has been found at a number oflocalities in the area. Isolated finds andcollection sites dominate the record here.The greatest concentration of finds is fromthe Arnold Arboretum, due south of theproject area. Nine separate locations dis-turbed by garden cultivation have providednon-diagnostic and diagnostic projectilepoints including Neville-like, ArchaicNotched, Small Stemmed, Orient Fishtail,Meadowwood, Atlantic, Foxcreek lanceo-late, Susquehanna-like and small triangle.A small collection was made in FranklinPark to the east of the project area. To thenorth is a historically documented fish weiron what was once Stoney Brook in JacksonSquare. Finds to the northwest include anisolated ground stone tool on the shore ofJamaica Pond and additional material foundfurther north on the bank of Muddy River.Clear evidence of Native occupation in the
region, thus spans from the early Archaicthrough the contact period. No finds havebeen made in the immediate vicinity of theLoring-Greenough property.
C. Historic Development of Jamaica Plain
Jamaica Plain was originally part of WestRoxbury, founded in 1851 from its parenttown of Roxbury that was established in1630. Fertile fields cleared by NativeAmericans for cultivation were found bythe first settlers and this agricultural tradi-tion characterized the area throughout theeighteenth century. Among the early farmswere the Polley Farm that included thepresent project area and the Bussey Farmthat later became the Arnold Arboretum.Other farms were located in the valleyformed by Stoney Brook. Much of earlyBoston’s fruit and produce was grown inthis area (Pollan et. al. 1983). Close ties toBoston were maintained by the fact that thetwo major thoroughfares that extended westof Boston, Washington and Centre streets,passed through western Roxbury. A schoolwas established at what was to becomeEliot Square in 1689 and this was followedby the establishment of a second parish inthe western portion of the town.
The rural character of the area encouragedthe establishment of large estates bywealthy Bostonians in the mid and latereighteenth centuries. The Loring-Greenough house is the last remainingexample of these (Fig. III-1). During thelater eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-turies settlement expanded from Boston fol-lowing the major thoroughfares ofWashington and Centre Streets. It was notuntil the mid nineteenth century that crossstreets began to be laid out to accommodatethe growing population. The Jamaica PlainAqueduct Company was formed in 1795 to
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construct a water supply between JamaicaPond and Fort Hill. This remained in oper-ation until 1845 when pipes were extendedto Lake Cochituate. Few large-scale indus-tries operated in the area until the arrival ofthe railroad in 1834 that improved trans-portation into Boston and to points southand west. Major industrial growth thatincluded tanneries and breweries followedin the area of Stoney Brook betweenRoxbury Crossing and Forest Hills.Accompanying the industry was an influxof predominantly Irish and German workersthat stimulated a building boom on landcreated from the subdivision of formerfarms and estates.
The western portion of Roxbury split off toform the town of West Roxbury in 1851and the area of Jamaica Plain was includedin the new town. Eliot Square formed thecenter of the town and a town hall was con-
structed immediately south of the Loring-Greenough house in 1868. Many of thetown’s residents worked locally, but anincreasing number commuted into Boston.This trend toward a commuter communitywas strengthened by the arrival of streetcars in the 1870s. Annexation of WestRoxbury to Boston in 1873 placed the areawithin a larger metropolitan context thatbecame a center of population growth dur-ing the late nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies. This growth was supported bysignificant industrial expansion that includ-ed carriage factories, rubber mills, andadditional breweries.
Amid this growth and industry was a pre-vailing concern for green space by some ofthe more wealthy residents. An agriculturalschool and later the Arnold Arboretum wascreated in 1842 and this was followed bythe extensive Forest Hills Cemetery in
Figure III-1: Watercolor view of the Loring-Greenough House ca. 1815-1827 (Detwiller 1998).
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1848. In 1876, land began to be set asidefor one of the largest urban park systemsdesigned by Frederick Law Olmstead.Scenic landscapes, drives and bodies ofwater were included in what was to becomeknown as the Emerald Necklace that wascompleted in the 1890s. Over the course ofthe twentieth century much of the area’sindustry has been replaced by institutionalestablishments associated with schools andhospitals, while small businesses havegrown to service what has become a largeresidential area.
D. Loring-Greenough House History
The present Loring Greenough propertywas originally part of a 288-acre tract ofland in what was then Roxbury granted toJoshua Hewes in 1639. The parcel wasrecorded as lying along the Country Roadto Dedham, today known as Centre andSouth Streets. John Polley purchased a 16-acre parcel from Hewes in 1654 that laterbecame known as the Polley Farm. By1663 South Street was described as “thathighway leading out of Dedham by JohnPolley’s home lot” (Drake 1905:438). Thefarm was enlarged from 16 to 60 acres dur-ing the tenure of Polley’s heirs, JohnWalley and finally Joshua Cheever whopurchased the property in 1745.
1. Loring Occupation 1752-1775
Joshua Loring, the son of Joshua andHannah Loring of Roxbury, followed in hisfather’s footsteps as a tanner, but took tothe sea as the commander of a privateeragainst the French in 1744 (Detwiller1998:4). In 1752, Loring, by then aCommodore, purchased the old PolleyFarm of 60-acres in Jamaica Plain from theheirs of Joshua Cheever. That same year,Loring moved his wife and three children to
the 60-acre farm in the center of theJamaica Plain community along DedhamRoad. During the French and Indian Wars,Joshua Loring was an officer in the RoyalNavy, eventually earning the title“Commodore of the Lakes” for his cam-paigns against the French on Lakes George,Champlain, and Ontario. In the Britishattempt to capture Quebec in 1759-1760,Loring was severely wounded, thus endinghis naval career. Thereafter, he retired tohis country estate in Jamaica Plain. In1760, Loring sold the original Polley farm-house to the First Church, which moved thestructure to the west side of South Street.Loring then constructed the present man-sion on the site of the old farmhouse.
Joshua lived the life of a country gentlemanfor the next fourteen years, living off hispension from the British government aswell as private transactions. Loring alsoowned 23-acres of woodland in Roxbury, 5-acres of salt meadow near Boston Neck,and a small estate near Boston Common.Loring and his family were well respectedwithin the community until he accepted anappointment to the Governor’s Council bywrit of mandamus from Governor ThomasGage in 1774. Such appointments were tra-ditionally filled by local election. Thechange in procedure and acceptance byLoring angered the local community, result-ing in mobbing and mistreatment of himand his family. In August of 1774, Loringleft his estate to seek refuge at either theirsmall estate or their daughter’s house inBoston. According to Mary Loring’s depo-sition, they were “compelled to fly forrefuge to Boston, and put [themselves]under the protection of the King’s troops,from which time until the evacuation of theplace [they] were confined to the town”(Boyd 1959). After a stay of nearly eight-een months, the family was evacuated to
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England with General Howe on March 17,1776. Joshua Loring died in England in1781, and two years later his widow, MaryCurtis, made a claim of indemnity describ-ing the estate as containing “a large well-built house, out houses, coach house, andstables with sixty acres of land.”
2. Revolutionary Period 1775-1784
On May 13, 1775, town selectmen wereinstructed to “take care of the estates of thegentlemen who have left them and gone toBoston” (Boyd 1959). Private SamuelHawes of Wrentham wrote in his diary onMay 30, “Captain Pond’s Company movedinto Commo. Loring’s house.” The proper-ty was officially seized by Colonial troopsin April 1775, and between June 3 and June17, became the headquarters for GeneralNathaniel Greene’s three Rhode IslandRegiments during the siege of Boston.
After the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17,1775), several rooms and outbuildings onthe Loring property were commissioned aspublic stores for the Massachusetts Armystationed in Roxbury. In addition, alter-ations were made to the buildings in orderto make it convenient to “bake all the flourinto bread sufficient for the wholeMassachusetts Army stationed at Roxbury”and to build ovens in the buildings for sucha purpose (Byod 1959).
On June 23, 1775, the Loring House wasappointed “a hospital for the camp inRoxbury,” treating wounded soldiers fromthe Battle of Bunker Hill. The ProvincialCongress of Watertown recorded that thehouse chosen to provide a hospital for thecamp was that of Joshua Loring. Some ofthe unfortunate soldiers who died from theBattle of Bunker Hill were buried “justback of the house” where their graves were
discovered by construction activities in1867 (Drake 1905:415). These may be thesame graves reported to be those of small-pox victims located between Everett andElm Streets. These remains were reinterredin the old Walter Street burial ground that isnow part of the Arnold Arboretum in 1867(Anderson et. al. 1956).
Following the Siege of Boston, the Loringhouse was leased by the town Selectmen tothe Hon. William Phillips, who laterbecame Governor Phillips. In 1779, “Inaccordance with the act of the GeneralCourt of April 30, 1779, to confiscate theestates of ‘notorious conspirators,’ Loring’slarge mansion house, convenient out-hous-es, [and] gardens planted with fruit trees”were officially confiscated by theProvincial Legislature’s Committee onAbsentee Estates. Ownership of the prop-erty reverted to the state, resulting in itssale at auction to Isaac Sears. In 1783, theproperty was transferred to Pascal Smithwho, the next year, sold it to Anne HoughDoane, a wealthy widow.
3. Greenough Occupation: 1784-1924
David Stoddard Greenough A prominentBoston lawyer and Anne Doane were mar-ried the same year that she purchased theold Loring estate. In addition to his lawpractice, Greenough was one of the “Sonsof Liberty” and served on the Committee ofSafety under George Washington.Although Anne Doane died in 1802, theestate remained in the Greenough familyfor another four generations.
It was during the nineteenth century tenureof the Greenoughs that major changes weremade to the property. The Carriage Houseell was added to the main house in 1811,dated by an inscription on the timber fram-
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ing for the roof that reads “B. 1811”(Detwiller 1998) Other changes focused onthe porches. Noted Boston architectCharles Bulfinch is attributed with design-ing the west doorway porch, but more like-ly designed the Federal Period north entryportico and doorway with sidelights. Theoriginal north entry doorway and pedimentwas, at some time, relocated to the house’swest side.
The death of David Stoddard Greenough,Esquire, in 1826 may have led to additionalimprovements throughout the main houseand possibly other modifications elsewhereby David S. Greenough, Jr. Examples ofsuch changes include the six-over-sixFederal Period window sashes and thedesign of the North portico and doorway.After the death of David S. Greenough, Jr.in 1830, subdivision of the property byDavid S. Greenough III and other heirsbegan in order to distribute the inheritance.In 1838, the heirs subdivided and devel-oped a large part of the acreage into houselots, including the area known as SumnerHill (Detwiller 1998).
Further improvements made to the old man-sion may have been prompted by the mar-riage of David S. Greenough III to AnnaParkman in 1843. The west side porch withIonic detailing that survived into the twenti-eth century was likely built between the1840’s and 1860’s. During the late 1840’s,as the family grew with the birth of DavidGreenough IV, the estate was divided fur-ther by the extensions of Roanoke Avenueand Elm Street. In 1853, Sumner andGreenough Avenues further reduced thesize of the property (Figs. III-2 and III-3).Additional changes occurred when the fam-ily of David S. Greenough IV, who hadbeen living in another house on Greenoughland nearby, moved into the Loring-
Greenough House in l907. Changes at thistime were primarily internal, consisting ofinstallation of central heating and the addi-tion of a bathroom. In 1924, the death ofDavid Greenough IV led to the sale of thehouse and two acres by his son, DavidGreenough V to a group of local business-men to be demolished for development(Detwiller 1998).
4. Jamaica Plain Tuesday ClubOccupation: 1926-present
Although the Loring-Greenough propertyhad been acquired for investment purposes,members of the Tuesday Club initiatedplans for the purchase of the house in lateJune of 1924. Preservation of the houseand grounds was a primary goal since thehouse was considered “a rare specimen ofColonial architecture” (Anderson et. al.1956). The property was finally purchasedin 1926 and has served as the headquartersfor the Tuesday Club ever since. A stipula-tion of the purchase agreement requiredmaintenance and restoration of the house.The need to raise funds for such repairsprompted the transformation of the secondfloor of the carriage house in May of 1925into a tearoom that was open to the public.This space also served as an antique shop toprovide additional income. In 1937 thehouse and grounds were formally docu-mented by the Historic American BuildingsSurvey (HABS).
Improvements made to the property by theTuesday Club include the reconstruction ofthe fence around the property, maintenanceof plantings in garden beds and occasionalreplacement of trees. A program of struc-tural and roofing repairs was initiated in the1970’s and continued into the 1980’s underthe guidance of the Society for thePreservation of New England Antiquities(SPNEA).
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Figure III-2: Plan of Loring-Greenough property in 1853 (Norfolk Registry of Deeds)(Detwiller 1998).
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E. Archaeological Potential of theLoring-Greenough House Property
The Loring-Greenough property is listed onthe National and State registers of HistoricPlaces and has been nominated for locallandmark status. The property consists ofnearly two acres in the historic center ofJamaica Plain, adjacent to two NationalRegister Historic Neighborhoods and closeto the Arnold Arboretum and Jamaica Pond,part of Boston’s Emerald Necklace.
No evidence of Native American occupa-tion of the property was found prior to theNorth Lawn investigation. The site’s loca-tion on well-drained upland not far fromstreams and wetlands, however, suggestedthe potential for such presence. NineNative sites spanning in time between 8000and 400 B.P. have been identified in theArnold Arboretum only 500 m southwest ofthe property. Additionally, extensive wet-lands associated with Muddy River (area ofJamaica Pond) lie approximately 600 m tothe northwest. Even partially disturbed
Native resources in this area may retainresearch significance.
The Loring-Greenough property clearlypossesses high potential for historic archae-ological resources. The yard surroundingthe house is likely to contain remains thatcould increase our understanding of 1) aseventeenth to early eighteenth centuryfarmstead (Polley Farm), 2) an eighteenth-century country estate (Loring family), 3)Revolutionary War hospitals, commissaries,bakeries, and arsenals, and 4) late eigh-teenth and nineteenth-century domestic lifeand farming practices (Greenough family).In addition to its extant structures, the par-cel may retain evidence of the 1807 coachhouse, (on the site of the present tenniscourt), the 1807 mill house, the 1796 barn,and other early out buildings. Given thedocumented presence of eighteenth centurygardens, the property may also retain dataimportant to early gardening practices anddesign.
Figure III-3: The Loring-Greenough property as depicted by Hopkins Insurance Co. in1874 (Detwiller 1998).
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IV. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
Initial archaeological investigations wereconducted on the property during the sum-mer and fall of 1999 (Fig. IV-1). A long-term management plan developed by theJPTC called for several improvements thathad the potential to negatively impactburied cultural resources. These included1) installation of a walkway from the southentrance to the gate on the western edge ofthe property, 2) replacement of the westentrance porch and addition of porch stairs,3) the replacement of timber joists in thesouth carriage house wall, 4) the replace-ment of the stone foundation supporting theeast carriage house wall, and 5) the gradingof the area along the north carriage housefaçade.
A. Proposed South Entrance Walkway
The area of the proposed walkway was test-ed with a series of ten shovel test pits andtwo excavation units to identify earlierwalks that may have been in this area andoriginal footings for the south porch. Adeposit of A-horizon fill was found to over-lie a 20 cm-thick walkway defined by yel-low-brown silty sand oriented in an east-west direction. The walk lay directly on thesurface of a buried A-horizon.
B. Proposed West Entrance Porch and Stairs
The west entrance was tested with twoexcavation units located where proposedfooters were to be constructed for porchsupport. A single shovel test was alsoplaced between these immediately belowthe porch. Revealed here were two sets ofporch footings, one from the 1826 porchand another from the 1850 porch.
C. Carriage House South Wall Joists
Four excavation units were used to test thisarea. Two were situated around a stonejoist foundation, while the other two weretrenches that stretched from the exterior tointerior of the structure in the middle ofboth entry ways. Both units around thejoist stones revealed builders trenches forthe stones and sand bedding, presumablyassociated with use of the structure. In thetrenches were various layers of fill over abrick walk at 60 cmbs. The walk predatedthe 1811 carriage house. Below this was atrash deposit with eighteenth century arti-facts.
D. Carriage House East Wall Foundation
The south portion of the east wall founda-tion was tested with three trenches. Two ofthese were adjacent to the interior and exte-rior foundation, while the third extendedeastward from the outside wall. These unitsrevealed various layers of disturbed fill,builders trenches associated with the car-riage house construction and trash depositsdating to the eighteenth century and extend-ing to a depth of 85 cmbs to 1 mbs. A layerof cobbles observed at 85 cmbs may repre-sent an early walk or floor.
E. Carriage House North Wall
A series of three shovel tests were placedalong the exterior of the north wall of thecarriage house and kitchen. These revealeda deep buried A-horizon and little evidenceof disturbance.
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Figure IV-1: Archaeological testing locations from the 1999 site examination.
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F. Summary
The previous investigations succeeded inidentifying archaeological deposits consist-ing of buried yard surfaces and intact archi-tectural and other features associated withthe eighteenth- and nineteenth-centuryoccupation of the property. In addition, asignificant degree of landscape change isevidenced by as much as a meter of mixedfill at the east end of the carriage house,suggesting that the yard was originallymuch lower here (unless the disturbeddeposits were in an unidentified cellar fea-ture). Landscaping fill was found to havebeen placed over much of the ground sur-face on the west and south sides of thehouse.
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V. ARCHAEOLOGICALSITEEXAMINATION
A. Research Design
The Loring-Greenough House property,consisting of the eighteenth-century man-sion, nineteenth century carriage house andgardens is the only surviving example of acolonial country estate in the Jamaica Plainneighborhood of Boston. The house is aMassachusetts Historic Landmark becauseof its historical connections to the AmericanRevolution and its exemplification ofColonial architecture. This status impliesthat any subsurface cultural remains areconsidered significant due to their potentialto contribute data to the prehistoric and his-toric interpretation of the property. The pri-mary goal of the site examination was todetermine whether extant garden featureswere historically significant and thereforeworthy of inclusion in proposed gardenrestoration efforts.
By the 18th century, gardens had taken on adual function that combined utilitarianneeds with an increasingly popular colonialaesthetic that favored the creation of visual-ly appealing landscapes. Over time thearrangement of plantings within the utilitar-ian vegetable garden were combined withfruit trees and shrubs to create spaces thatwere not only functional, but were also aes-thetically pleasing. Thus, the concept ofthe garden was transformed from a place ofwork to a place of recreation and beauty.Because it was the wealthy who maintainedthe means of creating and maintaining suchspaces, gardens became synonymous withthe image of the colonial gentleman andcame to serve, in addition to the estatehouse, as a symbol of one’s wealth and sta-tus (Yentsch 1996). The 1779 descriptionof Joshua Loring’s property includes men-tion of gardens and fruit trees. AlthoughLoring was an individual of high reputewith a distinguished military career, it is notknown if he conformed to popular upperclass taste by maintaining a formal garden.The popularity of the garden with its
romantic associations and its connection toa purer perception of the past (Beaudry1996:3) extended the appreciation of gar-dens through the nineteenth century, imply-ing that the Greenough family, too, mighthave maintained a formal garden space onthe property similar to that known to havebeen present at the Longfellow House inCambridge (Pendery 2002, 2003). Thecontinued popularity of decorative gardensin the twentieth century (Binzen and Kelley2000, Binzen et. al. 2002) suggests that thegeometrically arranged garden depicted onthe 1937 HABS plan, in fact, may havebeen constructed more recently.
Archaeology has become a valuable tool inthe identification and eventual restorationof early gardens (Kelso, 1990; Leone 1984,1988; Yentsch 1994). A multidisciplinaryapproach to landscape design that combinesnon-destructive remote sensing techniquesalong with documentary research to gener-ate both emic and etic perspectives, carefulexcavation and soil analysis and detailedmapping of extant vegetation is now con-sidered standard for such projects (Methenyet. al. 1999; Yentsch 1994). The investiga-tion of the Loring-Greenough House NorthYard is limited in scope and, therefore, isreliant upon careful observation of strati-graphic sequences and features. Thearchaeological identification of gardenrelated features is contingent upon the pres-ence of specific indicators. These caninclude differences in soil type, texture andelevation across the site, borders that areindicated by soil differences, the presenceof walkways or edging that may appear aslinear arrangements of post holes, bricks orother border materials as well as indicationsof specific plant locations. Plant locationsare generally defined by depressions orholes that have been backfilled with soilthat can be differentiated from surroundingmatrix due to obvious or subtle alterationsin soil color, texture and composition.Occasionally artifacts are incorporated intothe back fill of planting holes that also aidin identification and dating.
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1. Parallel Planting Beds and Walk
A pair of parallel planting beds lies oneither side of a grass-covered walkway thatextends from the main house northward toGreenough Street (Fig. V-1). The walkwayis believed to be associated with the eigh-teenth century occupation of the property,leaving a question as to the age of the bedson its borders. Testing of these featureswas carried out by excavation of a series offour contiguous 1 m x 1 m units placedacross the beds and walk (Fig. V-2). Theunits were located at the south end of thebeds closest to the house to provide bothplan and profile views that allowed assess-ment of the relationship between the walkand beds as well as temporal and spatialcharacteristics of the beds themselves.Assisting this analysis were observations ofbed location, size and depth, as well as soilcomposition, texture and the nature ofplanting features. Since the original align-ment of the walk and beds was also inquestion, a .5 m wide trench extending 4 min length was placed across the northern-portion of the beds and walk. This allowedsimilarities between the north and southends of the beds to be observed. This strat-egy also provided an opportunity to viewpotential differences in walk construction.
2. Herb Garden
A small, raised herb bed is located approxi-mately 5 m north of the junction between
B. Scope of Work
A major component of the landscaperestoration is the reconstruction of gardenplantings that include trees, shrubs and pre-pared beds. The most comprehensivedepiction of garden plantings was made in1937 when the property was documentedby the HABS (see Fig. 2). The north yardof the house was shown to contain a seriesof isolated garden plots that were geometri-cally arranged within four footpaths orwalks that frame much of the yard area.Only a few of these features have beenmaintained to the present. Of particularinterest for garden reconstruction efforts isthe age of garden features depicted in the1937 plan. Landscaping by the TuesdayClub is known to have occurred after 1926,but the extent of this work as depicted onthe 1937 plan is unknown. In addition, it isunclear what, if any effort was made at thattime to maintain garden features dating tothe nineteenth or even eighteenth centuries.A program of limited archaeological testingwas requested by the Tuesday Club toexamine three separate garden beds in anattempt to discern their borders and approx-imate ages as well as internal characteristicsthat would benefit reconstruction efforts.Due to funding limitations, the present gar-den restoration plan does not call for adetailed recreation of an historic garden,but rather the establishment of beds andplantings that are historically appropriateand that do not require a high level ofmaintenance (Shari Page Berg, personalcommunication). Thus, the proposedarchaeological investigation in the garden islimited in scope and a more accurate recon-struction in conjunction with detailedarchaeological investigations is planned forthe future.
C. Field Methodology
Three extant planting beds were the focusof archaeological investigations in the northyard. Each of these is discussed separatelybelow.
Figure V-1: Photograph of the northentrance walkway and parallel garden bedsca. 1900 (Detwiller 1998).
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Figure V-2: North Yard site examination unit locations (adapted from Due North LandSurveying property map 2002).
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the main house and east ell. This bed is notdepicted on the 1937 HABS plan of theproperty (see Fig. V-2) and therefore mayrepresent a more recent creation. Of partic-ular interest in considering the possiblereconstruction of this bed, is whether a sim-ilar garden was located in this area prior tothe early twentieth century. A series of four50 cm x 1 m contiguous excavation unitswere placed across the present herb bed toidentify possible changes to the bed’sboundaries and to search for evidence ofearlier beds at this same location. Althoughit was stipulated that the 50 cm-wide unitscould be expanded into 1 m x 1 m units toprovide a clearer plan view of plantingholes or other features, this was not neces-sary as evidence of these was not found.
3. Irregular Planting Bed Adjacent toGreenough Avenue
An irregularly-shaped planting bed ispresently located on the north edge of theproperty adjacent to the fence borderingGreenough Avenue (see Fig. V-2). This bedis not specifically identifiable on the 1937HABS plan, and may have been an areaplanted with shrubs and trees. The presentbed lies immediately north of a group ofgeometrically-shaped beds (no longer inexistence) that are clearly depicted on theplan. The area of geometric beds maintainsunique potential for a thorough archaeologi-cal study of planting bed history on theproperty and this area, therefore, was notincluded in the present investigation. Sincethere are no immediate plans to alter theconfiguration of the existing irregular bed,this area was tested with a single 1 m x 1 mexcavation unit to assess changes to thebed’s boundaries as well as its approximateage.
Archaeological excavation proceeded in 10cm arbitrary levels within stratigraphic lay-ers to natural, sterile subsoil and all soilwas screened through 1/4 in mesh hardware
cloth. All cultural materials were collectedand placed in labeled self-sealing plasticbags and processed following standardarchaeological laboratory procedures.Work was conducted in compliance withSection 27C of Chapter 9 of MassachusettsGeneral Laws and according to the regula-tions outlined in 950 CMR 70.00.
D. Site Examination Results
A total of five 1 m x 1 m units and eight 50cm x 1 m units were completed during thesite examination to investigate the ParallelBeds, Herb Garden and one of the IrregularBeds (Table I). The natural soil profile atthe site consists of a dark medium brownmedium sandy or clay loam A-horizonoverlying an orangy-brown to yellow-brown clay loam with a trace of mediumsand. The C-horizon consists of yellow-brown fine silty sand that grades to a coarsesand. No direct evidence of plowing in theform of plow scars or a well-defined plowzone was observed in any of the units.
1. Parallel Planting Beds
a. South End
Four contiguous 1 m x 1 m units wereplaced at the south end of the parallel gar-den beds and were located 12 m north ofthe house and 3.50 m north of the south endof the beds. These units stretched frombeyond the east edge of the east bed (EU1), westward across the bed (EU 2) andacross most of the grass-covered walkbetween the beds (EU 3 and 4) (see Fig. V-2). All four units were excavated togetherto provide a plan view of garden bed andwalkway borders as well as of potential fea-tures.
The A-horizon consisted of two episodes inthe east and three in the west. An A1-hori-zon was composed of a dark brown medi-um sandy loam that was little differentiatedfrom the soil within the garden bed.
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Artifacts were mixed and ranged from amodern plastic cellophane candy wrapper tonineteenth-century (whiteware, yellowware, ironstone, redware) and eighteenth-century (porcelain, redware, tin glaze enam-el, Nottingham stoneware (1700-1810))ceramics, bottle glass and architecturalrefuse including nails and brick fragments(Appendix A).
This horizon overlayed several layers ofcoal ash and sand used for walkway bed-ding between the parallel beds (Fig. V-3).The topmost layer of the walkway consistedof 2 cm. of coal ash and clinker. Belowthis were 4 cm of hard-packed dark medi-um-brown coarse sandy loam. The nextlayer consisted of 6-8 cm of dark medium-brown coarse sand and gravel in a loammatrix. This overlay another layer of hard-packed dark medium-brown coarse sandyloam that, in turn, was on top of a thin lensof coarse sand and gravel in a dark medi-um-brown loam matrix. The only artifactsassociated with these lenses were an assort-ment of burned nails (4 wrought, 11 cut, 6wire) that derived from the uppermost layerof coal ash.
Below the walkway bedding and below thegarden bed was a buried A2-horizon extend-ing to approximately 35 cm below surface(cmbs) that was slightly more compact thanthe A1-horizon above. The surface of thislayer was slightly disturbed by digging atthe base of the modern planting bed andtwo well-defined planting holes extended 2-3 cm into the buried A-horizon. Artifactsfrom the A2-horizon revealed less mixtureand included bone fragments, oyster shell,bottle glass, a glass goblet bowl fragmentwith cut facets, nails and ceramics consist-ing of transfer printed whiteware, pearl-ware, creamware, porcelain, redware,Nottingham stoneware and Astbury ware(1725-1750). Below 4-5 cm of mottledtransition that contained 4 secondary argel-lite flakes, was an orangy-brown clay loamB-horizon that extended below 65 cmbs.The surface of this layer revealed a numberof small, round, oval and irregularly-shapedfeatures filled with dark or medium brownloam (Fig. V-4). Excavation of the loamysoil from these revealed them to extendonly 4-6 cm in depth. None contained arti-facts with the exception of a small oxidized
Figure V-3: South wall profile of Units 1-4 at the south end of the Parallel Beds.
Table 1. Completed Excavation Units.Location No. of Units Unit DimensionsN. Yard-Parallel Beds 4 contiguous 1 m x 1 m N. Yard-Parallel Beds 4 contiguous 50 cm. x 1 m N. Yard-Herb Garden 4 contiguous 50 cm. x 1 m N. Yard-Irregular Bed 1 isolated 1 m x 1 m
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fragmented window glass and ceramics thatincluded transfer printed whiteware, red-ware, porcelain pearlware, recent bottleglass and brick and nail fragments. Thelower A2 contained only three fragments ofa badly burned whiteware bowl. Five lay-ers of walkway fill were present in thishorizon and consisted of coal ash over athin sandy loam that overlay a thick depositof coarse sand and gravel. Below this washard packed sandy loam over a medium-brown coarse sand and gravel that satdirectly on the surface of the underlyingburied A-horizon (Fig. V-5). The darkmedium-brown clay loam that made up theburied A-horizon was encountered approxi-mately 35 cmbs and contained the greatestquantity of eighteenth- and early nine-teenth-century cultural material. Includedhere were fragments of German stoneware,Chinese export porcelain, tinglazed ware,
iron fragment. The quantity of culturalmaterial in the B-horizon, in general,dropped off considerably with none foundbelow 50 cmbs. Present in the upper B-horizon were fragments of window glass,redware, a nail and 1 argellite secondaryflake.
b. North End
A 50 cm-wide, 4 m-long trench was placedtoward the north end of the parallel beds(28 m north of the house). The trench wasdivided into an east (EU 8) and west (EU 9)half and spanned from the west edge of theeast bed, across the center median andacross the west bed. The soil profile hereclosely resembled that at the south end.Two dark brown, medium sandy loam A-horizon fill soils were present at the top, thelower of which contained some gravel. Theupper A1 contained a cuprous button and
Figure V-4: Plan of units 1-4 at 46 cmbs showing planting holes in the B-horizon surface.
Figure V-5: South wall profile of Units 5 and 6 at the north end of the Parallel Beds.
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creamware, pearlware, redware, transferprinted whiteware, wine bottle glass, win-dow glass, brick and cut and wrought nails.The B-horizon consisted of a yellow brownsilty clay loam and only the upper 3 to 4cm contained cultural material, all of whichis firmly associated with the eighteenth cen-tury. This included fragments of a whitesalt glazed stoneware plate (1740-1775),regular and deeper yellow creamware(1762-1780), a possible redware plantingpot, window glass and nails. Three claytobacco pipe stems and an oyster shell werealso present.
2. Irregular Planting Bed adjacent toGreenough Avenue
The Irregular Planting Bed that lies adja-cent to Greenough Avenue was tested witha single 1 m x 1 m unit (EU 5) that waslocated on the bed’s south border (see Fig.V-2). The northwest half of the unit laywithin the bed, while its southeast halfextended beyond the bed boundary. Theunit was oriented cardinally, 12 m south ofthe north property fence line and 17.30 mwest of the east fence line. The uppermostA1-horizon consisted of a dark brown finesandy loam that was present both withinand outside of the bed. This layer was 20cm thick within the bed, and slightly thin-
ner in the yard (Fig. V-6). Cultural materialfrom this layer included modern bottle glassand tarpaper as well as a few small frag-ments of wine bottle glass, redware, pearl-ware, whiteware ceramics and cut nails. Asudden increase in gravel marked the lowerA2-horizon that consisted of a dark medi-um-brown sandy clay loam. This layerextended to a depth of approximately 40cmbs and contained a similar assortment offragmented artifacts including coal slag andcalcined bone fragments. The surface ofthe underlying B-horizon was poorlydefined and consisted of a yellow-brownmedium sandy clay loam with coarse sandand gravel. Artifacts here were similar tothose above with bottle glass, brick andmortar fragments, calcined bone and ceram-ics that included whiteware, yellow wareand ironstone (1842-1930) fragments. Asingle small, rounded feature was identifiedin the southwest corner just below the sur-face of the B-horizon at 45 cmbs. Thiscontained soil similar to the A2-horizonwith a few fragments of redware, calcinedbone and a wrought nail. The featureextended to a depth of 70 cmbs.
3. Herb Bed
The herb bed was constructed of 2 in x 6 inplanks laid on their sides that created anabove-ground border for approximately 10cm of planting loam. A 50 cm x 2 m trenchplaced across the north portion of the bedwas oriented on an east-west axis 6.60 mnorth of the house wall. The extreme endsof the trench fell just outside the east andwest ends of the bed (see Fig. V-2). Thetrench was divided into east (EU 6) andwest (EU 7) halves. Removal of the herbbed fill revealed gardening-related distur-bance of the underlying former ground sur-face. The present A1-horizon representingthat for the north lawn in general, consistedof a dark brown coarse sandy loam with a
Figure V-6: East wall profile of Unit 5 inthe Irregular Planting Bed.
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considerable amount of waterworn gravel(Fig. V-7). Cultural material from thisincluded recent bottle glass, a plastic wrap-per, cut nails, a complete pair of scissors,and a fragment of creamware and Cantonporcelain (1800-1830). The A2-horizonconsisted of a 14 cm-thick deposit of medi-um brown coarse sand and gravel mixedwith some dark medium brown loam. Thisfill layer was deposited directly on the sur-face of a buried A-horizon. The sand andgravel contained a low density of artifactsfrom the eighteenth through twentieth cen-turies some of which likely derived fromthe overlying fill and from the earlier sur-face below. The more recent objectsinclude a foil wrapper, wire nail and bottleglass. Coal, cut nails and whiteware andredware are representative of the nineteenthcentury. Earlier material includes pearl-ware, creamware, redware and a tobaccopipe stem.
The underlying buried A-horizon wasencountered at a depth of 30 cmbs and con-sisted of a dark brown to dark mediumbrown sandy loam with charcoal flecks anda high density of cultural material. Highlyfragmented ceramics (n=2032) made up themajority of objects and included plain andslip decorated redware (bowls, pans, jars,jug), white salt glazed stoneware (plate and
saucer), German stoneware, Nottinghamstoneware (tankard) tin glazed ware,Astbury ware (teapot) (1725-1750),Chinese export porcelain (tea bowls andsaucers) including Batavian (tea bowl)(1740-1780), deeper yellow and lighter yel-low creamware (plates, bowls), and shelledged pearlware (plates) and mocha deco-rated pearlware (bowls, pitcher). Pieces ofwine bottles and other glassware (n=186),animal bone and shell (n=110), tobaccopipe fragments, architectural debris includ-ing brick, nails and window glass (n=162),as well as 1 primary and 3 secondary argel-lite flakes were also present. Eleven out ofa total of nineteen tobacco pipe stemsrevealed a bore diameter of 5/64ths sug-gesting a manufacture range between 1710and 1750 (Hume 1972). The buried A-hori-zon was 40 cm to 45 cm in thickness andoverlay a yellow-brown silty clay loam B-horizon. The surface of the B-horizon wasslightly undulating and only a single frag-ment of window glass derived from thislayer.
Figure V-7: South wall profile of Units 6 and 7 under the Herb Bed.
26
VI. INTERPRETATIONS AND DISCUSSION
A. Garden Walk and Parallel Beds
The location of garden paths is one of themost common archaeological contributionsto garden investigations. Not only theplacement, but also changes in location andin construction materials often promotediachronic inperpretations of garden devel-opment. Major alterations have been foundto be closely linked to changes in house-hold composition and familial events.
The walkway located between the parallelbeds (Fig. VI-1) was clearly defined by aseries of superimposed lenses of bedding.The original walk was demarcated by amedium- brown coarse sand and gravel thatwas laid down on the original yard surface(buried A-horizon). The presence of a frag-ment of transfer printed whiteware in theupper portion of the buried A-horizon andwhiteware, yellow ware and ironstone inthe overlying fill suggests the walk was
first created in the early nineteenth century.Natural erosion of the walk and tramplingresulted in the formation of a hard-packedlens of sandy loam over the original sandlayer. The walk was redefined by a new,thick layer of coarse sand and gravel, possi-bly between the 1840s and 1860s, and itmay have been at this time that the plantingbed borders were added. Fill associatedwith bed creation abutted the walk, and asbefore, slowly mixed with the surface ofthe walk to form a hard-packed sandy loam.The walk was redefined a final time by thespreading of a layer of coal ash down itslength. The laying down of this ash layervery likely corresponded with a period ofrepair to the house since mixed in the coalash were modern wire nails as well as cutand wrought examples. This assortmentthat included cut lath nails likely resultedfrom the burning of construction/demolitiondebris on site or from the accidental burn-ing of an outbuilding. This latter interpreta-tion is supported by three fragments of abadly burned whiteware bowl, the only
Figure V-1: North walkway as it appeared in 1937. View facing north from the house(HABS) (Detwiller 1998).
27
items found in association with the walk inthe north units.
The laying down of the final ash layer inthe very late nineteenth or more likely earlytwentieth century corresponds with thereestablishment of the parallel garden bedsthat actually cut into the outer edges of alllayers of the walkway (see Fig. V-3).Sometime after 1937 a layer of loam wasspread over the walk, possibly to discour-age use since by this time the main entranceto the house was on its south side. Thisaction widened the space that had containedthe walk by covering over the inner edgesof the parallel beds, and in turn narrowedthe total width of the beds. The trench atthe north end of the beds revealed the origi-nal walk width to be approximately onemeter. Over time the walk narrowed toapproximately 70 cm before its final loamcapping (Fig. VI-2).
B. Planting Holes Below Walkway
The shallow depressions identified at thesurface of the B-1 horizon at the south endof the parallel beds were clearly defined bytheir dark brown loamy fill. A distinct uni-
formity in size and shape as well as theirstratigraphic location identified these as thebottom portions of small planting holes.The only object of cultural material foundfrom the fill was a small piece of oxidizediron, possibly a nail fragment. The depres-sions in the two western units generally fol-low a NW to SE orientation with a separatecluster in the two eastern units. The loca-tion of these well below the garden walk-way and below the buried A-horizon sug-gests they are associated with the eigh-teenth or even seventeenth century occupa-tion of the property.
C. Irregular Bed
The Irregular Bed revealed a slightly differ-ent stratigraphic profile than that observedin the other areas of the site. The A1-hori-zon appears to be a twentieth century yardand garden fill that was deposited on top ofthe A2-horizon. The A2-horizon was gravel-ly and contained a mixture of artifacts. Theunderlying B-horizon was disturbed andcontained a mixed range of artifacts atypi-cal of that layer in other parts of the proper-ty. The absence of a well-developed buriedA-horizon here and disturbed B-horizon
Figure VI-2: Comparison of the north walkway as it appeared in profile at its south end(upper) and north end (lower).
28
suggests several possible interpretations.This area may be heavily disturbed fromintensive gardening activities including treeand shrub planting. Such is suggested bythe mixed soils and the presence of burnedbone fragments that may have derived frombonemeal used as fertilizer. This area mayalso have been a borrow pit or may havebeen the site for a structure that requiredground leveling prior to construction.There is no evidence that this was a low-lying area such as for a pond since noorganic accumulation is present.
D. Herb Bed
The Herb Bed is clearly of recent, twentieth-century origin given the fact that it wasconstructed of modern materials and wasfilled with dark brown planting loam.Correspondence with Katharine Cipollarevealed the bed was, in fact, constructedby Jean Sullivan between 1989 and 1994.Planting activities disturbed the layer ofdark loam yard soil that lay below andcaused some mixing of the two soils. Nofurther evidence of gardening activities wasfound in this area, and although plantingholes were identified in the surface of theB-horizon at the south end of the parallelbeds, no such features were apparent in theB-horizon below the Herb Bed.
Observation of the soil stratigraphy at thislocality, however, was extremely beneficialin contributing to the general interpretationof historic yard use. The 40 cm thicknessof the Buried A-horizon and the high quan-tity of artifacts it contained point out thatthis was an activity area where a certainamount of refuse was allowed to accumu-late, but this was also an area of heavy foottraffic revealed by the heavily fragmentedcondition of the ceramics and glassware.The thickness of the A-horizon here is not
surprising, due to the close proximity to thehouse and kitchen where refuse was dis-carded and where organic debris wouldhave contributed to soil formation. It isworth noting that the large number of frag-mented tea wares found in this area isindicative of the upper status of the Loringand Greenough families. Sometime in theearly nineteenth century a sand and gravelwalkway was laid down across this areaand remained in use until as least 1937when a path was formally recorded to bepresent in this area.
E. Native American Occupation
Excavation in the area of the Parallel Bedsand Herb Bed revealed evidence of NativeAmerican occupation in the form ofchipped stone debitage. Gray argellite sec-ondary flakes were found in the disturbedA-horizon (N=1), the transition between theA- and B- horizons (N=4) and in the upperB-horizon (N=1). In the buried A-horizonunder the Herb Bed were 1 primary flakeand 3 secondary flakes. The presence ofthese flakes, whether used as tools them-selves or representing the byproducts ofstone tool manufacture provides conclusiveevidence of Native American presence inthe site area. The period of occupation isunknown due to the absence of diagnosticartifacts such as projectile points or date-able features.
Summary
The eighteenth and possibly the seventeenthcentury occupation of the property is asso-ciated with a deep layer of yard loam thatlies between 30 cm and 35 cm below thepresent yard surface. Evidence of garden-ing for this period is represented by theseries of small planting holes identifiedunder the south end of the north walk.
29
Coarse sand and gravel walkways were laiddown on top of the original yard surface toprovide formal access to the north entrance(in the area of the Parallel Beds), the westand/or south entrance, and in the north yardparallel to the carriage house (under theHerb Bed). The similarity in sand andgravel composition, in underlying and asso-ciated artifacts, and in their stratigraphiclocation lying on the original yard surfacesuggests that these were laid down at thesame time in the early nineteenth century.These were likely associated with construc-tion of the carriage house in 1811 or withother changes made to the house after 1826.The location of these paths remains thesame for approximately one hundred yearsbased on the 1937 HABS plan. The place-ment of the Herb Bed walk parallel to the1811 Carriage House suggests that thisstructure was in place at the time the walkwas created, further supporting the earlynineteenth century date.
The walks remained in use for a period oftime as evidenced by repeated maintenanceof the north walk. The fact that the walkunder the Herb Bed consists of a singlethick layer may indicate that this portion ofthe walk was little used and, therefore,required little maintenance, while the northwalk was heavily used and required newbedding due to erosion by foot traffic andmixing with adjacent loamy soil. The lay-ing down of the walks signaled the generalcessation of refuse disposal in the northyard since very little material dating to thelast three quarters of the nineteenth centurywas present in the excavations.
Sometime between the 1840s and 1860smuch of the yard was relandscaped with alayer of loam fill. This is represented bythe A2-horizon at the north end of the north
walk and the A1-horizon at its south end.This soil was not spread as far south as theHerb Bed area, but was placed in the areaof the Irregular Beds represented by the A2
horizon there. The addition of this soil mayhave levelled the yard and at the same timeprovided new bedding for the creation ofthe formal garden and parallel beds. Thislandscaping corresponded with improve-ments made to the house that included apossible shift of the formal entrance to thewest side of the house, thus transformingthe north yard into a more private space.
The garden and walks were maintainedthrough the remainder of the nineteenthcentury. By the time of the HABS docu-mentation, the geometrically-arranged gar-den may have been in disrepair as evi-denced by the dotted garden outlines on theHABS plan. It is clear from photos takenduring the documentation that the portionof the north yard associated with the northwalk and the west yard were landscapedwith a wide assortment of flowers, shrubsand trees. Maintenance of the gardens andwalks may have been considered too great,however, for sometime after 1937, 15 cm to20 cm of loam fill was spread across muchof the yard and specifically over the walk-ways. The irregular beds along the northborder of the property may have been creat-ed at this time and the borders of the paral-lel beds shifted slightly to accommodate thewider space that now covered the northentrance walk. The covering of the walksimplies a shift in focus to the west and/orsouth sides of the house.
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VII. RECOMMENDATIONS
The proposed rehabilitation of the NorthYard calls for seven changes to the area(Figs. VII-1; VII-2). Each of these is listedbelow along with comments regarding thepotential for subsurface disturbance thateach presents.
1) Rehabilitate perennial (parallel) bedswith rose arbors (Fig. VII-2:9).Garden beds were found to have been pres-ent at this location since the early to midnineteenth century and were even main-tained when the yard was landscaped in theearly twentieth century. The planting ofshallow-rooted rose bushes in these beds isnot likely to have an impact on the well-preserved buried A-horizon that is presentapproximately 40 cm (16 in) below thepresent ground surface as long as precau-tions are taken to prevent planting belowthis depth. Construction of the rose arbor,however, will impact potentially importantsediments since support posts need toextend below the frost line. Holes for thenew posts should be archaeologically exca-vated in the form of shovel test pits to miti-gate negative affects on potentially impor-tant archaeological deposits in this area.
2) Place a bench at the north end of theperennial beds (Fig. VII-2:10).No subsurface impacts are expected here.
3) Replace existing chain link fence withnew chain link (Fig. VII-2:11).
No subsurface impacts are expected here,especially if existing posts or post locationsare used.
4) Remove overgrown vegetation fromirregular bed along Greenough Ave (Fig.VII-2:12).This work requires the removal of root ballsfrom lilacs and other shrubs. This area isparticularly sensitive since some portions ofthe geometric garden bed may be locatedhere. One of the early nineteenth centurygarden paths should pass through this areaas well. Since significant disturbance mayresult from the removal of plantings, addi-tional archaeological testing is recommend-ed for this area to identify the location ofthe garden path and to search for evidenceof the formal garden. Up to four 1m x 1mexcavation units are recommended for thisarea.
5) Restore fruit tree plantings (Fig. VII-2:13).The restoration plan calls for the removal ofsome existing trees and the planting oftwelve or more apple trees inside the sandwalks depicted on the 1937 HABS plan.These activities maintain the greatest poten-tial to disturb archaeological deposits. It istherefore recommended to conduct testexcavations at tree removal locations and toexcavate the holes for the new trees. Thissolution will minimize the loss of potential-ly important archaeological data across theproperty.
6) Renovate existing lawn (Fig. VII-2:14).This activity will not disturb archaeologi-cally sensitive deposits as long as renova-tion does not extended deeper than 40 cm(16 in).
7) Replace existing wisteria arbor with a
31
new arbor (Fig. VII-2:15).The new arbor must be moved from itspresent location since it now straddles theeast property line. Similar to the proposedrose arbor, new support posts must extendbelow the frost line. It is therefore recom-mended to archaeologically excavate thenew postholes with shovel test pits to miti-gate disturbance in this area. In addition,these tests will provide information on thenature of the soils since no archaeologicaltesting has been conducted in this part ofthe garden.
The primary threat from the proposedchanges is disturbance to yard soils that liebelow approximately 40 cm (16 in). Mostgarden plants and shrubs do not requireexcavation of planting holes below thisdepth. Some portions of the surface of theperennial (parallel) beds, however, liebelow the level of the surrounding lawn. Insuch areas it is recommended that gardenloam be added to the existing beds to raisethe surface and thus minimize potential negative impacts tounderlying soils.
Regarding the tree planting, it is recom-mended that existing trees be removed bycutting and grinding at ground level so thatold roots can be left in place. Where this isnot possible, excavations should be con-ducted within the root area prior to theirremoval to assure that archaeologicalresources are not affected by the rootremoval. This work will also provide ahole for the planting of new trees. Newtree locations should be archaeologicallyexcavated as well.
32
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35
APPENDIX A
ARTIFACT PHOTOGRAPHS
36
ARTIFACTS FROM THE PARALLEL BED EXCAVATION.
1) Blown 3-mold glass (early 19th century)2) Window Glass3) Goblet bowl with cut facets4) Printie Block pattern whale oil lamp font (2nd quarter 19th century)5) Wrought nails6) Transfer printed whiteware plate (1820+)7) Crumb decorated Astbury Ware (1725-1750)8) Chinese export porcelain plate (18th century)9) Lead glazed redware10) White salt-glazed stoneware (1740-1775)
Dot, Diaper and Basket rim (above)Barley pattern rim (below)
11) Porcelain handle and rim12) Creamware Royal pattern plate (1775-1820)13) Tobacco pipe stem14) Nottingham stoneware tankard (1683-1810)
37
ARTIFACTS FROM THE HERB BED EXCAVATION.
1) Nottingham stoneware tankard (1683-1810)2) Chinese export porcelain 1660-1830)3) Food bones4) North Devon Gravel Temper Ware (1675-1760)5) Tobacco pipes6) Lead glaze redware7) Wine bottle neck and base8) White salt-glazed stoneware (1740-1775)9) Ferrous scissors10) Dipt pearlware (1782-1810)Thimble fragment (right of 10)
38
ARTIFACTS FROM THE IRREGULAR BED EXCAVATION.
1) Wine bottle neck2) Burned bone fragments3) Ironstone base (1842-1930)4) Chinese export porcelain saucer (18th –19th century)5) Ferrous hook or latch
39
40
APPENDIX B
ARTIFACT CATALOG
41
