Architectural Conservation Architectural John H. Stubbs • Emily G. Makaš Foreword by Mounir Bouchenaki in Europe and the Americas
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1. 4-COLOR
GLOSSYArchitecturalConservationArchitecturalConservationJohn H.
Stubbs Emily G. MakaStubbsMakaForeword by Mounir Bouchenakiin
Europe and the AmericasinEuropeandtheAmericasArchitecture/Historic
Preservation/GeneralCover Photographs (from top to bottom): St.
Marks Basilica, Venice Michael A. Bryan;Mesa Verde National Park
Jim Johnson; National Congress of Brazil, M. CavalcantiTime Honored
is the sort of book that a student reads rst out of necessity, and
thenreturns to many times in the course of professional practice
for an infusionof thevaluableperspective this book thoughtfully
oers. Choice magazineA comprehensive survey of architectural
heritage protectioncovering the practices and traditions of
countries from threecontinentsfrom Russia to Canada to
ChileFollowing the acclaimed Time Honored: A Global View of
Architectural Conservation, this book explores
thericharchitecturallegaciesof
EuropeandNorthandSouthAmericatodescribebestpracticesinarchitecturalconservation,
focusing on the histories, structure, key participants, special
challenges, solutions, and speciccontributions made by some
sixty-seven countries. Written to stand alone from the predecessor
volume,Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas is:
Approached in a style that eschews technical terms, jargon, and
arcane facts and instead featuresengaging discoveries,
developments, and solutions of interest to professionals, students,
and laypeople Co-written by the author of the acclaimed Time
Honored: A Global View of Architectural Conservation Illustrated
throughout with over 600 photographs and maps Filled throughout
with sidebar specialty essays highlighting topics of cross-regional
interest forimproved readability, often contributed by recognized
experts in the eld Complete with abundant references to sources,
related ideas and trends, pointers for furtherinformation, and
appendices of related bibliographic sourcesThe first comprehensive
survey that examines in detail architectural conservation practice
on a widecomparative basis, Architectural Conservation in Europe
and the Americas serves as a convenient resource forprofessionals,
students, and anyone interested in the eld.JOHN H. STUBBS has
served asVice President forField Projectsfor the New Yorkbased
World MonumentsFund since 1990 and taught for over two decades as
an Adjunct Associate Professor of Historic Preservation in
theSchool of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation at Columbia
University. His prior experience includesten yearsasan associateat
Beyer Blinder Belle, Architects & Planners LLP, in New York
City, and two years service at theTechnical Preservation Services
division of the U.S. National Park Service in Washington, D.C.EMILY
G. MAKA is an Assistant Professor of Architectural History at the
University of North Carolina atCharlotte. She has a PhD in the
history of architecture and urbanism from Cornell University, a
masters in historicpreservation from Columbia University, and a
bachelors in history from the University of Tennessee. Her
researchfocuses on the history of modern European cities,
emphasizing the relationships between architecture, cities,
heritage,memory, identity, and politics.978-0-470-60385-7Praise for
Time Honored: A Global View of ArchitecturalConservation, a Choice
Outstanding Academic Book
2. in Europe and the
AmericasArchitecturalConservation01_9780470603857-ffirs.indd
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4. John H. Stubbs and Emily G. MakasForeword by Mounir
BouchenakiWith a contribution of images from the photo archiveof
the World Monuments FundNATIONAL EXPERIENCES AND PRACTICEin Europe
and the AmericasArchitecturalConservationJohn Wiley & Sons,
Inc.01_9780470603857-ffirs.indd iii01_9780470603857-ffirs.indd iii
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5. This book is printed on acid-free paper.Copyright 2011 by
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.Published by John
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products, visit our Web site at www.wiley.com.Library of Congress
Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Stubbs, John H.Architectural
conservation in Europe and the Americas : national experiencesand
practice / John H. Stubbs, Emily G. Maka.p. cm.Includes index.ISBN
978-0-470-60385-7 (hardback); 978-0-470-90099-4 (ebk.);
978-0-470-90100-7 (ebk.); 978-0-470-90111-3(ebk.);
978-0-470-95107-1 (ebk.); 978-0-470-95124-8 (ebk.)1.
Architecture--Conservation and restoration--Europe. 2.
Architecture--Conservation and restorationAmerica. I. Maka, Emily
Gunzburger. II. Title.NA105.S793 2011363.6909dc222010045252Printed
in the United States of America10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
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6. ContentsForeword xiiiPreface xvBeing Modern: The Currency of
ConservationFrank MateroAcknowledgments xxiPART I: Europe
1IntroductionSECTION 1. WESTERN EUROPE 9Chapter 1: Italy 13Early
Organized Conservation Efforts 13Key Twentieth-Century Theorists
and Methods 16Museums and Architectural Conservation 19Sheltering
Ruins on Sicily and Beyond 24Conservation Legislation and Education
25Saving Venice 28Recent Accomplishments and Challenges
30Conserving Italys Historic Rural Towns 34Italian Conservation
Abroad 36Chapter 2: France 41Centralized Legislation and Incentives
41An Inuential Concept: Les Secteurs Sauvegards 43Urban
Conservation and SustainabilityDennis Rodwell 45Recent Conservation
Successes 47Chapter 3: United Kingdom 59Legislation and Listing
59Garden and Landscape Conservation in the United Kingdom
62Private, Not-for-Prot Advocacy Groups 65Contemporary Foci
68Conserving Britains Industrial HeritageDennis Rodwell
72Conserving Fine Architectural InteriorsLisa Ackerman 74British
Conservation Leadership 76v02_9780470603857-ftoc.indd
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7. Chapter 4: Ireland 85Conservation Legislation and
Institutions 85Active Non-governmental Heritage Organizations
87Chapter 5: Spain and Portugal 93Spanish Conservation Policies and
Decentralized Structure 94Paradores and Pousadas 95Portuguese
Conservation Policies 96International and Private Participation and
Recent RepresentativeProjects 98Architectural Conservation
Education at European Universities 101Spanish and Portuguese
Conservation Assistance to FormerColonies 106Current Issues and
Challenges 108Chapter 6: Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands
113Early Conservation Debates in Belgium and the Netherlands
113Legislation and Administration in Belgium 120Legislation and
Administration in the Netherlands 122Architectural Conservation in
Luxembourg 124Contemporary Conservation and the Role of
NongovernmentalOrganizations 125Architectural and Social
Preservation in Amsterdam 127Chapter 7: Switzerland and
Liechtenstein 137Switzerland 137Liechtenstein 140SECTION 2.
NORTHERN EUROPE 143Chapter 8: Sweden 147Legislation and
State-Organization of Heritage Protection 147Skansen and the
Open-Air Museum Tradition 149NGOs, International Involvement, and
Current Challenges 152Chapter 9: Finland 159Early Legislation and
Conservation Efforts 159Contemporary Heritage Framework and State
Activities 160Conserving Modern Heritage in Finland 162Chapter 10:
Norway 167Legislation and State Conservation Institutions
167Current Challenges and Successes 168Conserving Wooden Structures
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8. Chapter 11: Denmark, Iceland, and Greenland 177Early Danish
Conservation Efforts 177Heritage Legislation and Administration in
the Twentieth Century 178Contemporary Conservation Participants and
Successes inDenmark 181Iceland and Greenland 183Chapter 12: The
Baltic States 189Shared Contemporary Challenges 189Lithuania
191Latvia 194Estonia 198SECTION 3. CENTRAL EUROPE 205Chapter 13:
Germany 209Post-World War II Debates 209The East German
Conservation Approach 210The West German Conservation Approach
212Unied Conservation Efforts and Current Challenges 214Applied
Conservation Science and Technology in Europe 218Symbolic Heritage
in a New Germany 220The Berlin Stadtschloss: Emblem of Germanys
Reconstruction Debates 222Chapter 14: Austria 229Long-standing
Legal and Administrative Structures 229Urban Conservation in
Austria 231Other Recent Challenges and Developments 233Chapter 15:
Hungary 237Legislation and Government Framework 237Sensitive
Conservation Approaches 239Additional Key Projects and Successes
241Chapter 16: Czech Republic and Slovakia 245Architectural
Conservation in Czechoslovakia 245Czech Republic 246Slovakia
251Conserving Jewish Heritage in Central Europe 255Chapter 17:
Poland 259Heritage Protection in Partitioned and Second Republic
Poland 259Comprehensive Communist-era Conservation Activities
260The Rebuilding of Warsaw 262Contemporary Issues and Challenges
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9. SECTION 4. EASTERN EUROPE AND THE CAUCASUS 269Chapter 18:
Russia 271Imperial and Revolutionary Conservation Efforts 271The
Fate of Heritage under Stalin and during World War II
273Late-Soviet Policies and Institutions 275Current Conservation
Challenges in the Russian Federation 277The Battle to Preserve
Russias Avant-Garde Architecture 280The Stabilization of the Church
of the Transguration at Kizhi Pogost 285Recent Russian Conservation
Successes 285Architectural Conservation in Siberia 289Chapter 19:
Ukraine, Moldova, and Belarus 297Ukraine 297Moldova 300Belarus
302Chapter 20: The Caucasus 307Armenia 308Architectural
Reconstruction in the Caucasus and Beyond 311Azerbaijan 312Georgia
313SECTION 5. SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 319Chapter 21: Greece 323The
Athenian Acropolis 323The Parthenon/Elgin Marbles Debate
326Expanding Conservation Priorities 328Current Conservation
Framework and Challenges 331Chapter 22: Turkey 335Hagia Sophia
335Conservation Frameworks and Projects in Modern Turkey 338Turkey
and Conservation of Ottoman Heritage in SoutheasternEurope
341Archaeological Site Conservation and Museums in Turkey
342Challenges Ahead 345Chapter 23: Cyprus and Malta
349Architectural Conservation in a Divided Cyprus 349Cooperative
Cypriot Conservation Projects 353Malta 355Chapter 24: The Former
Yugoslavia 361Conservation Policies in the Former Yugoslavia
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10. Slovenia 362Croatia 365Bosnia and Hercegovina 369Macedonia
372Serbia 376Montenegro 379Kosovo 381Chapter 25: Albania 389Early
Efforts and Communist-Era Accomplishments andSetbacks
389Architectural Conservation in Albania Today 390Chapter 26:
Bulgaria 395Late Twentieth-Century Frameworks and Challenges
395Recent Successes and Trends 397Chapter 27: Romania
403Communist-Era Institutions, Key Projects, and Challenges 403The
Contemporary Conservation Scene 404Protecting Transylvanias Saxon
Heritage 406Conclusion to Part I 413PART II: The Americas
415IntroductionSECTION 6. NORTH AMERICA 423Chapter 28: The United
States 429Private Initiatives, Organizations, and Philanthropists
430Early Federal and Municipal Government Efforts 435Conserving
Historic Engineering Structures: BridgesEric DeLony 438Emergence of
an Historic Preservation System in the 1960s 442The National
Register of Historic Places of the United States 449Carol D.
ShullThe Economics and Standards of Historic Preservation
451Improving and Enhancing the System 454The Dening Role of U.S.
Conservation Science and Technology 456Preserving a Mosaic of
Heritages in the United States and ItsTerritories 462New Concerns
in the Twenty-First Century 468Historic Preservation and
Sustainable DevelopmentDonovan Rypkema 473Contents
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11. Chapter 29: Canada 485Early Conservation Efforts 485The
Massey Commission and the Historic Sites and MonumentsAct
488Institution Building in the Second Half of the 20thCentury
490The Spirit of Place as Conceived by the First NationsBarbara
Ross 496Looking Forward in Canadian Heritage Conservation
498SECTION 7. MEXICO, THE CARIBBEAN, AND CENTRAL AMERICA 505Chapter
30: Mexico 509A Legacy of Government Legislation and Protection
509Twentieth-Century Institutions and Policies 512Collaborative
Projects 516Conserving Mexicos ChurchesJohn Stubbs 519Contemporary
Conservation Issues in Mexico 522Chapter 31: The Caribbean
529Government Conservation Efforts and National Trusts 530The City
Historians Ofce and the Conservation of Old Havana
531Non-governmental Organizations 536Conserving Colonial Cities,
Plantations, and Fortresses 539Conserving other Caribbean Heritage
542Current Challenges and Prospects 545Chapter 32: Central America
551Belize 552Guatemala 556El Salvador 560Honduras 563Costa Rica
567Nicaragua 569Panama 572Contemporary Challenges and Opportunities
in CentralAmerica 576SECTION 8. SOUTH AMERICA 581Chapter 33: The
Non-Iberian Coast 585Guyana 586Suriname 589French Guiana 593x
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12. Chapter 34: Brazil 597Federal Efforts and Architectural
Conservation Partners 598Urban Conservation and Revitalization in
Brazil 600New Directions in Architectural Conservation
602Conserving Modern Architecture in Latin AmericaTheodore H. M.
Prudon 604Chapter 35: The Andean Countries 611Venezuela 612Colombia
615Ecuador 620PublicPrivate Partnerships and Urban Rehabilitation
in Latin AmericaEduardo Rojas 626Peru 627Conserving Ancient Earthen
Architecture: The Chan Chan Example 632Bolivia 638Chapter 36: The
Southern Cone 647Uruguay 647Paraguay 650Conserving South Americas
Guaran MissionsNorma Barbacci 655Argentina 658Chile 663Conclusion
to Part II 671Looking Ahead 673Further Reading on Architectural
Conservation by Region 675Photo Credits 699Index 707Contents
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14. ForewordIn every discipline, someone must step forward to
document what has been accom-plished thus far and take stock of
contemporary practice. While architectural con-servation is neither
a particularly new discipline nor is this book the rst attempt
atsuch a survey, Architectural Conservation in Europe and the
Americas is by far the mostcomprehensive and noteworthy effort to
date. Its authors, John H. Stubbs and EmilyG. Maka have done an
extraordinary job of assembling the stories of experiences
inarchitectural conservation in the nearly ninety countries that
comprise Europe and theAmericas, presenting each in a remarkably
clear, balanced, and intelligible manner.Though much has been
assembled here in an unprecedented manner, the authorsare the rst
to admit that the scope and complexity of the topic in some places
did notpermit their describing every single relevant development.
This would be impossibleas in most countries of Western Europe
alone there have been thousands of successfularchitectural
conservation projects with scores that could be pointed out as
exemplary.In an answer to this, the books extensive endnotes and
Further Reading Lists are pres-ent to support one of its main aims,
which as John has described to me, is to be a con-venient gateway
to more on most of the topics, examples and allied subjects
addressedin this book.So choices were made, and I think made
wisely, in favor of a whole that providesa unique and evenly
weighted overarching view while avoiding duplication and stress-ing
the more inuential accomplishments and solutions in architectural
conservationpractice in our time. As such, the book holds together
as a remarkably readable andfascinating portrayal of the eld at
this juncture. It is sensibly organized, abundantly il-lustrated,
and well-indexed. It should prove of interest to a wide audience,
ranging fromthe curious lay person to the student, the
professional, and the librarian.I understand that the present book
is the second in a series of probably three titlesthat will portray
architectural conservation in all parts of the world. Along with
its relat-ed predecessor volume, Time Honored: A Global View of
Architectural ConservationParameters, Theory and Evolution of an
Ethos, and an eventual additional title thatdocuments the other
parts of the world, the series holds great promise as a resource
andreference for both teaching and reference.The perspective of
Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas is wellsuited
for its task because its principal author John H. Stubbs is an
active and accom-plished practitioner in the eld, trained with
institutional perspectives of ICCROMsarchitectural conservation
course and Columbia Universitys prestigious graduate pro-gram in
historic prservation that he attended and where he has taught for
many years.Dr. Emily G. Maka, professor of architectural and urban
history at University of NorthCarolina at Charlotte and an expert
on cultural heritage conservation in southeasternEurope, serves as
an excellent complement to Stubbs here as his coauthor. Adding
totheir erudition are the voices of several collaborators who have
contributed signed spe-cialty essays throughout the book. Many of
these participants are distinguished guresin the eld today.As one
who has mainly served the eld in administrative capacities in
several rolesat UNESCO, including as Director of the World Heritage
Center, and currently asDirector General of ICCROM, I am
particularly pleased to see that the authors havefairly represented
the crucial roles of these institutions and others, such as
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15. as among the key inuences in architectural heritage
conservation over the past halfcentury. Indeed the educational aims
of these institutions are well reected in the pres-ent book. In
their broad view of the subject where the authors discuss not just
what hashappened but also why Stubbs and Maka have gone beyond
describing what any ofthe above-mentioned institutions, and even
his ownthe World Monuments Fundcould, due to the limitations of
their purviews.I rst met John Stubbs in relation to his extensive
work at Angkor in Cambodia onbehalf of the World Monuments Fund.
His being at the center of most of WMFs manyimpressive initiatives
for over two decades has given him a rare, if not unique,
expe-rience. WMFs leadership among international private
not-for-prot organizations inadvocating for architectural
conservation and engaging the private sector in
supportingarchitectural conservation is unparalleled. Bringing a
production-oriented approach toWMF from work in the corporate world
of architectural practice in New York City, it ishis practical eld
experience that makes the observations of this book so special.
Indeed,it is satisfying to see here how the system of the public
and private, and the for-protand not for prot sectors, have all
found niches in architectural conservation practicethat add to it
being the robust and truly global concern that it is today. The
solutions toconservation problems today that are cited in this book
are both sensible and useful, andthe prognosis for the future it
suggests are particularly strong.From reading this book I nd it
both amazing and reassuring to see how far the eldhas progressed,
especially in the past few decades. As a result, it is a pleasure
to intro-duce this new volume that I feel condent will be an
especially useful new contributionto the eld of cultural heritage
management both now and for years to come.Mounir BouchenakiDirector
General, International Centre for the Study of thePreservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)xiv
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16. Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas;
National Experiences andPractice explores the background and
current status of the widespread efforts un-dertaken to ensure the
survival of the rich architectural legacy of Europe, Northand South
America. This book addresses the sizable challenge of documenting
these expe-riences by charting the history of the profession and
its allied activities in these three con-tinents from the early
twentieth-century forward, with a special emphasis on key
projects,participants, successes, and challenges of the past two
decades. Architectural Conservationin Europe and the Americas
offers a balanced view of architectural heritage conservationin the
light of relevant cultural contexts and approaches to heritage
protection involvingall cultures on these three vast
continents.Organized architectural conservationnamely rationalized
documentation, resto-ration, and preservation of historic
architecturehas its origins in the Italian Renais-sance, which by
the mid-eighteenth century had radiated outward to France,
England,Germany and Scandinavia and resonated elsewhere soon
afterwards.1From the earlynineteenth century, this thread of
progressive extension gave way to an increasing num-ber of
simultaneous realizations and adoptions of cultural heritage
conservation prac-tice elsewhere in Europe, the Americas, and
around the world. Since the last decadesof the twentieth-century
architectural conservation has been so pervasive that it is onthe
civic agenda of practically all countries of the world and global
experiences have forseveral years now fed back and informed the
Western European and American coun-tries that so established the
discipline. Today, the cross-fertilization of ideas in
culturalresources management on a world-wide basis is
commonplace.Discussing developments in both Europe and the Americas
together in this book is part-ly a practical matter: the authors
and publisher want to produce this global series in as fewvolumes
as possible, assuming that an additional book addressing Asia,
Africa, Oceania, andthe Polar Regions will follow. More
importantly, the discussion of Europe and the Americastogether
respects certain historical and geopolitical realities. Of the
various continents ofthe world, the histories and cultures of
Europe and the Americas have been linked sincethe Age of
Exploration in the early sixteenth century. With the spread of
culture, includinglanguages and religion, from one continent to the
others, came the transmission of art, ar-chitectural and urban
traditions between the Old and New Worlds. Heritage
conservationpractice has been a part of this intercontinental
transfer and transmutation.Today, professionals in both Europe and
the Americas are faced by many of the samechallenges and use many
of the same tools and techniques on behalf of
architecturalheritage. On both sides of the Atlantic, the scope of
cultural heritage protection hasexpanded to include intangible
heritage as well as surviving artifacts, access to sites hasbeen
radically improved, developments in instant global communications
have facilitat-ed information sharing, including Web-based
electronic aids to site interpretation, anddocumentation strategies
and storage systems have improved tremendously. As a
result,architectural conservation protection today in Europe and
the Americas relies heavilyon an electronic and institutional
network and there has been signicant movementtowards
institutionalized pan-European, and to a lesser extent,
pan-American heritageprotection programs and forums. The principal
interests of the eld in both Europe andthe Americas have also
evolved in recent years to noticeably include concerns for
energyconservationboth in building anew and rehabilitating green,
as well as on sustain-able heritage conservation in general.
British architect and planner Dennis Rodwell hasrightly called
these two themes the dening issues of our
time.Prefacexv04_9780470603857-fpref.indd
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17. If there ever was a moment when heritage conservationhad
something to contribute to the current malaise ofsocial and
political strife, economic recession, and environ-mental
destruction, it is now. On the surface conservationis concerned
with the protection of historic and artisticworks from loss and
damage so they can continue to in-spire, to admonish (from the
Latin, monere, the root formonument) or simply to provide the same
or differentuses in the present. We advocate for conservation
becauseobjects and places hold important information,
associa-tions, and meaning; because they embody social andcultural
memory which, if lost, would make the world
lessunderstandable.Consider recent world events: the destruction of
theBamayan buddhas, the Mostar bridge, even the WorldTrade
Towers-all potent cultural symbols whose targetedloss says more
about the power and signicance of theseplaces than their existence
ever did. Consider the currentdilemma of if and how to rebuild the
vernacular neighbor-hoods of New Orleans or the Haitian capital of
Port auPrince in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake, or thehuge
debate over the destruction of 2 Columbus Circle forthe Museum of
Design in New York City; a debate whichhas caused a serious
reconsideration of how we view anddene post war modernism and how
we will pass on thatlegacy. All these examples engage in the
phenomenon ofloss or retention of cultural heritage and its
implications.For the general public, heritage conservation is
funda-mentally about the past. Long standing attitudes hold
thattrue progress is about the new and the only real creativityis
that which produces something novel. That which isexisting or old
is far from the new and therefore not partof real progress or
progressive solutions. Of course this isuntrue. Conservation is
both creative and modern. In to-days climate it is in fact
subversive in its interest in mend-ing the awed rather than in
discarding and starting anew.As Elizabeth Spelman has aptly
observed, the capacity ofprofessionals to repair things can
scarcely be valued in anysociety whose economy is based on the
production of andthe desire for the new. Repair is at odds with the
impera-tive of a capitalist society.2To bring together the past and
present by thinking andacting in ways different from the original
processes thatcreate new works, and to forge a new approach that
issensitive to all contexts are the very goals of conservation.As
an act of intervention conservation seeks to mediateand in that
mediation it is creative. Conservation pos-sesses a uniquely
integrated set of knowledge and skillsdrawn from the sciences and
the humanities and basedon a values driven model.3Its concerns and
methods ofanalysis, intervention, and especially prevention are
partof the denition of sustainability and it has much to offerall
professionals and the public in the ascendancy of thatconcept.
While conservation has matured in response tolarger social and
environmental concerns, it has far to goin most countries to deeply
inuence local and global de-velopment.Since the 1970s
sustainability has evolved as a signicantmode of thought in nearly
every eld of human intel-lectual activity. With its origins in the
nature conservationmovement in the early twentieth century,
sustainabilityand sustainable development are about nding ways
todesign, plan, and manage that allow essential or
desirableresources to be renewed faster than they are destroyed.
Indesign and the building industry, sustainability has
becomesynonymous with green architecture or new buildingsdesigned
with healthy work environments, energy con-serving systems, and
environmentally sensitive materials.Only recently, heritage
conservation has been recognizedas a concept compatible with the
objectives of sustain-ability, emerging as a critical component of
internationaldevelopment strategies now being advocated by
somelocal and international government and
non-governmentagencies.Unlike the case for natural resources,
sustainability forthe built environment differs in that historic
resourcescannot be physically regenerated, only retained, modi-ed,
or lost.4Instead sustainability in this context meansensuring the
continuing contribution heritage can maketo the present through the
thoughtful management ofchange responsive to the historic
environment. Sustain-ability emphasizes the need for a long-term
view. Ifconservation is to develop as a viable strategy for
rede-velopment, the larger economic and social dimensionsneed to be
addressed, while at the local level, communityinvolvement is
central to sustaining conservation initia-tives. In this case,
sustainability means an investment inconserving human knowledge as
much as historic build-ings. Reconciling conservation and
development is aprerequisite for achieving improvements in the
quality ofBeing Modern: The Currency of ConservationFrank Materoxvi
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18. While Europe and the Americas share afuence, beliefs and
social ambitions as wellas legal bases for commonalities of
approaches toward heritage protection, there arecertainly signicant
differences in the histories, developments and current issues
amongthe countries of these continents. Many of the developing
countries of Eastern Europe,South America and the Caribbean have
not had the same access to nancial resources,training and
information about conservation as those of North America and
Westernand Northern Europe. In some cases the varying foci of
conservation practices amongthe Old and New World have also been
theoretical. These differences stem back to themaking of the Venice
Charter of 1964, approved only tacitly by delegates from the
Unit-ed States and the United Kingdom because of a perceived
continental European biastowards monuments that did not take fully
into account some of the less monumentalheritage found in all
countries, or the vernacular and most indigenous heritage of theNew
World.1Since that time, the heritage protection efforts of the
younger countries ofthe United States and Canada (and Australia)
have led the quest for more representa-tive strategies for their
countries. The result is that the heritage protection
managementsystems of North America and Europe, when viewed as a
combined experience andcapacity, cover most all the issues and are
by any measure impressive in their robustnessand inuence.Many
European and American countries have shared ideas about
architectural con-servation through frequent assistance to the rest
of the world. From exemplary projectsat Abu Simbel and Nubia, Egypt
in the 1960s to Borobudur, Indonesia in the 1970sto Angkor Wat in
Cambodia since the 1990smajor sites of world architectural
sig-nicance have been preserved with the assistance of European and
American-basedinstitutions. Through these projects training
opportunities and information about bestcontemporary conservation
practices have been disseminated globally. As such, theleading
architectural conservation organizations, training institutions,
several govern-ments, and various practitioners in Europe and the
Americas have played a central rolein the internationalization of
heritage conservation practice so successfully in the pasthalf
century that today the whole world is engaged in the activity.
Though some imbal-ances in organized heritage protection exist
between Europe and the Americas and therest of the worldand some
imbalances exist within the continents of Europe and theAmericas
themselvesthese gaps have been closing with each passing year.
Certaineconomic and technical advantages in some developing
countries have even distin-guished conservation efforts in those
places. Especially in recent decades, Australia,New Zealand, India
and Japan have emerged as leaders in Asia and the Pacic whilelife
in environmentally and culturally sensitive places. Byshifting the
focus on perception and valuation, conserva-tion becomes a dynamic
process involving public partici-pation, dialogue, and consensus,
and ultimately betterstewardship. It calls for the retention and
reinforcement(if necessary) of healthy existing social, cultural,
andeconomic functions and the introduction of new usesas necessary
in order to generate income for the localcommunity. It requires the
improvement of services andpublic open spaces, communitysupported
rehabilitationof historic housing and open spaces, employment
oppor-tunities, and promotion of local knowledge and craft.If
sustainability ultimately means learning to think andact in terms
of interrelated systems, then heritage withits unique values and
experiences must be contextual-ized and integrated with the new. In
the transformationof our physical environment, what relationships
shouldexist between change and continuity, between the oldand the
new? Are modernity and tradition truly opposi-tional? Only when
history is rightly viewed as a partof that continuous change, can
we speak of an inte-grated and sustainable built environment and
conserva-tion as an appropriate modern response to this
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19. impressive progress has also been witnessed in China, South
Africa, Jordan and othercountries in Western Asia.There are
certainly challenges to presenting Europe and the Americas together
andseparated from the rest of the world as is done here. This
organization makes cross ref-erencing more difcult, especially
regarding the activities of European and Americangovernmental and
non-governmental organizations abroad as well as of those
chartersand ideas generated in the rest of the world that have
since had an impact on Europeanand American conservation practice
and vice versa.Architectural Conservation in Europe and the
Americas is organized as a series ofcountry proles examining key
issues, participants, sites and developments in the archi-tectural
conservation practices in the subject countries. The books two
parts focus rston Europe and then on the Americas, and within these
parts the discussion is dividedinto sections that group countries
together by region based on geographical, historical,cultural, and
linguistic ties. Part I includes ve sections: Western Europe,
NorthernEurope, Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the Caucasus,
and Southeastern Europe.Part II includes three sections that focus
on North America, then on Mexico, the Carib-bean and Central
America, and nally on South America.This current book is preceded
by, but is not necessarily dependent on, a forerunnervolume by John
H. Stubbs, Time Honored: A Global View of Architectural
Conservation(Wiley, 2009). That earlier book endeavored to more
generally portray contemporarypractice in architectural
conservation, including its rationale, structure, early
history,principles and practices, and likely future directions.
Time Honored introduced manyof the themes, terms, legal
instruments, and the whats, whys, whos, and hows of archi-tectural
conservation that are explored in focused country-specic and
specialty essaysin Architectural Conservation in Europe and the
Americas. Though both books are de-signed to be read independently
of one another, readers seeking the broader picture andcontextual
framework for the portrayals of contemporary practice discussed
herein willnd Time Honored a useful companion. Two of four
Appendices within Time Honored,a glossary of the elds nomenclature
and lists of international resources, should proveespecially
helpful in relation to this book. The larger research initiative
encompassingthis book, its predecessor, and its probable successor
is described on a companion web-site found at
http://conservebuiltworld.com.Architectural Conservation in Europe
and the Americas provides the detailed coun-try by country
examination of the movement necessary to speak globally and
generallyabout the eld. It can be read in its entirety, offering a
comprehensive scope to thoseseeking a comparative understanding of
architectural conservation or a broad overviewof global practices
rich with specic examples. It can also be used as a reference,
sothat those seeking information about developments in a certain
country or region mayquickly access a thorough overview of that
information with directions for further read-ing and online
resources for additional research. Importantly, this book can also
bestudied as a source of solutions for effective architectural
heritage management.This books content represents the views of its
authors as researchers and practitio-ners in the eld of heritage
conservation, and does not necessarily reect the positionsand
opinions of the organizations with which they are afliated. As such
the authors areresponsible for its content.This book is not the
only recent publication to take an international view of
archi-tectural conservation, but the emphasis, scope, and
contemporary nature of Architec-tural Conservation in Europe and
the Americas varies from the other most signicantof these studies
and compendia. For example, in the 1980s James Marston
FitchsHistoric Preservation: Curatorial Management of the Built
World took a thematicallybroad and global view of the elds key
facets, and under the auspices of US ICO-MOS, Robert Stipe edited a
series of bound reports on Historic Preservation in
ForeignCountries that offered detailed proles of developments in
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20. during the period before 1990.6Much has happened since
these seminal studies wereundertaken, however. More recently
Giorgio Crocis The Conservation and StructuralRestoration of
Architectural Heritage and Bernard Feildens Conservation of
HistoricBuildings primarily address technique and materials
science. Jukka Jokilehtos Historyof Architectural Conservation
provides a foundational portrayal of the history of theeld and the
contributions of key individuals primarily in Europe up until World
WarII.7Architectural Conservation in Europe and the Americas
addresses these topics andothers often in less detail, but
contextualizes them within contemporary practice aswell as broadens
the geographic scope to include developments in every country
inthese three continents.The impressive 11-volume
thematically-organized compendium Trattato di
RestauroArchitettonico (Treatise on Architectural Restoration),
coordinated and directed by Gio-vanni Carbonara over the course of
the past decade and a half, is comprehensive in itsscope and
includes writings by different experts.8Particularly in volume
nine, which dis-cusses international practice in various countries
and regions, its approach seems similarto Architectural
Conservation in Europe and the Americas, though its
compendium-likestructure, its overall length and publication in
Italian make it less accessible to manypractitioners and students
in the eld today.Country proles focused on legislative and
administrative frameworks, a componentof Architectural Conservation
in Europe and the Americas, have also previously beenpublished by
others as well as made available online. For the Council of Europe,
RobertPickard has brought together national experts to contribute
to a number of edited booksdedicated to this theme, beginning with
Policy and Law in Heritage Conservation andthe two-volume European
Cultural Heritage, which examine representative countriesfrom
throughout Europe; these were followed in 2008 by three additional
books focusedspecically on Southeastern Europe.9The Council of
Europe is also the sponsor oftwo online efforts to compile similar
country proles, including the European HeritageNetwork website,
which focuses specically on heritage management policies, and
theCompendium of Cultural Policies in Europe, which discusses
heritage protection inlight of pan-European ambitions and broader
cultural policies.10Both of these sites aimto comprehensively cover
all of Europe (the former includes thirty country proles andthe
latter forty-one to date) and are periodically updated.Most of
these publications and websites are focused on Europe, while
similar com-prehensive studies for the rest of the world, including
the Americas are rare. UNESCOsWorld Heritage Center website
compiles information about World Heritage Sites glob-ally, and
ICOMOS series of Heritage at Risk publications highlights key
threats incountries throughout the world on the basis of voluntary
submissions.11Similarly, thewebsite of the World Monuments Fund,
particularly its component which proles sitesplaced on its
Watchlist of endangered sites since 1995, yields a wealth of
informationon threats to architectural heritage sites worldwide and
solutions applied. However,none of these globally oriented sources
managed by international organizations claimsto be comprehensive in
their presentation of the countries in which their projects
arelocated.Each of the aforementioned publications and
institutional efforts has served as avaluable resource during the
preparation of Architectural Conservation in Europe andthe
Americas. If the present book places these and other efforts to in
a clearer context, itwill have served its purpose.ENDNOTES1. For
the history of architectural conservation in general and the
origins of national practices inItaly, France, England and the
German States through the early twentiety century, see: John
H.Stubbs, Time Honored: A Global View of Architectural Conservation
(Wiley & Sons: Hoboken,2009), 183226.Preface
xix04_9780470603857-fpref.indd xix04_9780470603857-fpref.indd xix
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21. 2. Spelman, Elizabeth V. Repair: The Impulse to Restore in
a Fragile World. Boston, MA: BeaconPress, 2002.3. Avrami, Erica,
Randall Mason, and Marta de la Torre. Values and Heritage
Conservation. LosAngeles: The Getty Conservation Institute, 2000.4.
Fairclough, Graham. Cultural Landscape, Sustainability, and Living
with Change? ManagingChange: Sustainable Approaches to the
Conservation of the Built Environment. J. M. Teutonicoand F.
Matero, eds. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute, 2003,
pp. 2346.5. According to the late British conservation architect
Bernard M, Feilden, the delegates fromGreat Britain and the United
States at the IInd International Congress of Architects and
Tech-nicians of Historic Monuments which met in Venice from May 25
to 31, 1964, dissented in theirstrong support for the Venice
Charter on the basis of the limited types of architectural
heritagethat it addressed. Source: In review of the manuscript of
the present book with Bernard Feildenat the Old Barn, Norwich,
England, November 3, 2006.6. James Marston Fitch, Historic
Preservation: Curatorial Management of the Built World (NewYork:
McGraw Hill, 1982); and Robert Stipe, Historic Preservation in
Other Countries, vol. 1-5(Washington, DC: US/ICOMOS, 1982-1990).7.
Giorgio Croci, The Conservation and Structural Restoration of
Architectural Heritage, (South-ampton: Computational Mechanics
Publications, 1998); Bernard M. Feilden, Conservation ofHistoric
Buildings (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2003); and Jukka
Jokilehto, A History ofArchitectural Conservation (Oxford:
Butterworth Heinemann, 1999).8. Giovanni Carbonara (compiler),
Trattato di Restauro Architettonico, vols. 1-11 (Torino:
UTET,1996-2008).9. Robert Pickard, ed. Policy and Law in Heritage
Conservation (London: Spon Press, 2000), Euro-pean Cultural
Heritage Volume 1: Intergovernmental Cooperation: Collected Texts
(Strasbourg:Council of Europe Publishing, 2002), European Cultural
Heritage Volume 2: A Review of Poli-cies and Practices (Strasbourg:
Council of Europe Publishing, 2002), Analysis and Reform ofCultural
Heritage Policies in Southeast Europe (Strasbourg: Council of
Europe, 2008), Inte-grated Management Tools in the Heritage of
South-East Europe (Strasburg: Council of Europe,2008), Sustainable
Development Strategies in South-East Europe (Strasburg: Council of
Eu-rope, 2008).10. Home, The European Heritage Network,
www.european-heritage.net/sdx/herein/index.xsp[accessed December 30
2009]; and Compendium Country Directory, Compendium Cul-tural
Polices and Trends in Europe,
www.culturalpolicies.net/web/countries.php [accessed De-cember 20
2009].11. World Heritage List, UNESCO World Heritage Center,
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list [ac-cessed December 30 2009]; and
Heritage at Risk, ICOMOS,
www.international.icomos.org/risk/index.html [accessed December 30
2009].xx Preface04_9780470603857-fpref.indd
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22. AcknowledgmentsTHE ORIGINAL IDEA of a series that would
document world efforts in global archi-tectural conservation was
conceived by John H. Stubbs in 1999: and, it has also princi-pally
been his efforts that have produced this book. Crucial among Stubbs
collaboratorssince 2006 has been architectural historian Emily G.
Maka, PhD. Maka contributedso broadly toward research and writing
during the books early phases that she eventuallywas invited to
join Stubbs as its co-author.Much information was gained by John
Stubbs via teaching courses in historic pres-ervation within the
Graduate School of Architecture Planning and Preservation at
Co-lumbia University in New York since 1984, a program he graduated
from ten yearsearlier. Among other things, at Columbia Stubbs has
researched the history of the eldand best practices in foreign
places. Also a graduate of Columbias historic preserva-tion program
and later Cornell Universitys Ph.D. program in architectural and
urbanhistory, Maka currently teaches in the School of Architecture
at the University of NorthCarolina in Charlotte. She has also found
that teaching, researching, and writing onarchitectural
conservation is a matter of necessity, because in recent years the
practiceof physically conserving the built environment has far
exceeded any efforts to actuallydocument these activities. The
authors are not alone in concluding that architecturalheritage
conservation practice is passing through a period of self-reection,
and sensedthat they were in a good position to participate in
assessing and documenting the eldtoday.The idea for this project
was also inspired and informed by John Stubbss work as
VicePresident for Field Projects at World Monuments Fund. From
around 1990 Stubbs andhis colleagues found themselves working in
international architectural conservation prac-tice at a time when
the eld rapidly expanded in major new ways.So an important thanks
for critical institutional support is extended to the World
Mon-uments Fund, especially its president Bonnie Burnham and the
organizations trustees,who supported John Stubbss various levels of
participation in scores of architectural con-servation projects in
dozens of countries throughout the world for a period of over
twodecades. In this connection it must be stated that this book was
privately produced and thecontents and opinions expressed herein
are those of its authors.In addition, World Monuments Fund
colleagues Bonnie Burnham, Lisa Ackerman,Norma Barbacci, Jonathan
Foyle, and Mark Weber helped more directly by reading andcommenting
on drafts, or parts thereof, of this book. The authors are
especially gratefulfor the use of some 32 percent of the books
images that were sourced through the WMFImage Archives.Another
institution to which special gratitude is owed is the International
Centerfor the Study of the Conservation of Cultural Property
(ICCROM) especially DirectorGeneral Mounir Bouchenaki for writing
the Foreword for this book, and Paul Arensonand Mara Mata Caravaca
who, respectively, direct ICCROMs Library and Image Ar-chives and
assisted the authors in their research.In addition, special thanks
are expressed to the contributors of specialty essays:
LisaAckerman, Norma Barbacci, Eric Delony, Frank Matero, Theodore
H.M. Prudon,Diana Ramiro, Dennis Rodwell, Carol D. Shull, Eduardo
Rojas, Barbara Ross, andDonovan Rypkema. The additional voices and
expertise provided by these
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23. has enriched the depth and detail of this book and the
authors are grateful for their as-sistance.Colleagues who assisted
as readers, advisors, and providers of information in rela-tion to
Part I: Europe include Zeynep Ahunbay, Marek Baranski, Bonnie
Burnham,Donough Cahill, Clementine Cecil, Cevat Erder, Tanja
Damljanovic Conley, LucyDer-Manuelian, Franca Di Valerio, Natalia
Dushkina, Martin Dvork, Tams Fejerdy,Jacques Feiner, Donald Insall,
Pamela Jerome, Maija Kairamo, Roman Koslowski, Pab-lo Longoria, Lon
Lock, Bruno Maldoner, Arcady Nebolsine, Theodore H.M. Prudon,Didier
Repellin, Gionata Rizzi, Dennis Rodwell, Werner Schmid, Chiara
Siravo, Chris-topher Young, and Michael J. Walsh.Colleagues who
assisted as readers, advisors, and providers of information for
Part II:The Americas include Bonnie Burnham, Anthony Butler, Elena
Charola, Eric Delony,Frank Matero, Elias Mujica, Theodore H.M.
Prudon, Diana Ramiro, Eduardo Rojas,Barbara Ross, Donovan Rypkema,
Carol D. Shull, and Herb Stovel.Various members of the production
team served authors Stubbs and Maka through-out the duration of
this publishing project and provided invaluable help. Special
thanksare expressed to patient and dedicated Sharon Delezenski
Genin, general assistant tothe project practically from the start,
who served various roles ranging from maintainerand keeper of the
manuscript to fact checker to indexer to organizer of the books
imagesand procurer of image use permissions.Gratitude is also
extended to Martha Wilkie for her help in procuring images forthe
book and consulting on matters related to a companion website, and
to Guy Geninfor his kind help in preparing a number of images for
this publication. Elizabeth Puhl,cartographer, prepared the books
various maps, and graphic designer Ken Feisel pro-cured two aerial
images and is responsible for the cover design of the
predecessorvolume that this book emulates. The large number of
colleagues, photographers, andothers who helped by providing
illustrations are gratefully acknowledged in the photocredits
section of this book.At different stages of the project
writer-editors Ann ffolliott and Franca Di Valerioprovided valuable
help in improving the books several drafts. Earlier
researcher-writerswho provided invaluable assistance included Brian
Curran, Dorothy Dinsmoor, Cath-erine Gavin, Sharon Delezenski
Genin, and Ian Morello.The team at John Wiley & Sons,
publishers including Amanda L. Miller, PaulDrougas, Sadie Abuhoff,
Christine Gilmore, Amy Odum, Emily Cullings, and WalterSchwarz
(book designer) are thanked for their expert oversight and support
ofas wellas their belief inthis multi-part publishing
enterprise.And nally, special thanks are extended to Linda K.
Stubbs and Miran Maka fortheir patience and countless other forms
of support.The accomplishment of this book was carried through by
an extraordinary level ofcollegiality and cooperation among the
above named colleagues and others too numer-ous to mention. Such
generous collaboration may say the most about the enterpriseof
cultural heritage protection in our time: the eld predominately
consists of open,forward-looking, well-meaning, talented people who
are eager to help.John H. StubbsEmily G. Makaxxii
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24. P A R T IEurope06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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25. To mark the ftieth anniversary of the formation of the
Council of Europe as wellas the twenty-fth anniversary of the
Council of Europes European Year for Cul-tural Heritage, a campaign
to promote the natural and cultural heritage of Eu-rope took place
from late 1999 through the year 2000. The Europe, A Common
Heri-tage campaign brought the twentieth century to a close: a
century that is rememberedin Europe for the destruction of the two
world wars as well as for the historic buildingsand environments
preserved thanks to the maturation of the architectural
conservationmovement. The new millennium dawned in Europe with the
recognition of escalatingconservation challengessuch as pressures
from economic development, tourism, andglobal warmingbut also with
unprecedented cooperation and coordination on behalfof cultural
heritage across Europe.Europe is a vast continent, a cultural
sphere, and a political and economic unioneach with boundaries that
differ and have shifted over time. In spite of diverse
geogra-phies, histories, cultures, and scales, today there is an
ever-increasing unity of purposeand ideals within Europe and a
shared concern for its architectural heritage. Europestretches from
the rolling Ural Mountains to the tip of Gibraltar on the
MediterraneanSea and from the expansive Caspian Sea to the fjords
of Iceland. It includes countriesthat vary in area, population,
climate, history, and culture ranging from the expansiveRussian
Federation to small Malta and Liechtenstein. Over the course of
Europes his-tory, the ties and relationships among its disparate
parts have evolved, and peripheralcountries have participated to
varying degrees. Countries or regions with geographicalor cultural
afnities toward Europe that might not always be considered part of
theregion proper, such as Caucasia, Greenland, Siberia, and
Anatolia, will be consideredalong with Europe for the purposes of
this book.Europes long and well-documented history led to an early
appreciation of its cultur-al heritage, and as such, from a global
perspective, it had an advanced start in architec-tural
conservation practice. From the Renaissances critical approach to
the past and thebirth of antiquarianism, to the eighteenth centurys
culture of rationalism, enlighten-ment, and international
exploration, to the nineteenth centurys interest in heritage
val-ues and protection for the social good, Europe has been the
place where the ideas thatunderlie contemporary cultural heritage
conservation practice emerged. In Europe, thedevelopment of
administrative mechanisms and legal structures for the
identication,protection, and preservation of cultural heritage has
a unique and long history, clearlydiscernable patterns, and, as
elsewhere, a constantly expanding scope.Many of the global
architectural conservation movements principles and
chartersoriginated in Europe and it has always been a global leader
in the eld. Europe playedan instrumental role in the establishment
of two global cultural heritage protectioninstitutions: the United
Nations Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization(UNESCO)
and the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS).UNESCO was established in the wake of World War II as an
intergovernmental organi-zation aimed toward promotion of
international dialogue, shared values, and respect forcultural
diversity. In 1964 in Venice, at the Second Congress of Architects
and Special-ists of Historic Buildings, the International
Restoration Charter, known as the VeniceCharter, was signed, and
ICOMOS was created as an international nongovernmentalorganization
(NGO).1Half of the countries represented (and 90 percent of the
del-egates) at that foundational meeting were European.Today
forty-seven European countries are member states of UNESCO, and
thereare ICOMOS national chapters in almost all of them. Europe is
still disproportionatelyrepresented on UNESCOs World Heritage List,
with over half the inscribed culturaland mixed heritage sites found
within its countries. Both UNESCO and ICOMOS areglobal in their
scope, but the protective mechanisms and best practices they have
de-velopedand the architectural conservation projects they have
supportedhave had adirect impact mainly on Europe.2
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26. Europe 3Regional intergovernmental institutions such as the
Council of Europe and the Eu-ropean Union (EU) have also played
important roles in encouraging the sharing ofexperiences and
expertise within Europe as well as the standardizing of policies
andpractices throughout the continent. The Council of Europe,
founded in 1949 by tencountries, but today comprising forty-seven
member states, has retained its original fo-cus on promoting
democracy, human rights, the rule of law, and European
integration.The Council of Europes active interest in heritage
protection began with the EuropeanCultural Convention, signed in
Paris in 1954 by fourteen countries to promote mutualunderstanding
and reciprocal appreciation for each others cultures, as well as to
protecttheir common heritage.2To promote intergovernmental
collaboration at the highest level, the Council ofEurope has
organized numerous Conferences of Ministers Responsible for the
CulturalHeritage. At the rst such conference, held in Brussels in
1969, discussions were initi-ated that eventually led to the
European Charter of the Architectural Heritage that wassigned as
part of the activities of the Council of Europes European Year for
CulturalHeritage in 1975.3This charters goal was to make the public
more aware of the ir-replaceable cultural, social and economic
values embodied in the diversity of its builtheritage.4The European
Heritage Year program also encouraged local and nationalgovernments
to actively inventory, protect, and rehabilitate their historic
sites and to payspecial attention to preventing insensitive changes
to them.5The 1975 charter led to the adoption in 1985 in Granada of
the Convention forthe Protection of the Architectural Heritage of
Europe; however, this was not the rstlegally binding convention
developed through the initiative of the Council of Europe.Indeed, a
supplement to the 1954 European Cultural Convention had previously
beenenhanced with a specic convention to protect European
archaeological heritage: itwas signed in 1969 in London, and was
revised in 1992 in Valletta, Malta.6In 2005another convention (the
Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage forSociety)
was drafted by the Council of Europe in Faro, Portugal, and it will
soon havebeen ratied by enough countries to enter into force.7The
various heritage chartersand conventions and the European Year for
Cultural Heritager laid the groundwork forcoordinating conservation
policies and fostering practical cooperation between govern-ment
institutions and conservation professionals in Europe.The European
Union was formed in 1993; however, its executive body and
prede-cessor, the European Commission, has been involved in
cultural heritage programsalmost since its inception in the 1950s.
Today the EU includes twenty-seven memberstates, comprising most of
Europe except for Norway, Switzerland, Iceland, Turkey, theWestern
Balkans, and some former states of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics. Incombination with other factors, the draw of membership
to the EU has done much forthe updating of heritage protection laws
and the strengthening of relevant institutionsthroughout Central
and Eastern Europe in the past decade. The EUs member statesare
less numerous and geographical extent is much smaller than that of
the Councilof Europe, but because its members have surrendered some
sovereignty to this supra-national body, it has greater authority
to enforce regulations and coordinate activities.Viewing heritage
as a vehicle for cultural identity and as a factor in economic
de-velopment, the EU has acted to promote awareness and access, the
training of profes-sionals, and the use of new technologies as well
as to reduce the illicit trafcking incultural objects.8Through a
collection of innovative interrelated programs the Council of
Europeand the European Union have worked separately and
collaboratively to promote cul-tural heritage concerns and a shared
European identity. In 1985 the EU initiated itsEuropean Capital of
Culture program, an idea that originated with the Greek Minis-ter
of Culture, Melina Mercouri, and led to the selection of Athens as
the inauguralcity for such international attention. Each year, one
European city is honored and06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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27. provided nancial assistance to organize cultural
heritagerelated activities; however,in 2000, nine cites were
designated in special recognition of the millennium, andsince then
pairs of cities have often shared the honor. Meant to highlight the
diversitywithin Europe, promote tourism, and stimulate cultural
initiatives in general, theprogram has encouraged the construction
of elaborate new cultural facilities and sig-nicantly aided
architectural and urban conservation efforts in many of the
selectedcities. According to the Palmer Report, issued by the
European Commission in 2004after a lengthy survey and evaluation of
the programs rst two decades by an indepen-dent consultant, the
European Capital of Culture program proved a powerful toolfor
cultural development that operates on a scale that offers
unprecedented oppor-tunities for acting as a catalyst for city
change.9However, the report also noted thatthough good for
individual cities and local political agendas, the program could
bemore coordinated and more focused on the European dimension of
that heritage.Nevertheless, the programs success at spurring and
popularizing conservation effortsin specic cities has led to its
imitation beyond Europe: for example, since 1996,the Arab League
has sponsored an Arab Capital of Culture program, and since 1997the
Organization of American States has designated an American Capital
of Cultureeach year.In 1991 the Council of Europe initiated its
European Heritage Days program, whichhas been a joint venture with
the EUs European Commission since 1999. Through thisprogram, each
September, important but usually inaccessible historic sites are
openedto the public, and other museums and historic sites offer
special activities in a pan-European celebration of heritage. Most
countries develop specic themes to link thesites included in a
given year, and preparations have prompted the completion of
count-less restoration and conservation projects throughout Europe.
Various local and interna-tional NGOs have also coordinated
activities to participate in this month highlightingheritage
throughout Europe.In the past twenty-ve years, the European
Heritage Days programs efforts havesignicantly raised public
awareness for heritage and encouraged governments to pri-oritize
this issue. In recent years, the focus of the European Heritage
Days has shiftedmore and more to emphasize Europes shared heritage
and identity to further promoteEuropean integration. According to
the 2009 Handbook on European Heritage Days(published by the EU and
the Council of Europe), todays challenge is to developawareness of
a common heritage, from Yerevan to Dublin and from Palermo to
Hel-sinki, without negating the feeling of belonging to a specic
region or country. In short,we must ensure that, in the words of
Jean-Michel Leniaud, the European heritage is thecombined
expression of a search for diversity and a quest for
unity.10Launched in 1999, the Council of Europes European Heritage
Network (known asHEREIN) has served as a central reference point
and resource for professionals, admin-istrators, and
researchers.11Designed to create a forum for the coordination of
activitiesof government departments responsible for heritage in
various European countries, ithas mostly focused on maintaining a
database on the cultural policies of those countriesand promoting
the digitization of cultural and natural heritage information and
materi-als and the standardization of heritage language. Since 2001
it has focused on eastwardexpansion and integration of Europe as
well as on expanding its thesaurus of heritageterms to include as
many European languages as possible.Informal intergovernmental
cooperation has also been organized in recent yearsthrough the
European Heritage Heads Forum (EHHF), which brings the leaders
ofstate heritage protection agencies together to share ideas and
strategies.12The rst meet-ing was held in London in 2006 and proved
so successful that it has been repeatedannually. In 2007 a parallel
European Heritage Legal Forum (EHLF) was formed bynineteen
countries to research and monitor European Union legislation and
its poten-tial impact on cultural heritage.134
Europe06_9780470603857-ch01.indd 406_9780470603857-ch01.indd 4
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28. Under the auspices of the Council of Europe in 1963,
various NGOs established Eu-ropa Nostra, the Pan-European
Federation for Cultural Heritage.14Its prestigious awardswere
developed in the late 1970s; it undertook signicant public
surveying efforts inthe 1980s, and it has since been recognized by
the EUs European Commission as thepremier cultural heritage
protection umbrella organization in Europe. In 2002 EuropaNostras
European Heritage Awards for excellence in conservation, research,
service,and education were combined with the EU Prize for Cultural
Heritage. Recent laure-ates that reect the range of honored
projects and people have included the restorationof the Mtra Museum
in Gygys, Hungary; a study on the effect of climate change
onEuropes heritage; Glenn Murray, who has worked tirelessly for
decades on behalf ofSpains Segovia Mint; and a Greek training
program that involves the local populationin sustainable urban
conservation for economic development.Europa Nostras International
Secretariat is based in The Hague, The Netherlands,and its efforts
are nanced by both the Council of Europe and the EU as well as
bynumerous corporate sponsors. Since 2010 Europa Nostra has been
led by presidentPlcido Domingo, the renowned Spanish tenor and
conductor, who has a deep interestand involvement in European
culture. Today, Europa Nostra can proudly boast that itrepresents
some 250 non-governmental organizations, 150 associate
organizations and1500 individual members from more than fty
countries.15Europa Nostra campaignsvigorously on behalf of
threatened structures, and both its reputation and the media
at-tention it gathers have done much to save individual buildings
and sites and to changelocal policies throughout Europe.Other NGOs
and networks of similar organizations have played a crucial role
inpromoting and protecting the architectural heritage of Europe.
For example, an initia-tive that began in Flanders, Belgium, has
sought to develop an inventory of key culturalheritage
organizations throughout Europe to encourage collaboration and
partnershipsas well as to broaden the understanding of heritage. It
has begun organizing meetingsof heritage experts, and its bottom-up
Inventory of Heritage Organizations of Europehas collected and
categorized information about hundreds of NGOs concerned
withheritage ranging from industrial to agricultural, from folk art
to museology, and fromthe intangible to architectural.16A similar
collection of information about Europeanarts-and-heritage NGOs is
housed by Culture Action Europe, another Belgium-basedorganization
that was formerly known as the European Forum for the Arts and
Heri-tage. Culture Action Europe is an advocacy group concerned
more broadly with artisticproduction as well as conservation. It
was founded in 1994 to provide networking op-portunities for NGOs
as well as a shared voice and resources when lobbying
Europeanpolicymakers on culture-related issues.17This framework of
international conventions, intergovernmental institutions, andNGOs
has resulted in a great deal of coordination and shared resources
among conserva-tion professionals throughout Europe. In addition,
every country in Europe today haslong recognized the importance of
architectural conservation and established state institu-tions to
restore and oversee its historic sites. Across Europe, heritage
legislation protectsinventories of designated national monuments,
though the terminology and denitionsvary from country to country.
In some countries, those laws are comprehensive; in
othersarchitectural, archaeological, and other components of
heritage are protected separately.18While some countries have only
one category of monument, others have multiple cat-egories with
varying levels of restrictions and available support; some also
have protec-tive buffer zones around these monuments; and many also
have designated conservationareas, such as historic districts, city
cores, building complexes, and archaeological sites.19In addition,
most European countries support architectural conservation through
directgrants, tax incentives, or a combination of these mechanisms;
however, the particulars ofhow these funds are managed and
distributed, as well as the amounts involved, varies fromcountry to
country.20Europe 506_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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29. In addition, professionals in the eld across Europe today
face many of the samechallenges. The current global economic crisis
has reduced available funding for con-servation projects from state
and local budgets as well as tourism and the support itprovides
many sites. Tourism itself remains a double-edged sword,
threatening manyhistoric sites with overuse while providing
much-needed revenue for research and con-servation. The threat of
global terrorism has created new security pressures on
certainhistoric centers and sites and their visitors.Though
originally an exclusivist, arrogant, and dominating practice, as
Costa Car-ras, vice president of Europa Nostra, characterized its
origins, in recent years Europeanconceptions of heritage have
become increasingly accommodating of cultural diver-sity.21The
early heritage conservationists perhaps never imagined all of the
reasons forwhich historic sites are valued today, particularly how
restoration of historic city centersand residential enclaves has
contributed to urban regeneration, economic recovery, andthe
ever-growing cultural tourism industry. In addition, Europes
secularism, democrat-ic traditions, and civil society have
contributed to the formation of grassroots interestand involvement
in heritage concerns from Great Britain to Greecea phenomenonthat
has not always developed as fully elsewhere in the world.22Despite
these parallels, the coordination and collaboration facilitated by
pan-Eu-ropean charters and institutions, and the globalization of
heritage and the internation-alization of debates on its issues,
remarkably different emphases and characteristics ofcontemporary
conservation practice are found in different countries, even within
Eu-rope. These variations are based on the particularities of
national histories as well as theunique combinations of heritage
found within them. For example, though culturallylinked with
Western and Northern Europe, the countries of central, eastern, and
south-eastern Europe have had very different histories, and thus
have had differing conserva-tion experiences. In these regions, the
large, autocratic Habsburg, Russian, and Otto-man empires lingered
into the early twentieth century, precluding the maturation ofmany
of the populist forces that shaped the development of architectural
conservationelsewhere in Europe, including aspects of the
Renaissance and the Enlightenment insome areas. Yet the end of the
Cold War in 1989 signaled a new era in European history,and ever
since, similar patterns of interest have spread throughout eastern
and southeast-ern Europe and the post-Soviet states, with the
cultural reintegration of Europe as mucha priority as its political
reunion.Indeed, Europes greatest heritage challenge today is to
strengthen national and cul-tural diversities within the framework
of a reunited continent. Though initially seenas peripheral to the
processes of integrating Europe, culture is playing an
increasinglycentral and fundamental role in creating a true union
by promoting European identity;because, to be sure, Europe is much
more of a cultural entity than a political one.23Appreciating the
protection of cultural heritage has gained a wider political
audienceas its benets have become more and more obvious to European
institutions and theinternational community at large. Today Europe
shares and promotes cultural heritageconservation for the benet of
individual local cultures as well as for humanity in gen-eral, and
European practice and principles have been imitated and adapted
worldwide.ENDNOTES1. A nongovernmental organization (NGO), ICOMOS
is not restricted by the ofcial positions ofits member states, and
it has proven freer to campaign for broader heritage issues and
developdoctrines. For fuller summaries of ICOMOS, UNESCO, and other
NGOs and intergovern-mental organizations (IGOs), see also John H.
Stubbs, Time Honored: A Global View of Archi-tectural Conservation:
Parameters, Theory, and Evolution of an Ethos (Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley& Sons, 2009), 252259.2. Council of Europe, European
Cultural Convention (Paris: Council of Europe, 1954),
http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/018.htm
(accessed June 28 2010).6 Europe06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
606_9780470603857-ch01.indd 6 2/8/11 2:16 PM2/8/11 2:16 PM
30. 3. Drafted occasionally by IGOs but more frequently by
NGOs, the European Charter of theArchitectural Heritage and other
charters are recommendations of best practices that rely onthe good
will and cooperative spirit of participants to comply. Conventions,
on the other hand,are drafted and ratied by the delegates of states
parties to IGOsthey are international agree-ments legally binding
on the governments that sign them.4. Council of Europe, European
Charter of the Architectural Heritage (Amsterdam: Councilof Europe,
1975), www.icomos.org/docs/euroch_e.html (accessed May 8, 2010).
This in turnled to the Convention for the Protection of the
Architectural Heritage of Europe (Granada,Spain: Council of Europe,
1985),
http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/121.htm(accessed
December 7, 2009).5. Derek Linstrum, The Conservation of Historic
Towns and Buildings as a National Heritage,Commonwealth Foundation
Occasional Papers 38 (1976): 15.6. Council of Europe, European
Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heri-tage
(Valetta, Malta: Council of Europe, 1992),
http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/143.htm
(accessed December 9, 2009).7. The Council of Europe also signed a
Convention on Offences Relating to Cultural Propertyin Delphi in
1985, but it has not been ratied because it duplicates a similar
1972 UNESCOConvention.8. Through its Culture 2000 program, the
European Union has supported specic restorationprojects, such as
post-earthquake conservation of frescoes at the St. Francis
Basilica in Assisi,Italy. In addition, EU taxation, agricultural,
and building construction laws also impact howheritage is protected
in Europe.9. Palmer/RAE Associates, European Cities and Capitals of
Culture: A Study Prepared for theEuropean Commission, part I
(Brussels: Palmer/RAE: 2004), 23.10. Michel Kneubhler, Handbook on
the European Heritage Days: A Practical Guide (Strasburgand
Brussels: Council of Europe and European Commission, 2009), 8.11.
Home, European Heritage Network,
www.european-heritage.net/sdx/herein (accessed De-cember 9,
2009).12. European Heritage Heads Forum, English Heritage,
www.english-heritage.org.uk/ehhf (ac-cessed December 8, 2009).13.
European Heritage Legal Forum, The EHLF, Riksantikvaren (Norwegian
Directorate forCultural Heritage), www.ra.no/ehlf (accessed
December 8, 2009).14. About Europa Nostra, Europa Nostra,
www.europanostra.org/lang_en/index.html (accessedDecember 8,
2009).15. Mission, Europa Nostra, www.europanostra.org/mission
(accessed December 8, 2009).Sneka Quaedvlieg-Mihailovic and Rupert
Graf Strachwitz, eds., Editors Foreword, Heritageand the Building
of Europe (Berlin: Maecenata Verlag, 2004), 7.16. Heritage
Organizations in Europe, Inventory of Heritage Organizations in
Europe,
www.heritage-organisations.eu/page?&orl=1&ssn=&lng=2&pge=2
(accessed December 10, 2009).17. About Us, Culture Action Europe,
www.cultureactioneurope.org/network/about-us (accessedDecember 10,
2009).18. Robert Pickard, Review, in Policy and Law in Heritage
Conservation, ed. Robert Pickard (Lon-don and New York: Spon Press,
2001), 318.19. Ibid., 315317.20. Ibid., 333334.21. Costa Carras,
The Signicance of the Cultural Heritage for Europe Today, in
Quaedvlieg-Mihailovic and Strachwitz, Heritage and the Building of
Europe, 31.22. Ibid., 54.23. Ibid., 30.Europe
706_9780470603857-ch01.indd 706_9780470603857-ch01.indd 7 2/8/11
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32. 99WESTERN EUROPES E C T I O N 106_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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33. 10 Western EuropeBeginning in Italy with the Renaissance
interest in the ruins of antiquity, the the-ory and practice of
organized architectural conservation originated in WesternEurope.
These ideas spread outward during the eighteenth century as
interest indeliberate architectural conservation was witnessed in
France and England. Soon all ofWestern Europe was engaged in some
variety of conservation activities, which began tomature in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth century.The separate but
overlapping experiences of Italy, France, and Great Britain all
pro-vide substantial evidence that restoration practice in the
nineteenth century was heavilyimbued with scientic and nationalist
implications, the hallmarks of the early indus-trial age. In Italy,
as well as in Germany in central Europe, the restoration of key
his-toric buildings instilled the populations with a collective
cultural pride and reinforcedenthusiasm for political unication,
while French and British restoration practice wasmore reective of a
growing reaction against the societal changes wrought by the
In-dustrial Revolution. In both France and Great Britain, this
reaction was manifested ina glorication of everything medieval,
because for many disturbed by the rising tideof unbridled
capitalism and secular modernism the Middle Ages represented the
corevalues of the state and church. In France and Great Britain
medieval heritage was alsolooked to as a source in the search for
national origins, while in Italy the great legaciesof the Roman era
and the Renaissance served a similar purpose in the late
nineteenthand early twentieth century.During this transition period
for Western Europe, the unity of style movement wasthe paramount
school of thought for architectural restoration. Through the
efforts of itsmost fervent adherent, Eugne-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc,
this approach elevated resto-ration from merely merging artistic
additions with historic structures to a scientic andmethodological
practice. Viollet-le-Ducs prolic restoration work in France and
volu-minous scholarly endeavors quickly spread abroad, where
architects, ecclesiastical societ-ies, and government agencies
adopted his ideas for restoring, correcting, and improvingupon
their historic monuments. His approach combined rationalism and
creative licenseand was widely seen as the ideal solution for the
treatment of damaged or unnishedhistoric structures in Western
Europe, particularly in Belgium and Netherlands.The contemporaneous
Italian and British schools of conservation theory and prac-tice,
which advocated more conservative approaches to restoration, served
as importantcounterpoints to unity of style ideas. This dialectic
did much to dene the philosophi-cal parameters of the eld in Europe
and beyond.The rst half of the twentieth century introduced new
challenges for Western Euro-pean heritage, beginning with the
destruction of sites during wartime on a scale unseenin modern
history. The damage was compounded by subsequent post-war
rebuildingprojects, many of which seriously altered historic built
environments by wholesale de-molition and modernization. With the
benet of hindsight, we realize today that muchof that new
construction was inferior in workmanship, inadequate in function,
andlacking in aesthetic quality.1By the mid-1960s there were
increasing reactions acrossWestern Europe to modern architectures
failure to provide compatibly designed newbuildings in historic
contexts.2Local activists organized societies to save old buildings
and prevent their replace-ment by mediocre modern architecture.
Often, such activities engaged them in battleswith a variety of
interested parties, including planners, developers, architects,
propertyowners, and the general public. Every country has had its
struggles in this area, with thenegotiated resultssome more
successful than othersconstituting the architecturalface of Europe
that we see today.As interest in conservation expanded, new
conservation technologies, methodolo-gies, and creative programs
for action were developed. For example, many countries,such as
Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, which had been dependent on
governmentfunding for architectural conservation, eventually began
to embrace schemes involving06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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34. Western Europe 11the private sector more signicantly in the
protection of architectural heritage. In fact,fund-raising for
architectural conservation has become an increasing concern of
indi-viduals, historic sites, and NGOs in recent years.Today, all
Western European countries have well-developed legislation and
listingprocedures and a host of innovative heritage awareness and
action schemes. Most alsohave well-established government ofces to
oversee, coordinate, and advise conserva-tion efforts. Over the
course of the twentieth century, they have amended and adaptedtheir
practices and laws to reect broadening concepts of what is valuable
and whatdeserves protection. In addition, most of these countries
have also witnessed the emer-gence of networks of nonprot and
public advocacy groups that complement and act asmonitors of
government activities in the eld of architectural
conservation.Despite these extensive parallels, each Western
European countrys particular con-servation efforts developed from
different combinations of factors in recent centuriesand thus the
contemporary practice of each has a slightly distinct character,
with specicstrengths and weaknesses. At the same time, in the
second half of the twentieth century,increasing awareness of
developments in neighboring countries as well as
increasingcollaboration both informally and through pan-European
institutions has led to simi-larities in the architectural
conservation experiences of Western European countries.ENDNOTES1.
Certainly some postWorld War II construction supplied urgently
needed provisional architec-ture in circumstances where speed of
erection and cost efciency mattered more than aesthet-ics and
longevity.2. Probably the most thorough portrayal of reactions of
heritage conservationists to new trends intwentieth century
architecture is found in architectural historian Wim Denslagens
RomanticModernism; Nostalgia in the World of Conservation
(Amsterdam University Press, 2009)..06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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35. Figure 1.1 View of the Forum and Palatine from the
Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy,where 2,700 years of Roman
architectural history are on view.06_9780470603857-ch01.indd
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36. 13Italys extensive and signicant surviving ancient and
medieval-renaissance heritage,as well as its importance for Italian
identity in the nineteenth and twentieth centu-ries, has meant that
architectural conservation has been prevalent and a priority inthis
country for two hundred years. During this period, Italy has
emerged as a leader inthe global eld, particularly in the
specializations of conservation education and theory.Architectural
conservation practitioners and theoreticians, from Camillo Boito in
thenineteenth century to Cesare Brandi in the mid-twentieth century
to Paolo Marconi inrecent decades, have shaped the way contemporary
architectural heritage protection isapproached and understood in
Italy today. The research institutes and graduate studyprograms
with which they have been afliated, including the Istituto
Superiore per laConservazione ed il Restauro (Higher Institute for
Preservation and Restoration) and theUniversit degli Studi Roma Tre
(University of Rome III)and indeed many more couldbe named herehave
trained specialists and advanced conservation theory and
practice.Italian conservators have also actively shared their
experiences and expertise throughwork in projects around the world.
Though caring for the extensive number of signi-cant historic sites
in Italy presents a challenge even for these global leaders and
institu-tions, the importance of cultural heritage and the degree
to which it is protected ensuresthat most of Italys architectural
patrimony should be secure in the years ahead.EARLY ORGANIZED
CONSERVATION EFFORTSFollowing the social upheavals of the
Napoleonic Wars at the beginning of the nine-teenth century,
especially after unication and industrialization at the end of that
samecentury, Italian architectural conservationists joined their
French and English coun-terparts in contributing to a growing body
of theory and special methodologies. Amongtheir principal concerns
was the treatment of the vast number of ancient urban build-ings,
whose fabric was being negatively affected by various modernization
schemes. Theexperience of adapting and restoring historic Roman
buildings often served as the basisfor developing this increasingly
distinct aspect of the larger eld of architecture.Due to the
widespread appeal of Romes rich cultural patrimony, it is in the
EternalCity where the most noticeable examples of a nascent
professional architectural conser-vation specialization can be
readily seen. Systematic restoration and heritage protectionefforts
in Rome began during the French occupation in 1798, and shortly
thereafterexcavation work at the Roman Forum initiated the close
traditional linkage betweenItalian architectural conservation and
the eld of classical archaeology.1ItalyC H A P T E R
106_9780470603857-ch01.indd 1306_9780470603857-ch01.indd 13 2/8/11
2:16 PM2/8/11 2:16 PM
37. As the nineteenth-century popes and the Roman Catholic
Church hierarchy inu-enced both Romes urban refurbishment and
provided a legal framework for restoringand protecting key historic
buildings, the treatment of individual buildings improved.The
sensitive buttressing of the Colosseum by Raffaele Stern and
Giuseppe Camporesiwas the rst great architectural conservation
project of the nineteenth century in Italy.2Giuseppe Valadiers work
at the Arch of Titus in 1821 skillfully blended old and newbuilding
fabric and successfully juxtaposed, where necessary, surviving
original materialwith new marble elements that restored the
structural and visual integrity of the dam-aged building. Valadiers
sophisticated and carefully documented interventions focusedon
retaining as much original architectural fabric as possible. His
work received muchattention and set standards for the formalization
of architectural restoration theory inItaly later in the nineteenth
century.By midcentury, the Italian archite