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Argumentative essay

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The Argumentative Essay . . .a writer tries to . . .a writer tries to persuade readers to adopt persuade readers to adopt his or her point of view his or her point of view about a given issue.” about a given issue.” . . .the underlying aim . . .the underlying aim of argumentative essays of argumentative essays is to use words to make a is to use words to make a difference.” difference.”
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Page 1: Argumentative essay

The Argumentative Essay

““. . .a writer tries to persuade readers . . .a writer tries to persuade readers to adopt his or her point of view to adopt his or her point of view

about a given issue.”about a given issue.”

““. . .the underlying aim of . . .the underlying aim of argumentative essays is to use words argumentative essays is to use words

to make a difference.”to make a difference.”

drawn from Section 7 of drawn from Section 7 of ScribnerScribner

Page 2: Argumentative essay

A good persuasive argument. . .

. . .conveys a reasonable conclusion--often . . .conveys a reasonable conclusion--often called called a thesisa thesis or or a claima claim--about a --about a controversial topic.controversial topic.

. . .presents supporting evidence that is . . .presents supporting evidence that is always incorporated, explained and always incorporated, explained and documented clearly and precisely..documented clearly and precisely..

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Furthermore, a good Argumentative Essay. . .

. . .considers and often presents the . . .considers and often presents the conflicting point of view about the conflicting point of view about the controversy.controversy.

. . .reflects thorough research. . .reflects thorough research

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Page 5: Argumentative essay

Things to consider:

Your audienceYour audience Why is this subject important?Why is this subject important? Answer the position of the other sideAnswer the position of the other side

refuterefute concedeconcede

Build your own position.Build your own position.

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Think of your audience; youdo not want to invite your readers' opposition or hostility. you need to show a you need to show a real concernreal concern about how about how

your readers might think about a given your readers might think about a given subject subject

Also you need to consider Also you need to consider how they might how they might react to the way you thinkreact to the way you think about that about that subject.subject.

All audiences within our western academic All audiences within our western academic culture respond to culture respond to logic and reasonablenesslogic and reasonableness..

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Logical Thinking

Using Using

inductiveinductive and and deductivedeductive reasoningreasoning

Page 8: Argumentative essay

Inductive Reasoning . . .used to attribute causes to events or circumstances . . .used to attribute causes to events or circumstances

rather than to determine the truth about them with rather than to determine the truth about them with absolute certainty.absolute certainty.

Your generalizations about causes may be right or Your generalizations about causes may be right or wrong, but you cannot be certain because inductive wrong, but you cannot be certain because inductive thinking depends on thinking depends on probabilityprobability..

ProbabilityProbability refers to the refers to the likelihood,likelihood, rather than to an rather than to an absolute conviction, that something is true.absolute conviction, that something is true.

ErrorsErrors in inductive reasoning typically involve in inductive reasoning typically involve oversimplificationoversimplification..

Page 9: Argumentative essay

An example of inductive reasoning

If you break out in hives every time you eat If you break out in hives every time you eat chocolate, you most likely will generalize from chocolate, you most likely will generalize from those specific instances and reason that those specific instances and reason that eating eating chocolate caused the hives in youchocolate caused the hives in you..

Be aware that observations need to be accurate:Be aware that observations need to be accurate:

You may consider whether you are allergic to You may consider whether you are allergic to other things besides chocolate.other things besides chocolate. (Did the pizza with (Did the pizza with anchovies you ate before the chocolate dessert anchovies you ate before the chocolate dessert have something to do with your reaction?)have something to do with your reaction?)

Page 10: Argumentative essay

Elements of Inductive Reasoning

begins with a begins with a specific observationspecific observation continues with continues with additionaladditional specific observations specific observations arrives at a arrives at a general claimgeneral claim or a reasonable or a reasonable

conclusion that is based on available evidenceconclusion that is based on available evidence attributes causes to events or circumstances, attributes causes to events or circumstances,

resulting in a resulting in a hypothesishypothesis that can be tested that can be tested further (an educated guess).further (an educated guess).

offers offers probabilityprobability rather than certainty rather than certainty

Page 11: Argumentative essay

Deductive Reasoning

occurs when you take a general principle or occurs when you take a general principle or truth and apply it to a more specific instance.truth and apply it to a more specific instance.

Deductive thinking is Deductive thinking is syllogistic reasoningsyllogistic reasoning.. AA syllogismsyllogism is an argument arranged in three is an argument arranged in three

parts: parts: a major premise, a major premise, a minor premise, anda minor premise, and a conclusion.a conclusion.

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MAJOR PREMISEMAJOR PREMISE When Gabriele drinks coffee she When Gabriele drinks coffee she alwaysgets a headache. [Fact]alwaysgets a headache. [Fact]

MINOR PREMISEMINOR PREMISE Gabriele is drinking coffee. [Fact] Gabriele is drinking coffee. [Fact] CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION Gabriele will get a headache. Gabriele will get a headache.

The premisesThe premises can be can be factsfacts oror assumptionsassumptions. . A major premiseA major premise stipulates a stipulates a general principlegeneral principle (e.g., that (e.g., that

all spiders have eight legs), all spiders have eight legs), and a and a minor premiseminor premise reflects a reflects a specific instancespecific instance (e.g., (e.g.,

that the creature on your desk has six legs).that the creature on your desk has six legs).

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A A syllogismsyllogism is valid when the conclusion follows is valid when the conclusion follows logically from the premises. When the conclusion does logically from the premises. When the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises, a syllogism not follow logically from the premises, a syllogism (along with the argument it states) (along with the argument it states) is invalidis invalid, even if , even if the premises are facts, as in the following example.the premises are facts, as in the following example. MAJOR PREMISE: When Gabriele drinks coffee she MAJOR PREMISE: When Gabriele drinks coffee she

always gets a headache. [Fact]always gets a headache. [Fact] MINOR PREMISE: Gabriele has a headache. [Fact]MINOR PREMISE: Gabriele has a headache. [Fact] CONCLUSION: Gabriele must have been drinking coffee.CONCLUSION: Gabriele must have been drinking coffee.

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When a premise is an assumption rather than a fact, you must be able to support the premise with evidence. MAJOR PREMISEMAJOR PREMISE If you wear Gap clothes to If you wear Gap clothes to

school, you will be accepted by the school's most school, you will be accepted by the school's most popular group. [Assumption]popular group. [Assumption]

MINOR PREMISEMINOR PREMISE Jose wears Gap clothes to Jose wears Gap clothes to school. [Fact]school. [Fact]

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION Jose will be accepted by the Jose will be accepted by the school's most popular group.school's most popular group.

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Since the major premise of thisSince the major premise of thisexample rests on a shaky example rests on a shaky assumptionassumption ( (it cannot be it cannot be supported with evidencesupported with evidence), ), the the argumentargument is not trueis not true. But the . But the structure is valid.structure is valid.

In most instances, wearing Gap clothes (or In most instances, wearing Gap clothes (or any other brand or type of clothing) does not any other brand or type of clothing) does not ensure automatic popularity. Other factors, ensure automatic popularity. Other factors, such as academic or athletic ability, sense of such as academic or athletic ability, sense of humor, physical characteristics, friends, and humor, physical characteristics, friends, and others, influence acceptance.others, influence acceptance.

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Elements of Deductive Reasoning DEDUCTIVE REASONINGDEDUCTIVE REASONING

begins with a general idea or major begins with a general idea or major premisepremise

continues with an additional minor continues with an additional minor premise applied to a particular casepremise applied to a particular case

concludes with a specific statement concludes with a specific statement derived from the premisederived from the premise

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Further Elements of Deductive Reasoning DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTSDEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS

can be true or false, depending on how can be true or false, depending on how true or false the premise istrue or false the premise is

can be valid or invalid, depending on the can be valid or invalid, depending on the structureof their syllogismsstructureof their syllogisms

when true, when true, provides certaintyprovides certainty rather than rather than probabilityprobability

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Checklist of Common Logical Checklist of Common Logical FallaciesFallacies Non sequitor:Non sequitor: A statement that does not follow A statement that does not follow

logically from another.logically from another. Hasty generalization:Hasty generalization: A conclusion based on A conclusion based on

insufficient evidence.insufficient evidence. Stereotyping:Stereotyping: Assuming without sufficient Assuming without sufficient

evidence that members of a group think or behave evidence that members of a group think or behave alike.alike.

Either-or thinking:Either-or thinking: Limiting possible explanations Limiting possible explanations to two.to two.

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Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:Post hoc, ergo propter hoc: Assuming that an event is caused Assuming that an event is caused by another simply because one event occurs after the other.by another simply because one event occurs after the other.

Begging the question:Begging the question: Assuming as true what needs to be Assuming as true what needs to be proven.proven.

Circular reasoning:Circular reasoning: Asserting the same point in different Asserting the same point in different words.words.

Special pleading:Special pleading: Arguing without considering opposing Arguing without considering opposing viewpoints.viewpoints.

Red herring:Red herring: Introducing an irrelevant or distracting Introducing an irrelevant or distracting consideration into an argument.consideration into an argument.

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Appeal to ignorance:Appeal to ignorance: Assuming something is Assuming something is true because the contrary cannot be proven.true because the contrary cannot be proven.

Ad populum:Ad populum: Appealing to the prejudices of Appealing to the prejudices of an audience.an audience.

Ad hominem:Ad hominem: Attacking a person's character Attacking a person's character rather than addressing the issue at hand.rather than addressing the issue at hand.

False analogy:False analogy: Making an illogical connection Making an illogical connection based on irrelevant similarities.based on irrelevant similarities.

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Audiences respond if you adopt a Audiences respond if you adopt a fair-minded and reasonable tone in fair-minded and reasonable tone in your arguments. Therefore your arguments. Therefore avoidavoid. .. . . . . . .. . .exaggeration and angerexaggeration and anger

For example, never use name-calling as a tactic For example, never use name-calling as a tactic (you should not refer to your opposition as (you should not refer to your opposition as stupidstupid or or ludicrous)ludicrous)..

. . .. . .wording that sounds pompous or wording that sounds pompous or borrowedborrowed..

. . . . .wording that overstates your case and .wording that overstates your case and thereby distorts the truth.thereby distorts the truth.

Page 22: Argumentative essay

Be thorough. . . Look at the Look at the whole controversywhole controversy so that you do not so that you do not

overlook important evidence.overlook important evidence. Jumping to conclusionsJumping to conclusions tends to lead to using tends to lead to using

evidence that supports preliminary and, perhaps, evidence that supports preliminary and, perhaps, unfounded biasunfounded bias for a particular solution. for a particular solution.

Ignoring other points of viewIgnoring other points of view can only weaken can only weaken your argument by suggesting to readers that you your argument by suggesting to readers that you have considered have considered no other position except your no other position except your own.own.

Page 23: Argumentative essay

A thesis should reflect thoughtfulness:

The library must create additional space so that its The library must create additional space so that its collection can be supplementedcollection can be supplemented..

The topic, in this example, is how best to use a high school's library budget. One special interest group in the community wants to build new storage space for books that few people consult; the other group wants to weed out the older books and spend most of the money for new books. These two groups are locked in a standoff, recognizing no middle ground.

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Although our local library has a significant Although our local library has a significant problem with dwindling storage space, gaps in problem with dwindling storage space, gaps in the social studies, science, and fiction the social studies, science, and fiction collections make it imperative that additional collections make it imperative that additional books be purchased.books be purchased. Placing low-circulation Placing low-circulation books into secondary storage at an alternative books into secondary storage at an alternative location and a concerted effort by the librarian location and a concerted effort by the librarian to replace bulky periodicals with microfilm can to replace bulky periodicals with microfilm can create sufficient space for supplementing the create sufficient space for supplementing the collection for five more years.collection for five more years.

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Guidelines for Developing an Argumentative Essay Select a Select a controversial subjectcontroversial subject that interests you. that interests you. Consider other points of viewConsider other points of view. Be fair to all . Be fair to all

sides of the argument during research by doing sides of the argument during research by doing the following:the following: As your evidence begins to lead you to a particular As your evidence begins to lead you to a particular

conclusion, search for contradictory evidenceconclusion, search for contradictory evidence.. Question your own evidenceQuestion your own evidence just as you question just as you question

other investigators' conclusionsother investigators' conclusions..

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Avoid jumping to conclusions, and never be satisfied d if your Avoid jumping to conclusions, and never be satisfied d if your evidence leads to only one way of seeing your topic.evidence leads to only one way of seeing your topic.

Try to imagine how your audience will interpret your evidence.Try to imagine how your audience will interpret your evidence. Let the principles of logic guide your effort.Let the principles of logic guide your effort.

Write a short account explaining Write a short account explaining what you have what you have discovered about your controversydiscovered about your controversy. Sketch out the various . Sketch out the various points of view.points of view.

Based on the evidence you have gathered formulate Based on the evidence you have gathered formulate a a tentative thesis,tentative thesis, one that you will reconsider and modify one that you will reconsider and modify as you do more reading, writing, and analysis.as you do more reading, writing, and analysis.

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Make a tentative outlineMake a tentative outline of how you think you will develop of how you think you will develop your argument, listing the major and support ideas, or your argument, listing the major and support ideas, or premises, and the order in which you will present them. premises, and the order in which you will present them. Keep in mind that the way you organize your evidence will Keep in mind that the way you organize your evidence will help determine just how convincing your argument will be.help determine just how convincing your argument will be.

Write Write a drafta draft beginning beginning, and then develop the middle of , and then develop the middle of your essay. Write an ending.your essay. Write an ending.

Present your argument to your work group or to another Present your argument to your work group or to another classmateclassmate. Ask your readers to resist your argument and to . Ask your readers to resist your argument and to indicate weak spotsindicate weak spots

Page 28: Argumentative essay

A Review of the mainA Review of the mainFeatures of the Argumentative EssayFeatures of the Argumentative Essay

It presents supporting evidence that is It presents supporting evidence that is always incorporated, explained, and always incorporated, explained, and documented clearly and precisely.documented clearly and precisely.

It presents the conflicting points of view.It presents the conflicting points of view. It reflects thorough research.It reflects thorough research. It conveys a It conveys a reasonablereasonable conclusion. conclusion.


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