8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

1/26

350 BC

CATEGORIES

by Aristotle

translated by E. M. Edghill

1

Things are said to be naed !e"#i$o%ally! &hen' tho#gh they ha$e a%oon nae' the de(inition %orres)onding &ith the nae di((ers (orea%h. Th#s' a real an and a (ig#re in a )i%t#re %an both lay %lai tothe nae !anial!* yet these are e"#i$o%ally so naed' (or' tho#ghthey ha$e a %oon nae' the de(inition %orres)onding &ith the naedi((ers (or ea%h. +or sho#ld any one de(ine in &hat sense ea%h is ananial' his de(inition in the one %ase &ill be a))ro)riate to that%ase only.

On the other hand' things are said to be naed !#ni$o%ally! &hi%hha$e both the nae and the de(inition ans&ering to the nae in %oon.

A an and an o, are both !anial!' and these are #ni$o%ally sonaed' inas#%h as not only the nae' b#t also the de(inition' isthe sae in both %ases- (or i( a an sho#ld state in &hat sense ea%his an anial' the stateent in the one %ase &o#ld be identi%al &iththat in the other.

Things are said to be naed !deri$ati$ely!' &hi%h deri$e theirnae (ro soe other nae' b#t di((er (ro it in terination. Th#s thegraarian deri$es his nae (ro the &ord !graar!' and the%o#rageo#s an (ro the &ord !%o#rage!.

+ors o( s)ee%h are either si)le or %o)osite. E,a)les o( thelatter are s#%h e,)ressions as !the an r#ns!' !the an &ins!* o( the(orer !an!' !o,!' !r#ns!' !&ins!.

O( things thesel$es soe are )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t' and are ne$er)resent in a s#b/e%t. Th#s !an! is )redi%able o( the indi$id#alan' and is ne$er )resent in a s#b/e%t.

By being !)resent in a s#b/e%t! I do not ean )resent as )arts are)resent in a &hole' b#t being in%a)able o( e,isten%e a)art (ro thesaid s#b/e%t.

Soe things' again' are )resent in a s#b/e%t' b#t are ne$er

)redi%able o( a s#b/e%t. +or instan%e' a %ertain )oint o(graati%al no&ledge is )resent in the ind' b#t is not )redi%able o(any s#b/e%t* or again' a %ertain &hiteness ay be )resent in thebody (or %olo#r re"#ires a aterial basis2' yet it is ne$er)redi%able o( anything.

Other things' again' are both )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t and )resent ina s#b/e%t. Th#s &hile no&ledge is )resent in the h#an ind' it is)redi%able o( graar.

There is' lastly' a %lass o( things &hi%h are neither )resent in a

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

2/26

s#b/e%t nor )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t' s#%h as the indi$id#al an or theindi$id#al horse. B#t' to s)ea ore generally' that &hi%h isindi$id#al and has the %hara%ter o( a #nit is ne$er )redi%able o( as#b/e%t. et in soe %ases there is nothing to )re$ent s#%h being)resent in a s#b/e%t. Th#s a %ertain )oint o( graati%al no&ledge is)resent in a s#b/e%t.

3

4hen one thing is )redi%ated o( another' all that &hi%h is)redi%able o( the )redi%ate &ill be )redi%able also o( the s#b/e%t.Th#s' !an! is )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an* b#t !anial! is)redi%ated o( !an!* it &ill' there(ore' be )redi%able o( theindi$id#al an also- (or the indi$id#al an is both !an! and!anial!.

I( genera are di((erent and %oordinate' their di((erentiae arethesel$es di((erent in ind. Tae as an instan%e the gen#s !anial!and the gen#s !no&ledge!. !4ith (eet!' !t&o(ooted!' !&inged!'!a"#ati%!' are di((erentiae o( !anial!* the s)e%ies o( no&ledgeare not disting#ished by the sae di((erentiae. One s)e%ies o(

no&ledge does not di((er (ro another in being !t&o(ooted!.

B#t &here one gen#s is s#bordinate to another' there is nothing to)re$ent their ha$ing the sae di((erentiae- (or the greater %lass is)redi%ated o( the lesser' so that all the di((erentiae o( the)redi%ate &ill be di((erentiae also o( the s#b/e%t.

6

E,)ressions &hi%h are in no &ay %o)osite signi(y s#bstan%e'"#antity' "#ality' relation' )la%e' tie' )osition' state' a%tion'or a((e%tion. To set%h y eaning ro#ghly' e,a)les o( s#bstan%eare !an! or !the horse!' o( "#antity' s#%h ters as !t&o %#bits long!

or !three %#bits long!' o( "#ality' s#%h attrib#tes as !&hite!'!graati%al!. !7o#ble!' !hal(!' !greater!' (all #nder the %ategory o(relation* !in a the aret )la%e!' !in the 8y%e#!' #nder that o()la%e* !yesterday!' !last year!' #nder that o( tie. !8ying!'!sitting!' are ters indi%ating )osition' !shod!' !ared!' state*!to lan%e!' !to %a#teri9e!' a%tion* !to be lan%ed!' !to be%a#teri9ed!' a((e%tion.

:o one o( these ters' in and by itsel(' in$ol$es an a((iration* itis by the %obination o( s#%h ters that )ositi$e or negati$estateents arise. +or e$ery assertion #st' as is aditted' beeither tr#e or (alse' &hereas e,)ressions &hi%h are not in any &ay%o)osite s#%h as !an!' !&hite!' !r#ns!' !&ins!' %annot be either

tr#e or (alse.

5

S#bstan%e' in the tr#est and )riary and ost de(inite sense o(the &ord' is that &hi%h is neither )redi%able o( a s#b/e%t nor )resentin a s#b/e%t* (or instan%e' the indi$id#al an or horse. B#t in ase%ondary sense those things are %alled s#bstan%es &ithin &hi%h' ass)e%ies' the )riary s#bstan%es are in%l#ded* also those &hi%h' asgenera' in%l#de the s)e%ies. +or instan%e' the indi$id#al an isin%l#ded in the s)e%ies !an!' and the gen#s to &hi%h the s)e%ies

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

3/26

belongs is !anial!* these' there(orethat is to say' the s)e%ies!an! and the gen#s !anial'are tered se%ondary s#bstan%es.

It is )lain (ro &hat has been said that both the nae and thede(inition o( the )redi%ate #st be )redi%able o( the s#b/e%t. +orinstan%e' !an! is )redi%ted o( the indi$id#al an. :o& in this %asethe nae o( the s)e%ies an! is a))lied to the indi$id#al' (or &e#se the ter !an! in des%ribing the indi$id#al* and the de(inition o(

!an! &ill also be )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' (or theindi$id#al an is both an and anial. Th#s' both the nae and thede(inition o( the s)e%ies are )redi%able o( the indi$id#al.

4ith regard' on the other hand' to those things &hi%h are )resent ina s#b/e%t' it is generally the %ase that neither their nae northeir de(inition is )redi%able o( that in &hi%h they are )resent.Tho#gh' ho&e$er' the de(inition is ne$er )redi%able' there isnothing in %ertain %ases to )re$ent the nae being #sed. +or instan%e'!&hite! being )resent in a body is )redi%ated o( that in &hi%h it is)resent' (or a body is %alled &hite- the de(inition' ho&e$er' o( the%olo#r &hite! is ne$er )redi%able o( the body.

E$erything e,%e)t )riary s#bstan%es is either )redi%able o( a)riary s#bstan%e or )resent in a )riary s#bstan%e. This be%oese$ident by re(eren%e to )arti%#lar instan%es &hi%h o%%#r. !Anial!is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!' there(ore o( the indi$id#al an'(or i( there &ere no indi$id#al an o( &ho it %o#ld be )redi%ated' it%o#ld not be )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an! at all. Again' %olo#ris )resent in body' there(ore in indi$id#al bodies' (or i( there&ere no indi$id#al body in &hi%h it &as )resent' it %o#ld not be)resent in body at all. Th#s e$erything e,%e)t )riary s#bstan%es iseither )redi%ated o( )riary s#bstan%es' or is )resent in the' and i(these last did not e,ist' it &o#ld be i)ossible (or anything elseto e,ist.

O( se%ondary s#bstan%es' the s)e%ies is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e thanthe gen#s' being ore nearly related to )riary s#bstan%e. +or i(any one sho#ld render an a%%o#nt o( &hat a )riary s#bstan%e is' he&o#ld render a ore instr#%ti$e a%%o#nt' and one ore )ro)er to thes#b/e%t' by stating the s)e%ies than by stating the gen#s. Th#s' he&o#ld gi$e a ore instr#%ti$e a%%o#nt o( an indi$id#al an bystating that he &as an than by stating that he &as anial' (or the(orer des%ri)tion is )e%#liar to the indi$id#al in a greaterdegree' &hile the latter is too general. Again' the an &ho gi$es ana%%o#nt o( the nat#re o( an indi$id#al tree &ill gi$e a oreinstr#%ti$e a%%o#nt by entioning the s)e%ies !tree! than byentioning the gen#s !)lant!.

Moreo$er' )riary s#bstan%es are ost )ro)erly %alled s#bstan%esin $irt#e o( the (a%t that they are the entities &hi%h #nderlie e$ery.else' and that e$erything else is either )redi%ated o( the or )resentin the. :o& the sae relation &hi%h s#bsists bet&een )riarys#bstan%e and e$erything else s#bsists also bet&een the s)e%ies andthe gen#s- (or the s)e%ies is to the gen#s as s#b/e%t is to )redi%ate'sin%e the gen#s is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies' &hereas the s)e%ies%annot be )redi%ated o( the gen#s. Th#s &e ha$e a se%ond gro#nd (orasserting that the s)e%ies is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than the gen#s.

O( s)e%ies thesel$es' e,%e)t in the %ase o( s#%h as are genera'

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

4/26

no one is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than another. 4e sho#ld not gi$e a orea))ro)riate a%%o#nt o( the indi$id#al an by stating the s)e%ies to&hi%h he belonged' than &e sho#ld o( an indi$id#al horse by ado)tingthe sae ethod o( de(inition. In the sae &ay' o( )riary s#bstan%es'no one is ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than another* an indi$id#al an isnot ore tr#ly s#bstan%e than an indi$id#al o,.

It is' then' &ith good reason that o( all that reains' &hen &e

e,%l#de )riary s#bstan%es' &e %on%ede to s)e%ies and genera alone thenae !se%ondary s#bstan%e!' (or these alone o( all the )redi%ates%on$ey a no&ledge o( )riary s#bstan%e. +or it is by stating thes)e%ies or the gen#s that &e a))ro)riately de(ine any indi$id#alan* and &e shall ae o#r de(inition ore e,a%t by stating the (orerthan by stating the latter. All other things that &e state' s#%h asthat he is &hite' that he r#ns' and so on' are irrele$ant to thede(inition. Th#s it is /#st that these alone' a)art (ro )riarys#bstan%es' sho#ld be %alled s#bstan%es.

+#rther' )riary s#bstan%es are ost )ro)erly so %alled' be%a#sethey #nderlie and are the s#b/e%ts o( e$erything else. :o& the saerelation that s#bsists bet&een )riary s#bstan%e and e$erything else

s#bsists also bet&een the s)e%ies and the gen#s to &hi%h the )riarys#bstan%e belongs' on the one hand' and e$ery attrib#te &hi%h is notin%l#ded &ithin these' on the other. +or these are the s#b/e%ts o( alls#%h. I( &e %all an indi$id#al an !silled in graar!' the )redi%ateis a))li%able also to the s)e%ies and to the gen#s to &hi%h hebelongs. This la& holds good in all %ases.

It is a %oon %hara%teristi% o( all s#b. stan%e that it is ne$er)resent in a s#b/e%t. +or )riary s#bstan%e is neither )resent in as#b/e%t nor )redi%ated o( a s#b/e%t* &hile' &ith regard to se%ondarys#bstan%es' it is %lear (ro the (ollo&ing arg#ents a)art (roothers2 that they are not )resent in a s#b/e%t. +or !an! is)redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' b#t is not )resent in any s#b/e%t-

(or anhood is not )resent in the indi$id#al an. In the sae &ay'!anial! is also )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al an' b#t is not)resent in hi. Again' &hen a thing is )resent in a s#b/e%t' tho#ghthe nae ay "#ite &ell be a))lied to that in &hi%h it is )resent' thede(inition %annot be a))lied. et o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' not onlythe nae' b#t also the de(inition' a))lies to the s#b/e%t- &e sho#ld#se both the de(inition o( the s)e%ies and that o( the gen#s &ithre(eren%e to the indi$id#al an. Th#s s#bstan%e %annot be )resent in as#b/e%t.

et this is not )e%#liar to s#bstan%e' (or it is also the %asethat di((erentiae %annot be )resent in s#b/e%ts. The %hara%teristi%s!terrestrial! and !t&o(ooted! are )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!'

b#t not )resent in it. +or they are not in an. Moreo$er' thede(inition o( the di((erentia ay be )redi%ated o( that o( &hi%h thedi((erentia itsel( is )redi%ated. +or instan%e' i( the%hara%teristi% !terrestrial! is )redi%ated o( the s)e%ies !an!' thede(inition also o( that %hara%teristi% ay be #sed to (or the)redi%ate o( the s)e%ies !an!- (or !an! is terrestrial.

The (a%t that the )arts o( s#bstan%es a))ear to be )resent in the&hole' as in a s#b/e%t' sho#ld not ae #s a))rehensi$e lest &e sho#ldha$e to adit that s#%h )arts are not s#bstan%es- (or in e,)lainingthe )hrase !being )resent in a s#b/e%t!' &e stated! that &e eant

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

5/26

!other&ise than as )arts in a &hole!.

It is the ar o( s#bstan%es and o( di((erentiae that' in all)ro)ositions o( &hi%h they (or the )redi%ate' they are )redi%ated#ni$o%ally. +or all s#%h )ro)ositions ha$e (or their s#b/e%t eitherthe indi$id#al or the s)e%ies. It is tr#e that' inas#%h as )riarys#bstan%e is not )redi%able o( anything' it %an ne$er (or the)redi%ate o( any )ro)osition. B#t o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' the s)e%ies

is )redi%ated o( the indi$id#al' the gen#s both o( the s)e%ies ando( the indi$id#al. Siilarly the di((erentiae are )redi%ated o( thes)e%ies and o( the indi$id#als. Moreo$er' the de(inition o( thes)e%ies and that o( the gen#s are a))li%able to the )riary s#bstan%e'and that o( the gen#s to the s)e%ies. +or all that is )redi%ated o(the )redi%ate &ill be )redi%ated also o( the s#b/e%t. Siilarly' thede(inition o( the di((erentiae &ill be a))li%able to the s)e%ies andto the indi$id#als. B#t it &as stated abo$e that the &ord !#ni$o%al!&as a))lied to those things &hi%h had both nae and de(inition in%oon. It is' there(ore' established that in e$ery )ro)osition' o(&hi%h either s#bstan%e or a di((erentia (ors the )redi%ate' these are)redi%ated #ni$o%ally.

All s#bstan%e a))ears to signi(y that &hi%h is indi$id#al. In the%ase o( )riary s#bstan%e this is indis)#tably tr#e' (or the thingis a #nit. In the %ase o( se%ondary s#bstan%es' &hen &e s)ea' (orinstan%e' o( !an! or !anial!' o#r (or o( s)ee%h gi$es thei)ression that &e are here also indi%ating that &hi%h isindi$id#al' b#t the i)ression is not stri%tly tr#e* (or a se%ondarys#bstan%e is not an indi$id#al' b#t a %lass &ith a %ertain"#ali(i%ation* (or it is not one and single as a )riary s#bstan%e is*the &ords !an!' !anial!' are )redi%able o( ore than one s#b/e%t.

et s)e%ies and gen#s do not erely indi%ate "#ality' lie theter !&hite!* !&hite! indi%ates "#ality and nothing (#rther' b#ts)e%ies and gen#s deterine the "#ality &ith re(eren%e to a s#bstan%e-

they signi(y s#bstan%e "#alitati$ely di((erentiated. The deterinate"#ali(i%ation %o$ers a larger (ield in the %ase o( the gen#s that inthat o( the s)e%ies- he &ho #ses the &ord !anial! is herein #sing a&ord o( &ider e,tension than he &ho #ses the &ord !an!.

Another ar o( s#bstan%e is that it has no %ontrary. 4hat %o#ldbe the %ontrary o( any )riary s#bstan%e' s#%h as the indi$id#al anor anial; It has none. :or %an the s)e%ies or the gen#s ha$e a%ontrary. et this %hara%teristi% is not )e%#liar to s#bstan%e' b#t istr#e o( any other things' s#%h as "#antity. There is nothing that(ors the %ontrary o( !t&o %#bits long! or o( !three %#bits long!'or o( !ten!' or o( any s#%h ter. A an ay %ontend that !#%h! is the%ontrary o( !little!' or !great! o( !sall!' b#t o( de(inite

"#antitati$e ters no %ontrary e,ists.

S#bstan%e' again' does not a))ear to adit o( $ariation o( degree. Ido not ean by this that one s#bstan%e %annot be ore or less tr#lys#bstan%e than another' (or it has already been stated! that this isthe %ase* b#t that no single s#bstan%e adits o( $arying degrees&ithin itsel(. +or instan%e' one )arti%#lar s#bstan%e' !an!' %annotbe ore or less an either than hisel( at soe other tie or thansoe other an. One an %annot be ore an than another' as that &hi%his &hite ay be ore or less &hite than soe other &hite ob/e%t' or asthat &hi%h is bea#ti(#l ay be ore or less bea#ti(#l than soe

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

6/26

other bea#ti(#l ob/e%t. The sae "#ality' oreo$er' is said to s#bsistin a thing in $arying degrees at di((erent ties. A body' being &hite'is said to be &hiter at one tie than it &as be(ore' or' being &ar'is said to be &arer or less &ar than at soe other tie. B#ts#bstan%e is not said to be ore or less that &hi%h it is- a an isnot ore tr#ly a an at one tie than he &as be(ore' nor isanything' i( it is s#bstan%e' ore or less &hat it is. S#bstan%e'then' does not adit o( $ariation o( degree.

The ost distin%ti$e ar o( s#bstan%e a))ears to be that' &hilereaining n#eri%ally one and the sae' it is %a)able o( aditting%ontrary "#alities. +ro aong things other than s#bstan%e' &esho#ld (ind o#rsel$es #nable to bring (or&ard any &hi%h )ossessed thisar. Th#s' one and the sae %olo#r %annot be &hite and bla%. :or %anthe sae one a%tion be good and bad- this la& holds good &ithe$erything that is not s#bstan%e. B#t one and the sel(saes#bstan%e' &hile retaining its identity' is yet %a)able o( aditting%ontrary "#alities. The sae indi$id#al )erson is at one tie &hite'at another bla%' at one tie &ar' at another %old' at one tie good'at another bad. This %a)a%ity is (o#nd no&here else' tho#gh it ightbe aintained that a stateent or o)inion &as an e,%e)tion to the

r#le. The sae stateent' it is agreed' %an be both tr#e and (alse.+or i( the stateent !he is sitting! is tr#e' yet' &hen the )ersonin "#estion has risen' the sae stateent &ill be (alse. The saea))lies to o)inions. +or i( any one thins tr#ly that a )erson issitting' yet' &hen that )erson has risen' this sae o)inion' i(still held' &ill be (alse. et altho#gh this e,%e)tion ay be allo&ed'there is' ne$ertheless' a di((eren%e in the anner in &hi%h thething taes )la%e. It is by thesel$es %hanging that s#bstan%esadit %ontrary "#alities. It is th#s that that &hi%h &as hot be%oes%old' (or it has entered into a di((erent state. Siilarly that&hi%h &as &hite be%oes bla%' and that &hi%h &as bad good' by a)ro%ess o( %hange* and in the sae &ay in all other %ases it is by%hanging that s#bstan%es are %a)able o( aditting %ontrary

"#alities. B#t stateents and o)inions thesel$es reain #nalteredin all res)e%ts- it is by the alteration in the (a%ts o( the %ase thatthe %ontrary "#ality %oes to be theirs. The stateent !he is sitting!reains #naltered' b#t it is at one tie tr#e' at another (alse'a%%ording to %ir%#stan%es. 4hat has been said o( stateents a))liesalso to o)inions. Th#s' in res)e%t o( the anner in &hi%h the thingtaes )la%e' it is the )e%#liar ar o( s#bstan%e that it sho#ld be%a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities* (or it is by itsel(%hanging that it does so.

I(' then' a an sho#ld ae this e,%e)tion and %ontend thatstateents and o)inions are %a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities'his %ontention is #nso#nd. +or stateents and o)inions are said to

ha$e this %a)a%ity' not be%a#se they thesel$es #ndergoodi(i%ation' b#t be%a#se this odi(i%ation o%%#rs in the %ase o(soething else. The tr#th or (alsity o( a stateent de)ends on(a%ts' and not on any )o&er on the )art o( the stateent itsel( o(aditting %ontrary "#alities. In short' there is nothing &hi%h %analter the nat#re o( stateents and o)inions. As' then' no %hange taes)la%e in thesel$es' these %annot be said to be %a)able o( aditting%ontrary "#alities.

B#t it is by reason o( the odi(i%ation &hi%h taes )la%e &ithin thes#bstan%e itsel( that a s#bstan%e is said to be %a)able o( aditting

8/12/2019 Aristteles Categories Eng

7/26

%ontrary "#alities* (or a s#bstan%e adits &ithin itsel( eitherdisease or health' &hiteness or bla%ness. It is in this sense that itis said to be %a)able o( aditting %ontrary "#alities.

To s# #)' it is a distin%ti$e ar o( s#bstan%e' that' &hilereaining n#eri%ally one and the sae' it is %a)able o( aditting%ontrary "#alities' the odi(i%ation taing )la%e thro#gh a %hangein the s#bstan%e itsel(.

8et these rears s#((i%e on the s#b/e%t o( s#bstan%e.