Aristotle Parts-Movement-Gait of Animals

s-—

^

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYFOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.

EDITED BY

tT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D.

t E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. t W. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d.

L. A. POST, l.h.d. E. H. WARmNGTON, m.a., f.b.hist.soc.

ARISTOTLEPARTS OF ANIMALS

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALSPROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

AKISTOTLEPARTS OF ANIMALS

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

A. L. PECK, M.A., Ph.D.FELLOW OF Christ's college, cambridobAND CNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS

AND A FOREWORD BY

F. H. A. MARSHALL, C.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S.

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALSPROGRESSION OF ANIMALSWITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

E. S. FORSTER, M.A.PEOFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFISLD

LONDONWILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESSMCMLXI

li..

First printed 1937

Revised and reprinted 1945, 1955Revised and reprinted 1961

G

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTSrAOB

PARTS OF ANIMALSForeword . • . . . . . . 3

Introduction ...... 8

Text and Translation .... 52

iMOVEMENT OF ANIMALS

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

Introduction ...... 436

Text and Translation .... 440

Index to Parts of Animals • • . 543

Index to Movement and Progression of

Animals. ...... 552

From quotations which I had seen, I had a high notion

of Aristotle's merits, but I had not the most remote notion

what a wonderful man he was. Linnaeus and Cuvier have

been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they

were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle.

Charles Darwin to

William Ogle, onthe publication ofhis translation ofThe Parts of Ani-mals, 1882.

FARTS OF ANIMALS

To

A. E. P. and L. A. P.

FOREWORDAristotle refers to the De partibiis animalium as an

inquiry into the causes that in each case have deter-

mined the composition of animals. He does not,

however, employ the category of causation in the

manner normally adopted by men of science, since

in this book causes are always considered in relation

to ends or purposes, and design is regârded as havinghad~a far larger share in the origin and developn^nt

ofliving structures tnan that allotted toji£C£asity.

In the Histona animalium the parts themselves are

described, for although this work is to some extent

physiological, its main object was to deal with the

anatomy of the organism. The D<? pariibus animalium ,

on the other hand, is almostêxghisivelyiphyj&ielegîcal

and teleological, and treats of the functioiiS-QfL the

parts. But Aristotle's position was that of a telep-

logist only in a limited degrjej_iiQr_iieapppRrs.,tohavie fak^jOhaT view ot life whjchBergson calls_jthe

doctriryeof internal j^n^lity^ (that is to say, that each

indTvTdTiaTToratany rate each species, is made for

itself, that all its parts conspire for the greatest goodof the whole, and are intelligently organized in view

of that end but without regard for other_orâ]Qlsms

or kinds of organisms). Since every organ or part

of the body was held to have its peculiar function,

the existence of vestigial or rudimentary organs Mâs

A 2 3

FOREWORD

unrecognized. This was the doctrine of internal

finahty which was generally accepted until Darwinelaborated his theory of Natural Selection. Thewider doctrine of external finality, according to

which living beings are ordered in regard to oneanother, never gained acceptance among scientific

philosophers, and the only indication that Aristotle

ever adopted it is furnished by a passage in whichhe suggests that the mouth in Selachians is placedon the under surface so as to allow their prey to

escape while the fish are turning on their backsbefore taking their food ; but even this he qualified

by the suggestion that the arrangement served a

useful end for the fishes in question by preventingthem from indulging in the harmful habit of gluttony.

The De part'ihus a?iimaliu)?i opens with an intro-

duction devoted to general considerations. This is

followed by a discussion of the three degrees of

composition, the first degree being composition of

physical substances, the second degree, of homo-geneous parts or tissues, and the third, of hetero-

geneous parts or organs. The tissues referred to are

blood, fat, marrow, brain, flesh, and bone. After

describing these, the organs are dealt with, and a

consideration of their respective functions, first in

sanguineous animals {i.e. in Vertebrates), and secondly

in bloodless animals (i.e. Invertebrates), occupies the

remainder of the book. The account given of the

physiology of the blood is especially interesting, andit is noteworthy that Aristotle understood somethingof the nature of the process of absorption wherebythe food becomes converted into nutriment which is

carried by the blood to all parts of the body. Hesupposed, however, that the matter derived from the

FOREWORD

gut passed first to the heart in the form of vapouror serum, and that it was there converted into true

blood by a process of concoction. Aristotle knewnothing of the real nature of respiration, and heregarded the lungs as serving to temper the bodily

heat by means of the inspired air. He was also

entirely ignorant of the fact that the blood passes

back to the heart and lungs after supplying the

tissues and organs with nourishment. On the other

hand, he fully appreciated the existence of excretoryorgans, the function of which was to remove from thebody such substances as could not be utilized. Inthis category are included fluids such as bile, urine,

and sweat. In the section on the gall-bladder, as

in so many other passages in his works on natural

history, it is truly remarkable how correct Aristotle

is in his statements. He points out that the gall-

bladder is not found either in the horse and ass or

in the deer and roe, but is generally present in thesheep and goat. In the light of the knowledge that

he possessed, therefore, Aristotle could scarcely haveadopted a theory about this organ which has foundexpression in certain modern writings. Accordingto this theory the gall-bladder is present in the sheepand ox because, these being ruminating animals,

bile is only required at certain particular times whenfood passes into the intestine, whereas in the horse,

which does not chew the cud, but yet is constantly

eating, food is continually passing into the intestine

and consequently a perpetual flow of bile is desirable.

Since the gall-bladder is present in the non-ruminatingpig but absent in the ruminating deer and roe, it

is obvious that this theory cannot be consistently

applied.

FOREWORD

It is interesting to speculate about the school of

research workers who must have contributed in

providing material for this and the other works onnatural science ascribed to Aristotle—who they were,

the circumstances under which they lived, and whatmanner of facilities were available for their investiga-

tions—for it would seem certain that no man single-

handed could possibly have acquired such a vast bodyof knowledge, hardly any of which could have beenderived from earlier observers. Yet the work in its

completed whole seems to show the mark of onemaster hand, and its uniform character and the clear

line of teleological reasoning that runs through it

have been well brought out in Dr. Peck's translation.

But putting aside its philosophical implications, the

book consists of an attempt at a scientific record of

all the apparently kno\vn facts relating to animal

function. These are considered comparatively andas far as possible are brought into relation Aîth one

another. And thus, as the earliest text-book on

animal physiology in the world's history, this treatise

will ever make its appeal, not only to the classical

philosopher, but to all who are interested in the origin

and growth of biological science.

F. H. A. M.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Title. The traditional title of this treatise is not a very

informative one. The subject of the work is, how-ever, stated quite clearly by Aristotle at the begin-

ning of the second Book in these words : "I have

already described mth considerable detail in myResearches upon Animals what and how many are the

parts of which animals are composed. We must nowleave on one side what was said there, as our present

task is to consider what are the causes through which

each animal is'as I there described it " (646 a 7 foil.).

The title ought therefore to be " Of the Causes of the

Parts ofAnimals," and this is the title actually applied

to it by Aristotle himself (at De gen. an. 782 a SI).**

Even so, the word " parts " is misleading : it in-

cludes not only what we call parts, such as limbs andorgans, but also constituents such as blood andmarrow.** Perhaps, therefore, no harm is done byleaving the accepted (and convenient) Latin title

untranslated.

Zoological The De partibus, as well as the other treatises'^°^^*' contained in this volume, forms a portion of Aris-

totle's zoological works. The foundation of these is

the Historia animalium, or Researches about Animals^

in nine books (the tenth is generally held to be

• For the meaning of Cause see note below, p. 24." See note on " part " below, p. 28.

8

PARTS OF ANIMALS

spurious), in which observations are recorded, andconsequent upon this are the treatises in whichAristotle puts forward theories founded upon theseobservations.

An animal is, according to Aristotle, a " concreteentity " made up of " matter " and " form." Hence,in the De partihus Aristotle treats of the causes onaccount of which the bodies—the " matter "—of

animals are shaped and constructed as they are, in

general ; in the De incessu he deals specially withthe parts that subserve locomotion. In the De animahe proceeds to consider Soul—the " form " of ananimal. In the remaining treatises, of which Demotu, included in this volume, is one, he deals withwhat he calls the functions " common to body andSoul," among which he includes sensation, memory,appetite, pleasure, pain, waking, sleeping, respira-

tion, and so forth (see De sensu 436 a). The completescheme is set out below :

I. Record of observations,

Historia animalium. 10 (9) books.

II. Theory based upon observations.

(«) 1

De partihus

animalium

De incessu

animalium

(b) De anima

treating of the way in

which the " matter"

of animals is ar-

ranged to subservetheir various pur-

poses.

(treating of the "form"3 books j of animals — the

[ Soul.

9

4 books

1 book

ARISTOTLE

(P)

Parva valuralia —De motu ani-

malium

De generatione

animalium

1 book

5 books

treating of the func-

tions " common to

body and Soul," andin particular ofsome special de-

partments of ani-

mal behaviour.

The section (6) is necessary to the completeness of

the scheme, but as it has given rise to a whole depart-

ment of study, it is usually treated apart from the rest.

Thus the main bulk of the zoological and biological

works may be taken to consist of the three great

treatises, Historia animalium, De partibus animalium,

and De generatione animalium. It was these which,

through translations made from the Arabic, wererestored to the West by those who revived scientific

studies at the beginning of the thirteenth century.Date of The late D'Arcy W. Thompson, in the prefatory

*^°°^t£n. ôte to his translation of H.A.,^ wrote :" I think it

can be shown that Aristotle's natural history studies

were carried on, or mainly carried on, in his middleage, between his two periods of residence at Athens,"i.e. in the Troad, in Lesbos and in Macedonia, betweenthe years 347 and SS5 : and this view has recently

received convincing support from Mr. H. D. P. Lee,''

who bases his argument upon an examination of the

place-names in H.A. This is opposed to the viewwhich has been current for some years past,*' that

the zoological works belong to a late period in Aris-

totle's life, and has important consequences for the

reconstruction of Aristotle's philosophical develop-

* The Works of Aristotle translated, vol. iv., Oxford, 1910." C.Q. xlii. (1948), 61 if.

* See W. D. Ross, Aristotle, and W W. Jaeger, Aristotle.

10

PARTS OF ANIMALS

ment, which cannot be dealt with here. It may,however, be remarked that, as Thompson said, it

would follow that we might legitimately proceed to

interpret Aristotle's more strictly philosophical workin the light of his Mork in natural history. But apart

from these considerations, the great importance of

the zoological works is that they represent the first

attempt in Europe to observe and describe in a

scientific way the individual living object.

Throughout the De pariibus Aristotle endeavours to Teleology.

provide a Final Cause " to explain the facts whichhe records—some purpose which they are supposedto answer ; and Causes of this sort are by far the

most common in his treatise. His outlook is there-

fore justly described as ** teleological "; but it is

important not to read too much into this description.

Aristotle is never tired of telling us that Nature makesnothing and does nothing " without a purpose "

;

but if we ask what that purpose is we may find that

the answer is not quite what we had expected.Plato's notion of the " form " tended to divert his

attention from individuals through a hierarchy of

successive " forms "; but for Aristotle " form " is

not independent of matter : form must be embodiedin some matter, that is, in individuals. Thus we find -

all through that Aristotle cannot long keep his eyesfrom the individual wherein the form is actually

embodied, because it, after all, is the End, thecrowning achievement of the efforts of the four

Causes. This outlook controls the arrangement ofAristotle's treatise. Since all processes of productionare determined by the nature of the product whichis to result from them, it is the fully developed productwhich we must first make it our business to observe,

" The four Causes are dealt with in a separate note, p. 24.

ii

ARISTOTLE

and when we have discovered what are its actual

characteristics we may then go on to work out its

Causes and to examine the processes by which it wasproduced.

Synoi)sis I give a brief synopsis and a contents-summary

umu^lry. of the De partibus :

BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF DE PARTIBUS

Introduction : Methods.

Composition of Substances : Three modes :

(1) The primaiy substances.

(2) The " uniform " parts.

(3) The " non-uniform " parts.

Consideration of (1) Hot, cold, solid, fluid.

(2) Uniform parts : {a) fluid, {h) solid.

(8) Non-uniform parts, as follows :

—

External parts of animals.

Internal parts of blooded animals.

Internal parts of bloodless animals.

External parts of bloodless animals.

External parts of blooded animals (resumed),

(a) Vivipara. (6) Ovipara.

SUMMARYBook I.

639 a 15 ch. 1 Introduction. On the Method of NaturalScience.

Two questions propounded :

(1) Are we to begin with the ultimate

species and describe its characteristics,

or with those that are common to

many species

12

PARTS OF ANIMALS

639 b 8 (2) (Put in three ways) :

(a) Are we to take first the phenomena,and then proceed to their Causes ?

(b) \Mnch is the primary Cause, theFinal or the Efficient (Motive) ?

(Answered immediately : TheFinal ; with a reference also to theinfluence of Necessity.)

(c) Are we to discuss first the pro-

cesses by which the animal is

formed, or the characteristics ofit in its completed state ?

Answer to question (2).

\Ve must begin with the phenomena,then go on to the Causes, and the forma-tive processes—or, in other words, theFinal Cause concerns us first and foremost.

This differs from the practice of the early

philosophers, who concerned themselveswith the Material Cause, though some-times also with the Efficient (Motive)CiQse. We must begin at the End, notat the beginning.

G40 b 17 Thus we must consider not merely the

primary substances, but the " uniform"

parts, which are made out of them, andalso the " non-uniform " parts. In doingthis, we shall be paying attention to the

Formal Cause, which is more importantthan the Material Cause : the animal as

a finished whole is more significant thanthe substances out of which it was made.

640 b 80 But mere form or shape is not enough :

" shaped matter " is not an animal.*' Form " in its full and true sense involves** Soul "

:" Soul " somehow is the

animal's Efficient and Final Cause. Act-ually, it is not Soul in its entirety, but

ARISTOTLE

some " portion " of Soul which fulfils this

office.

641 b 10 Thus the universe and the living objects

in it are the products of somethinganalogous to human art : they are con-trolled by a Final Cause.

642 a 1 But Necessity also has its place in theuniverse

—

not (1)" absolute " necessity

nor (2)" coercive " necessity

but (3)" conditional " necessity.

These two Causes, the Final Cause andNecessity, set the stage for our piece.

642 b 5 ch. 2 Criticisms of dichotomy as a method ofclassification of animals.

644 all ch. 4 The correct method of classification is bygroups, such as Birds and Fishes.

644 a 23 Answer to question (1).

We must deal with groups, not species (e.g.

Bird, not Crane), ancLH-here a species doesnot belong to a largengroup, we must deal

with species, not individuals (e.g. Man,not Socrates).

644 b 21 ch. 5 An Exhortation to the study of animals.

645 b 1 Final summary of the Method, combininganswers to both the original questions :

(1) First we discuss the attributes commonto a group ;

(2) Then we give the explanation of them.

Book II.

646 a 8 ch. 1 Purpose and outline of the Treatise : Oursubject is the causes of the parts of

animals.

14

PARTS OF ANIMALS

6-46 a 13 Three modes of composition :

(1) Out of the " elements " or dynameis(hot, cold, fluid, solid).

(2) The uniform parts (bone, flesh, etc.).

(3) The non-uniform parts (face, hand,etc.).

The relation of them to each other, andthe way in which the Causes control this

relation.

647 a 3 Parts may be divided into :

(a) Instrumental parts (non-uniform).

(b) Media of sensation (uniform).

647 a 25 The faculty of sensation has its seat in the

heart, which is thus uniform ; but it is

also non-uniform, as it has to do withmotion.

647 b 10 ch. 2 The uniform parts, generally. Variations

occur in each of them, as is illustrated bythe example of Blood.

648 a 20 Resumption of the Three modes of com-position :

649 b 9 (1) The primary substances : meaning of" hot," " cold," " solid," " fluid," withspecial reference to Blood. This mergesinto a discussion of

(2) The Uniform parts.

Blood. Fibres, Intelligence and sensi-

tivity, and " temperament " generally.

Serum.

651 a 20 ch. 5 Lard and Suet (forms of Blood).

651 b 20 ch. 6 Marrow (a form of Blood).

652 a 24 ch. 7 The Brain.

653 b 19 ch. 8 Flesh—the " part " par excellence—and its counterpart.

Bones, and their counterparts, andparts similar to Bone,

ch. 10 (3) The Non-uniform parts of animals.

(This occupies the rest of the work.)

.15

ARISTOTLE

655 b 28 General statement of the three organsindispensable to animals.

656 a 14 Head : Brain. Sense-organs.657 a 12 ch. 11 Ears.

657 a 25 ch. 13 Eyes, etc. (ch. 14 : Eyelashesand digression on Hair).

658 b 27 ch. 16 Nostrils (esp. the Elephant's).659 b 20 Lips.

660 a 14 ch. 17 Tongue.Book IH.

661 a 84 ch. 1 Teeth.661 b 27 (Note on " the more and less.")

662 a 16 Mouth.662 a 34 Beak.662 b 23 ch. 2 Horns.664 a 13 ch. 3 Neck : Oesophagus.664 a 36 Larynx and windpipe.664 b 20 Epiglottis.

665 a 27 ch. 4 Internal Parts of Blooded Animals:Viscera :

665 b 5 Heart.

667 b 15 ch. 5 Blood-vessels (Great Blood-vessel andAorta, and generally).

668 b 33 ch. 6 Lung.669 b 13 ch. 7 (Why viscera are double, and other

remarks.) Liver and Spleen.

670 b 32 ch. 8 Bladder.

671 a 26 ch. 9 Kidneys.672 b 8 ch. 10 Diaphragm.673 b 4 ch. 11 Membranes.673 b 12 ch. 12 Variations in the Viscera (Liver and

Spleen).

674 a 9 ch. 14 Stomach and Intestines.

675 b 29 Jejunum.676 a 7 ch. 15 Rennet.

Book IV.676 a 23 ch. 1 General. Internal parts of Ovipara,

16

PARTS OF ANIMALS

676 b 16 ch. 2 Gall-bladder and Bile.

677 b 15 ch. 3 Omentum,677 b 37 ch. 4 Mesentery.

678 a 27 ch. 5 Internal Parts of Bloodless Animals(Insects, Testacea, Crustacea, Cephalo-pods). With special reference to the

Sepia's " ink," and the Sea-urchin's" ova."

681 a 10 Creatures intermediate between animals

and plants.

682 a 30 External Parts of Bloodless Animals

:

682 a 35 ch. 6 Of Insects.

683 b 4 ch. 7 Of Testacea.

683 b 25 ch. 8 Of Crustacea.

684 b 7 ch. 9 Of Cephalopods.

685 b 30 ch. 10 External Parts of Blooded Animals :

(a) Vivipara, {b) Ovipara.

(o) Vivipara

:

686 a 6 Head and Neck.686 a 24 Hands and Feet and relative propor-

tion of limbs. Beginning from Man,whose position is upright, there is a

gradation of declivity in the animals,

continuing to the plants, which are

upside-down.

687 a 2 Nature's habit in assignment of organs.

The structure of the human hand, etc.

688 a 12 Breast.

689 a 4 Excretory organs.

689 b 2 Rear parts.

690 a 5 Hoofs, hucklebones, etc.

690b 12 (6) Ovipara:690 b 18 (i) Serpents and Quadrupeds.692 b 4 (ii) Birds.

695 b 2 (iii) Fishes.

17

ARISTOTLE

697 a 15 (c) Intermediate Creatures:Cetacea.

Seals and Bats.

Ostrich.

697 b 27 Conclusion.

Method of A glance at the summary Avill show clearly the

ficaUon. order of subjects which Aristotle lays down in the

first book to be followed in a treatise such as the

one in which he is engaged.

First, (A) to describe the parts of animals as they

are observed to be ; andthen, (B) to give an account of their causes, and

their formative processes."

Under (A) the order of preference is to be : first,

the parts (1) common to all animals \ (2)

where necessary, those common to a

group of animals only ; and lastly, (3) in

exceptional instances, those peculiar to a

single species.

Also, it will be seen how Aristotle works out this

scheme in the three books which follow. Before

considering that, however, we should notice that

Aristotle has a great deal to say about the correct

classification of animals—or rather, against the in-

correct classification of them. Chiefly, he inveighs

against the method of dichotomy ; and his chief

objection to it is a simple and effective one—that it

does not work. It forces us to assign to each species

one distinguishing mark, and one only (64-2 b 21

—

643 a 24). And it cuts off kindred species from each

other on the strength of some quite subordinate

" De partibus is concerned chiefly with the causes and less

with the processes.

18

PARTS OF ANIiMALS

characteristic (642 b 10 foil.). The right method,

says Aristotle, is to follow popular usage and divide

the animals up into well-defined groups such as

Birds and Fishes." And this leads him to distinguish

two stages of difference :

(a) Cases in which the parts differ " by excess or

defect "—as in different species of the samegenus or group.

(6) Cases in which the resemblance is merely one

of analogy—as in different genera.

Examples of (a) : differences of colour and shape ;

many or few ; large or small ;

smooth or rough ; e.g. soft andfirm flesh, long and short bill,

many or few feathers.

(b) bone and fish-spine ; nail andhoof ; hand and claw ; scale andfeather.

(Reff. for the above, De part. an. 644 a 11-b 15 ; Hist,

an. 486 a 15-b 21. See also Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd.)

The doctrine of differences of" excess and defect," "The more

or, as Aristotle also calls them, of " the more and ^^'^ ^^^^'

less," may usefully be compared with that which

underlies the modern theory of Transformations, andthe comparison of related forms. Indeed, Professor

D'Arcy Thompson asserts that "it is precisely . . .

this Aristotelian * excess and defect ' in the case

of form which our co-ordinate method is especially

adapted to analyse, and to reveal and demonstrate

as the main cause of what (again in the Aristotehan

sense) we term ' specific ' differences " {Growth and

" And of course, into Blooded and Bloodless, though there

are, as Aristotle points out, no popular names for these

groups.

15

ARISTOTLE

Form, p. 726;. The co-ordinates to which he refers

are those of the Cartesian method, on which is basedthe theory of Transformations. By means of themit is possible to exhibit, say, the cannon-bones of theox, the sheep, and the giraffe as strictly proportionateand successive deformations of one and the same form.

These deformations can be either simple elongations,

as in the instance just cited, or they may occuraccording to an oblique or a radial system of co-

ordinates, etc." In this way, differences of " excessand defect " are reduced to the terminology of

mathematics ; and it is especially interesting to

notice this, as the phrase " excess and defect " itself

had, in the Greek of Aristotle's time, a mathematicalconnexion. With it may be compared the well-

known Platonic phrase, " the great and small." Butthis is not the place to enlarge upon such topics.^

ciassifica- To rctum to Aristotle's classification. We find

^mrts! t^^^^ ^^ implements his preliminary outline in the

following way :

I. First, he treats of the parts which are found in

many different groups of animals, and also those

which are to be considered counterparts of eachother in different groups. This corresponds to

A (1) above.

II. As he proceeds 'vvith this, he comes to the

Viscera, which occur only in blooded animals."

This provides a convenient point for embarkingupon his second main division—corresponding

* For details see D'Arcy Thompson, op. cit. eh. xvii.

* The reader is referred to A. E. Taylor, " Forms andNumbers," in Mind, xxxv. 419 foil. ; xxxvi. 12 foil. ; D'ArcyThompson, " Excess and Defect," in Mind, xxxviii. 43 foil.

•^ By " viscera " Ar. means the blood-like ones only.

20

PARTS OF ANIMALS

to A (2) above—the parts common to a groupof animals, and we have first :

The Internal Parts of Blooded Animals.

III. This is followed by

—

The hiiernal Parts of Bloodless Animals. Then,

IV. The External Parts of Bloodless Animals. Then,

V. The External Parts of Blooded Animals,

which includes

—

(a) Vivipara.

(6) Ovipara.

(i) Serpents and Quadrupeds,(ii) Birds.

(iii) Fishes.

(c) Intermediate Creatures.

References to exceptional instances, as to Man,corresponding to the division A (3) above, are of

course to be found throughout the wôrk.

Aristotle thus works out the main lines of his

classification. And in each instance, where possible,

he endeavours to assign the Cause, to name the

purpose, which is responsible for the parts as hedescribes them. This corresponds to (B) above.

And here Aristotle is forced to admit an apparent Necessity.

addition to his scheme of Causes. The purpose, the

good End, the final Cause, cannot always get a free

hand. There is another Cause, Necessity. Aristotle

takes great care to explain what is the nature of this

Necessity (642 a 2 foil.). It is what he calls Necessity" ex hypothesi," or " conditional " Necessity, the sort

of Necessity which is implied by any final Causebeing what it is. If a piece of wood is to be split

by an axe, the axe must ex hypothesi be hard andsharp, and that necessitates the use of bronze or

21

ARISTOTLE

iron in the making of it. The same sort of Necessity

applies in the works of Nature, for the Hving bodyitself is an instrument. It is thus the final Causewhich necessitates the various stages of the process

of formation and the use of such and such material.

Another kind of Necessity, however, makes its

appearance in Natural objects, and that is " simple"

Necessity. The mere presence of certain things in

a living organism entails of necessity the presence of

others (see 645 b 32, 677 a 17, b 22). Some results

follow inevitably from the very nature of the material

used. This " simple " Necessity can therefore beregarded as a reassertion of themselves by the

motive and material Causes" as against the final

Cause. Sometimes, however, even in circumstances

where " simple " Necessity operates, Nature is able to

use the resulting products to subserve a final Cause

(663 b 22, 32, 677 a 15 ; see also the note on Residues,

p. 32). Cf. Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd. §§ 6-9-

Scheme of The following table will show at a glance theanima s.

g^j^^j^^ q£ Animals as treated of by Aristotle in the

De partibus :

A. Blooded Animals

ManViviparous quadrupeds

Oviparous quadrupedsand footless animals

(reptiles and amphi-

bians)

Birds

Fishes

B. Bloodless Animals

Insects

Testacea

Crustacea

Cephalopods

See De gen. an. 778 b 1.

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Intermediate

ARISTOTLE

Terminology

Technical The following notes on some of the more difficultterms,

^j^^ important of the technical terms used by Aristotle

in the De partihus will, I hope, help to explain mytranslation and also to give some indication of the

background of Aristotle's thought. (A fuller account

will be found in De Gen. An., Loeb edn.)

Atrta, ** cause."

I retain the traditional translation " cause,"

although perhaps in some contexts " reason " maybe a closer rendering, but a variation in the English

term might well produce more confusion than clarity.

To know, says Aristotle, is to know by means of

Causes (see Anal. post. 94< a 20). A thing is explained

when you know its Causes. And a Cause is that

which is responsible, in any of four senses, for a

thing's existence. The four Causes, of which twoare mentioned very near the beginning of the first

book (639 b 11), are :

(1) The Final Cause, the End or Object towards

which a formative process advances, and ybr the

sake of which it advances—the logos, the rational

purpose.

(2) The Motive (or Efficient) Cause, the agent whichis responsible for having set the process in motion ;

it is that by jvhich the thing is made.

(3) The Formal Cause, or Form, which is responsible

for the character of the course which the process

follows (this also is described as the logos, ex-

pressing what the thing is).

(4) The Material Cause, or Matter, out of which the

thing is made.

24

PARTS OF ANIMALS

It will be seen that the first three Causes tend

naturally to coalesce under the aegis of the Formal

Cause, in opposition to the fourth, the Material

Cause, a contrast which is clearly put by Adam of

St. Victor in one of his hymns :

effectiva velformalis

causa Deiis, etjiiialis,

sed nuviquam materia.

Hence, of course, comes the regular contrast of" form " and " matter," in which, oddly enough, in

modern usage the two terms have almost exchangedmeanings. " Mere form," " empty form," in con-

trast with " the real matter," are phrases which

indicate a point of view very different from that of

Aristotle. An equally drastic reversal of meaninghas overtaken the term " substance," as contro-

versies on " transubstantiation," and the existence

of the word " unsubstantial " prove. " Cause " has

certainly been more fortunate ; but its meaning has

been narrowed down, so that " cause " now usually

suggests the " efficient " cause only. At the sametime, we allow ourselves a wider variety of " efficient

"

causes than Aristotle, and are more ready to admit

actions and events or even series of actions and events.

We have, in fact, applied Aristotle's precise termin-

ology to the wider uses of everyday non-technical

purposes. For Aristotle, the doctrine of the FourCauses provides an exhaustive and precise classifica-

tion of the things which can be responsible for another

thing's existence, and by the naming of them the

thing can be completely accounted for.

As an illustration the following will serve.

Suppose the object to be explained is an oak. The25,

ARISTOTLE

chronological order of the Causes is different fromtheir logical one.

(i.) The Motive Cause : the parent oak whichproduced the acorn.

(ii.) The Material Cause : the acorn and its nour-

ishment.

(iii.) The Formal Cause. The acorn as it grewinto a tree followed a process of developmentwhich had the definite character proper to

oaks.

(iv.) The Final Cause : the end towards whichthe process advanced, the perfected oak-tree.

Aoyos.

There are several places in the De partibus where,rather than represent Aoyos by an inadequate or

misleading word, I have transliterated it by logos.

This serves the very useful purpose of reminding the

reader that here is a term of very varied meanings,a term which brings into mind a number of correlated

conceptions, of which one or another may be upper-

most in a particular case. It is an assistance if webear in mind that underlying the verb Aeyeu', as it

is most frequently used, is the conception of rational

utterance or expression, and the same is to be found^^-ith Aoyos, the noun derived from the same root.

Aoyo9 can signify, simply, something spokeii or uttered;

or, with more prominence given to the rationality of

the utterance, it can signify a rational explanation,

expressive of a thing's nature, of the plan of it ; andfrom this come the further meanings of principle, or

law, and also of definition, or formula, as expressing

26

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the structure or character of the object defined.

(Note here the application of the term logos to the

Final and Formal Causes, recorded in the foregoing

note.) Another common meaning is seen especially

in the use of the dative Aoyw {cf. the verb XoyL^n/xai

and its noun)

—

bi/ reasoning, in thought, as opposed to

fact or action, (See 640 a 32, Art is the Aoyos rov

epyov 6 avev rrjs vX')]S ', at 64^6 b 2 we read of the

Aoyos of a process of formation such as building, andthe Aoyo9 of the house which is built ; at 678 a 35

of the Aoyos which defines the essence of something,

and at 695 b 19 of " the Aoyos of the essence." At639 b 15 the " Cause for the sake of which "—the

Final Cause—is described as being a Aoyos.)

Fei/ecrts, " formation," or " process of formation."

T lyveaOaL, " to be formed," " to go through a process

of formation."

These are the translations which I normally use,

as more appropriate in a biological treatise than" coming into being," and the like.

The process of formation is of course closely con-

nected in Aristotle's thought with the doctrine of theFour Causes.

Fei-ecrts is a process which, at any rate in biology,

results in the production of an actual object, a living

creature.

Fo'ecris is also contrasted with ova-La and (^vo-ts" : the

order of things, we are told, in the process offormation

is the reverse of the order in reality. For example,the bricks and mortar exist for the sake of the house

" Care should be taken not to regard 0uatj as meaning" the process of û'eaâi."

B 27,

ARISTOTLE

which is to be built out of them, but they and not it

come first in the order of time and fact. Aristotle

sums this up by saying that what comes last in theprocess comes first in " nature " (646 a 25).

MopioVf " part."

The term M'hich occurs in the title of the treatise

and is traditionally rendered " part " includes morethan is normally included in the English " part ofthe body." For instance, this would not normallybe applied to blood, but the term fxopLov is applied

by Aristotle to all the constituent substances of thebody as well as to the limbs and organs. For him,blood is one of the ^<p(iiv fiopia (648 a 2 ; see also

664 a 9 J 690 a 8). A striking instance of the use of

fiopiov in this sense is the phrase ra ofxoio/xepq /xopia,

which are the subject of the next following note.

Ta 6p.oiojji€prj popia, " the uniform parts."

Ta dvopoLOjieprj popta, " the non-uniform parts."

Aristotle's application of the term popiov to boththese classes emphasizes the inclusiveness of its

meaning. As examples of the " uniform " parts hementions (647 b 10) blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow,semen, bile, milk, flesh—these are soft and fluid**

ones ; also bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-vessel

—

these are hard and solid ones. Of " non-uniform"

parts he gives as examples (640 b 20) face, hand, foot.

The relation of the " uniform " parts to the " non-

uniform " he describes as follows (647 b 22 foil.) :

" For the meaning of " fluid " and " solid " see below,

p. 32.

PARTS OF ANIMALS

(a) some of the uniform are the material out of

which the non-uniform are made (i.e. eachinstrumental part is made out of bones, sinews,

flesh, etc.);

(6) some act as the nutriment of (a) ;

(c) some are the residue of (6)—faeces, urine.

It is not possible to equate the two classes with thelater division into tissues and organs, since blood,

for instance, though " uniform," is not a tissue ; the

term " organs," however, corresponds closely withAristotle's own description— to. opyaviKa fxcprj

(647 b 23), " instrumental parts."

The practical difference between the two classes

is that each of the uniform parts has its o^vn definite

character as a substance (in the modern sense), while

each of the non-uniform parts has its own definite

character as a conformation or organ. The heart is

the only part which belongs to both classes (647 a 25foil.) : it consists of one uniform part only, namely,flesh ; but it also has essentially a definite configura-

tion, and thus it is a non-uniform part.

Three stages or " degrees of composition," so far

as biology is concerned, are enumerated by Aristotle

(at 646 a 13 foil.). What Aristotle seems to mean,though he has not expressed himself quite clearly,

is that there are three stages involved in the com-position of compound bodies, namely,

(1) the 8vvdfi€Ls (see following note) ;

(2) the uniform parts ;

(3) the non-uniform parts;

and finally, of course, out of the non-uniform parts

(4) the animal itself is composed.

ARISTOTLE

We have thus

:

(1) the simplest sorts of matter ;

(2) the simplest organic substances compoundedout of the foregoing (having no definite size,

shape, or structure);

(3) the instrumental parts of the body constructed

out of the foregoing (having definite size, shape,

and structure) ; and

(4) the organism as a whole, assembled out of the

foregoing.

Note.—For a description of the way in which the

term rb. ojiotoixeprj has caused confusion in the accounts

of Anaxagoras's theories see Class. Qu., 1931, xxv. 34following.

This is one of the most difl^cult terms to render in

English.

The specialized meaning of Swdfj.ei, " potenti-

ally," as opposed to h'€pye[a, " actually," is so well

known that there is no need to enlarge upon it here.

Nor need I discuss the mathematical meaning of

SvvafXL'i. Other meanings need some comment.

(1) Avva/us was the old technical term for whatwere later to be called o-rotyera (elements). It

appears in the writings of the Hippocratic corpus

and in Plato's Timaeiis. The best example of its

use in De partihus is at the beginning of Book II.

(646 a 15). The list of Swd/jLeis included the sub-

stances known as to vypoVf to g'>]p<'>y, to depfxoi', to

ipyxpor, TO —iKpov, TO yXvKv, to Spipv, etc., etc. Onlythe first four of these were regarded by Aristotle as

SO

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the material of compound bodies : all the " otherdifferences," he says, are consequent upon these.

The original meaning underlying this usage of theterm seems to have been " strong substance of aparticular character." This would be very appro-priate to TO SpLfxv, TO TTiKpov, ctc. (scc Uepl dp)(âLr]S

h]TpLKris). There is no notion here of the substancekavi?ig power in the sense of power to affect anexternal body in a particular way. (This meaningdeveloped later.) If any effect did result, it wouldbe described simply as the presence of the strong

substance, and the remedy for it was to " concoct"

the strong substance or otherwise to bring it into

a harmless condition by " blending " it with other

substances.

(2) As each of the substances known as Sui/a/xei?

has its own peculiar character, sharply marked off

from the others, the meaning of " peculiar and dis-

tinctive character " was naturally associated with the

term. This seems to be its meaning in 655 b 12 :

e^ di'dyKrjs 8e ravra iravra yecoSr) koL a-repedv e;)(et r7)x/

(j)vcriV ottXov yap avrr] 8vvap.ts. Indeed, in this mean-ing, Svvaixis seems to be a slightly more emphaticversion of cfivcri^, with which it is often used in con-

junction (in Hippocrates, for instance), or in a parallel

May as in the passage just cited. Compare also

651 b 21, where the marrow is asserted to be aJ'/xards

Tis cjivcTL's, not, as some suppose, r^js yovrjs onvepiiaTiKr]

Svvaiiis. Other instances of this use of St'iâ/xis will

be found in De partibiis.

(3) From this usage it is not far to the idiomatic,

pleonastic usage, e.g. :

678 a 13 7; TO)V €vrepoiv Syvajxts almost = Ta evrepa.

682 h 15 rj TWV TTTipUJV BvvajMLS,

3.1

ARISTOTLE

657 a 4 i) Ttuv fxvKT/jpiDV 8vvajJ.L<s 8t<îr>ys.

This is paralleled by a similar usage of ^vo-ts X

663 a 34> ->) roiv Kepdrayv cfiV(TLS.

676 b 11 •>} Twv kvTepuiv cfiVcrLS.

(Other references for Svvafxis : 640 a 24, 646 a 14,

b 17, 650 a 5, 651 b 21, 652 b 8, 12, 653 a 2, 655 b 12,

658 b 34. See further Gen. An., Loeb edn., Introd.

§§ 23 ff.).

To vypov KOi rh ^y)p6v, " fluid substance and solid

substance," " the fluid and the soUd."

These are two of the Svi'a/xets.

Following Ogle, I use these renderings as beingmore in conformity with the definitions given byAristotle than " the moist and the dry," which haveoften been used. Actually neither pair of Enghshwords quite expresses the Greek. Aristotle's de-

finition of them (at De gen. et corr. 329 b 30) is this :

** vypov is that which is not limited by any hmit of

its own but can be readily limited, î^pov is that

which is readily limited by a limit of its o^\'n but canwith difficulty be limited "

—

i.e. of course by a limit

imposed from without.

He discusses the various senses in which these

terms are used at 649 b 9 following.

Ile/otTTw/za, " residue."

This term I have translated throughout ** residue,*

S2

PARTS OF ANIMALS

as being more literal and at the same time less mis-leading than " excrement." " Surplus " would havebeen even better if the word had been a little moremanageable.

" Residue " is so called because it is that which is

left over when the living organism, by acting uponthe nutriment which it has taken, has provided itself

^vith a sufficient supply for its upkeep. Some of thesurplus will be useless material contained in the foodfrom the outset, or else has been produced duringthe process of reducing the food into a conditionsuitable for its purposes in the body. The useless

residues include the excrements. In order to appreci-

ate the status of the useful residues the outlines of

the processes through which the food passes must bekept clearly in mind. Briefly, then, the food is

masticated in the mouth, then passed on to the

stomach and then the heart, where it is concocted "

by means of heat—in other words, it is turned into

blood, which is the " ultimate nourishment "; and

this, when distributed into the blood-vessels, suppHesthe body with nutrition. Generally, however, moreblood is produced than is necessary for the actual

upkeep of the body, and this surplus undergoes a

further stage of concoction, and is used by Naturein various ways. Marrow is a residue ; so are semen,catamenia, milk. Sometimes, when nutrition is

specially abundant, the surplus blood is concocted

into fat (lard and suet). And some of the blood,

reaching the extremities of the vessels in which it

travels, makes its way out in the form of nails, claws,

or hair. The Aristotelian doctrine of residues camedown to Shakespeare, as is shown by the passage

*• See page 34.

33

ARISTOTLE

in Hamlet (iii. iv.) where the Queen says to Hamlet

:

Your bedded haire, like life in excrements,

Start up, and stand an end.

This theory, as applied to hair, is expounded byAristotle at 658 b 14 following, and modern biochemists

have reason for believing that some pigmentation in

animals, such as the black melanin of mammalianhair, or the yellow xanthopterine of the butterfly's

wing, is physiologically a form of excretion.

" Concoct," ** concoction."

These terms, which have already appeared in

these notes, are used to translate TrecrcreLv, -n-eij/is. TheGreek words are the same as those employed to

denote the process of ripening or maturing of fruit,

corn, and the like by means of heat—also that of

baking and cooking.

Terms sometimes associated ^\ith these are fxera/SoXy

and jjnTa/SdWeLv. For example, at 650 a 5 we read

that TTci/'ts and [jteraftoXy take place Slo. t7]s tov dipfxov

8vv(tij.€0)<i ; and at 651 b 26, as the creatures growand get " matured," the parts /xera/âAAei their

colour, and so do the viscera.

"irvxrj, " Soul."

The English word " Soul," as will be seen, over-

emphasizes, when compared with ifi'X'h certain

aspects of the Greek term, but it is by far the mostconvenient rendering, and I have used it in pre-

ference to " hfe " or " vital principle."

It will be useful to have an outline of Aristotle's

general doctrine about Soul.

The different " parts " or " faculties " of Soul can

84

PARTS OF ANIMALS

be arranged in a series in a definite order, so that thepossession of any one of them implies the possession

of all those which precede it in the list :

(1) nutritive Soul in all plants

(2) sentient Soul in all animals

(3) appetitive Soul V • ^

)A 1 A.- c 1[in some animals

(4) locomotive boul j

(5) rational Soul in man only

At 641 a 23 Aristotle speaks of " parts " of the

Soul, and though he often uses this phrase, the

description he prefers is " faculties." In the passagewhich follows (641 a 33 foil.) all except appetitive

Soul are mentioned. Sentient Soul is mentionedagain at 650 b 24, 667 b 23, 672 b 16.

Aristotle raises the question whether it is the

business of Natural science to deal with Soul in its

entirety, and concludes that it is not necessary, since

man is the only animal in which rational Soul is

found. Thus it is only some part or parts of Soul,

and not Soul in its entirety, which constitute animal

nature.

In the passage 641 a 14 follo-\\ing, Aristotle takes

for granted his doctrine about Soul, which is as

follows (De anima, Book II.). Animate bodies, bodies" with Soul in them " (Jjxxl^vxff), are " concrete sub-

stances " made up of matter and form. In this

partnership, of course, the body is the matter and the

Soul is the form. Thus Soul may be described as the" form " or " realization " (eVreAeyeta, " actuality ")

of the animal {cf. Depart., loc. cit.).

This statement, however, is elsewhere made moreprecise. It is possible to distinguish tfvo " realiza-

tions " of an animal ; for an animal " has Soul in it"

B 2 35'

ARISTOTLE

even when it is asleep, but its full activity is not

evident until it is awake and about its business. Wemust call Soul, then, the " first realization " of the

animal, its waking life its " second realization.'*

This distinction does not concern us in the De partibus.

But an expansion of the definition is not irrelevant.

Aristotle states that the Soul is the first realization

of a body furnished with organs. The priority of

Soul over body is emphasized in the passage just

referred to (640 b 23—641 a 32), and in another in-

teresting passage (687 a 8 foil.) Aristotle maintains

that man has hands because he is the most intelli-

gent animal, and not, as some have said, the mostintelligent animal because he has hands.

With this is connected the question whether the

Soul is independent of the body ; though it is not

raised in De partibus. As we have seen already, a

^wov is a single concrete entity made up of Soul andbody, i.e. a certain form implanted in certain matter.

The matter can exist, for it did exist, apart from the

form ; and as the form that is implanted in all the

individuals of a species is one and the same form,

clearly it can exist apart from any one individual's

matter—though of course its existence is not in-

dependent of all the individuals' matter. Further-

more, the form—the Soul—requires matter of a

particular kind : not any sort of matter will do.

From these considerations two conclusions seem to

follow : (1) that transmigration is impossible : a

human Soul cannot function in a hyena's body, any

more than the carpenter's art can be executed bymeans of musical instruments ; (2) the Soul cannot

function without a body at all ; cannot, we may say,

exist (4.14- a 19).

Sd

PARTS OF ANIMALS

So far, so good. But Aristotle is not satisfied.

He feels the Soul is more than that. He finds a

loophole. There may be some " part " of Soul (the

rational part) which is not the " realization " of anybody. The Soul, besides being the form, the formal

Cause, of the body, is also its final Cause, and not

only that, but the motive Cause too of all the changesoriginated in the body (De anima 415 b 7-28), for, as

we saw (p. 25), the three non-material Causes tendto coalesce into one. This independent " part " of

Soul " comes into the body from without " (see Degen. an. 736 b 25 foil.) and continues to exist after

the death of the body (see De anima 413 a 6, b 24 foil.,

430 a 22, etc.). All this, however, raises problemsnot touched upon in De partihus ; indeed Aristotle

himself offers no solution of them.

^^Xî Kpacrts, aTrd/cptcri?, crvvTr]îs.

I have indicated above, in the note on SvvafXL?,

some of the older (Hippocratic) medical terminologyof which traces are to be found in the De partihus.

There is no room for an adequate discussion of suchterms and theories, and the following bare references

must suffice.

In the Hippocratic treatise Tiepl Siacri^s the theoryis put forward that the human organism, body andSoul alike, is composed of fire and water (whichreally consist of " the hot," " the sohd," " the cold,"

and " the fluid ")—the function of fire being to causemotion, of M'ater to provide nourishment. In ch. 35we have a hst of the different varieties of Blend(KprjcTLSf (rvyKpi](TLs) of fire and water which may be

37

ARISTOTLE

found in the Soul in different individuals, and uponthe Blend its health and sensitivity ^ depend.

With these statements may be compared the

following passages in De partihus :

652 b 8 Some, says Aristotle, maintain that the

Soul is fiie ; but it is better to say

that it subsists in some such material.** The hot " is indeed the most ser-

viceable material for the functions

which the Soul has to perform, andthese include nourishing and causing

motion.

647 b 30 foil. Here is a reference to the different

varieties of blood, and Aristotle tells

us which sort of blood is aladi^TiKM-epov

and which animals are on that account

(fipovtiuoTepa {cf. 650 b 24 and 686 b 28).

The phrase ttt/xaro? Kâo-i? is actually

used at 686 a 9- (Cf. also 650 b 29, the

Kpaa-Ls in the heart ; 652 b 35, the parts

in the head are colder than the cri'/x-

fierpos Kpaa-LS ; 669 a 11, the KpacTLS

of the body ; 673 b 26, its €VKpa<TLa.)

The term (tvitt]îs, which occurs frequently in the

liepl Si(u't//9, is found only once in the De partibus

at 677 a 14—bile is said to be a residue or irvvTi-jîs.

Properly speaking, crri'T/y^ts^ is the term applicable to

the " colliquescence " or decay of the parts of the bodythemselves. {Cf. a-vvryj-y/xa at De gen. an. 724 b 26

foil. ; also (Tvi'T-)]îSy 456 b 3 1; cf. also Piatt's note

at the end of his translation ofDe gen. an. , on 724 b 27.)

The effect of the colliquescence is to produce an

• The adjective used is (f)p6vifios.

38

PARTS OF ANIMALS

unhealthy a-oKpicn^ (abscession)—a very commonterm in Ilept Suxlti]^ (see chh. 58 foil, throughout).

It occurs twice in De pariibus. In both places it is

used of a Tzepl-rMiJxi. At 690 a 9 the surplus earthy

matter diroKpuTiv Xapfâvî , and forms a continuous

nail or hoof. At 681 b S5 Aristotle speaks of the

place where the (r-eppo-iKij or the TrepLTTOjpo.nK-q

d-oKpiCTLs is effected ; and here d-oKpta-ts seems to

mean simply " act of excretion." The meaning of

the term seems both here and in Hippocrates to be

specially associated with 7reptTTw//a-a, either useful

ones, or useless and even harmful ones. A great

deal of Ilept SiaiT/;? is taken up with suggestions for

getting rid of harmful diroKpicreLS.

The meaning of d-oKpLan^ is therefore wider than" excretion " or " secretion," as used in their present

usual sense, though these are included among its

meanings.

Tb p^kkov Kal rJTTov, " the more and less," see

above, p. 19, and Gen. An. (Loeb), Introd. §§ 70 ff.

Translations of Aristotle's Zoology

The history of the translation of Aristotle's works Transia-

begins with the Nestorian Christians of Asia Minor, Aristotle's

who were familiar with the Greek language as their zoological

service-books were written in it, and before the

coming of the Arabs they had translated some of the

works of Aristotle and Galen into Syriac. Before

ARISTOTLE

435, Ibas, who in that year was made Bishop of

Edessa, had translated into Syriac the commentariesof Theodore on the works of Aristotle. Jacob, oneof Ibas's successors at Edessa (d. 708), translated theCategories into Syriac, but a much earlier version hadbeen made by Sergios of Resh 'Aina (d. 536), whohad studied Greek at Alexandria. In 765 the Nes-torian physician Georgios was summoned to Bagdadby the Caliph, and translated numerous Greek wordsinto Arabic for him. By the beginning of the ninth

century, translation was in full swing at Bagdad,under the Caliphate of al-Mamun (813-833), son of

Harun-al-Rashid. The first leader of this school

of translators was the physician Ibn al-Batriq, whotranslated the Historia animalium, the De partibus

animalium, and the De generatione animalium into

Arabic.

But it was through southern Italy, Sicily and Spainthat the transmission of Aristotle's works from theArabic into Latin was effected. Messina had beenrecovered from the Saracens by 1060, and the wholeof Sicily was freed by 1091. Under the Normankings, Greeks, Saracens and Latins hved togetherin one community, and the court was the meeting-ground for eminent persons of all nations andlanguages. The reconquest of Spain had begun in

the eighth century, so that here also an opportunityoffered for making the works of Greek science

available in Latin. Archbishop Raymond of Toledo(1126-1151) and Bishop Michael of Tarazona (1119-1151) were the patrons of the translators, who madeToledo the centre of their activity. One of these

was Michael Scot.

There is in existence an Arabic translation of

40

PARTS OF ANIMALS

the zoological works, of which there is a ms. in

the British Museum." It is probable that this is thetranslation made by Ibn al-Batriq, and that this

Arabic version is the original from which MichaelScot made his Latin translation at Toledo.^ Michaelwas, among his other accomplishments, astrologer to

Frederick II., King of Sicily, at his court at Palermo,and before 1217 he had reached Toledo and was at

work there on his translations from the Arabic. HisDe a7iimaUhus (a translation of the zoological works in

nineteen books) is one of his earliest works, and twoMss. of it ^ contain a note which gives a later limit

of 1220 for the work. Other evidence'^ establishes

that it was certainly finished before 1217, and it mayeven be placed in the first decade of the century.

It is probable that Michael had as collaborator oneAndrew, canon of Palencia, formerly a Jew. Oneof the earliest to make use of Michael's transla-

tions was Robert Grosseteste,^ Bishop of Lincoln

(d. 1253), one of the leading Aristotelian scholars

of the time, who quotes from Michael's version of

« B.M.Add. 7511 (13th-14th century). Th^s is the ms.referred to by Steinschneider, Die arabischen Uhersetzungenp. 64, as B.Î. 437. I have seen this ms.

** Judging from the passages which Dr. R. Levy kindlyread for me in the Arabic ms., the Latin version is a close

translation from it. Also, the contents-preface wliich is foundprefixed to Michael Scot's translation corresponds exactlywith the preface which precedes the Arabic version in this

MS. (see the B.M. catalogue, Catalogus codicum manuscrip-torum orientaliuyn, p. 215).

•^ One of them is ms. Caius 109, in the library of Gonvilleand Caius College, Cambridge. It is of the thirteenth

century.^ See S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions, p. 75.• Born at Stradbroke, Suffolk. A Franciscan.

41

ARISTOTLE

De gejieratione.^ The De animalihus also formed thebasis of a commentary in twenty-six books byAlbertus Magnus.'' This was probably written soonafter the middle of the thirteenth century. Exceptfor the portions which appear in Albertus 's com-mentary, and the earlier part of the first chapter,"

Michael's version has never been printed in extenso.

Michael died in or before 1235, and is reputed to

have been buried, as he was born, in the lowlands of

Scotland.

About the same time, at the request of a pupil of

Albertus, St. Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), who re-

quired more accurate versions for his commentarieson the works of Aristotle, new translations, direct

from the Greek, were being undertaken by Williamof Moerbeke.^ William was born about 1215. Hebecame a Dominican, was confessor to Popes ClementIV. and Gregory X., and was Archbishop of Corinth.

He acted as Greek secretary at the Council of Lyonsin 1274<. He died in 1286. The earliest dated trans-

lation made by him is one of the De partibus animalium.

The date 1260 occurs in a ms. of it at Florence (Fae-

sulani 168), which also contains Hist, an.^ De progressu

an., and De gen. an. This translation was made at

Thebes.Among later Latin translators of the zoological

" According to Roger Bacon, Michael appeared at Oxfordin 1230, bringing with him the works of Aristotle in natural

history and mathematics." Ed. 'princepsy Rome, 1478 ; latest ed., H. Stadler,

1916-1921.« 639 a 1—640 a 20, printed by G. Furlani in Rivista

degli Studi Orientali, ix. (1922), pp. 246-249.** A small town south of Ghent on the borders of Flanders

and Brabant.

42

PARTS OF ANIMALS

works the names of two Greeks must be mentioned.George of Trebizond (Trapezuntius), who was bornin Crete in 1395, visited Italy between 1430 and1438, and was secretary to the humanist PopeNicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. George's work,however, was hurried and not over-exact, and he,

together with his predecessors, was superseded byhis contemporary Theodore of Gaza, who was bornin Thessalonica about 1400, and was professor ofGreek at Ferrara in 1447. In 1450 Theodore wasinvited by the Pope to go to Rome to make Latinversions of Aristotle and other Greek authors. Histranslation of the zoological works," dedicated to thePope, Sixtus IV., soon became the standard version,

and it is printed in the Berhn edition of Aristotle.

Translations of the De gen. were made by Augus-tinus Niphus, of the University of Padua (1473-1546),and of the De gen. and De incessu by Peter Alcyonius(Venice, 1487-1527). The De gen. was also translated

by Andronicus Callixtus of Byzantium (d. 1478).

With the later Latin versions we need not hereconcern ourselves, but something must be said of

the scientific workers who were inspired by Aristotle,

and of the translations into modern languages.

The Renaissance biologists show unmistakably the Aristotle's

difference in quaUty which there is between Aristotle's successors.

physics and his biology. Hieronimo Fabrizio of

Acquapendente (1537-1619) knew and admiredAristotle's work on embryology, and what is more,himself carried out further important observations

on the same subject. His brilliant successor, WilliamHarvey (1578^1657), was a student of Aristotle, and

" In eighteen books, excluding the spurious tenth book ofthe Historia animalium,

43

ARISTOTLE

much of his inspiration came from that source.

William Harvey was the first to make any substantial

advance in embryology since Aristotle himself. Butthis is more appropriate to the De generatione thanto the De partihus. In other departments of study,

however, during the seventeenth century, the

authority of Aristotle and the scholastic doctrine

with Mhich he was identified were being combatedin the name of freedom, and thus it came about that

the zoological works also, which had been broughtto light by the dark ages, were allowed to pass backinto oblivion by the age of enlightenment. They werenot rediscovered until the end of the eighteenth

century by Cuvier (1769-1832) and Saint-Hilaire

(1805-1895) in the nineteenth.

Modern Editions

1. The Berlin edition of Aristotle, by Immanuel Bekker.Vol. i. (pp. 639-697) includes P.A. Berlin, 1831.

1a. The Oxford edition (a reprint of the preceding). Vol. v.

includes P.A. Oxford, 1837.

2. One-volume edition of Aristotle's works, by C. H. Weise(pre-Bekker text). Leipzig, 1843.

8. The Leipzig edition. Vol. v. contains P.A., edited andtranslated into German by A. von Frantzius. Leip-

zig, 1853.

4. The Didot edition. Vol. iii. includes P.A. Edited byBussemaker. Paris, 1854.

5. The Teubner edition. Edited by Bernhardt Langkavel.

Leipzig, 1868.

6. The Bude edition. Edited by Pierre Louis. With a

French translation and notes. Paris, 1956.

Translations without Text

7. Thomas Taylor. English translation of Aristotle in ten

44

PARTS OF ANIMALS

volumes. Vol. vi. includes P.A. (pp. 3-163). London,1810.

8. F. N. Titze. German translation of Book I. In his

Aristoteles ilher die wissenschaftliche Beliandlungsart

der Naturkunde. Prague, 1819.

9. Anton Karsch. German translation. Stuttgart, 1855(second ed., Berlin, 1911).

10. William Ogle. English translation, with notes. Lon-don, 1882.

1 1

.

J. Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire. French translation, withnotes. Paris, 1885.

11. William Ogle. English translation, with notes (a re-

vision of No. 10). Oxford 1911.

12. Francisco Gallach Pales. Aristoteles: Obras com-pletas. Vol. X contains De partibus and De incessu

animalium. Spanish translation, without notes. Vol.

Ixii. of Nueva Biblioteca Filosofica. Madrid, 1932.

Langkavel reproduces almost verbatim the Berlin

text, together with Bekker's apparatus, to w^hich a

great deal of other matter has been added, including

some of Bekker's ms. notes in his copy of Erasmus's

edition, and some corrected reports of the readings

of the MS. E, which Langkavel himself inspected.

Also, there are some emendations proposed byBonitz.

Any English translator must stand very muchindebted to the work of William Ogle, whose trans-

lation, originally published in 1882, was revised byits author and republished in the Oxford series of

translations of Aristotle in 1911- It is not possible

to overrate the care and exactness with which this

piece of work was executed. I should like here to

acknowledge my own indebtedness to it, and I havehad its accuracy as a model before me. With re-

gard to style, it will be seen that I have aimed at pro-

ducing something rather different from Ogle's version.

4'5

ARISTOTLE

The Text

The M3S. The manuscript authorities cited by Bekker for the

De partihus will be found on p. 50.

The dates of some of the mss. as given by different

scholars vary considerably : for details I refer the

reader to the various catalogues, and also to L. Ditt-

meyer's edition of Hist. an. (Leipzig, 1907) and W. W.Jaeger's edition of De an. motu, etc. (Leipzig, 1913).

storation I have relied upon the apparatus of Bekker andthe text. Langkavel for the readings of the Greek mss., except

for those of Z, the oldest parts of which I have collated

from photostats "; and at several places I have in-

spected the MS. itself. In some places (e.g. QQo b 17,

685 a 2, 16) I found the reading had been defectively

reported. It is clear that a more reliable collation of

the chief mss. of De partihus is clearly needed. Froma different source I have attempted to restore intelligi-

bility to several corrupt passages with the aid of the

Arabic version and the Latin version of Michael

Scot, which represent an earlier stage of the Aristo-

telian text than our Greek mss. Among the passages

dealt with in this way are the passage at Q5^ b 14

following, which has been dislocated by glosses andphrases imported from elsewhere, and the remark-

able passage about the structure of the Cephalopods

at 684 b 22 following, where considerable havoc has

been done to the text by references to a diagram

which were inserted at some period between the

date of the ms. from which the Arabic version was

made and that of the archetype of all our present

Greek mss. I have been able to restore this passage,

though not always the actual Greek words, by refer-

ence to the Arabic version and Michael Scot's Latin

" See additional note on p. 434.

46

PARTS OF ANIMALS

translation made from it. Dr. Reuben Levy hasmost kindly read this passage for me in the 13th-14th

century Arabic ms. in the British Museum, Add. 7511.

For these two passages, and for a good many other

suspected places, I have consulted all the known mss.

of Michael Scot's version which are to be found in

this country. They are (excluding mss. which contain

merely abridgements or extracts) :

Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 109

„ University Library li. 3. 16Dd. 4. 30

Oxford, Merton College 278

„ Balliol College 252

London, British Museum Royal 12. C. XVHarl. 4970«

All these are of the thirteenth or fourteenth

century.

I have inspected at test places the following three

MSS. of William of Moerbeke's version :

Oxford, Merton College 270

„ 271BalUol College 250

William's translation was made from a ms. or mss.

which had already been infected by the corruptions

found in the Greek mss. which exist to-day.

I should like here to express my thanks to the

Librarians who so kindly made arrangements for meto inspect the mss. under their care.

Where I have accepted the reading of the Berlin Scope of

edition, I have not n;iven any record of the ms. vari-cr/JIcS,"*

ants. These are to be found in the apparatus criticus

of that edition and of Langkavel's edition.

• So far as I know, this ms. has not been mentioned in anyof the published lists of mss. of Michael Scot's De animalibus.

4t

ARISTOTLE

I have endeavoured, except in the passage

691 b 28 to 695 a 22 in the fourth Book, to record

all places where I have departed from the text of

the Berlin edition, and I have given the source of

the reading which I have adopted. Where Bekkerhimself introduced a reading different from that of

the Mss., this is attributed to him by name.Punctua- I have not recorded all of the many passages in

^°"' which I have corrected the punctuation. The text

has been reparagraphed throughout.

Reference

Short bibiio- The following list includes authorities for state-^*^ ^' ments made in the Introduction, and books which

the student of the Aristotelian zoological works andtheir history will find useful :

C. H. Haskins, Studies in the History of Medieval Science^

ed. 2, Cambridge, Mass., 1927.

W. Jaeger, Aristotle (English tr. by R. Robinson), Oxford,1934.

L. Leclerc, Histoire de la medecine arabe, Paris, 1876.

T. E. Lones, Aristotle's Researches in Natural Science^

London, 1912.

W. D. Ross, Aristotle, London, 1930.

J. E. Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship, Cam-bridge, 1908-1921.

C. Singer, Studies in the History and Method of Science,

Oxford, 1921.

C. Singer, Greek Biology and Greek Medicine, Oxford, 1922.

M. Steinsclineider, Die arahischen Uhersetzungen aus demGriechischen (Beiheft XII. zum Centralblatt fiir

Bibliotliekswesen), Leipzig, 1893.

M. Steinschneider, Die europdischen Uhersetzungen aus dein

Arahischen, in Sitzungsberichte d. kais. Akad. der Wiss.,

cxlix., Vienna, 1905.

D'Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and Form, Cambridge,1917 (new ed., 1942).

48

PARTS OF ANIMALS

D'Arcy W. Thompson, Essay on " Natural Science " in

The Legacy of Greece, Oxford, 1924.

S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions of the Aristo-

telian Scientific Corpus, London, 1031.

F. Wiistenfeld, Die Ubersetzungen arabischer Werke in das

Lateinische, in Abhandlungen der k, Gesell. d. Wiss.

zu Gottingen, xxii., 1877.

Acknowledgements

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help

which I have received frommany friends at Cambridge,

not only by way of reading typescript and proof andby discussion, but also by the interest which they

have shown in the work and by their continuous

encouragement. The following have read the trans-

lation either in whole or in part : Prof. F. M. Corn-

ford, Professor of Ancient Philosophy ; Dr. F. H. A.

Marshall, Reader in Agricultural Physiology (w^ho has

also kindly wTitten the Forewôrd to this volume),

and Dr. Joseph Needham, Reader in Biochemistry.

I am under a particular obligation to my colleague

Mr. H. Rackham, who has read the whole translation

both in typescript and in proof. I am indebted

to Dr. Sydney Smith and a number of other friends

for their kindness in discussing various points andfor reading certain passages. Dr. Reuben Levy,

Professor of Persian, has kindly read for me somepassages in the Arabic translation of the zoological

works. To all of these gentlemen, without whoseaid the work could not have been carried through,

I record my sincerest thanks.

The present (third) edition has again been revised.

A. L. P.

July nth 195;^

49

SiGLA

E Parisinus regius 1853 (see p. 434)

Y Vaticanus graecus 261

Z Oxoniensis Coll. Corp. Chr. W.A. 2. 7 (see p. 434)

U Vaticanus 260

P Vaticanus graecus 1339

S Laurentianus Mediceus 81. 1

Q Marcianus 200

b Parisinus 1859

m Parisinus 1921

2 Michael Scot's Latin version, from myown transcription,

vulg. The usual reading, as in the Berlin

edition.

Langkavel Emendations proposed by Langkavel in

his edition.

Ogle Emendations proposed by WiUiam Ogle

in footnotes to his translation.

Piatt Emendations proposed by Arthur Piatt,

either (a) in " Notes on Aristotle," in

Journal of Philology, 1913, xxxii. 292

following, or (6) recorded by Ogle in

footnotes to his translation.

^ r J \(Suggestions in private communications

Corntord L^ ^^ ^^^^^ Professor Cornford and Mr.RackhamI

(^^.i^ham.

Th(urot) Ch. Thurot, in Rev. Arch., 1867.«

Peck Emendations proposed by myself.

" Of over 100 textual points, many being of minor import-

ance, raised by Th., about a third had been dealt with in myfirst edition (before Th.'s work came to my notice), some of

them more fully, by other scholars or myself. Some of Th.'s

other suggestions have been adopted in this edition.

50

The maister Cooke was called Concoction.

Spenser, Faerie Queen

APISTOTEAOTSnEPI Z£2Ii2N MOPION

9 a Ilept irdoav Becjopiav re /cat [ledoSov, ofioicos

raTTeivorepav re Kal TLfXicorepav, Svo (jiaivovrai

rpoTTOL rrj? eêcos elvai, (x)V ttjv fikv emorrnjuqv

rod TTpdypLaros KaXcos exî TTpooayopeveiv, rrjv 8*

5 otov TTaiheiav rivd. TTeTTaiSevfievov yap ion Kara

rpoTTov TO hvvaoOai KpZvai evaro-xtos tl KaXcijs -^ firj

KaXcjs dTToSlSajGLV 6 Xeyojv. tolovtov yap S-q rtva

Kal Tov oXwg TreTTaiSevfievov olofjied^ elvai, /cat to

TTeTTaihevudai to SvvaoOaL TTOielv to elpr^pLevov.

TrXrjv TOVTOV [xev Trepl TrdvTCOV cLs el-nelv KpiTiKov

10 Ttva vop.it,oixev elvai eva tov dpidfxov oVra, tov 8e

77ept TLVos (j)VG€OJS d(f)OjpLapJvr]s' etrj yap dv Ttg

€T€pOS TOV aVTOV TpOTTOV Tip elp'^jxlvCp SLaK€LfJL€VOS

7T€pl fJLOpLOV^ (JJOTe SrjXoV OTL Kal TTJS 7T€pl (f)V<JlV

iGTopias Set TLvds virdpx^^v opovs toiovtov^ Trpos

ovs dva<f>epa>v a-TroSeêrat tov Tponov tcov Set/cvu-

52

ARISTOTLE

PARTS OF ANIMALS

BOOK I

There are, as it seems, two ways in which a

person may be competent in respect of any study or

investigation, whether it be a noble one or a humble :

he may have either what can rightly be called a

scientific knowledge of the subject ; or he may have

what is roughly described as an educated person's

competence, and therefore be able to judge correctly

which parts of an exposition are satisfactory andwhich are not. That, in fact, is the sort of person

we take the " man of general education " to be ; his** education " consists in the abihty to do this. In

this case, however, we expect to find in the one

individual the ability to judge of almost all subjects,

whereas in the other case the abihty is confined to

some special science ; for of course it is possible to

possess this abihty for a limited field only. Henceit is clear that in the investigation of Nature, or

Natural science, as in every other, there must first

of all be certain defined rules by which the ac-

ceptability of the method of exposition may be

tested, apart from whether the statements made

ARISTOTLE639 a ^

X

15 jjidvcov, X^P^^ "^^^ '^^S' e;)(et rdXrjdes, etre ovroj?

etre dXXoj?. Xeyco 8' olov iroTepov heZ Xafxâvovras

[xiav eKdarrjv ovoiav Trepl ravrr]? hiopit,eiv Kad^

aVT'^V, olov 7T€pl dvdpwTTOV (jiVGeOJS ri XioVTOS T]

Poos "^ Kal TLvos dXXov KaO" eKaarov npox^Lpilô-

pievovs, rj TO, KOivfj GvpLlSe^rjKora Trdoi Kara tl

Koivov V7To9ep.€vov£-ôXXd yap vrrapxî ravrd

20 TToXXoZg yev€GLv irepois ovolv dXXrjXo^v, olov vrrvos,

avaTTVorjy av^rjOLS, (jidiuis, Odvaros, Kal Trpos rov-

roL? ooa roLavra rcov Xenropêvajv Tradchv re Kal

SiaOeoewv dS7]Xov yap Kal dSLopLorov ion Xeyeiv

VVV 7T€pl TOVTOJV (f)aV€p6v 8' OTL Kal KaTOL fJi€p09

pikv XeyovTGS irepl ttoAAojv ipovp.€v TToXXdKis ravrd'

25 Kal yap Ittttois Kal kvgI Kal dvdpojTTois VTrdpxei

'rcjv elpr]pLivo)v eKaorov, wore idv Kad^ eKaorov rd

ovpL^^îqKora^ Xiy-Q ns, TroAAa/cts" dvayKaodrjoerai

TTcpl rcov avrwv Xeyeiv, ooa ravrd p,ev VTrdpx^L rots'

ctSet hia<f)€povGi rcov t^cpojv, avrd 8e pb-qhepiiav €X€l

30 SLa(f)Opdv. erepa 8' lgojs iorlv oh GvpLâlvei rrjv

639 b [X€v Karriyopiav €X€lv r7]v avrrjv Siacjiepeiv 8e rfj

/car' etSos" 8ta<ô/)a, otov rj rcjv ^cucov rropeia' ov

yap (f)aLV€raL fJLLa rev etSet- hiacjyepei yap rrrrjoig Kal

vevGi? Kal ^dhiGi? Kal epiJjL?.

Aid Set p.rj hiaXeXridivai ttojs eTTLGKeTTreov, Xeyo)

6 8e TTorepov Koivfj Kard yevos TTpcjrov, eW vorepov

^ TO avuê^-qKora Ogle : tcDv avfiê^rjKOTcov vulg.

54

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.

represent the truth or do not. I mean, for instance,

should we take each single species severally by turn

(such as Man, or Lion, or Ox, or whatever it maybe), and define what we have to say about it, in andby itself ; or should we first establish as our basis the

attributes that are common to all of them becauseof some common character which they possess ?—there

being many attributes which are identical thoughthey occur in many groups which differ among them-selves, e.g. sleep, respiration, growth, decay, death,

together ^^^th those other remaining affections andconditions which are of a similar kind. I raise this,

for at present discussion of these matters is an obscure

business, lacking any definite scheme. However,thus much is plain, that even if we discuss themspecies by species, we shall be giving the same de-

scriptions many times over for many different animals,

since every one of the attributes I mentioned occurs

in horses and dogs and human beings alike. Thus,if our description proceeds by taking the attributes

for every species, we shall be obliged to describe the

same ones many times over, namely, those Avhich

although they occur in different species of animals are

themselves identical and present no difference what-ever. \êry likely, too, there are other attributes,

which, though they come under the same generalhead, exhibit specific differences ;—for example, the

locomotion of animals : of which there are plainly

more species than one

—

e.g. flight, swimming, walk-ing, creeping.

Therefore we must make up our minds aboutthe method of our investigation and decide whetherwe will consider first what the whole group has in

55

ARISTOTLE639 b

TTepl T(x)v Ihiiov deojp-qreov, rj Kad^ e/cacrrov €v6v^,

vvv yap ov Stco/otcrrat Trepl avrov, ovSe ye to vvv

pi'ldriGopievov, olov TTorepov KaOdnep ol fJLadrjpLarLKol

ra irepl ttjv aorpoXoyiav heiKvvovGiv, ovtoj Set Kal

Tov (jyvGiKov TO. (jyaivofjieva TTpujTOV ra Trepl ra t,cpa

10 Oecoprjoavra /cat ra fJiepr] ra Trepl eKaarov, erret^'

OVTOJ Xeyeiv to 8ta Tt kol ras alrlag, rj dXXcos ttcos.

TTpog Se TouTOt?, irrel rrXeiovs opcofjiev alrias Trepl

rrjv yeveohv Trjv (f)vaLKrjv, otov nqv 6^ ov eveKa Kal

TTjv oOev Tj ap)(r] ttjs KLvqaecog, hiopiareov Kal

TTepl TOVTOJV, TToia TrpcoTT) Kal Sevrepa TTe(j>VKev.

15 (jyaiverai he vpcarr] tjv XeyojJiev eveKa tlvos' Xoyo?

yap ovTog, o.pxV ^' ^ Aoyo? ofJLOLOJs ev re toZs

Kara Te-xyT]^ Kal ev TOt? ûoet GVveorrjKOGiv . tj

yap rfj hiavoia tj rfj acGOrjGei opiGapbevos 6 jjiev

larpos TTjv vyieiav 6 8' oiKohofxos ttjv ot/ctav,

aTToStSoaat rovs Xoyovs Kal rag alrias ov ttoiovglv

eKOLGTOV, Kal 8toTt TTOiTjTeov OVTCJS - jjidXXov 8'

20 eaTt TO ov eveKa Kal to KaXov ev Totg ttjs (j)VGea)s

epyois ri ev rols ttj? rex^qs. to 8* ef dvayK-qg

OV TTaGiv vTTapx^L ToXg KaTOi (f)VGLV ofxoLcos, els

" This point is resumed and decided below, 644 a 23 if.,

6io b 2 ff.

* " Causes." See Introduction, pp. 24 ff.

* " Formation." See Introduction, pp. 27 f.

^ i.e. the " final " cause.* i.e. the " motive " or " efficient " cause.f See Introduction, pp. 26 f. ' Cf. 64o a 24.

56


common, and afterwards the specific peculiarities ;

or begin straightway with the particular species.**

Hitherto this has not been definitely settled. Andthere is a further point which has not yet beendecided : should the student of Nature follow the

same sort of procedure as the mathematician follows

in his astronomical expositions— that is to say,

should he consider first of all the phenomena which

occur in animals, and the parts of each of them, andhaving done that go on to state the reasons and the

causes ; or should he follow some other procedure ?

Furthermore, we see that there are more causes^

than one concerned in the formation^ of natural

things : there is the Cause for the sake of which the

thing is formed,^ and the Cause to which the begin-

?u?i£r of the motioji is due.^ Therefore another point

for us to decide is which of these two Causes stands

first and which comes second. Clearly the first is

that which we call the " Final " Cause—that for the

sake of which the thing is formed—since that is

the logos f of the thing—its rational ground, andthe logos is always the beginning for products of

Nature as well as for those of Art. The physician

or the builder sets before himself something quite

definite— the one, health, apprehensible by the

mind, the other, a house, apprehensible by the

senses ; and once he has got this, each of themcan tell you the causes and the rational groundsfor everything he does, and why it must be doneas he does it. Yet the Final Cause (purpose) and the

Good (Beautiful) ^ is more fully present in the worksof Nature than in the works of Art. And moreoverthe factor of Necessity is not present in all the

works of Nature in a similar sense. Almost all

57

ARISTOTLE639 b ^

o TTCLpajvraL Trdvres o^^ôv rovs Xoyovs avdyeiv,

ov SteAojLtevot TToaaôj? Aeyerat ro dvayKaXov.

V7Tdp)(êi he TO fxev OLTrXojs rots' ollSlols, to S* e^

25 VTToOecreoj? Kal toZs ev yeviaei Trdaiv wanep iv

TOLS TexvaaToT? , olov oIklo, Kal tcov dXXcov otwovv

TCJV TOLOVTOJv. dvdyKTj Se TOidvSe ttjv vXt]v vtt-

dpâu el eGTai OLKia r) dXXo tl reAos" Kal yeveaOai

T€ Kal KLvrjOrivai Set Tohe rrpcoTOV, etra ToSe, Kal

TOVTOV Srj Tov Tporrov e(f)€^rjg f^^XP^ '^^^ TeXovs Kal

30 ov eVe/ca ytVerat eKaoTov Kal eaTLV. cboravTCos Se

640 a /cat eV TOLS (jivaei yivopievoi?. dAA* o Tpoiros Trjs

diToSeLêwg Kal Trjg dvdyKrj^ eTepos erri t€ ttjs

(f)VGLKr]9 Kal Tcbv 6ea>p7]TiKa)v e7noT7]pL(A)V . {eipr]Tat

S* iv eTepois rrepl tovtojv.) tj yap dpxr) toXs fxev to

ov, rots' Se TO eGOfievov errel yap roiopS' euTlv tj

6 vyieia tj 6 dvOpojiros, avdyKiq Toh^ elvai r) yeveoOai,

dXX ovK errel toS^ eoTLv tj yeyovev, eKelvo i^

" " Absolute," i.e. simple or unconditional necessity,

belongs to the " eternal things," such as the heavenly bodiesor the eternal truths of mathematics. For further details

see De gen. et corr. 337 b 14 if.

" At Met. 1025 b ff. Aristotle makes a threefold classifica-

tion of the sciences into (a) theoretical (contemplative),

(6) practical, (c) productive. The result of (a) is knowledgeonly, of (6) knowledge and action, of (c) knowledge, action,

and some article or product. The three " theoretical"

sciences are theology {i.e. metaphysics), mathematics, andphysics (natural science). In the present passage, however,Aristotle contrasts natural science with the " theoretical

"

sciences. This is because he is considering Nature as a

craftsman whose craft or science belongs to the third class

—

the " productive " sciences. Our study of Nature's science

58


philosophers endeavour to carry back their explana-

tions to Necessity ; but they omit to distinguish the

various meanings of Necessity. There is " absolute"

Necessity,^ which belongs to the eternal things ; andthere is " conditional " Necessity, which has to dowith everything that is formed by the processes of

Nature, as well as with the products of Art, such as

houses and so forth. If a house, or any other End,is to be realized, it is necessary that such and suchmaterial shall be available ; one thing must first beformed, and set in motion, and then another thing ;

and so on continually in the same manner up to the

End, which is the Final Cause, for the sake of whichevery one of those things is formed and for which it

exists. The things which are formed in Nature are

in like case. Howbeit, the method of reasoning

in Natural science and also the mode of Necessity

itself is not the same as in the Theoretical sciences.

(I have spoken of this matter in another treatise.^)

They differ in the following way.'' In the Theoretical

sciences, we begin with what already is ; but in

Natural science ^Wth what is goi?ig to be : thus, wê say,

Because that which is going to be—health, perhaps, or

man—has a certain character, therefore of necessity

some particular thing, P, must be, or must be formed;

not, Because P is now, or has been formed, therefore

the other thing (health, or man) of necessity is nowmay be a " theoretical " science, but Nature's science itself

is " productive."" The reasoning process in a " theoretical " science, e.g.

mathematics, begins, say, with A, and then deduces from it

the consequences B, C, D. In a " productive " science,

e.g. building, it begins with the house which is to be built,

D, and works backwards through the preliminary stageswhich must be realized in order to produce the house,C, B, A. Cf. below, 640 a 16 ff.

c 59

ARISTOTLE640 a ^

avayKTjs iorlv ri earat. ouS' eariv els aihiov ovvaprrjaai rrjg rotavT'qs aTToheiêats ttjv dvdyKrjv,

iooT etVetv, eVet rdS' iarlv, on rdS' eoriv. 8t-

wpiarai Se kol Trepl tovtojv iv irepois, koI ttolols

V7Tap)(^€L KOI TToZa dvTLUTpe(f)eL Kal Sta rtV alriav.

10 Aet 8e /XT^ XeXrjOevai Kal TTorepov TrpooriqKeL Xeyeiv,

ojanep ol irporepov i-noiovvro rrjv decopiav, ttws

GKaarov yiveodai 7Te(f)VKe fxdXXov 7) ttojs ecrrtv.

ov yap TL jjLiKpov 8ia(f)ep€L rovro eKeivov. €olk€

o ivrevdev dpKreov elvai [Kaddirep Kal rrporepov

€L7TOfiev, on TTpdJTov Ta cfyaivofMeva XrjTTreov Trepl

15 eKaarov yivos, eW^ ovTa> ras" alrias tovtojv

XeKTeov) Kal Trepl yeveoeojs' fidXXov yap raSe

ovfiâivei Kal Trepl ttjv olKoS6fji7]GLV eVet rotdvS'

ecrrt to elSos ttjs olKias, t] Toiovh" IutIv rj oWia otl

yiveTai ovtojs. rj yap yeveois eveKa ttjs ovoias

eoTLV, aAA* ovx 'f) ovuia eveKa ttjs yeveGews . StoTrep

20 'E/XTreSo/cATj? ovK opdcog eiprjKe Xeycov VTrdpêiv

TToXXd TOLS ^CpOLS Sid TO GVjJL^TJvai OVTCJS iv TTj

yeveGei, otov Kal tt^v pdîv ToiavTiqv ex€LV otl

OTpa(f)evTos KaTa^d^jvai Gvve^r], dyvoojv TrpwTov p.ev

OTl Set TO GTTepfXa to GVVlGTdv^ VTTapX^LV TOLaVTTjV

^ ovviorav Piatt : avarav vulg.

** Though of course this Necessity has its place in naturalscience (see 642 a 31 ff.). It is, however, not the only sort

of Necessity in Natural science, and not the paramount one.* See De gen. et corr. 337 b 25 ff. An example of a non-

convertible proposition is : Foundations are necessary for ahouse to be built. You cannot say, " If foundations are laid

a house must of necessity be built," because it is not " ab-solutely " and always necessary that a house should be built.

' Cf. Plato, Philebus 54 a-c.

60


or will be in the future." Nor, in a process of

reasoning of this kind, is it possible to trace

back the links of Necessity to eternity, so as to say,

Because A is, therefore Z is. I have, however, dis-

cussed these matters in another work,^ and I therestated where either kind of Necessity applies, whichpropositions involving Necessity are convertible, andthe reasons why.We must also decide whether we are to discuss

the processes by which each animal comes to beformed—which is wliat the earlier philosophers

studied— or rather the animal as it actually is.

Obviously there is a considerable difference betweenthe two methods. I said earlier that we ought first

to take the phenomena that are observed in eachgroup, and then go on to state their causes. This

applies just as much to the subject of the process of

formation : here too we ought surely to begin withthings as they are actually observed to be whencompleted. Even in building the fact is that theparticular stages of the process come about becausethe Form of the house is such and such, rather thanthat the house is such and such because the process

of its formation follows a particular course : the

process is for the sake of the actual thing, the thing

is not for the sake of the process." So Empedocleswas wrong when he said that many of the character-

istics which animals have are due to some accident

in the process of their formation, as when heaccounts for the vertebrae of the backbone by say-

ing ^ " the fetus gets twisted and so the backboneis broken into pieces "

: he was unaware (a) that

the seed which gives rise to the animal must to

^ Emped. frag. 97 (Diels, Fragmented, 31 b 97).

(31,

ARISTOTLE640 a

^^

€xov SvvajjLLV, €10^ on to TTOLTjoav TTporcpov VTTrjpxcv

25 ov jjLovov TO) Xoyo) o-AAd /cat rep xpova)' yevva yap 6

dvdpcjOTTos dvOpcoTTOv, wGTe Sid TO eKelvov rotdvS'

etvaL T) yiveoLS ToidSe avixâlvei tcoSl. [opioicog

Se Kal cttI tcov avTopâTOj? Sokovvtcov yiveodai

KaOdnep Kal eirl tcx)v Tex^cLOTCov evia ydp^ Kal drro

TavTopbaTOV ytVerat raura rotS" avro T€)(yr]s, olov

30 uyteta. a>v^ /xev ovv TrpovTrdpx^t to ttolt^tlkov

[opLOLov],^ olov Tj'^ dvhpiavT07Toir]TiK'q , OX) [yap]^ yi-

vcTai avTOfjLaTov. tj Se Texvrj Aoyo? tov epyov 6

dvev TTJg vXtj? eoTiv. Kal toIs diro Tvxrjs oftotcos"

COS" ydp T] TexvTj ex^L, ovtcd ytVerat.]*^ Sto /xaAtcrra

/xev X^KTeov cos" iTretST] tovt^ -^v to dv9pd)Trcp elvai,

35 hid TOVTO TavT €X€i' OV ydp ivhex^Tai etvai dvev

TCOV piopLwv TovTCov. €t §6 pLTj, 6 Ti iyyvTaTaTOVTOVy Kal ri otl oXcos dSvvaTov aAAco?/ 'q /caAcos"

640 b ye ovTiog. raura 8' eVerar eVet 8' ecrrt tolovtov,

TTjv yevecTiv wSl Kal TOiavT'qv GvpLâtveiv dvay-KaZov Sto ytVerat TrpdjTov tcqv pLoptcov ToSe, etra

ToBe. Kal TOVTOV St] tov TpOTTOV OpioicJS €77t TTav-

^Tcov TCOV <j>vo€i OVVLOTapiivOJV

.

5 Ot pbkv ovv dpxoloL Kal irpajTOL îXoGoîqcravTes

^<Evia yap om. Z^.

^ <Sv Z : rwv vulg.3 om. Zi.*

17 Z : om. vulg.6 om. Z.^

d/Aoicuy (1. 27) . . . yiverai, ex i^/g«. 1032-1034 exorta,olim ut vid. in marg. 640 b 4 adscripta ; inepta seclusi.

' OTt oXcos Z^ : oXojs OTL d. d. vulg.

" i.e. the same character as the animal which it is to pro-duce. For dynamis see Introduction, pp. 30 ff.

" No doubt a marginal note appended to 640 b 4.

62


begin with have the appropriate specific character °;

and (6) that the producing agent was pre-existent

:

it was chronologically earlier as well as logically-

earlier : in other words, men are begotten by men,and therefore the process of the child's formation is

what it is because its parent was a man. [Similarly

too -with those that appear to be formed spontane-

ously, just as with those produced by the arts ; for

some that are formed spontaneously are identical

Avdth those produced by art, e.g. health. As for those

things whose producing agent is pre-existent, e.g. the

art of statuary, no spontaneous formation occurs. Art

is the logos of the article wdthout the matter. Andsimilarly with the products of chance : they are

formed by the same process that art would employ.] ^

So the best way of putting the matter would be to

say that because the essence of man is what it is,

therefore a man has such and such parts, since there

cannot be a man without them. If we may not say

this, then the nearest to it must do, viz. that there

cannot be a man at all otherwise than with them, or,

that it is well that a man should have them. Andupon this these considerations follow : Because man is

such and such, therefore the process of his formation

must of necessity be such and such and take place

in such a manner ; which is why first this part is

formed, then that. And thus similarly with all the

things that are constructed by Nature.

Now those who were the first to study Nature in

63

ARISTOTLE640b

^ ^

7T€pl (f)VGeoJs Trepl rrjg vXLKrjg apxrjs Kal rrjs roi-

avTiqs atVias" ioKOTrovv, rt? Kal TToca rt?, /cat ttws

€K ravTiqs yiverai ro oXov, Kal rivos klvovvtos , olov

veiKovs r) <j)iXia<^ r) vov rj rod avrofidrov, rrjs 8'

VTTOKeLjjLevrjs vXr^s roiavhe nva (jiVCiLV ixovorjs i^

10 avdyKiqs, olov rod jxev TTvpos Oepfi-^v, rrj? Se yijs

ipvxpd-v, Kal rod fiev Kovcfi'qv, rrjs Se âpelav. ovtojs

yap Kal rov koctjjlov yevvcoaLV. ofjLOLOJs Se Kal irepl

TTjV T(x)v ^(pcxjv Kal raJv ûrtov yeVeatv XeyovGLV,

otov^ iv Tip GcofJLaTL peovros pêv rov vSaros KoiXiav

y€vio9ai Kal Trdoav vrrohox^jv ttjs re Tpo(f)rJ5 Kal rod15 TTepiTTcopiaros, rod he TTvevpLaros hiaTTopevOivro's

Tovs piVKrrjpag dvappayrjvai. 6 8' drjp Kal to vSojp

vXrj rcov ocopLarcDv icrriv €k tcov tolovtcov yapaojpbdrcDV ovviurdGi ttjv <j)Voiv Trdvres. el 8' 'ioTLV

6 dvOpcoTTOs Kal rd t,wa (f)V<jeL Kal rd piopia avrcov,

X^Kreov dv rrepl oapKos ecrj Kal oarov Kal atfiaTos

20 Kal TOJV opiOLopLepcbv drrdvrajv, opiOLCOs he Kal rcov

dvopiOiopiepcov, olov irpooconov, ;)êtpos', ttoSos",fj

re TOLOVTOV eKaorov eonv avrcov Kal Kard rroiav

SvvapLLV. ov ydp CKavov ro eV rivcov iorivy olov

TTvpds ri yrjs, ayoTrep Kav el irepl kXLvtis eXeyopLev rj

TLVos dXXov rcov roLovrcov, eneLpcopieda pidXXov dv

25 hiopCêLV ro elhos avrrjs t) rrjv vX'qv, olov rov ;âA/<ov

^ oTi post olov vulg. : del. Ogle.

" As Empedocles and Anaxagoras, whose attempts to

discover the " material " and the " efficient " causes arementioned a few lines below. See also Met. 983 b G ff

.

^ " Material " cause : see Introduction, pp. 24 ff.

* " Residue ": lit. " surplus "

; see Introduction, pp. 32 flF.

<* Cf. Hippocrates, Uepl 8101x17?, i. 9.

' " Parts ": see Introduction, pp. 28 ff.

64


the early days ° spent their time in trying to discover

what the material principle or the material Cause ^

was, and what it was like ; they tried to find outhow the Universe is formed out of it ; what set

the process going (Strife, it might be, or Friendship,

Mind, or Spontaneity) ; assuming throughout thatthe underlying material had, by necessity, somedefinite nature : e.g. that the nature of Fire was hot,

and light ; of Earth, cold, and heavy. At any rate,

that is how they actually explain the formation ofthe world-order. In a like manner they describe theformation of animals and plants, saying (e.g.) that thestomach and every kind of receptacle for food and for

residue "^ is formed by the water flowing in the body,and the nostril openings are forcibly made by thepassage of the breath.'* Air and water, of course,

according to them, are the material of which the bodyis made : they all say that Nature is composed ofsubstances of this sort. Yet if man and the animalsand their parts ^ are products of Nature, then accountmust be taken of flesh, bone, blood, in fact of all the" uniform parts," ^ and indeed of the " non-uniformparts " too, viz. face, hand, foot ; and it must beexplained how it comes to pass that each of these is

characterized as it is, and by what force this is effected.

It is not enough to state simply the substances out of

which they are made, as " Out of fire," or " Out of

earth." If we were describing a bed or any other

like article, we should endeavour to describe the formof it rather than the matter (bronze, or wood)—or, at

' " Uniform " and " non-uniform ": see Introduction, pp.

28 ff. The distinction between " uniform " and " non-uniform "

parts is, historically, the predecessor of the distinction be-tween " tissues " and " organs."

65'

ARISTOTLE640 b

Tj TO ^vXov, €L Se jjirj, rrjv ye rod avvoXov kXlvt] yap

roSe iv rojSe rj roSc roiovSe, ware Kav rrepl rod

ax'i^P'Ciros €it] XeKreov, /cat ttolov rr]v ISeav tj yap

Kara ttjv i.Lop(f)r)v ^vgis KvpLOjrepa rfj? vXiKrjs

cf)V<7€a>s.

30 Et fiev ovv Tw G'xriixaTL Kal rco ;^pc6âTt eKaarov

ioTL Tcx)v re t,a)a)V Kal tojv iiopiojVy opdcjs av

ArjjjLOKpLTOS XeyoL' âtVerat yap ovtojs VTToXaêlv.

(jyricrl yovv rravrl StÂov elvai olov n ttjv pLopcfy-qv

iariv 6 dvOpcxJTTOS, ojs gvtos avrov rw re cr;^-)]/âTt

Kal Ta> )(pd)\xaTi yvcxipiyiov. Kairoi Kal 6 redvews

35 €X€L TTjV aVTTjV TOV GX^jp^CLTOS p.Opcji'^V, (lAA* OjLtOJS'

ovK ecTTLV avdpojTTOS' €TL 8* dSvvarov etvat X^^P^

OTTOJGOVV hiaK€ipi€vr]v , olov x^^Xktjv t) ^vXivriVy ttXtju

641 a opLOJVvpiOJS, a)07T€p TOV yeypapLpLEvov larpov. ov yap

hwrjoeTai TTOieiv ro iavrrjs epyoVy a)GTTep ouS' aj5Aot

XlOlvol to iavTcov epyov, ouS' o yeypapipiivos laTpog.

opLOiwS Se TOVTOLs ovhe rcDv tov TeOvrjKOTOS fJLO-

6 piiov ovhev ert twv tolovtojv eGTL, Xeyoj 8* olov

6(j)daXp6si X^^P' Xlav ovv clttXcos etp'qTaL, Kal tov

avTOV TpoTTOv wGTTep dv el T6KTOJV XeyoL TTepl x^^pos

^vXivqs. ovTCx)s ydp Kal ol <f)VGLoX6yoi Tas yeviGeis

Kal ras" airlas tov GX'ripaTos XeyovGiv. vtto tlvojv

ydp iSrjpLOvpyrjOrjGav hvvdpieojv ; dXX lgcjds 6 p,ev

10 tcktcuv ip€L TTeXeKvv ^ Tpvnavov, 6 8' aepa Kal yrjVf

" See Diels, Fragmented, 68 b 165." i.e. the early writers on " Nature.'*

66


any rate, the matter, if described, would be described

as belonging to the concrete whole. For example," a bed " is a certain form in certain matter, or,

alternatively, certain matter that has a certain form;

so we should have to include its shape and the mannerof its form in our description of it—because the" formal " nature is of more fundamental importancethan the " material " nature.

If, then, each animal and each of its parts is what it

is in virtue of its shape and its colour, what Demo-critus says will be correct, since that was apparently

his view, if one understands him aright when he says

that it is evident to everyone what " man" is like as

touching his shape, for it is by his shape and his

colour that a man may be told." Now a corpse has

the same shape and fashion as a living body ; andyet it is not a man. Again, a hand constituted in

any and every manner, e.g., a bronze or woodenone, is not a hand except in name ; and the sameapplies to a physician depicted on canvas, or a flute

carved in stone. None of these can perform the

functions appropriate to the things that bear those

names. Likewise, the eye or the hand (or any other

part) of a corpse is not really an eye or a hand.

Democritus's statement, therefore, needs to be quali-

fied, or a carpenter might as well claim that a handmade of wood really was a hand. The physiologers,^

however, when they describe the formation and the

causes of the shape of animal bodies, talk in this

selfsame vein. Suppose we ask the carver " By whatagency was this hand fashioned ?

" Perhaps his

answer will be " By my axe " or " By my auger,"

just as if we ask the physiologer " By what agencywas this body fasiiioned ?

" he will say " By air " and

c2 67,

ARISTOTLE641a

^ ^

rrX-qv êXriov 6 reKTcov ov yap iKavov earat aura)

TO TOOovTov enrelv, on ejjLTTeaovTos rod opydvov

TO fJLev KolXov iyevero to 8e eVtVeSov, dAAa Sloti,

Tr)v nXriyy^v enoirjoaTO ToiavTTjv, koI tlvos eVe/ca,

epet Trjv alriav, ottws Toiovhe r] Toiovhe ttote ttjv

ixopi^rfv yevrjTai.

15 AÂoV TOLVVV OTL OVK OpOcbs XdyOVdi, Kal OTL

XeKTeov CO? tolovtov to ^cvov, Kal nepl eKeivov Kal

tL Kal TTOLOV Tt Kal TCJbv fJLOpLOJV eKaUTOV ,^ a)G7T€p

Kal TTepl Tov etSovs Trjg kXlvt]?.

Et St] tovto idTL i/j^xV V ^^XV^ p^^pos t) pLT] dvev

^vx^js {aTreXdovGT]? yovv ovkIti ^coov icTTiv, ovSe

20 Tcov pLopiojv ovhkv TO avTO AetVerat, ttXt^v to!

ax^Jp-CLTL p,6vov, KaOoLTTep TO, pLvdevojJLeva XidovoOai),

el St] TavTa ovtojs, tov (J)vglkov irepl ^vx'^S OiV etrj

Xeyeiv Kal elhivai, Kal et /xt) Trdar]?, /car' auro

tovto Kad^ O TOLOVTO TO ^cpov, Kal Tt eoTiv Tj ipvxT]»

7j avTO TOVTO TO pLopiov, Kal TTepl Tojv GvpLê^y]-

25 KOTCJV KaTa Tr]v TOiavTTjv avTTJs ovaiaVy d'AAcos" re

Kal TTJs (f)vaeojs Slxco? Xeyop.evr]s Kal ovGr]s, ttjs

pLev CVS vXrjs, ttjs S' cos" ovGias' Kal eoTiv avTi) Kal

(JJS T) KlVOVOa Kal (hs TO TeXoS' TOLOVTOV he TOV ^CpOV

^ €KdaTov Peck : eKaarov vulg.

* Or, " reason "; see Introduction, p. 24.

*> See above, 640 b 26.• " Soul "

: see Introduction, pp. 34 ff,

* Or " motive."

68


" By earth." But of the two the craftsman will give

a better answer, because he will not feel it is sufficient

to say merely that a cavity was created here, or a

level surface there, by a blow from his tool. He will

state the cause'^ on account of which, and the purpose

for the sake of which, he made the strokes he did ;

and that will be, in order that the wood might finally

be formed into this or that shape.

It must now^ be evident that the statements of the

physiologers are unsatisfactory. We have to state

how the animal is characterized, i.e., what is the

essence and character of the animal itself, as well as

describing each of its parts;

just as with the bed wehave to state its Form.^Now it may be that the Form of any living creature

is Soul,^ or some part of Soul, or something that in-

volves Soul. At any rate, when its Soul is gone, it

is no longer a living creature, and none of its parts

remains the same, except only in shape, just like the

animals in the story that were turned into stone.

If, then, this is really so, it is the business of the

student of Natural science to inform himself con-

cerning Soul, and to treat of it in his exposition ;

not, perhaps, in its entirety, but of that special part

of it which causes the living creature to be such as it

is. He must say what Soul, or that special part of

Soul, is ; and when he has said what its essence is,

he must treat of the attributes which are attached

to an essence of that character. This is especially

necessary, because the term " nature " is used

—

rightly—in two senses : (a) meaning " matter," and

(6) meaning " essence " (the latter including both

the "Efficient"^ Cause and the "End"). It is, of

course, in this latter sense that the entire Soul or

69-

ARISTOTLE641 a ^

rjroL Trdaa rj i/jvxr) 'q fiepo? n avrrj?. ojare /cat

ovTios av XeKTeov e'lrj rco nepl ûctcco? OeojprjTLKCp

30 7T€pi ^VXrjS lldWoV 7) 7T€pl TTj? vXt}? , OGCp floiXXoV T)

vXr] St' iK€LV7]V (j)VOlS €GTLV T} dvcLTTaAtv /Cat yoLp

kXlvtj /cat rpiTTOVs to ^vXov eariv, ort Sura/xet ravra

iuTLv.

ÂTrop-qG€i€ 8' dv rt? els to vvv XexOev eVtjSAei/ras',

TTorepov 7T€pl TTOLGTjs ^VX'^^ '^V^ cfyvGLKrjg iuTL TO

35 etTTetv rj Trepi rivos} et yap rrepl TTOLGrjs, ovhepiia

AetVerat Trapa ttjv (l)V<JLKrjv iTTLaTT^pLrjv <j)LXoGO(j)ia.

641 b o yap vovs rcbv vorjrcoVy coo-re Trepl ttolvtcjov t)

(f)VGiKrj yvwGLS av eir]' rrjs yap avrrjg Trepl vov /cat

rod vofjTov OecxjpijGaL, eiTrep Trpog aXXr^Xa, Kai tj

avrr] dewpla rcJov rrpos dXXiqXa TravTOJi', KaOaTrep

/cat rrepl aiGd-qGeajs /cat rojv alGBr]ra)V. 7) ovk 6GTL

5 TT-aaa rj ^wx^} KLvrJGecos dpx'^> ovSk rd piopia diravra,

dXX av^rjaeajg [xev onep /cat iv roZs (jyvrols, aA-

Aotojo'ews' Se TO aLGOrjTLKov, (f)opd£ 8' erepov n /cat

ov TO voTjTLKov vTrdpxei ydp Tj (f)Gpd /cat iv erepoLS

rojv ^cpa)Vy SidvoLa 8' ouScri. SijXov ovv w? ov

^ Tiios {^lopiov) Rackham.

" i.e. qualitative change, which is the " motion " proper

to this part of the Soul.

70


some part of it is the " nature " of a living creature.

Hence on this score especially it should be the duty

of the student of Natural science to deal with Soul

in preference to matter, inasmuch as it is the Soul

that enables the matter to "be the nature " of an

animal (that is, potefitialli/, in the same way as a piece

of wood " is " a bed or a stool) rather than the matterwhich enables the Soul to do so.

In view of what we have just said, one may well ask

whether it is the business of Natural science to treat

of Soul in its entirety or of some part of it only

;

since if it must treat of Soul in its entirety (i.e.

including intellect) there will be no room left

for any other study beside Natural science—it ^vill

include even the objects that the intellect appre-

hends. For consider : wherever there is a pair

of interrelated things, such as sensation and the

objects of sensation, it is the business of one

science, and one only, to study them both. Nowintellect and the objects of the intellect are

such a pair ; hence, the same science will study

both of them, which means that there will be

nothing whatever left outside the purview of

Natural science. All the same, it may be that

it is neither Soul in its entirety that is the

source of motion, nor yet all its parts taken

together ; it may be that one part of Soul, (a), viz.

that which plants have, is the source of growth

;

another part, (6), the " sensory " part, is the source

of change"; and yet another part, (c), the source

of locomotion. That even this last cannot be the

intellectual part is proved, because animals other

than man have the power of locomotion, although

none ofthem has intellect. I take it, then, as evident

71

ARISTOTLE641b

^ ^ , , r X ^ X

Trepl Trdu-qs ^vx^j? XeKreov ovhk yap Trdaa ^vx^]

10 (f>V(n£, dXXd Tt {jLopLov avrrjg ev t) Kal rrXeioj.

"Ktl Se TcDv €^ dcf)aLp€G€OJs ovSevos olov r etvat

rrjv (jyvaiKrjv OecoprjriKriv, iTTetSrj rj (f)VGis eVe/ca rov

TTOtet TTOLvra' âtVerat yap, wanep ev rols re^ya-

oroZs eorlv rj re-xyri, ovrojs ev avrols roZs Trpay-

fxaGLV dXXr] ns dpxrj Kal airLa roLavrr], tjv exofiev

16 Kaddirep to Oeppiov Kal to ijjvxpov €K tov rravTos.

8t6 pidXXov eLKos TOV ovpavov yeyevrjadai vtto

roLavTTjs atrta?, el yeyove, Kal etvai Sid TOuavTrjv

aiTLav [jLaXXov rj to. ôja Td dvrjTd' to yovv rcray-

piivov Kal TO djpLGjjievov ttoXv fxdXXov <âiveTai ev

20 Tols ovpavLOLS 7j TTcpl 7]jU,as", TO S* dXXoT* aAAcu? Kat

CO? eTvx^ nepl Td dvrjTa fidXXov. ol Se rcov fxev

^cpojv eKaoTov (f)VG€L (j)aGlv etvai Kal yeveGdau, tov

8' ovpavov aTTo tvx'^s Kal tov avTOfidTOV tolovtov

GVGTTJvai, ev (h aTTO Tvx''^S Kal ara^ta? oi58' otlovv

âtVerat. iravTaxov he Xeyo[iev ToSe tovS* eVc/ca,

25 07T0V dv (jyaivrjTai reAo? Tt npo^ o rj KivrjGis rrepaivei

pi/rjhevds ejXTTohitôvTOs. cocrre etvai (jyavepdv oti ccrrt

Tt TOLOVTOV, o Srj Kal KaXovjiev (f)VGLV' ov ydp Srj

6 Tt eTVX^v e^ eKdGTOV yiveTai GirepjiaTOs, dXXd

ToSe €/c Tovhey ovhe Girepfia to tvxov e/c tov tv-

« With this passage cf. Plato, Phihhus 29-30." Cf. Samuel Butler, Life and llahit, p. 134, " A hen is

only an egg's way of making another €:g^.''

72


that we need not concern ourselves with Soul in its

entirety ; because it is not Soul in its entirety that is

an animal's " nature," but some part or parts of it.

Further, no abstraction can be studied by Natural

science, because whatever Nature makes she makesto serve some purpose ; for it is evident that, evenas art is present in the objects produced by art, so in

things themselves there is some principle or cause of

a like sort, which came to us from the universe aroundus, just as our material constituents (the hot, the

cold, etc.) did.'^ Wherefore there is better reason for

holding that the Heaven was brought into being bysome such cause—if we may assume that it cameinto being at all—and that through that cause it

continues to be, than for holding the same about the

mortal things it contains—the animals ; at any rate,

there is much clearer evidence of definite ordering

in the heavenly bodies than there is in us ; for whatis mortal bears the marks of change and chance.

Nevertheless, there are those who affirm that, while

every living creature has been brought into being

by Nature and remains in being thereby, the heavenin all its glory was constructed by mere chance

and came to be spontaneously, although there is noevidence of chance or disorder in it. And wheneverthere is evidently an End towards which a motion

goes forward unless something stands in its way, then

we always assert that the motion has the End for its

purpose. From this it is evident that something of

the kind really exists—that, in fact, which we call

" Nature," because in fact we do not find any chance

creature being formed from a particular seed, but Acomes from a, and B from b ; nor does any chance

seed come from any chance individual.^ Therefore

ARISTOTLE641 b ^

x6^TO£ GcofMaTOs. o.px^ oipoL Kal TTOiriTiKov rod ef30 avTOV TO (l^ ov t6)^ GTrepfia. (jivuei yap ravra'

(f)V€Tai, yovv €K tovtov. dAAa fjurjv 'in rovrov

TTporepov ro ov to oirlpixa' yeveois jnev yap to

onepfxa, ovoca Se to reXos. dfX(f)OLV 8* en irpo-

T€pov, dcf)* ov iorl to CTrep/xa. eom yap to

OTripixa St;â>s', e^ ov t€ Kal ov- Kal yap dcf)* od35 aTTrjXOe, tovtov OTreppia, olov lttttov, Kal tovtov

o euTat i^ avTov, otov opecos, Tpoirov 8* ov tov

avTOVy aXX eKaTepov tov elprjfievov. eVt 8e SvvdfJLei

642 a TO GTrepfxa' hvvapus 8' co? e;êt irpos ivTeXdx^f-OLV

LGfJuev.

Etotv dpa 8u' atTtat avTai, to 6^ ov ev€Ka Kal

TO cf dvdyKTjs' TToXXd yap yiveTai, otl dvayK-q.

LGOJS 8' dv TL5 dTropr]G€Le TToiav XeyovGiv dvdyK-qv

6 ol XiyovTe? i^ dvdyKrjs- tcov [xev yap Svo TpoTTOiv

ovSeTepov otov 9^ vrrdpxîv tcov SiajpLGfievcov ev toI?

Kara îXoGoîav. €gtl 8' ev ye toIs exovgl yeveoLV

7) rpLTT]' Xeyofxev yap Tr]v Tpo(j)r]v dvayKalov tl KaT

ovheTepov tovtojv tcov Tponajv, dAA' otl ovx olov t

dvev TavTrjs elvai. tovto S' ioTLV ojOTrep e^ vtto-

10 Oiaecjs' woTTep yap irrel 8et cp^têtv tco TreXeKet,

dvayKT] GKXrjpov etvai, el he GKXrjpov, ;)(aA/<ouv ^

^ <i$ ov ro> supplevi, 2 secutus.

«» There is a reference here, which is not apparent in the

English version, to the etymological connexion between ûats

(nature) and 4>v€odai (to grow). Cf. Met. 1014 b 16 ff.

^ Viz. actuality is prior to potentiality.* These treatises are referred to again in the Politics

(1282 b 19) and in the Eudemian Ethics (1217 b 23). Thetwo modes of necessity seem to be (1) " absolute " necessity

(mentioned here), and (2) " coercive " necessity (see Met,

74


the individual from which the seed comes is thesource and the efficient agent of that wliich comesout of the seed. The reason is, that these things

are so arranged by Nature ; at any rate, the offspring

grorvs ° out of the seed. Nevertheless, logically

prior to the seed stands that of M'hich it is the seed,

because the End is an actual thing, and the seed is

but a formative process. But further, prior to bothof them stands the creature out of which the seedcomes. (Note that a seed is the seed " of " some-thing in two senses—two quite distinct senses : it

is the seed " of" that out of which it came

—

e.g. ahorse—as well as " of " that which will arise out of

itself

—

e.g. a mule). Again, the seed is something

62/ potentiality, and we know what is the relation of

potentiality to actuality.^

We have, then, these two causes before us, to wit,

the " Final " cause, and also Necessity, for manythings come into being owing to Necessity. Per-haps one might ask which " Necessity " is meantwhen it is specified as a cause, since here it can beneither of the two modes which are defined in

the treatises WTitten in the philosophical manner.*'

There is, however, a third mode of Necessity : it

is seen in the things that pass through a process of

formation ; as when we say that nourishment is

necessary, we mean " necessary " in neither of

the former two modes, but we mean that withoutnourishment no animal can be. This is, practically,

"conditional" Necessity. Take an illustration: Ahatchet, in order to split wood, must, of necessity, behard ; if so, then it must, of necessity, be made of

1015 a 20 ff.). The third he has referred to already at

639 b 2o. viz. " conditional " necessity. See pp. 21 f.

75

ARISTOTLE642 a

aiSrjpovv, ovTCxj /cat eVet to aajjjLa opyavov {eveKa

Tivos yap eKaorov tojv p,opLCOv, opLoica^ he kol to

oXov), dvdyKrj dpa tolovSl etvau /cat €/c rotcovSt, el

CKelvo ecrrat.

"Otl ixev ovv hvo Tpoiroi ttjs atrtas", /cat Set

15 Aeyovras" Tvyxdveiv fidXioTa fjL€V dpLôlv, et 8e jLtTy,

TTeipaadai ye TTOieZv tovto, SijXov,^ /cat ort TrdvTeg ol

TOVTO fjLT] XeyovTes ovSev ws etVetv Trepl <f)VGeoJS

Xeyovoiv dpx^) ydp tj (j)VGis /xaAAov ttjs vXtjs.

{ivLaxov Se rrov avTTJ /cat 'E/XTreSo/cAT^s" TreptTrtTrret,

dyo/Jievos vtt^ avTrjs ttjs dXr^deias, /cat tt^v ovoiav /cat

20 TrfV (f)vaLV aray/caêrat (jydvai tov Xoyov elvai, olov

ooTovv dTroStSous" tL eoTiv ovTe ydp ev rt rcoi/

aTOixîcQv Xeyet auro oure 8uo ^ r/Jta oyVe TrdvTa,

dXXd Xoyov TTJs /xtêcos" avTcov. SrjXov tolvvv ort

Kat T] odp^ TOV avTov Tporrov eoTi, /cat tcov dXXcov

TOiV TOLOVTCDV pLOpLOJV eKaUTOV. a'lTLOV Se TOV flT)

25 eXdelv Tovs irpoyeveoTepovs CTrt tov Tpoirov tovtov,

OTL TO Tt rjv elvai /cat to opioaodai ttjv ovoiav ovk

rjvy dXX rjipaTO fiev ArjpLOKpLTOs 7Tpa>TO?, cos* ovk

dvayKaiov Se ttj (j)vaLKfj Becjopia, dXX eK(f)ep6pievos

vrr* avTov tov TTpdyfiaTos' eirl HojKpdTovs he tovto

liev r]v^-q9r), to he ^rjTetv to, Trepl (j)Voecx)s ^Xrjê,

^ sic Ogle : el 8e fi-q, BrjXov ye TreipdaOai, ttouZv vulg.

« See Diels, Fragmented, 31 a 78.* " Element "

: this term is normally used to denote thefour substances, earth, water, air, fire.

" This is probably a reference to Democritus's oppositionto the theories of Protagoras, who held that " what appears

76


bronze or of iron. Now the body, like the hatchet,

is an instrument ; as well the whole body as eachof its parts has a purpose, for the sake of which it

is ; the body must therefore, of necessity, be suchand such, and made of such and such materials,

if that purpose is to be realized.

It is, therefore, evident that of Causation there are

two modes ; and that in our treatise both of themmust be described, or at least an attempt must bemade to describe them ; and that those who fail

herein tell us practically nothing of any value about" Nature," for a thing's " nature " is much more a

first principle (or " Cause ") than it is matter. (In-

deed, in some places even Empedocles, being led

and guided by Truth herself, stumbles upon this,

and is forced to assert that it is the logos which is a

thing's essence or nature." For instance, when he is

explaining what Bone is, he says not that it is any oneof the Elements,^ or any two, or three, or even all of

them, but that it is " the logos of the mixture " of

the Elements. And it is clear that he would explain

in the same way what Flesh and each of such parts is.

Now the reason why earlier thinkers did not arrive

at this method of procedure was that in their time

there was no notion of ** essence " and no way of

defining " being." The first to touch upon it wasDemocritus ; and he did so, not because he thought

it necessary for the study of Nature, but because he

was carried away by the subject in hand and could

not avoid it." In Socrates' time an advance wasmade so far as the method was concerned ; but at

that time philosophers gave up the study of Nature

to he to you, is for you." Protagoras had emphasized the

validity of sense-data ; Democritus denied it.

77

ARISTOTLE642a

^ ^ ^

30 TTpos he rrjv xPVî-H-ov dperrjv Kal rr]v ttoXltlktjv

OLTTeKXiVaV ol (f)LXoGO(f)OVVT€£.)

AeiKTeov 8* ovrojs, olov on eari ixev rj dvaTTVorj

TOvSl x^P^^y 'TOVTO 8e ytVcTat 8ta raSe ef dvdyKrjs,

7j8* dvdyKTi ore /xev orjfjLalveL on el eKeZvo eorai

TO ov eveKa, ravra dvdyKT] eorlv {ourcos')^ ^X^^^>

35 ore 8' on eonv ovroj? eôvra Kal Treû/cora* to

depfJLov yap dvayKaZov efteVat /cat irdXiv elaievai

dvTLKpovov, Tov 8' dipa elapetv tovto S* 17817

642 b dvayKalov ionv, rod ivros 8e Oepfiov dvnKOTrrovros

iv rrj ipvêL rov OvpaOev depos rj etooSos^ /cat 17

6^080?. o fjLev ovv rporros ovrog 6 rrjs ixeOoSov,

/cat rrepl (Lv hel Xaêlu rds alrlas, ravra /cat

rotavrd eonv.

5 II. AafjL^dvovorL 8* eVtot to /ca^' eKaarov, 8t-

atpovfjievoL ro yevos els hvo hia(j}opds. rovro 8' eoTt

rfj piev ov pdSiov, rfj he dhvvarov. ivlojv yap eorai

^ ovTcos supplevi.*

17 eiGoSos om. pr. E.

" " Goodness," or " virtue," is one of the chief topicsdiscussed by Socrates in the Platonic dialogues. Cf.Aristotle, Met. 987 b 1, " Socrates busied himself about moralmatters, but did not concern himself at all with Nature asa whole."

'' I have not attempted, except by one insertion, to straigh-ten out the text of this confused account, which lookslike a displaced note intended for the paragraph above(ending " realized," p. 77). If it is to remain in the text, it

would follow at that place (after 642 a 13) least awkwardly.For a more lucid account of the process of Respiration seeDe resp. 480 a 16-b 5.

* This is usually held to include Plato, on the ground that

78

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. i.-ii.

and turned to the practical subject of " goodness," **

and to political science.)

^ Here is an example of the method of exposition.

We point out that although Respiration takes place

for such and such a purpose, any one stage of the

process follows upon the others hy necessity. Neces-

sity means sometimes {a) that if this or that is to

be the final Cause and purpose, then such and such

things must be so ; but sometimes it means (6) that

things are as they are owing to their very nature, as

the following shows : It is necessary that the hot

substance should go out and come in again as it

offers resistance, and that the air should flow in

—

that is obviously necessary. And the hot substance

within, as the cooling is produced, offers resistance,

and this brings about the entrance of the air from\vithout and also its exit. This example shows howthe method works and also illustrates the sort of

things whose causes we have to discover.

II. Now some ^^Titers ^ endeavour to arrive at the

ultimate and particular species by the process of

dividing the group (genus) into two differentiae.^

This is a method which is in some respects difficult

and in other respects impossible. For example :

the method of dichotomy is used in the Sophist and Politicus.

But the method can hardly be said to be seriously applied

to the classification of animals in the Politicus, and in the

Sophist it is introduced partly in a humorous way, partly

to lead up to the explanation of to /xt) ov (not-being). Either

Aristotle has mistaken the purpose of the method (as hehas at An. Pr. 46 a 31 if.) or (much more probably) he is

referring to some other writer's detailed application of it.

See e.g. Stenzel in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v. Speusippus.^ Each stage of the division gives two differentiae, which

are treated as " genera " for the next stage of the division,

and so on.

79

ARISTOTLE642 b

8ia(f)opa fJLia ixovq, to, 8' ctAAa rrepUpya, olov vtto-

7TOVV, hirrovv, gxI'ôttovv^' avrrj yap fMOvrj Kvpia.

10 et he pLT], ravTov TroWaKis avayKolov XeyeLV. en

Se TTpoGT^Kei {jLTj hiaoTTav eKaoTOv yevos, olov rovs

opvidas rovs fxev iv rfjSe rovs 8* eV dXXr) Statpeaet,

Kaddnep epôucrtv at yeypafifidvaL hiaLpiaeis' e/cet

yap rovs fJiev pLera rajv ivvSpojv cru/xâtVet 8t-

Uprjadai, rovs 8' iv dXXo) yevei. (ravrj] fxev ovv rfj

15 opLOLorrjri opvis ovofia KeZrat, irepa 8' IxOvs' aAAat

8* elalv dvwvvpiOL, olov ro evaifxov /cat ro dvaipLOV'

icf)^ eKarepo) yap rovrcov ov Kelrai iv ovofxa.) etnep

OVV /XT^Sev ra>v ojJLoyevojv hiauTraorioVy rj els hvo

hiaipeuis pidraios dv etr]- ovrco yap hiaipovvras

avayKatov ;^6optêtv Kal hiaorrdv rdjv ttoXvttoSojv

yap ion rd jjiev iv rols Treôls rd 8* iv rols

20 ivvSpois.

III. "Ert orep-qoei /xev dvayKaZov 8tatpetv Kal

hiaipovGiv ol Sixorofiovvres. ovk eon 8e hiaôpd

^ arrow post oxiI,6itovv vulg., del. Ogle ; fortasse [a-nTepov]

scribendum (cf. An. Post. 92 a 1, Met. 1037 b 34).

<* Other groups will get broken up under several lines ofdivision, as Aristotle goes on to say, and he repeats this at

643 b 14, where he adds that " contrary " groups will getlumped together under a single line (and " contrariety is

maximum ' difference,' " see Met. 1055 a 5 ff., cf. 1018 a 30)." Aristotle holds that one is not enough ; see 643 b 9 ff.

and 29 ff.

80

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. ii.-iii.

(a) Some '^ groups will get only one differejilia,^ the

rest of the terms being superfluous extras,'' as in the

example : footed, two-footed, cloven-footed ^—since

this last one is the only independently valid differentia.

Otherwise the same thing * must of necessity berepeated many times over.

(b) Again, it is a mistake to break up a group, as

for instance the group Birds, by putting some birds

in one division and some in another, as has been donein the divisions made by certain wTiters : in these

some birds are put in with the water-creatures, andothers in another class. (These twô groups, each

possessing its own set of characteristics, happen to

have regular names—Birds, Fishes—but there are

other groups which have not, e.g. the " blooded"

and " bloodless " groups : there is no one regular

name for either of these.) If, then, it is a mistake

to break up any group of kindred creatures, the

method of division into two will be pointless, because

those who so divide are compelled to separate themand break them up, some of the many-footed animals

being among the land-animals and others among the

water-animals.

III. (c) Again, this method of twofold division

makes it necessary to introduce privative terms, and

those who adopt it actually do this. But a privation, as

" i.e. all terms except the final one can be dispensed with,

because none of them constitutes an independent (/cupta)

differentia ; one line of division yields one valid differentia

and no more (c/. 644 a 2-10).<* Cf. 644 a 5 and Met. 1038 a 32.• In this case, " -footed "

{cf. Met. 1038 a 19 if.).^^ ButAristotle does not explain how Si'tt-ouv is " superfluous."

8L

ARISTOTLE642 b

orep'ûecogfj

oTipiqcjiS' ahvvarov yap eih-q Îvai rou

fiT] ovTos, OLOV T^s" aTToSta? t) tov arrripov cocTTTcp

TTTepojaecxis kol ttoSwv Set Se rrjg KaOoXov 8ta-

25 <f)opdg etSr] etvai' el yap {jltj ecrrat, 8ta rt av eiy]

Tcov KaOoXov Kal ov rcJov KaB^ eKaorov ; rcov he

hiacfyopujv at ju-ev KaOoXov elal Kal e-xpvaiv etSr],

OLOV TTTeporrjs' to [JLev yap aox^JTOv ro S' ^^X''~

GfJievov iarl Trrepov. Kal ttoSottj^ (haavTCOS r] [lev

TToXvGX^hTjs, 7] he hiox^hiqs i OLOV ra hlxoiXa, tj8*

30 oLGXi-hrjg Kal dhLalperos, olov ra fXwvvxO" ;\;aAc7rov

fxev ovv hiaXaêLV Kal elg roiavras hiacfyopas cSv

euTLV ethT], wgO^ otlovv ^cpov ev ravrai? v'rrdpx€iv

Kal {jLTj ev TrXeioGL ravrov [olov TTrepojTov Kal

drrrepov eoTL yap dficfico ravrov, otov [xvpfjir]^ Kal

35 XafjLTTVpls Kal erepd rLva), irdvrojv he x(^Xe7Twrarov

•^ dhvvarov els rds dvrLKeLfxevag } dvayKalov yap

rcov Kad^ eKaorov vTrdpx^LV rLvl rwv hLa(f)opd)v

643 a eKd(7r7]Vy ware Kal rrjv dvriKeLixevrjv . el he (jlt]

evhex^TO^L rols etheL hiacfyepovoLV inrdpx^tv ethos rL

rrjs ovaias drofjiov Kal ev, dAA' aet hLacfiopdv eêL

^(oLOv opvLS dvOpojTTOV—T) 8t77oSia ydp dXXr) Kal

8ta</)opo?* Kav el eVat/xa, ro af/j-a hid(f)opov, rj ovhev

6 TT^S" ovalas ro alfia dereov)—el 8' ovrojs eurLV, 7]

^ ras dvTiK€Lix€vas Peck : ret avriKîiia>a Titze : ra dvaifia

vulg. : Ttt ivavria Ogle : to. drofxa Prantl.2 11. 3-6 interpunctionem correxi.

" I have not attempted to keep a consistent translation for

mepoi; as Aristotle applies this term to " feathers " and to" wings " (of insects).

82

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iii.

privation, can admit no differentiation ; there cannotbe species of what is not there at all, e.g. of " foot-

less " or " featherless," ^ as there can be of " footed"

and " feathered "; and a generic differentia must

contain species, else it is specific not generic. How-ever, some of the differentiae are truly generic andcontain species, for instance " feathered " (somefeathers are barbed, some unbarbed) ; and likewise" footed " (some feet are " many-cloven," some" twy-cloven," as in the animals with bifid hoofs,

and some '* uncloven " or " undi\ided," as in the

animals with solid hoofs). Now it is difficult enoughto arrange the various animals under such hnes of

diflPerentiation as these, which after all do contain

species, in such a way that every animal is included in

them, but not the same animal in more than one of

them (e.g. when an animal is both Avinged and wing-less, as ants, glow-worms, and some other creatures

are) ; but it is excessively difficult and in fact im-

possible to arrange them under the opposite lines of

differentiation. Every differentia must, of course, be-

long to some species ; and this statement wall apply

to the negative differentiae as well as to the positive.

Now it is impossible for any essential characteristic

to belong to animals that are specifically different andat the same time to be itself one and indivisible ^

: it

^'V'ill always admit of differentiation. (For example,Man and Bird are both two-footed, but this essential

characteristic is not the same in both : it is differenti-

ated.^ And if they are both " blooded," the bloodmust be different, or else it cannot be reckoned as

part of their essence.) If that is so, then, the one

* As the privative characteristic would have to be.« See below, 693 b 2 ff

.

83.

ARISTOTLE643 a ^

Ilia hia(f)Opa hvcrlv vrrdpêi-^ et 8e rovro, SrjXov

on dSvvarov Greprjoiv elvai hiaôpdv.

"Ecrovrat 8' at hia(j>opal laai roZs dropiOLs t,(LoiSt

elirep dropid re ravra /cat at Staôpat dropLOL,

KOLV7] Se jLtT^ ioTLV. (ft 8' ivSex^Tai VTrdpx^t'V^ Kal

10 Koivrjv, dropLOV Se, SrjXov on Kard ye ri^v Koivrjv eV

to) auToJ ionv erepa oVra toj et8et ôia. coctt'

dvayKoloVy el tSiot at hiacfiopal els a? dnavra

€pL7TL7TT€i TO, dropLa, pLiqSejjLLav avTcov etvat KOivqv

el 8e jLtrJ, erepa dvra els to^v avrrjv jSaStetrat.) 8£t

8' OL»Te TO auTO /cat dropLOV els erepav /cat erepav

lb levai Stacjiopdv rcov Sirjpr]pievojv, ovr els rrjv avrrjv

erepa, /cat diravra els ravras. (f)avep6v roivvv onovK ean Xaêlv rd dropua eiSr] (Ls SiaLpovvrat at els

Svo hiaipovvres rd t^cpa rj /cat d'AAo onovv yevos.

/cat yap /car' eKeivovs dvayKalov laas rds eo^dras

elvai Siacfyopds rols ^(-pois TrduL rots dropLOLS ro)

20 etSet. ovros yap rovhe nvos yevovs, ov Sta(ôpat

rrpoirai rd (XevKd /cat rd p^yiY XevKd, rovrojv 8'

eKarepov aAAat, /cat ovra>s els rd Trpoao) ecus rojv

dropicov, at reXevralai rerrapes eaovrai r) a'AAo n^ 11. 3-6 interpunctionem correxi.^ /A17 vTrapx^Lv vulg. : corr. Titze,

^ supplevit Cornford.

•* Because it cannot fulfil the condition of admittingdifferentiation. At whatever stage of the division it comes(unless at the very end), the privative term will cover at least

two species, and therefore at the next stage the dichotomistswill have to divide it—illegitimately, as Aristotle maintains.

84


differentia will belong to two species. And if so,

it is clear that a privative cannot be a valid

differentia.^

(d) Now assuming that each species is indivisible : if

each differentia also is indivisible, and none is commonto more species than one, then the number of differ-

efitiae will be equal to the number of species. (Suppos-ing it were possible to have a differentia which thoughindivisible was common ; clearly, in that case, animalswhich differed in species would be in the same division

in virtue of that common differentia. Therefore, if the

differentiae under which the indivisible and ultimate

species fall are to be proper and private to eachone, it is necessary that no differentia be common

;

otherwise, species which are actually different will

come under one and the selfsame differentia.^ Andwe may not place one and the same indivisible

species under two or three of the lines of differentia-

tion given by the divisions ; nor may we include

different species under one and the same line of

differentiation. Yet each species must be placedunder the lines of differentiation available. It is

evident from this that it is impossible to arrive at theindivisible species either of animals or of any other

group by the method of twofold division as these

people practise it, for even on their showing thenumber of ultimate differentiae must of necessity beequal to the total number of indivisible species ofanimals. Thus, suppose Mê have some particular

group of creatures whose prime differentiae are" pale " and " not pale "

; by that method thesetwo will each give two other differentiae, and so

forth, until in the end the indivisible differentiae are

reached : these last ones will be either four in

85

ARISTOTLE

ttXtjOos tcov a<f)* ivos StTrAaCTtaôêVcov rocravra he

Kal TO, e'iSr].

("Eart S' Tj Sia(j)opa ev rfj vXr) ro elSos.^ ovre

25 yap dvev vXt]? ouSev t,coov jjLopLov, ovre fiovq rj

vXt]' ov yap Travrcos €xov aajfia eWat ^coov, ovSe

Twv ixopicov ovBev, axJTrep ttoXXolkl? etprjraL.)

"Ert Statpetv XPV '''^^^ ^^ '^fjoixrla Kal fir) roTs

crvjJLPe^rjKOGL KaO^ avro, olov el rig ra G)(r]pâTa

SiaLpoLT), OTL ra /xev Svcrlv opOal? loas e;\;et ras

so ycovta?, ra he TrXeioGiv GVfJbê^rjKos yap tl rco

Tpiyojvo) TO hvalv opdals taas exetv ras ywviag.

"Ert rot? avriKeiixevois hiaipeZv {Set)/ hid(f>opa

yap aAATÂotS" ravriKeiiieva, olov XevKorrjg Kal fxe-

Xavia Kal ev6vr7]s Kal KapLTryXonqs . eav ovv ddrepa

hidôpa fjyrep avriKeipievcp hiaipereov , Kal pLT] ro

35 fiev vevaei ro he ;!^/Dc6jLtaTt . TTpos he rovrois, ra yepuipvxo^ Tols KOLVols epyois rod acopiarog Kal rrjs

643 b i/jvxT]?} OLOV Kal ev raZs prjOeiaaLS vvv TropevrcKa Kal

Trnqva—eon yap riva yevq ols dpL(f)a) vTrdpxei Kal

eon nrrjvd Kal aTrrepa, KaOdirep ro rwv pLvpynqKCDV

^ sic Y : TO etSo? eV tt; vXtj vulg.2 <Set> supplevi.

<* His point is that it is nonsensical to suppose that this

numerical correspondence is bound to occur.* As at 641 a 18 ff.

« See Met. 1025 a 30.<* These are enumerated in De sensu, 436 a 7 if., and Aris-

totle seems here to be thinking of them as grouped together

under the several faculties—nutritive, appetitive, sensory,

86


number, or some higher value of 2"; and there will

be an identical number of species."

(The species is the differentia in the Matter. Thereis no animal part which exists without matter ; noron the other hand is there any which is matter only,

for body in any and every condition cannot make ananimal or any part of an animal, as I have often

pointed out.^)

(e) Again, the division ought to be made according

to points that belong to the Essence of a thing andnot according to its essential (inseparable) attributes.

For instance, in making divisions of geometrical

figures, it would be wrong to di\dde them into those

whose angles are together equal to two right angles

and those whose angles are together greater than tworight angles ; because it is only an attribute of the

triangle that its angles are together equal to tworight angles.''

(f) Again, division should be by " opposites,"

opposites being mutually " different," e.g. pale anddark, straight and curved. Therefore, provided the

two terms are truly " different," di\ision should beby means of opposites, and should not characterize

one side by ability to s\\'im and the other side bysome colour. And besides this, division of li\dng

creatures, at any rate, by the functions which are

common functions of body and soul,*^ such as weactually find done in the divisions mentioned above,

where animals are divided into " walkers " and" fliers

"—for there are some groups, such as that of

the Ants, which have both attributes, being both

locomotive, and thought (see De an. 414 a 28 ff.). His point

is that the correct way to divide and classify animals is rather

by bodily characteristics, which is what he himself does.

sr

ARISTOTLE643 b

, X ^ , , n ' ' / ' 5 -\2 5yevos—Kau rco aypico /cat rjfjiepcp \ov oet) Otatpet-

o9ai' cbaavTco<3 yap dv So^€t€ ravra e'lBr] hiaipeZv

5 TTOLvra yap, co? elrreZvy ooa ruiepa Kal aypia rvy-

XOLV€L ovra, olov dvOpajiroi, Ittttoi, ôes, Kvves iv rfj

ÎvSlkyj, ves, alyes, Trpo/âra* a)V eKaarov, el p.kv

ofxcovv/JLOv, ov hirjprjrai ')(ojpis, el 8e ravra ev e'lhei,

ovx olov t' etvai hiafj)opav ro aypiov /cat to T^p.epov.

"OAco? 8' oTTOcaovv hia<j)opa^ pna hiaipovvri rovro10 ovjjLâLveLv dvayKaXov. dXXd Set TreipdaOai Xap,-

^dveiv Kara yevq rd ^coa, cos V(f)'^yr]v6^ ol ttoXXol

hiopioavres opvidos yevos /cat l)(dvos. rovrcov 8'

eKaarov TToXXaXs copiorai Siacjiopais, ov Kara rr)v

SixorofJLLav. ovrco fjuev yap rjroi ro irapdnav ovkeun Xaêlv (rd avrd yap els rrXeiovs epLTTLTrrei

15 8tatpea€t? /cat rd evavria els rrjv avr-qv), tj }xia

pLovov hia(j)opd eorai, Kal avrr] rjroL dnXTJ i) e/c

uvfJLTrXoKrjs rd reXevralov earai etSos". edv he p.rj

SLa(f)opds XafjL^dvrj ns hiaôpdv,^ dvayKolov, oioirep

GvvSe(jp.cp rdv Xdyov eva rroiovvras, ovroj Kal rrjv

SialpecTLV ovve)(fj TToie'lv. Xeyco 8' olov uvpLâivei

•20 rot? StatpovpLevoLs ro ptev drrrepov rd he rrrepcordv,

TTrepojrov he rd piev jjpLepov ro 8' dypiov, tj ro /xev

^ Kal EY : Kal toj vulg.2 supplevi.^ OTTOLavovv Siaôpav alii : o-noLaovv Y : Staôpd vel 8(,a<f}opd

ESY.* 8ia(f)opd A. ES : 8La<f)opav A. ttjs Staôpa? P : Staôpas' A.

8La(f>opav Y ; rt? Peck : Tr]v vulg.

« Cf. Plato, Politicus, 264 a 1.

» On this see Piatt, C.Q., 1909, iii. 241.* For hLa<i)opd in the sense of " bifurcation " cf. Met.

1048 b 4, where he speaks of the two " parts " of a hi.a(f>opd.

^ i.e. with the preceding terms. See below, 644 a 5.

88


" winged " and " wingless "—and by " wild " and" tame," " is not permissible, for this similarly wouldappear to divide up species that are the same, since

practically all the tame animals are also found as

^vild ones : e.g. Man, the horse, the ox, the dog (in

India ^), swine, the goat, the sheep ; and if, in eachof these groups, the wild and the tame bear the samename, as they do, there is no division between them,while if each group is specifically a unit, then it

follows that " wild " and " tame " cannot make avalid differentiation.''

And generally, the same thing inevitably happenswhatever one single line of differentiation is taken for

the division. The proper course is to endeavour to

take the animals according to their groups, fol-

lowing the lead of the bulk of mankind, who havemarked off the group of Birds and the group of Fishes.

Each of these groups is marked offhyjuani/ cUjferentiae

,

not by means of dichotomy. By dichotomy (a) either

these groups cannot be arrived at at all (because thesame group falls under several divisions and contrary

groups under the same division) or else there will beone differentia only, and this either singly or in

combination ^ will constitute the ultimate species.*

But (6) if they do not take the differeriiia of the differ-

entia, they are forced to follow the example of

those people who try to give unity to their prose by a

free use of conjunctions : there is as little con-

tinuity about their division. Here is an exampleto show what happens. Suppose they make thedivision into " wingless " and " winged," and thendivide " winged " into " tame " and " wild " or into

' And this will never completely represent any actual

group or species. See below, 644( a 6 ff

.

89'

ARISTOTLE643 b

XevKov TO he (jLeXav ov yap hia(j)opa rod TrrepcoTOV

TO jjfxepov ovSe to XevKov, dAA* ircpag apx"*] hca-

(f)opa<s' €K€X 8e Kara avfilê^rjKo?. Sto ttoXXols to

€v evOeojs hiaiperiov, warrep XeyofJiev. koI yap25 ovT(x>s yiev at oreprjaeig ttoltigovgl 8ta<ôpav, Iv Se

rfj SL)(OTOjJLia ov TTOirjUOVcnv.

"On 8' ovK evSex^raL rwv KaO* eKaarov elhaJv

Xafi^dveiv ovSev hiaipovcn St;â to yivos, woirep

rives oj-qOriuav, /cat e/c rayvhe cfyavepov.

'ASwaTov yap pilav vncipxeiv hia(f)opav rojv

80 KaO^ eKacrrov hiaipercov, edv 0^ oLTrXd XajjL^dvr) nsîdv re uvpLTreTrXeyiJieva' \Xey(x> he drrXa /xeV, edv firj

exj) hiacôpdv, olov rrjv ux^ÔTTohiav , ovpLTreTrXey-

fieva he, edv exj], olov ro TToXvox^'hes Trpos to"

Gxi'l>oTTOvvY rovro yap rj ovvex^ô, ôvXerat roJv

0.770 rov yevovs Kara rrjv hiaipeuiv hia(f)opa)v co? ev

85 Tt TO 77av OV, dXXd napd rrjv Xeîv crvfJiâiveL hoKelv

rrjv reXevraiav fJLovrjv elvac hia(f)opdv [olov ro ttoXv-

644 a o";(tSes" t) ro hirrovv, rd 8' vttottovv /cat 7roAu770W

TTepUpya'].^ on 8' a8uyaTOV rrXeiovs elvai roiavras,

hrjXov del ydp âhil,a>v IttI rrjv eoxdrrjv hiacjiopdv

d^LKveZrai [dAA' ovk errl rrjv reXevraiav /cat to

et8os"]'^ ai;TT7 8' iarlv rj ro ox^ôttovv (jlovov, -^

5 TTaaa rj av/jLTrXeûs, edv hiaiprjrai dvdpojTTos,^ olov

€L ns avvdeir] vttottovv, hiTTOVv, ox^ôttovv , el 8'

rjv 6 dvdpcoTTOs axi'ôTTOvv jjlovov, ovnos eyiyver^ dv

avrrj {tJ)' fila hia(f)opd. vvv 8' eTTeihr] ovk eaTtv,

^ risY: om. viilg. ^ Trpos to) Piatt.' seclusi. codices varia, ut videtur; sic Bekker,

* oloi' . . . TTcpUpya seclusi.^ dAA' . . . eiSos seclusi.

• dvdpioTTov vulg. ' <i7> Ogle.

90


" pale " and " dark ": neither " tame " nor " pale

"

is a differentiation of " winged," but the beginning

of another line of differentiation, and can come in

here only hy accident. Therefore, as I say, in dividing

we must distinguish the one original group forthwith

by numerous differentiae ; and then too the privative

terms will make valid differentiae, which they will

never do in the system of dichotomy.

Here are further considerations to show that it is

impossible to come at any of the particular species bythe method of dividing the group into two, as somepeople have imagined.

Obviously it is impossible that one single differentia

is adequate for each of the particular species covered

by the division, whether you adopt as your differentia

the isolated term or the combination of terms ° (for

this is intended by the continuity of the series of

differentiae throughout the division from the original

group, to indicate that the whole is a unity ; but, in

consequence of the form of the expression, the last

one comes to be considered as the sole differentia).

And it is evident that there cannot be more than one

such differentia ; for the division proceeds steadily until

it reaches the ultimate differentia, and—supposing the

division is aiming at " Man "—this is either " cloven-

footed " alone, or else the whole combination, e.g.

if one combined " footed," " two-footed," " cloven-

footed." ^ If Man were merely a cloven-footed

animal, then this would be the one differentia, arrived

at by the right method. But as he is not merely

" i.e. the last term of any series, or all its terms together,

as he goes on to say. Cf. 643 b 15 f.

* This definition appears also in Met. 1037-1038.

91.

ARISTOTLE644 a

avdyKT] TToXkas elvat jir] vtto jxiav Siaipeaiv. dXXa

ixrjv ttXclovs ye rod avrov ovk ecrrtv vtto fxiav

10 St;ôro/xtav etvai, dAAa jLttav Kara filav reXevrdv.

a)€rT€ dSvvarov otlovv Xaêlv tujv Kad^ cKaarov

t,a)(jjv Slxol hiaipovyLevovs.

IV. *A77oprjcr6t€ S' dv ng Sto. tl ovk dvcoOev eVt

ovofian ifjLTrepiXaôvTes dfia ev yevog dfjL(j)a> Trpoa-

riyopevoav ol dvOpajnoL, o Trepiixî rd re 'ivvhpa

15 Koi rd TTTrjvd tojv ^cowv eart ydp eVta TrdOrj

KOLvd Kal TOVTOLs [/cttt ToZs dXXoLS tôis aTTaGLv]}

dAA' dpLCjos 6p6d)s SnopLoraL rovrov rov rpoirov.

oua fiev ydp StacfyepeL tojv yevchv KaO^ VTrepox'rjv Kal

TO) [xdXXov Kal rjTTOVy^ ravra VTretêvKrai ivl yevei,

dua 8' e;!êt to dvdXoyov, x^^jpis' Xeyco 8' olov opvis

20 dpvidos hia(f)ip€L rw fiaXXov tj Kad^ vTrepox^jv (to

fiev ydp fxaKpoTTTepov to he ^paxvTTTepov) , IxOves8* opviOog TO) dvdXoyov (o ydp eKeivco TTTepov, 6a-

repo) XeTTLs). tovto 8e TTOielv IttI TrdoLV ov pdhiov

rd ydp TToXXd ^cpa dvdXoyov rauro TreirovOev.

'Ettci 8' ovGiaL jjiev elui rd eoxo-Ta etSr], /card

25 8€ TavTa Td^ TO clSos dhidôpa (olov TtWKpdTT)?,

KopLGKOs), dvayKaXov ^ rd KaOoXov virdpxovTa

^ seclusi Ogle docente.^ sic Rackham : to fiaXXov /cat to (to om. Y) ^ttov vulg.

^ Kara 8e ravra ra Peck : ravra 8e Kara vulg.

** This paragraph has been corrupted by confusing inter-

polations, which I have bracketed in the Greek text andomitted in the translation. With this passage cf. Met.1037 b 27—1038 a 30.

'' On this point see D'Arcy W. Thompson, Growth andForm, esp. ch. 17, and the same author's paper Excessand Defect ; or The Little More and the Little Less, in

Mind, xxxviii. (N.S.) 149, pp. 43-55. See also infra,

661 b 28 ff., 692 b 3 ff. ; and Introduction, p. 39.

92

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iii.-iv.

that, it is necessary that there should be manydifferentiae^ not under one hne of division. And yettliere cannot be more than one differentia for the samething under one hne of dichotomy : one hne must endin one differentia. So it is impossible for those whofollow the method of twofold division to arrive at anyof the particular animals.**

IV. Some may find it puzzling that general usagehas not combined the water-animals and the featheredanimals into one higher group, and adopted one nameto cover both, seeing that in fact these two groupshave certain features in common. The answer is that

in spite of this the present grouping is the right one ;

because while groups that differ only " by excess"

(that is, "by the more and less " ^) are placed

together in one group, those which differ so muchthat their characteristics can merely be called ana-

logous are placed in separate groups. As an illus-

tration : (a) one bird differs from another bird ** bythe more," or " by excess " : one bird's feathers

are long, another's are short ; whereas (6) thedifference between a Bird and a Fish is greater,

and their correspondence is only by analogy : a fish

has no feathers at all, but scales, which correspondto them. It is not easy to do this in all cases, for

the corresponding analogous parts of most groups ofanimals are identical.

Now since the ultimate species are " real things," ^ Method*

while within them are individuals which do not differ

in species (as e.g. Socrates and Coriscus),^ we shall

have to choose (as I have pointed out) ^ between

*' Lit. " substances,"' i.e. within the species " man."

• Above, at 639 a, b, etc.

ARISTOTLE644a

TTporepov €L7T€lv t) 77oAAaK'ts" TavTov XeyeLVy Kaddirep

eipTjTai. (to. 8e KaOoXou Koiva' ra yap TrXeioaiv

VTTapxovra KadoXov Xiyojxev.) aiTopiav 8' e^î rrepl

TTorepa Set Trpaypiareveodai. ^ [ikv yap ovoia to

80 rep elhei a.Top.ov, KpariGTOV, et rt? Sm'airo, Trepl tojv

Kad' €KaGT0V Kol drofjLOJv to) etSet Oecjopelv ^copis,

wcrnep Trepi dvdpwTTOv, ovtoj Kal^ nepl opvidos, (jcal

fjLTj TTepl orovovv opvidos} {^X^^ y^P ^'^^1 '^^ yevos

TOVTo), dXXd TTepl TOJV drofxcDV^ olov tj orpovOos r]

yepavos t] tl tolovtov. ^ Se GvpLîjaeraL XeyeLV

35 77oAAaACtS' TTepl TOV aVTOV TTddoV? Sid TO KOLvfj

TTXeioGiv vvdpxîv, ravrrj 8' icrrlv VTrdroTTOV Kal

Bi^h P-OLKpov TO TTepl eKdoTov XeyeLV xcopls' lgcjs fiev

ovv opdcog exî Ta puev Kara yevT) Koivfj Xeyeiv,

oca XeyeTai KaXojg ojpLopievojv tcjv dvOpayTTCUv, Kal

exî re p.iav cpvatv Koivrjv Kal e'chr] ev avTols^ prj

6 TToXv hieGTcx)Ta, opvis Kal IxOvs, Kal ei tl dXXo

cgtIv dvcovvfJiov jLteV, tco yeveL 8' oôta* TrepLex^L

TO, iv avTO)^ e'lSr]- ooa 8e p,rj rotaura, Kad*

CKaGTOv, olov TTepl dvBpcjTTov Kal el tl tolovtov

€Tep6v eOTLV.

l^X^^^^ ^^ '^^'S' <j;^7^/xacrt tojv pLopiojv Kal tov

o-cujLtaro? oXov, edv ofJLOLOTrjTa excocr^v, ojpLGTaL to,

yevT], OLOV to tojv op] lOcov yevo? TTpos avTO ttc-

^ Kal] fjLT) Bonitz.* hunc locum correxi, S secutus ; l;^€i yap etBr] to y4vos

TOVTO- aXXa TTepl otovovv opviOos rtSi' arop-Oiv, olov ktX. vulg.^ avToU vulg'. : correxi. * ofxoiojs vulg. : correxi.' avTw vulg. : correxi.* avTo Piatt, fortasse Z^ : auro Y : avTo. Z^, vulg.

94>

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iv.

describing first of all the general attributes of manyspecies, and repeating the same thing many times

over. (By " general " attributes I intend the" common " ones. That which belongs to many wecall " general.") One may well hesitate whether of

the two courses to follow. For, in so far as it is the

specifically indivisible which is the " real thing," it

would be best, if one could do it, to study separ-

ately the particular and specifically indivisible sorts,

in the same way as one studies " Man," to do this

with " Bird " too, that is, to study not just " Bird"

in the mass, but—since " Bird " is a group whichcontains species—the indivisible species of it, e.g.

Ostrich, Crane, and so on. Yet, on the other hand,

this course is somewhat unreasonable and long-

winded, because it makes us describe the same attri-

butes time and again, as they happen to be commonattributes of many species. So perhaps after all the

right procedure is this : (a) So far as concerns the

attributes of those groups which have been correctly

marked off by popular usage—groups which possess

one common nature apiece and contain in themselves

species not far removed from one another, I meanBirds and Fishes and any other such group whichthough it may lack a popular name yet contains

species generically similar—to describe the commonattributes of each group all together ; and (6) with

regard to those animals which are not covered bythis, to describe the attributes of each of these byitself

—

e.g. those of Man, and of any other such species

there may be.

Now it is practically by resemblance of the shapes

of their parts, or of their whole body, that the groups

are marked off from each other : as e.g. the groups

95

ARISTOTLE644 b

10 TTOvde /cat ro rcjv lxOvojv Kal ra jLtaAa/cta re /cat

TO, ourpeia. ra yap jLtopta Sta</)epor;crt tovtojv ov

rrj dvdXoyov oiiolottjtl, olov ev dvdpcoTrci) Kal i-)(dvL

7T€.7Tov9ev oGTOvv TTpos OLKavOav, dXXd fidXXov rot?

GcofjLaTLKoXs ndOeaLV, olov jjueyedei pLLKponqri, /xaAa-

16 KorrjTL UKXriponqTiy XeioT-qri rpa-)(yrr]TL Kal roZs

TOLOVTOiSi oXojg 8e to) /xaAAov /cat rjrTOV.

nto? /xev ovv diTohex^Gdai Set Tr]v nepl ûcreca?

jjLedoSov, Kal TLva rponov yivoir^ dv rj deojpua rrepl

avrayv oSoj Kal pacrra, ert be irepl Siaipeaecjos, riva

rpoTTOV ivbex^rai pLerLovcn Xafx^dveLv xPV^^t^^^y '^^''

20 Stort TO Sixorofielv rfj pikv dhvvarov rfj 8e K€v6v,

elpr]Tai. hLOjpLGfJLevcov Se tovtojv irepl ra)v i(f)€^7Js

Xeyojfxev, dpxr]V riqvhe TTotrjudpievoL.

V. Toil' ovGidJv ooai (f)V(J€i ovveGTaai, rds fxev

(Xeyo[JL€vy^ dyev^Tovs Kal dcfjOdprov? elvai rov

aTTavra alcova, rag Se jj.erex^t'V yeveueojs Kal

25 (f)dopds. ovfjLJ3el3rjKe Se nepl fiev eKeivas Tt/xta?

ovaag Kal 9eias iXdrrovs rjjjLlv vTrdpx^tv deajpias

(/cat yap i^ aJv dv rts" OKeipairo irepl avrcov, Kal

TTcpl Sv etSeVat rroOovfJieVy TravreXco? iarlv oXiya rd

(fyavepd Kara rr]v aLuOrjaLv), rrepl he rd)v (f)dapTd)v

<f)vrdjv re Kal tôjcxjv eviropovfjiev fiaXXov irpos rrjv

80 yvchoiv hid rd Grvvrpo(f)OV' ttoAAo. ydp rrepl eKaarov

yevos XdôL rt? dv rwv VTrapxdvrojv jiovXopievos

hiaiToveZv CKavcog. exî S* eKdrepa xdpiv. rcov fiev

ydp el Kal /caret fiCKpov ecfyaTTrofieda, o/xcos" hud rr]V

^ (Xeyofiev) Peek.

*• Lit., " softies." The group includes, roughly, thecephalopod moUusca.

" Lit., " oysters " (bivalves).

96

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. iv.-v.

Birds, Fishes, Cephalopods," Testacea.^ Within eachof these groups, the parts do not differ so far that theycorrespond only by analogy (as a man's bone and afish's spine) ; that is, they differ not structurally, butonly in respect of bodily quahties, e.g. by beinglarger or smaller, softer or harder, smoother orrougher, and so forth, or, to put it generally, theydiffer " by the more and less."

We have now shown :

(1) how to test a method of Natural science;

(2) what is the most systematic and easiest way ofstudying Natural science

;

(3) what is the most useful mode of Division for

our present purpose;

(4) why dichotomy is in one respect impossible and in

another futile.

Now that we have made this beginning, and clearly

distinguished these points, we may proceed.

V. Of the works of Nature there are, we hold, two Aprotreptic

kinds : those which are brought into being and perish, oflnfmais'?^

and those which are free from these processes through-out all ages. The latter are of the highest worth andare divine, but our opportunities for the study of

them are somewhat scanty, since there is but little

evidence available to our senses to enable us to con-

sider them and all the things that we long to knowabout. We have better means of information, however,concerning the things that perish, that is to say, plants

and animals, because we live among them ; and any-one who will but take enough trouble can learn

much concerning every one of their kinds. Yeteach of the two groups has its attractiveness. Foralthough our grasp of the eternal things is butslight, nevertheless the joy which it brings is, by

97.

ARISTOTLE644 b

TiixioTTiTa Tov yv(jjpil,eiv rjhiov 7) ra Trap rjfXiV

airavra, cooirep /cat rcjv epojfievcjjv to tvxov koI

35 [XLKpov pLopiov KaTiSelv T^'Stov IcFTiv 7] TToWa erepa

645 a /^^ctt [leydXa 8t' aKpiêias ISelv ra 8e Sta to juaAAov

/cat TrXelco yvojpLt,eLV avrcov Aa^jSavet tt^v rrjg eVt-

onqixr]^ vnepox^v, en Se 8ta ro TrXtjaiaLrepa rjfjLwv

etvai /cat rr^? (f)V(jea>s oLKeiorepa ayrt/caraAAcir-

rerai n Trpos ttjv Trepl ra dela (îAo(TO(/>tW. CTiet

5 he nepL eKetvcov hir]\9oyLev Xeyovres ro (ffatvojJLevov

'^[juv, XoLTTOv Trepl rrjg Joji/ctJ? </)Ucreaj? etVetv, fx-qSev

TTapaXiTTOvras eh SvvafXiv jLt^jre arijiorepov puiqre

TLfJLLcorepov. /cat yap eV rot? jLtT] Kexo-pioiievoLs

avrojv rrpos rr]V ato-OrjOLV Kara rrjv Oeojpiav ofiCDS^

7] hrnxiovpyqaaoa (J)vgl? ajJL'qxdi'OV? rjSovdg Trapexet

10 rot? SvvajjievoLg rds alrias yvcopLl,eiv /cat (jivoei

(^tAocroôt?. Kalyap av e'er] rrapaXoyov /cat aroiroVy

el rds jLtev et/cova? avrwv Oecopovvres ;âtpo^€v onTTjV hriiiLovpyr](jaoav rexvr]v ovvdecopovfxev, olov rT)v

ypacjiLKrjv i) rrjv TrXaonK-qv, avrojv Se rojv <^voei

GVvearojriDV {jltj fiaXXov dyarraypiev rr)V deajplav,

15 SvvdpevoL ye ra? alrias Kadopdv. 8to Set (irj

SvGX^poLLveLV TTaiSiKcJos rTjV Trepl rojv anporepa)v

l,cpa)V eTrioKeifjiv ev Trdoi yap rot? (j>voiKols eveori

^ o/Lio;? Bekker : ofiolcos codd.

" This passage, 645 a 6-15, is quoted by R. Boyle {0/ the

Usefulnesse of Naturall Philosophy^ 1663) both in Gaza'sLatin version and in an English translation, and he intro-

duces it thus :" And, methinks, Aristotle discourses very

Philosophically in that place, where passing from the con-

sideration of the subliniist productions of Nature, to justifie

his diligence in recording the more homely Circumstances of

the History of Animals, he thus discourses." He also quotes

PARTS OF ANIMALS, I. v.

reason of their excellence and worth, greater thanthat of knowing all things that are here below

; just

as the joy of a fleeting and partial glimpse of thosewhom we love is greater than that of an accurateview of other things, no matter how numerous or howgreat they are. But inasmuch as it is possible for us

to obtain more and better information about things

here on the earth, our knowledge of them has theadvantage over the other ; and moreover, becausethey are nearer to us and more akin to our Nature,they are able to make up some of their leeway as

against the philosophy which contemplates the things

that are divine. Of " things divine " we have al-

ready treated and have set down our views concerningthem ; so it now remains to speak of animals andtheir Nature. ° So far as in us lies, we will not leave

out any one of them, be it never so mean ; for thoughthere are animals which have no attractiveness for

the senses, yet for the eye of science, for the studentwho is naturally of a philosophic spirit and can dis-

cern the causes of things. Nature which fashioned

them provides joys which cannot be measured. Ifwestudy mere likenesses of these things and take pleasurein so doing, because then we are contemplating the

painter's or the carver's Art which fashioned them, andyet fail to delight much more in studying the worksof Nature themselves, though we have the ability to

discern the actual causes—that would be a strangeabsurdity indeed. Wherefore we must not betakeourselves to the consideration of the meaner animalswith a bad grace, as though we were children ; since

in all natural things there is somewhat of the mar-

the following passage, a 15-23, describing it as " that Judiciousreasoning of Aristotle."

D2 99'

ARISTOTLE645a

TL OavfiaoTov Kal KaOaTrep 'YipaKXecrog Xeyerai

20 TTpos Tous îvovs eliT^lv Tovg povXoiJL€vov9 ivTVX^^v

avTO), ot €7T€LSr] TTpocTLovreg elSov avTov depofievov

Trpog TO) Ittvo) eGTTjGav [eKeXeve yap avrovs etVteVat

Oappovvras' elvai yap Kal ivravOa Oeov^), ovtco /cat

TTpos Tr]v ^-qrrjaLV rrepl eKaarov rcov ^cocuv TrpouUvai

Set ixri hvG(x)7TOV}X€voVy d>s eV airaaiv ovros tlvos

(f)vcnKov Kal KaXov.

To yap fjLTj TVxovTCos dAA' evcKo, tlvos eV rot? tt^s"

2.1 (f)va€a>s epyoLs earl Kal fxaXiara' ov 8' eVe/ca

ovveoTTjKev t) yeyove rlXovs, ttjv tov KaXov ;ôjpav

€LXrj(f)€V. el 8e rts" rrjv rrepl rcov dXXwv ^cp(x)V

decopiav dnpLov etvat vevofiLKe, tov avTov Tponov

oteaQaL XPV '^^'' '^^P^^ avTOV' ovk eoTL yap dvev

TToXXrjg Svax^peia? tSetv e^ Sv avveGTTjKe to tojv

80 dvdpcjTTOJV yevoSy olov at[jLa, udpKes, octtcl, cfiXeês

Kal ra rotaOra pLopta. opLolcos Te Set vo/xtêtv tov

7T€pl OVTLVOaOVV TOJV [lOpLCOV ^ TCx)V GK€VdjV Sta-

AeyojLtevov fjurj Trepl ttjs vXrjs Trotetcjât ttjv puvqix-qv,

firjSe TavTTjg x^P^^> <ÂAa Trj? oXrjg piopcfirjs, olov Kal

7T€pl OLKias, dXXd pLTj ttXlvOojv Kal TTYjXov Kal ^vXojv

85 Kal TOV 7T€pl (f)VG€OJ£ TTepl TTjS ovvOeuecos Kal TTJg

oXrjs ovGias, dXXd purj rrepl tovtcdv a jjlt] GvpLâlvei

XOJpiôpievd TTOTe ttjs ovocas avTcov.

<* Or, with reference to another use of ovala, " which givesthem their being." Independent approaches to the positionthat components are non-significant in isolation had beenmade, e.g. by Anaxagoras, as a physical philosopher (see

my article in C.Q. xxv. 27 ff., 112 ff.), who held that " thethings (i.e. the constituent elements) in this world are notseparate one from another" (frag. 8, Diels, Fragmented

^

100


vellous. There is a story which tells how somevisitors once wished to meet Heracleitus, and whenthey entered and saw him in the kitchen, warminghimself at the stove, they hesitated ; but Heracleitus

said, " Come in ; don't be afraid ; there are gods

even here." In like manner, we ought not to hesi-

tate nor to be abashed, but boldly to enter upon our

researches concerning animals of every sort and kind,

knowing that in not one of them is Nature or Beautylacking.

I add " Beauty," because in the works of Nature

purpose and not accident is predominant ; and the

purpose or end for the sake of which those works have

been constructed or formed has its place among whatis beautiful. If, however, there is anyone who holds

that the study of the animals is an unworthy pursuit,

he ought to go further and hold the same opinion

about the study of himself, for it is not possible

without considerable disgust to look upon the blood,

flesh, bones, blood-vessels, and suchlike parts of

which the human body is constructed. In the sameway, w^hen the discussion turns upon any one of the

parts or structures, we must not suppose that the

lecturer is speaking of the material of them in itself

and for its ovm sake ; he is speaking of the whole

conformation. Just as in discussing a house, it is the

whole figure and form of the house which concerns us,

not merely the bricks and mortar and timber ; so in

Natural science, it is the composite thing, the thing

as a whole, which primarily concerns us, not the

materials of it, which are not found apart from the

thing itself whose materials they are."

59 B 8) ; also from the logical point of view, as seen in

Plato, Theaetetus, 201 e ff.

101

ARISTOTLE

645 b ÂvayKalov 8e Trpcorov ra avjJLê^rjKora SieXelv

Tvepl eKaoTOV yevos, oaa Kad^ avra TrdoLv vnapx^L

rot? t,a)OLSy fJLeTOL he ravra ras alrias avrcbv TTeipd-

(jdai SteAetv. etprjraL fxev ovv /cat Trporcpov onTToXXa Koiva TToXXols VTTapxî rajv l^wcov, ra fiev

olttXcos {olov TToSes, 7TT€pd, XeTTiSes, Kal ttolOt] St)

rov avTov rpoTTOV tovtols), ra S' dvdXoyov {Xeyco 8'

dvdXoyov , on roTs p^^v vrrdpêi vXevpLOJv, rdls Se

TrXevpLCDV pL€V oVy o he rols e)(ovoi nXevpova, eKel-

VOL9 irepov dvrl rovrov Kal rots' /xev at/xa, rots' 8e

10 TO dvdXoyov rrjv avrrjv €xov Svvap.iv rjvnep tols

ivalpLOis TO alpLo)' to 8e Aeyetv x^P^^ Trepl eKdarcov

TU)v Kad^ eVaara, Kal epiTrpoodev etVo/Ltcv ort

TToAActKts' Gvp^^rjoerai ravra Aeyetv, eVetSav Ae-

ycopLev 7T€pl Trdvrcov rcov VTTapxovrcnv vndpxî 8e

TToAAotS' ravrd. ravra pL€v ovv ravrrj SLCoploOaj.

15 'Evret 8e ro pcev opyavov Trdv eveKd rov, rcov 8e

rod oojpLaros pLopiojv eKaarov eveKd rov, ro 8' ov

eveKa Trpdîs ns, (f)avep6v on Kal ro ovvoXov acJjpLa

GvveGrrjKe irpdêajs nvog eveKa ttoXvpiepods. ^ ov

yap Tj TTpicTis rod TTpiovos X^P^^ yeyovev, dAA' o

TTpLWV TTJs TTpioeajs' xpT^CTts' ydp ns rj TrpiuLs euriv.

ware Kal ro acopid ttcos ttjs iJjvx'^? eveKev, /cat ra20 pLopia rojv epycjv npos a 7Te(f)VKev eKaorov.

AeKTeov dpa Trpcorov rds irpdêis ras re Koivds^

^ TToXvfMepovs P : 7tXi]povs vulg. : fortasse TToXvfx6p(f)ov, c£.

646 b 15.2 TTavTcjov post KOLvas viilg. ; delevi.

• Almost always used in the singular by Aristotle.'' By " blood " Aristotle means red blood only. " Blooded "

and " bloodless " animals do not quite coincide with verte-

brates and invertebrates ; for there are some invertebrateswhich have red blood, e.g. molluscs (Planorbis), insect

102


First of all, our business must be to describe the Final

attributes found in each group ; I mean those of the" essential " attributes which belong to all the -î^^thod.

animals, and after that to endeavour to describe the

causes of them. It will be remembered that I have

said already that there are many attributes which

are common to many animals, either identically the

same {e.g. organs like feet, feathers, and scales, andaffections similarly), or else common by analogy

only {i.e. some animals have a lung," others have no

lung but something else to correspond instead of

it ; again, some animals have blood, while others have

its counterpart,^ which in them has the same value

as blood in the former). And I have pointed out

above that to treat separately of all the particular

species would mean continual repetition of the

same things, if we are going to deal with all their

attributes, as the same attributes are common to

many animals. Such, then, are my views on this

matter.

Now, as each of the parts of the body, like every

other instrument, is for the sake of some purpose,

viz. some action, it is evident that the body as a

whole must exist for the sake of some complexaction. Just as the saw is there for the sake of

sawing and not sawing for the sake of the saw,

because sawing is the using of the instrument, so in

some way the body exists for the sake of the soul,

and the parts of the body for the sake of those

functions to which they are naturally adapted.

So first of all we must describe the actions (a)

larvae (Chironomiis), worms (Arenicola). In other in-

vertebrates the blood may be bhie (Crustacea) or green(Sabellid worms), or there may be no respiratory pigmentat all (most insects).

103

ARISTOTLE645 b

Kal rots' Kara yevos koI ra? /car* efSoj. Aeyco Se

KOLvas {lev at TraGiv v7Tdp)(0VGi rdls ^cools, Karayevos Se ocrojv Trap' aXXrjXa rag Sia(f)opa9 opcjiiev

25 KaB^ v-nepo-xr^v ovoas, olov opviOa Xeyco Kara yevos,

dvOpcjOTTOv Se Kar* ethos, Kal Trdv o Kara rov

KaOoXov Xoyov firjhejJLiav epêt Siacfyopdv. ra {JLev

yap e)(ovaL to kolvov Kar dvaXoyiav, rd §€ Karayevos, rd he Acar' elhos.

"Ooai fiev ovv irpdêis aAAcov eveKa, hrjXov on,

Kal CUV at TTpdêts rov avrov rpoirov hieordoLV

30 ovirep at Trpdêcs. opioiws he Kav el rives Trporepai

Kal reXos erepcov Trpdêwv rvyxdvovonv ovoai, rov

avrov eêi rpoirov Kal rcov jxopicov eKaarov wv at

npdêis at roiavraf Kal rpirov, a nvojv^ bvrcov

dvayKalov VTrdpxêiv . {Xeyco he Trddrj Kal rrpdêis

yeveoiv, av^rjaiv, o;êtav, eyp-qyopcnv, vttvov, tto-

35 peiav, Kal ottog* aAAa roiavra rols t^cpois vnapxî'

fiopia he Xeyo) plva, o(f)daXpi6v Kal ro avvoXovS^6 a. TTpoacoTTOV, ajv eKaarov KaXeXrau fieXos. opLOLOJS

he Kal rrepl rcov dXXwv.)

Kat TTepl [lev rod rpoTTOV rrjs [ledohov roaavO*

riplv elpTâdco' rds S* airlas TreLpaOcofiev eiTrelv irepi

re rcov kolvcjv Kal rcov Ihicov, dp^djievou, KaOdirep

hiajpLaajiev, irpcorov dno rcov npcorcov.

^ a Tivtov Peck, cf. 677 a 18: cov vulg. : a tovtcov Ogle.

" See above, note on 644 a 17.

* Examples will occur during the course of the treatise.

104


which are common, and those which belong (6) to agroup, or (c) to a species. By " common " I meanthose that are present in all animals ; by " thosewhich belong to a group " I mean those of animalswhose differences we see to be differences " ofexcess " " in relation to one another : an example ofthis is the group Birds. Man is an example of aspecies ; so is every class which admits no differ-

entiation of its general definition. These three sorts

of common attributes are, respectively, (1) analogous,

(2) generic, (3) specific.

Now it is evident that when one action is for the

sake of another action, then the instruments whichperform the two actions differ exactly as the twoactions differ : and if one action is " prior " to anotherand is the " end " of that other action, then the part

of the body to which it belongs wdll be " prior " to

the part to which the other action belongs. Thereis also a third possibility, viz. that the action and its

organ are there simply because the presence of others

necessarili) involves them.^ (By affections and actions

I mean Generation, Growth, Copulation, Waking,Sleep, Locomotion, and the other similar ones that

are found in animals. Examples of parts are : Nose,

Eye, Face ; each of these is named a " limb " or" member." And the same holds for the rest too.)

Let this suffice concerning the method of our

inquiry, and let us now endeavour to describe the

causes of all these things, particular as well as

common ; and, according to the principles laid down,we will begin with the first ones first.

105

B

hiK TLVCjJV fJLev ovv fxopLOJV Kai TToaojv avvearrjKev eKaurov raJv t,a)OJV, iv rats iGTopiaLs rats

10 Tvepl avrcbv BeS't^Xajrat oaîorepov' 8t' as S' alrias

€Kaarov tovtov e^î rov rpoTTOV, eTTiGKeTrriov vvv,

Xcoplaavras KaO^ avra rcov iv rals laropiais etpTj-

Tpi(ji)v 8' ovocbv TcDv (jvvdeueojv Trpcorrjv fiev dv

TLS delrj TTjv eK rcov KaXovpLevcov vtto tlvojv oroi-

X^LCov, OLOV yrj9, aepos, vSaros", irvpos. en 8e

15 êXrtov tocos e/c tcqv hvvdfiecov Xeyetv, /cat tovtojv

ovK i^ OLTTaacoVy dAA' oiairep iv irepois eipr^rai /cat

TTporepov vypov yap /cat $rjp6v /cat depp.6v /cat

ipvxpov vXt] rdJv ovvOercov aajfidrajv icrrlv, at 8'

aAAat 8taôpat Taurats" aKoXovOovaiv, olov ^dpos/cat KovÔTiqs /cat ttvkvottjs /cat {JLavorrjs /cat rpa-

20 x^'^V^ '^^^ AetoTT^s" /cat rdXXa rd roiavra irddr] twvacopLdrajv. Sevrepa 8e avaraois €/c rcbv TrpcarcDV -i^

TcDv 6pL0L0fji€p<JL)V (jiVGlS iv Tols ^CpOLS icTLV, oloV

OOTOV /cat uapKos /cat rcov dXXcov rcjv TOLOVTa)v.

" For the threefold series cf. Be gen. an. 714 a 9 ff. Thisfirst " composition " seems to be intended to cover non-organic compounds.

* " Dynamis " here is clearly the pre-Aristotelian technicalterm. See Introduction, p. 30. "^ See De gen. et corr. chh. 2, 8.

''In some contexts, " fluid " and " solid " seem more

106

BOOK II

I HAVE already described with considerable detail P'lrpose and

in my Researches upon Animals what and how many the treatise.

are the parts of which the various animals are

composed. We must now leave on one side whatwas said there, as our present task is to consider

what are the causes through M'hich each animal is as

I there described it.

Three sorts of composition can be distinguished.

(1) First of all '^ we may put composition out of the

Elements (as some call them), viz. Earth, Air, Water,Fire ; or perhaps it is better to say dynameis ^ instead

of Elements—some of the dynameis, that is, not all,

as I have stated pre\-iously elsewhere.'^ It is just

these four, the fluid substance, the solid,*^ the hot, andthe cold, which are the matter of composite bodies ;

and the other differences and qualities—such as

heaviness lightness, firmness looseness, roughness

smoothness, etc.—which composite bodies present

are subsequent upon these. (2) The second sort of

composition is the composition of the "uniform"*substances found in animals (such as bone, flesh,

etc.). These also are composed out of the primary

appropriate : in others, " moist " and " dry " (the traditional

renderings). Aristotle defines them at De gen. and corr.

329 b 30. See also below, 6-1-9 b 9. I have normally trans-

lated them " fluid " and " solid " throughout.• " Uniform," " non-uniform"; see Introduction, p. 28.

107

ARISTOTLE646 a ^

TpiTT] he Kal reXevrala /car' dpLOfiov rj rajv dv-

OfjiOLOfJLepOJV, oloV TTpOOCOTTOV KoL ^^^PO? Kol TCOV

TOlOVrOJV fJLOpLOJV.

25 'E-TTet 8' ivavTLOJS inl rrjs yeveaeojs e;êt /cat ttJ?

ovaias—ret yap varepa rfj yevioei Trporepa ttjv

ÛCTtv ioTi, /cat TTpcoTOV TO rfj yeveaeu reXevraiov

{ov yap ot/cta ttXlvOcov eVe/ceV ecrrt /cat Xidojv, dAAa

ravra rrjs ot/cta? • ojjlolws 8e rovr e;)êt /cat Trept tt^v

dAAr^v vXrjv ov jjlovov 8e (f)avep6v on rovrov e)(€.i rov

80 TpoTTOV e/c TTJ? iTTayojyrjs, dXXa /cat /caret rov Aoyov

77av yd/) TO ytvo/xevov e/c rtvos" /cat els' rt vrotetrat

TTjv yeveoLV, /cat dyr' otpxy]? ctt* apx^jv, 0.776 ttjs

TrpojTiqs KLVovoris /cat i)(ovor]s tJStj rivd (f)VGLV CTrt

Ttva jLto/j^T^y 7) TOLOVTOV dXXo reXos' dvdpojTTOs yap

dvOpojTTov /cat <J)vt6v yewa <J>vt6v e/c tt]? Trept

85 EKaarov VTTOKeLjjLevrjs vXrjs)—rep fxkv ovv XP^^^646 b Trporepav rrjv vXtjv dvayKaXov etvat /cat rrjv yeveaiv,

rep Xoycp 8e rrjv ovoiav /cat T17V eKacrrov fjLopejiTjv.

SrjXov 8' dv Aeyi^ rt? rov Aoyov tt^S" yeveoecos' 6 [xev

yap rrjs OiKoSofirjaecos Aoyo? e;\;et rov rrjs olKLas,

6 8e TT^S" OLKLas ovK e;êt rov rjjs olKohopLTjoccos.

5 opioiajs Se rovro avpê^rjKe /cat eVt rtuv dAAojv.

wore rrjv pL€V rcjv Groixeioov vXrjv dvayKalov etvat

rojv 6pLOLop.epa)v eVe/cev varepa yap e'/cetVcov ravra

" Or, " efficient."^ Or, " in thougrht," " in conception."

• Almost represented here by " definition.**

108

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. i.

substances. (3) The third and last is the composition

of the " non-uniform " parts of the body, such as

face, hand, and the Hke.

Now the order of things in the process of formation

is the reverse of their real and essential order ; I

mean that the later a thing comes in the formative

process the earlier it comes in the order of Nature,

and that which comes at the end of the process is at

the beginning in the order of Nature. Just so bricks

and stone come chronologically before the house,

although the house is the purpose which they sub-

serve, and not vice versa. And the same applies to

materials of every kind. Thus the truth of my state-

ment can be showTi by induction ; but it can also

be demonstrated logically, as follows. Everythingwhich is in process of formation is in passage fromone thing towards another thing, i.e. from one Causetowards another Cause ; in other words, it proceeds

from a primary motive °' Cause which to begin with

possesses a definite nature, towards a Form or an-

other such End. For example, a man begets a manand a plant begets a plant. These new indi-

viduals are made out of the substrate matter appro-

priate in each case. Thus, matter and the process

of formation must come first in time, but logically^

the real essence and the Form of the thing comesfirst. This is clear if we state the logos ^ of such a

process. For example, the logos of the process of

building includes the logos of a house, but that of a

house does not include that of the process of building.

And this holds good in all such cases. Hence wesee that the matter, viz. the Elements, must exist

for the sake of the uniform substances, becausethese come later in the process of formation than

109

ARISTOTLE

648 b ^ , / c- \ \ > ^ ^ \

TT] yeveaei, tovtojv be ra avofjiOLOfiepr]. ravra yap

Tjhrj TO reXos eêt xrat to Ttepas, ivl rod rpirov

Xaôvra ttjv ovGraoLV dpidfjiov, Kadamep €7tl ttoXAcov

10 GVfjLâlveL TeXeiovaOaL ras yevecrcts'.

'E^ d[Ji(f)OTepojv jJLev ovv rd ^cool avvearrjKe rcov

yiopiiov TOVTCov, dXXd rd opLOLOfxeprj ra)v dvo/xoto-

ixepayv eVe/ceV ionv iKeivojv ydp epya Kal Trpdêis

eloivy olov 6^daXp.ov Kal fJLVKrrjpos Kal rod TTpoG-

OJTTOV rravrds Kal haKrvXov Kal )(^€ip6s Kal rravros

15 rod ^paxi-ovos . 7ToXvfji6p(f)a)v Sc rcbv irpdêoiv /cat

rix)V KLVT](7€a>v VTTapxovowv rols t,a)ois oXols re Kal

rols jJLopiOLS roLS roiovrois, dvayKalov ef Sv avy-

Keivrai rds hwajxeis dvofjiota? ex^LV Tvpo? fX€v ydp

riva pLaXaKorrjs XPW^H'^^ Trpds Se nva GKXr]p6rr]s

,

Kal rd fjb€v rduiv e;êtv Set ra Se Kapupiv.

20 To, jLtev ovv ofiOLopueprj Kard fxepog StctAr^ê rds

SwdpLets rds roiavras {to puev ydp avrcov iompbaXaKov rd he oKXiqpov, Kal rd [j,€V vypdv rd 8e

îqpov, Kal rd [Jiev^ yXiGXpov rd Se Kpavpov), rd8' dvoixoLOjJLeprj Kard rroXXds Kal avyKeipiivas

dXXr]Xais' irdpa ydp Trpds rd Trtecrat rfj x^^P^ XPV~25 GLfjLos SvvapLLs Kal TTpos ro Xa^€.lv. SiOTTep €^

oarojv Kal veijpcov Kal oapKos Kal rcjv dXXcov rcbv

roLovrojv Gvveorr]KaGL rd dpyaviKd rcov fjuopiajv,

dAA' ovK eKelva eV roijrcjv.

'Qs likv ovv eveKa nvos Std ravrr]v rrjv alriav

exî' 7T€pl rovrojv rdv elprjfjievov rpoTTov, iirel he.

^-qrelrai Kal ttojs dvayKalov ex^-iv ovro), âvepdv on80 TTpovTTTJpx^v ovrco TTpos dXXr]Xa exovra i^ dvdyKTjs

* TO /i€v PZ : om. vulg.

110


the Elements; just so the non-uniform parts come

later than the uniform. The non-uniform parts,

indeed, whose manner of composition is that of the

third sort, have reached the goal and End of the

whole process ; and we often find that processes of

formation reach their completion at this point.

Now animals are composed out of both of these twosorts of parts, uniform and non-uniform ; the former,

however, are for the sake of the latter, as it is to the

latter that actions and operations belong (e.g. eye,

nose, the face as a whole, finger, hand, the arm as a

whole). And inasmuch as the actions and movementsboth of an animal as a whole and of its parts are mani-fold, the substances out of which these are composedmust of necessity possess divers dynameis. Softness is

is useful for some purposes, hardness for others ;

some parts must be able to stretch, some to bend.In the uniform parts, then, such dynameis are

found apportioned out separately : one of the parts,

for instance, will be soft, another hard, while one is

fluid, another solid ; one viscous, another brittle.

In the non-uniform parts, on the other hand, these

dynameis are found in combination, not singly. Forexample, the hand needs one dynamis for the action

of compressing and another for that of grasping.

Hence it is that the instrumental parts of the bodyare composed of bones, sinews, flesh, and the rest of

them, and not the other way round.

The Cause which I have just stated as controlling

the relation between them is, of course, a Final

Cause ; but when we go on to inquire in what sense

it is necessary that they should be related as they are,

it becomes clear that they must of necessity havebeen thus related to each other from the beginning.

Ill

ARISTOTLE646b ^

^ ^ ^

ret [lev yap dvoixoiOfjLeprj eV rcvv ofJLOLOjJLepcov iv-

hex^Tai ovveordvaiy kol e/c irXeLovajv koL evos, olov

eVta Tojv oirXdyxycov TroAu/xopâ ydp toZs (^XV'

jxauLV, i^ ofJiOLOjJLepovs ovra acofiaros cog el-neZv

aTrAcDs". Tct 8* ofJiOLoiieprj eV tovtojv dSvvaTOV to

85 ydp 6iJLOLO[JL€peg ttoAA' dv etrj dvofJiOLOjieprj.

647 a Aid p.kv ovv ravrag ras" alrias rd fxev dirXd /cat

ofjiOLOfieprj, rd 8e ovvOera /cat dvoixoiofxepr] rcJov

fJLoplojv ev Tols t>4>ois ioriv.

*'Ovrojv 8e Twv fiev opyaviKcov fiepdjv rojv S*

aLGd-qrrjpLOJv iv rols t^Moig, rchv fxev opyavLKcov

5 eKaoTov dvofioLOficpes icrriv, axjTrep etirov TTporepov,

Tj 8* aiaOrjcTLg eyyiverai irdcnv iv rols ofMOLOfiepeGLV

8ta ro rcjv aloOrjGeojv OTTOiavovv ivos rivos etvat

yevovg, /cat to alaOrjrripLov eKdarov ScKriKov elvai

rojv alaOrjTcov. rrdcrxî 8e to SwdfieL oV vtto rod

evepyeua dvros, coot' eon rd avrd rco yevec, /cat

10 (et)^ eKelvo ev, /cat rovro ev, /cat 8td rovro X^^P^

fJLev t) TTpoGOJTTOv Tj rctJv roLOvrojv ri pLopiojv ouSet?

eyxetpel Xeyeiv rcov (f^vaioXoyajv ro jiev elvai yrjVf

rd 8' vSojp, ro 8e TTvp- rcov 8' aludr]rr]pLOJV eKaarov

1 (eO Ogle.

" The translation " sense-organ " must not be taken toimply that the part through which the sense functions is an

112


It is possible for the non-uniform parts to be con-

structed out of the uniform substances, either out of

many of them, or out of one only. (Examples of the

latter are furnished by certain of the viscera, which,

although they are of manifold shapes and forms,

yet for all practical purposes may be said to consist

of one only of the uniform substances.) But it is

impossible for the uniform substances to be con-

structed out of the non-uniform parts : for then

we should have an uniform substance consisting of

several non-uniform parts, which is absurd.

These, then, are the Causes o\Wng to which some of

the parts of animals are simple and uniform ; while

others are composite and non-uniform.

Now the parts can also be divided up into (a)

instrumental parts and (6) sense-organs.'* And wemay say that each of the instrumental parts of thebody, as I have stated earlier, is always non-uniform,while sensation in all cases takes place in parts that

are uniform. The reasons why this is so are thefollo\Wng : The function of each of the senses is

concerned w-iih a single kind of sensible objects ; andthe sense-organ in each case must be such as canapprehend those objects. Now when one thing

affects another, the thing which is affected must bepotentially/ what the other is actually ; so both are thesame in kind, and therefore if the affecting thing is

single, the affected one is single too. Hence wefind that while with regard to the parts of thebody such as hand, or face, none of the physiologers

attempts to say that one of them is earth, andanother water, and another fire

; yet they do conjoin

" organ " in the stricter meaning of the word. " Organs "

are normally " non-uniform," sense-organs are " uniform."

113

ARISTOTLE647a ^ ^

npos eKaarov iTTLêvyvvovai rcov oroi)(€iu)v , to /X€^

depa (jidoKovres elvai, to 8e rrvp.

OvGTjs Se rrjs aloB-qoeiOs iv rolg dnXols fxepeaLV

15 evXoyoJS jJidXiGra aujLtjSatVct ttjv d^r]v iv oiJLOLOjxepei

fjL€v rJKLcrra 8' aTrXw rcjv aLa9rjTr)pla)v eyyiv€odai'

fidXiGTa yap avrrj Sok€l TrXeiovcov etvau yevojv, Kal

TToAAds" ^x^t'^ ivavTLa)G€L? TO VTfo TavTr]v aloOriTov,

depfxov ipvxpdv, ^r]p6v vypov Kal ei tl dXXo tolovtov

20 Kal TO TOVTOJV aludiqTrjpLOV, 7] odpi Kal TO TaVTT]

dvdXoyov, GCxjpLaTajheGTaTOV eVrt rcov alaOrjTrjpiwv.

inel 8* dSvvaTOV elvai t,a)ov dvev alGdi]GeaJs , Kal

Sid TOVTO dv etrf dvayKalov €X€iv tols t,(x)ois cvta

ixopia ofJLOiojxeprj- rj fiev yap aiGdrjGLg iv TOVTOig,

at Se 7Tpd^€L? Sid tojv dvofjLoiofjiepdjv VTrdpôvGLV

avTois.

25 Tris 8' aLGdrjTiKTJs Swdfiecos Kal Trjg klvovgtjs

TO t^CpOV Kal TTJS 9p€7TTLKrjg iv TaVTCp fJiOpLCp TOV

Gco/JiaTog 0VG7]g, Kaddirep iv eVepot? e'lprjTai irpo-

Tepov, dvayKalov to exov rrpdJTOv piopiov rcts"

TOLavTas dpxd?, fj[xiv iGTi heKTiKov TrdvTcov tojv

aLGdrjTcov , Tcijv dTrXdjv etvai jjioptajv,fj

Se klvtjtlkov

30 Kal TTpaKTiKov, TOJV dvopLOLopiepojv . hiorrep iv fikv

Tols dvaipiois tôjois to dvdXoyov , iv 8e Tots" ivaipiois

rj Kaphia tolovtov eoTtv SiaLpetTaL fxev ydp els

opLOLOfxepri KaOdnep tojv dXXojv GnXdyx^^cov eKaGTOV,

hid 8e TT^V TOV GX'JP'OLTOS jJiopcfjTjv dvojJLOLOfJiepds

iGTLV. TaVTTj 8' TjKoXovdrjKe Kal TOJV dXXoJV TOJV

" See De somno, 455 b 34 ff.

114


each of the sense-orgsms with one of the elementarysubstances, and they assert that this sense-organ is

air, this one fire.

Sensation thus takes place in the simple parts ofthe body. The organ in which touch takes place is,

however, as we should expect, the least simple of all

the sense-organs, though of course like the others it

is uniform. This is evidently because the sense of

touch deals with more kinds of sense-objects thanone : and these objects may have several sorts of

oppositions in them, e.g. hot and cold, solid and fluid,

and the like. So the sense-organ which deals withthese—viz. the flesh, or its counterpart—is the mostcorporeal of all the sense-organs. Another reasonwe might adduce why animals must of necessity

possess some uniform parts at any rate, is that there

cannot be such a thing as an animal with no powerof sensation, and the seat of sensation is the uniformparts. (The non-uniform parts supply the means for

the various activities, not for sensation.)

Further, since the faculties of sensation and ofmotion and of nutrition are situated in one and thesame part of the body, as I stated in an earlier work,°that part, Mhich is the primary seat ofthese principles,

must of necessity be included not only among thesimple parts but also among the non-uniform parts

—

the former in virtue of receiving all that is perceivedthrough the senses, the latter because it has to dowith motion and action. In blooded animals this

part is the heart, in bloodless animals the counterpartof the heart, for the heart, like every one of the otherviscera, can be divided up into uniform pieces ; buton the other hand it is non-uniform owing to its

shape and formation. Every one of the other so-

115

ARISTOTLE647 a

35 KoXovfievcxJV a7T\dy)(y<jjv eVacrrov cac t-^? avrrjs

647 b yap vXrjs Gweardaiv alfiaTLK-rj yap tj (fivois rravrajv

avrcov Std to tt^v dioLV e;^€tv irrl TTopoL? (^Xe^LKoXs

Kal SiaX-ji/jeGiV. KaOoLTrep ovv piovros vSaros IXvs,

rdXXa GTrXdyxva rrjs Sid rchv (f)Xeâ)v pvoecos rod

alparos olov Trpox^vp-ard iartv' rj 8e KapSta, 8ta

5 TO Tojv (fyXe^cov dpx^] Îvai Kal ex^tv iv avrfj rrjv

SvvafjLLV rrjv 8r]fjLLovpyovaav ro af/xa 7rpa)T7]v, €V-

Xoyov i^ otas dpx^TaL^ rpo^ris e/c roiavrrjg avv-

eardvai Kal avrrjv.

AtoTt piev ovv alpLarLKa rrjv pLopcfy-qv rd oirXdyxva

iarlv îprjTaiy Kal Slotl rfj pkv opLOiopeprj rfj8'

dvopLOLopiepi^.

10 II. Tdjv 8' 6pLOiopL€pcx)V pLopicov iv TOLS ^cpoLS iarl

rd piev /xaAa/ca Kal vypd, rd Se OKXiqpd Kal areped,

vypd pL€V t) oAcos" rj eojs dvfj

iv rfj (jivaei, olov

at/xa, Ix^Ry TTipieXrjy oreap, piveXog, yovrj, X^'^^'

ydXa iv rols exovuL, odp^, Kal rd rovroL? dvdXoyov15 ov ydp diravra rd ^cpa rovra>v rcov pLopLOJV re-

revx^v, dXX evia rwv dvdXoyov rovrcov noiv. rd

8e ^r]pd Kal oreped rwv opLOLOpuepcov iarlv, otov

oarovv, aKavOa, vevpov, (j)Xei/j. Kal ydp rojv opLOio-

pLepdjv Tj SiaipeGLS eêt hia(j)opdv' eon ydp ojs iviojv

ro piipos opLwvvpiov rw dXco, olov (f)Xe^6s (j)Xeip, ean20 8' Cl)S OVX OpLOJVVjXOV, dXXd 7Tpoaa)7TOV 7Tp6(ja)7TOV

ovSapLws.

^ otas corr. in loco pluritim litterarum Y : ot as Z {as Z^ in

rasura). apxerat (vel dpx>] eWi) Peck, cf. 666 a 7, b 1, etc. :

bexerat vulg.

116

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IT. i.-ii.

called viscera follows suit. They are all composedof the same material, as they all have a sanguineous

character, and this is because they are situated

upon the channels of the blood-vessels and on the

points of ramification. All these viscera (excluding

the heart) may be compared to the mud whicha running stream deposits ; they are as it weredeposits left by the current of blood in the blood-

vessels. As for the heart itself, since it is the starting-

point of the blood-vessels and contains the substance

{dynamis) by which the blood is first fashioned,

it is only to be expected that it will itself be com-posed out of that form of nutriment which it

originates.

We have now stated why the viscera are san-

guineous in formation, and why in one aspect they are

uniform and in another non-uniform.

II. Of the uniform parts in animals, some are The uniform

soft and fluid, some hard and firm. Some are ^^^ ^

permanently fluid, some are fluid only so long as they

are in the living organism

—

e.g. blood, serum, lard,

suet, marrow, semen, bile, milk (in the lactiferous

species), flesh. (As these parts are of course not to

be found in all animals, add to this list their counter-

parts.) Other of the uniform parts are solid and

firm : examples are bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-

vessel. This division of the uniform parts admits a

further distinction : There are some of them of which

a portion has, in one sense, the same name as the

whole (e.g. a portion of a blood-vessel has the nameblood-vessel), and in another sense has not the

same name. (In no sense is this the case with a

non-uniform part ; for instance, a portion of a face

cannot be called face at all.)

117 •

ARISTOTLE647 b

UpojTov fji€v ovv /cat rots' vypotg fioptocg koI rots

^rjpols 77-oAAot rpoTTOi rrjs alrias elaiv. ra }i€V yapCO? vXt] tlov fJLepojv rcuv dvofiOLopiepajv eartv (eV

rovTCUv yap avveur'qKev eKaarov rchv opyavLKcov

fxepcovy i^ OGTOJV Kal vevpojv /cat crap/ccuv /cat dXXojv

25 roLOvrcov cru/x/SaAAo/xeVoji' rd fxev els rrjv ovalav ra8* els TTjv ipyaulav), rd Se rpo(f)rj rovroLS rcov

vypcjjv iori (Trdvra yap e^ vypov Xa/jL^dvet rr]v

av^rjcTLv), rd 8e Trepirrcofiara avjJLêPrjKev etvat

rovra>v, olov riqv re rrjs i'qpds rpo(f)rjs VTToaraaiv

/cat rr]v rr^s vypds rots exovai Kvoriv.

Avrojv he rovrojv at htaôpal TTpds d'AAryAa rod30 êXriovos eveKev elaiv, olov rwv re aAAojv /cat

aljjLaros TTpds alfia' rd puev ydp Xenrorepov rd Se

7Ta)(vrepov /cat rd fxev KaOapcorepov eorru rd de

OoXepcorepov, en 8e rd [lev ipvxporepov rd Se dep-

jxdrepov, ev re rots fioploLs rod evos ^cpov {rd ydp35 iv roLS dvoj pLepeoi Trpos rd Karoj pLopta diacjiepei

ravrais rats Staôpats") /cat erepco rrpos erepov.

648 a /cat dX(x>s rd piev eVat^Lta rd}v t,cx)cov ecrrl, rd 8' avrt

rod alpLaros e^î erepov ri p.6piov roiovrov.

"EcjTt 8' loxdos p-ev TTOi-qriKcorepov rd rraxvrepov

at/xa /cat 6epp,6repov, alodrjrLKCjorepov 8e /cat voepd)-

repov TO Xeirrdrepov Kal ipvxporepov. rrjv avrrjv 8'

6 e;!êt diacpopdv /cat to ayaAoyov vrrdpxov^ vpos rd

^ TO . . . virdpxov P : rtDv . . . VTiapxovTOiv vulg.

*» Or, " reason."*• See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.

' See Introduction, pp. 28 ff.

** With this passage compare Hippocrates, HipX SiairrjSf

i. 35. See also below, 650 b 24 ff., and Introduction, pp.37-39.

118

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ii.

Now first of all there are many sorts of Cause °' towhich the existence of these uniform parts, both thefluid and the solid ones, is to be ascribed. Some ofthem act as the material for the non-uniform parts{e.g. each of the instrumental parts is composed ofthese uniform parts—bones, sinews, fleshes, and thelike, which contribute either to its essence, or elsetowards the discharge of its proper function). An-other group of the uniform parts—fluid ones—act asnutriment for the ones just mentioned, since every-thing that grows gets the material for its growthfrom what is fluid ; and yet a third group are residues ^

produced from the second group : examples, theexcrement deposited from the solid nutriment and(in those animals which have a bladder) from the fluidnutriment.

Further, variations are found among differentspecimens of these uniform parts, and this is to sub-serve a good purpose. Blood is an excellent illustra-tion. Blood can be thin or thick, clear or muddy,cold or warm ; and it can be different in differentparts of the same animal : instances are known ofanimals in M'hich the blood in the upper parts differsfrom that in the lower parts in respect of the char-acteristics just enumerated. And of course theblood of one animal differs from that of another.And there is the general division between theanimals that have blood and those which instead of it

have a parf^ which is similar to it though not actuallyblood.

The thicker and warmer the blood is, the more it

makes for strength ; if it tends to be thin and cold,it is conducive to sensation and intelligence.'^ Thesame difference holds good with the counterpart of

119

ARISTOTLE648 a ^

af/xa* Sto Kal jU-eAirrat Kal d'AAa rotavra ^wa (jipo-

VLjJLcorepa ttjv (I>vglv iurlv ivaLjJLOJV ttoXXojv, Kal rcov

evo-ifxajv to, ijjvxpov exovra Kal Aevrrov at/xa (f)povL-

fJLcorepa rcov ivavrtajv euriv. apiara Se ra Oepfiov

10 exovra Kal Xenrov Kal KaBapov aju,a yap irpos r

avhpeiav to. rotavra Kal irpos (j^povqctLV exî KaXaj?.

8l6 Kal ra avoj puopia rrpos ra Kara) ravrrjv e;êt

TTjV hia(j)Opdv, Kal rrpos ro OrjXv av ro dppev, Kal

ra Se^ta Trpog ra apiarepa rod acojJLaros.

ÔpLOiws Se Kal rrepl rcov a'AAojv Kal rcov roiovrojv

15 fjLopiOJV Kal rGiv avo[ioio[iepo}V vrroXiqTrreov exîv

rrjv Siacfiopdv, ra jiev irpos ra epya Kal rrjv ovoiav

eKOLGrcp rcov l^cocov, ra he irpos ro [êXriov rj êtpov,

otov ixovrcov 6(f)daXfjLov? a/xôrepcov ra ix€v ianGKXrjp6(j)daXixa ra S' uypo</>âA/xa, /cat ra fiev ovk

ex€i pXe(j)apa ra 3'^X^''* ^po? ro rr]v oipiv aKpi-

êorepav elvai.

20 "On 8' dvayKalov ex^t^v rj alfia rj ro rovrcp rrjv

avr7]v €xov (jtvaiv, Kal ris iariv rj rod atfiarog

(jiVGis, TTpcorov SteAojLteVot? rrepl OepiJLOv Kal ipvxpoVy

ovrco Kal rrepl rovrov Oecopr^reov rds airlas. ttoXXcov

yap 7) (j)VGis dvdyerai rrpos ravras rds dpxds, Kal

25 TToXXol SiaiJi(f)LGpr]rovGi TTola depfid Kal rrola ipvxpd

Tcjv ^cpcjov Tj rcx)v pLopiojv. evioi yap ra evvhpa rcov

rretôjv OeppLorepd (jyaoiv elvai, Xeyovres cos erraviGoZ

rrjv ijjvxporTjra rod ronov rj rrjs (fivoecos avrcbv

" This sentiment, which at first sight appears to go against

the Aristotelian teleology, is supported by actual instances,

e.g. the horns of the backward-grazing oxen (659 a 19) andof the deer (663 a 1 1) and the talons of certain birds (694 a 20).

120


blood in other creatures : and thus we can explainwhy bees and other similar creatures are of a moreintelligent nature than many animals that haveblood in them ; and among the latter class, why-

some (viz. those whose blood is cold and thin) are

more intelligent than others. Best of all are thoseanimals whose blood is hot and also thin and clear

;

they stand well both for courage and for intelligence.

Consequently, too, the upper parts of the body havethis pre-eminence over the lower parts ; the male overthe female ; and the right side of the body over theleft.

WTiat applies to the blood applies as well to theother uniform parts and also to the non-uniformparts ; similar variations occur. And it must besupposed that these variations either have some re-

ference to the activities of the creatures and to their

essential nature, or else bring them some advantageor disadvantage.° For example, the eyes of somecreatures are hard in substance, of others, fluid

;

some have eyelids, others have not. In both cases

the difference is for the sake of greater accuracy of

vision.

Before we can go on to consider the reasons why all

animals must of necessity have blood in them or some-thing which possesses the same nature, and also whatthe nature of blood itself is, we must first come to

some decision about hot and cold. The nature ofmanythings is to be referred back to these two principles,

and there is much dispute about which animals andwhich parts of animals are hot and which are cold.

Some assert that water-animals are hotter than land-

animals, and they allege that the creatures' natural

heat makes up for the coldness of their habitat.

121'

ARISTOTLE648 a

BepjxorrjSy Koi ra dvaifia rcov ivaifxcov /cat to, di^Xea

Tcbv dppevojVy olov HapjjLeviSr]? ras yvvaiKas rcov

80 avhpihv depfxorepas elvai (fyrjGL /cat erepoi rives cu?

Sta TTjv BeppLorriTa /cat TToXvaifio-uoais yLvofidvcov

rojv yvvaiKelcxJVy ^KfXTTeSoKXrjs 8e rovvavrlov' ert 8*

at/xa /cat x^^W ^^ H-^^ deppiov oirorepovovv elval

(f)a<jLV avTOJV, ol Se xpvxpov. el 8' e;!(et roaavrTji'

TO depjJLov /cat ro ipvxpov dfjL(f)La^rJTr]aLV, ri XPV35 TTepc Tcov oiXXcov vTToXaêlv ; ravra yap rjpuv iv-

apyearara rcov nepl rr]v aicrdrjGLV.

"Eot/ce he Sta to iroXXaxoJS Xeyeudai to OepjJLO-

64:8 b repov ravTa avj-LâLveiv' eKaoTOs yap hoKeZ rt

Xeyeiv TavavTia Xeycov. 8t6 8et (jltj XavOdvetv rrojs

8et TcDv (f)V(jei ovveGTOjrojv tol fiev depfid Xeyeiv to.

Se ipvxpd, /cat rd [lev irjpd tol 8' vypd, errel oti ya'lTia TavTa axehov /cat Oavdrov /cat t,aj7Jg eoiKev

5 ctvat (f)avep6v, ert 8' vttvov /cat eyprjyopaecos /cat

aKfjLrjs /cat yqpojs /cat vouov /cat vyieias, dAA' ou

rpaxvTTjTes koi Xecorr^res ovSe âpvTrjTeg /cat /cou-

(f)6T7]Tes odS^ dXXo TOJv ToiovTOJv ovSev COS" eiirelv.

/cat TOUT* euAoyco? (JVfiê^rjKev KaOdnep yap iv

eTepois e'lprjrai TrpoTepov, dpxo-i tcov (f)VOLKajv

10 GTOixeiojv avTai eloi, OeppLOV Kal i/jvxpov /cat

^Tjpov /cat vypov.

YioTepov ovv aTrXajs Xeyerai to dep/xov 7] TrXeo-

vaxii>s; 8et 817 XaêZv Tt epyov tov depfJiOTepov, 7)

* See above, 646 a 15, and note.

122

PARTS OF ANIMALS, 11. ii.

Further, it is asserted that bloodless animals are

hotter than those that have blood ; and that females

are hotter than males, Parmenides and others, for

instance, assert that women are hotter than men onthe ground of the menstrual flow, which they say is

due to their heat and the abundance of their blood.

Empedocles, however, maintains the opposite

opinion. Again, some say that blood is hot and bile

cold, others that bile is hot and blood cold. And if

there is so much dispute about the hot and the cold,

which after all are the most distinct of the things

which affect our senses, what line are we to take

about the rest of them ?

Now it looks as if the difficulty is due to the term Tho primary

" hotter " being used in more senses than one, as there(^) '^'S"^

'

seems to be something in what each of these writers and "cold."

says, though their statements are contradictory.

Hence we must permit no ambiguity in our application

of the descriptions " hot " and " cold," " solid " and** fluid " to the substances that are found produced bynature. It is surely sufficiently established that these

four principles (and not to any appreciable extentroughness, smoothness, heaviness, lightness, or anysuch things) are practically the causes controlhng life

and death, not to mention sleep and waking, prime '

and age, disease and health. And this, after all, is

but reasonable, because (as I have said pre\'iously in

another work) these four—hot, cold, solid, fluid—are

the principles of the physical Elements."Let us consider, then, whether the term " hot

"

has one sense or several. To decide this point, wemust find out what is the particular effect which a

body has in virtue of being hotter than another, or,

if there are several such effects, how many there are.

E 123

ARISTOTLE648 b ^

TTOcra, el TrXelco. eVa fxev 87) rpoirov Aeyerat ixdXXov

depfiov v(j)* ov fidXXov OepfxalveraL ro oLTTTOfJLevov,

15 d'AAaJs- 3e TO fJLaXXov aiGdrjaLV ifiTTOLOVV iv ro)

diyyaveiv, /cat rovr^ , iav [lerd Xvtttjs. eon 8* ore

SoKel rovT* elvat ifjevhos' eviore yap rj eîs alria

rov dXyeZv aloOavoiievois . en ro rrjKruKCjrepov rov

rr]Krov /cat rod Kavarov KavoruKcorepov . en iav

fjro fxev ttXIov ro 8' eXarrov ro avro, ro rrXeov rov

20 eXdrrovos depjjLorepov. rrpos 8e rourots" Suotv ro

fJLT] ra)(ea)s ipvxofievov dXXd ^paSeco? depfxorepov,

/cat ro ddrrov 6eppLaLv6}xevov rod depfxaivofievov

PpaSecos depfjLorepov elvat, rrjv (f)vaLv âjLteV, cus" to

fjiev evavriov on rroppo), ro 8* opioiov on eyyvs-

Xeyerai fiev ovv el {jltj irXeovaxcj^? , dXXa TOcraurap^cD?

25 erepov irepov depfiorepov rovrovs 8e rov? rpoirovs

dSvvarov inrapxeiv rep avrco iravras' Oeppiaivei fxev

yap fjidXXov ro l,eov vhcop rrjs (f)Xoy6s, /catet 8e /cat

r'^Kec ro Kavarov /cat rrjKrov rj cf)X6^, ro 8' vSojp

ovSev. en depfiorepov jiev ro t,eov vScop 7] TTvp

oXlyov, iJjvx^raL Se /cat ddrrov /cat /xaAAov to deppLOV

80 vhojp pLLKpov TTvpos' OV ydp ytverai i/jvxpov TTvp,

vSojp 8e ylverat irdv. en 0epp.6repov fxev Kara rrjv

d^Tjv ro t,eov vhojp, xpvx^rai 8e Odrrov /cat m^yvvraL

rov eXaiov. en ro alp.a Kara p.ev rrfv dcprjv depfio-

repov uSaros" /cat eXalov, TTrjyvvrai he ddrrov. enXidoi /cat oih-qpos /cat rd roiavra deppLaiverai /xev

35 ^pahvrepov vharos, /catet he Oepfiavdevra pLoXXov.

TTpds he rovrois rwv Xeyop.evon> deppLcbv rd jiev

" Alluding, perhaps, to the expansion due to heat.

124.


A is said to be " hotter " than B (1) if that whichcomes into contact with it is heated more by it thanby B. (2) If it produces a more violent sensation

M'hen touched, and especially if the sensation is

accompanied by pain. (The latter is not always atrue indication, since sometimes the pain is due to thecondition of the percipient.) (3) If it is a better

melting or burning agent. (4) If it is of the samecomposition as B, but greater in bulk,'^ it is said to be"hotter" than B, and in addition (5) if it cools

more slowly than B, or warms up more quickly : in

both these cases we call the thing " hotter " in its

nature—as we call one thing " contrary " to anotherwhen it is far removed from it, and " like " it whenit is near it. But although the senses in whichone thing is said to be " hotter " than anotherare certainly as many as this, if not more, yetno one thing can be " hotter " in all of theseways at once. For instance, boiling water can im-part heat more effectively than flame ; but flameis able to cause burning and melting, whereaswater is not. Again, boiling water is hotter thana small fire, but the hot water will cool off morequickly and more thoroughly than the small fire,

since fire does not become cold, but all waterdoes. Again, boiling water is hotter to the touchthan oil, yet it cools and solidifies more quickly. Andagain, blood is warmer to the touch than either wateror oil, yet it congeals more quickly. Again, stone

and iron and such substances get hot more slowly

than water, but once they are hot they burn other

things more than water can. In addition to all this

there is another distinction to be made among the

things that are called " hot ": in some of them the

125'

ARISTOTLE

649 a aXXoTptav e;êt rr^v depiior-qra ret 8' oiKeiaVy Sta-

(f)€p€L Se TO deppLov elvai ovtojs tj €K€lvcu? TrXelarov,

iyyvs yap rod Kara avfiêjî^Kos etvai depjjLov dXXa

fjLrj KaO^ avro ddrepov avrwv wGTTep dv et rt? Xeyoi,

6 €L ovfiê^-qKos etr] ro) TTVperrovn elvai fiovGLKco,

Tov fJLOvaiKov elvai depfxorepov t) rov fxeO^ vyieias

depp-ov. inel 8* iarl ro fiev KaO^ avro OeppLov ro

8e Kara ovpLê^-qKos, i/jvx^raL fiev ^pahvrepov ro

Kad^ avro, deppuaivei he pidXXov rroXXaKis rrjv ai-

o67]GLv ro Kara uvpLê^rjKos' Kal TrdXtv Kaiei {xev

10 fiaXXov ro Kad^ avro 6epp.6v, olov r] (f)X6^ rov

v8aro£ rov t,eovros, deppiaivei 8e Kara rrjv d(f)rjv ro

t,eov ptaXXov, ro Kara avpiêîqKos deppiov. cocrre

(f)avep6v on ro Kplvai hvolv norepov deppLorepov ovxaTrXovv coSt pLev yap roSe eorai Oeppiorepov, coSt he

15 Odrepov. evLa he rcbv roLovrcxJV ovh^ eunv dirXdjs

elrrelv on BeppLov tj pLT] deppLov o pLev ydp rrore

rvyxdvei ov ro vTTOKelpLevov ov deppLov, ovvhvalô-

pievov he deppiov, olov et rt? deZro 6Vo/xa vhan t)

oihrjpcp Oeppicp' rovrov ydp rov rpoirov ro at/xa

OeppLov eunv. /cat TTOiel he (f)avep6v iv rols roLov-

20 rots' on ro ipvxpdv (f)vaLS ris aAA' ov areprjois eonv,

iv ouoLS ro vTTOKeLjxevov Kara irddos OeppLov eonv.

rdxo- he Kal rj rod rrvpog (J)vgls, el ervx^, roiavrr)

ns eariv 'Igojs ydp rd VTroKelpievov eanv rj KanvosTj dvdpa^, wv rd piev del OeppLov [dvaOvpLLaois ydp d

KaiTvos), d 8* dvOpa^ drroGêudels ipvxpd?. eXatov

he Kal TTevKTj yevoir dv ijjvxpd. exî he deppLdrrjra

" That is, " blood " is really " hot x,"" and the " x " is nomore hot of its own nature than the " water " in " hot water."

Cf. 649 b 21 ff., and Torstrik, Rh. Mus. xii. 161 ff.

* Perhaps a reference to the resin which is in firwood or is

obtained from it.

126


heat is their own ; in others it has been derived from\v'ithout. And there is a very great difference be-tween these two ways of being hot, because one ofthem comes near to being hot " by accident " andnot hot " of itself" ; as is obvious, supposing anyonewere to assert, if a fever-patient were " by accident

**

a man of culture, that the man of culture is hotterthan a man whose heat is due to his perfect health.

Thus some things are hot " of themselves " andsome hot " by accident," and though the former cool

more slowly, the latter are in many cases hotter in

their effect upon the senses. Again, the former havea greater power of burning : e.g. a flame burns youmore than boiling water, yet the boiling water,

which is hot only " by accident," causes a stronger

sensation of heat if you touch it. From this it is

plain that it is no simple matter to decide which of

two things is the hotter. The first will be hotter in

one way, and the second in another. In some cases

of this sort it is actually impossible to say simply that

a thing is hot or is not hot. I mean cases in whichthe substratum in its permanent nature is not hot,

but when coupled (with heat) is hot ; as if we wereto give a special name to hot water or hot iron : that

is the mode in which blood is hot.** These cases, in

which the substratum is hot merely through someexternal influence, make it clear that cold is not just a

privation but a real thing in itself. Perhaps even fire

may be an instance of this kind. It may be that its

substratum is smoke or charcoal : and, though smokeis always hot because it is an exhalation, charcoal

when it goes out is cold. In the same way oil

and firwood ^ become cold. Further, practically all

I2T

ARISTOTLE649a

^ ^ , f T f \

2:> Kol TO, TTvpojdevra Travra o-)(eh6v, olov Kovia /cat

re^pa, /cat to, vTTOGTrniara rcov ^coojv, /cat tcDv

TTepiTTOJfJiarojv rj X^^V* '^^ ifJLTreTrvpevcrOai /cat

iyKaraXeXelcfidal tl eV aurots" Oepfiov. aWov 8e

rpoTTOv Oepiia} TrevKT] /cat ra TTiova, ro) ra^v /xera-

jSaAAetv ei? ivipyeiav rrvpos.

30 Ao/cet Se TO depfiov /cat 7Tr]yv6vai /cat ri^/cctv. ocra

/Ltey ow L'Saros' piovov, ravra irriyvvoL to ijjvxpoVy

ocra Se y^^S", to TrOp- /cat Tcoy deppicov Tn^yvvraL vtto

i/jvxpov raxv pikv oua yrjs pLoiXXov /cat olXvtcos,

Xvrojs S' oca vSaros. dXXa Trepl pikv tovtojv iv

iripois StctjptCTTat oacjîorepov , nroZa ra TrrjKrd, /cat

TT-^yvvraL 8ta TtVa? alrias.

35 To Sc Tt OeppLOV /cat ttoIov OeppLorepov eVetSi)

649 b AeyeTat TT-Aeova;)^;^!)?, ou tov auTov rpoirov VTrdpêi

TTO-GLV, dXXd TTpoa^LopiuTeov on KaO^ avro /xev roSe,

Kara avpipe^rjKos Se vroAAa/ct? ddrepov,^ en 8e

8vvdpL€L pL€v Tohi, Tohl §6 /caT* ivepyetav, /cat TOvSe

/xev Tov rpoTTOV rohi, rco pLoiXXov ttjv dcjyrjv Oep-

5pLaiV€LV, ToSt 8e TO) (j)X6ya TTOieZv /cat nvpovv.

Xeyopuivov Se tou deppôv TroXXaxôs, dKoXovQ-quei

hriXov on /cat to i/jvxpov Kara rov avrov Xoyov.

Kat TTept jLtev Oeppôv /cat ipvxpov /cat tt}?

V7T€pOXT]S aVTcbv hlCOpioOcO TOV rpOTTOV TOVTOV.

III. 'E;)(op,ep'OV 8e /cat 776pt irjpov /cat vypov SteA-

10 ^€tv aKoXovOtxJs Tot? elpripiivois . Xeyerai Se ravra

^ Oipjxa Peck : Oepfiov vulg.* TToAAaKi? ârepov] num raAAo depfioTepov?

- See 3/^^ôr. 382 b 31 fF., 388 b 10 ff.

'' Probably the text should be altered to read :'* B hotter

by accident."" See note on QiQ a 16, and Introd. p. 32.

128

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ii.-ui.

things that have passed through a process of com-bustion have heat in them, such as cinder, ash, the

excrement of animals, and bile (an instance of a

residue). These have passed through fire and someheat is left behind in them. Firwood and fatty

substances are hot in another way : they can quickly

change into the actuality of fire.

We must recognize that " the hot " can cause both

congealing and melting. Things that consist of

water only are solidified by the cold, those that con-

sist of earth, by fire. Again, hot things are solidified

by cold : those that consist chiefly of earth solidify

quickly, and the product cannot be dissolved again;

those that consist chiefly of water can be dissolved

after solidification. I have dealt more particularly

Mith these matters in another work,'' where I have

stated what things can be solidified, and the causes

that are responsible for it.

So, in view of the fact that there are numeroussenses in which a thing is said to be " hot " or "hotter,"

the same meaning -w-ill not apply to all instances, but

we must specify further, and say that A is hotter" of itself," B perhaps " by accident " ^ ; and again

that C is hotter potentially, D actually ; and wemust also say in what way the thing's heat manifests

itself: e.g. E causes a greater sensation of heat whentouched ; F causes flame and sets things on fire.

And of course, if " the hot " is used in all these

senses, there will be an equal variety of senses

attaching to " the cold."

This will suffice for our examination of the terms" hot " and " cold," " hotter " and " colder."

III. It follows on naturallv after this to discuss (?»" solid

"

"the solid" and "the fluid "'^ on similar Unes.

""^"^"''^•'

129

ARISTOTLE649 b

7TX€ovax<^<s , olov ra /xev Svvdfiei, ra 8' ivepyeta.

KpvaraXXos yap Kal irav ro TTeTrrjyos vypov Aeyerat

iyjpa} juev ivepyela Kal Kara ovjijie^riKos, ovra

Sum/xet Kal Kad^ avra vypd, yrj 8e Kal ri^pa Kal

15 TO, roiavra fJuxOevra vypuj ivepyela fxev vypd Kal

Kara avpiê^-qKos, Kad^ avrd Sc /cat hwdpiei ^rjpd-

hiaKpidevra he ravra ra jxev vSaros dvaTrXr^GTiKd

Kal evepyeia Kal hvvdfxei vypd, rd 8e yr^s aTravra

^rjpd, Kal TO Kvpiojs Kal aTrActJ? ^f]pov rovrov

/xaAtcrra Aeyerat rdv rpoirov. ojjlolws Se /cat ddrepa

20 ra vypd Kard rdv avrdv \6yov e-)(ei to Kvpiios Kal

dnXajs, Kal iirl Oepficov Kal iJjvxp(J^v. tovtojv he

hiCopLGpievajv <âvepdv ort to atjLta coSt jxev eon

deppLov [olov TL^ Tjv avTO) TO alpLari etvat;]* Kaddirep

ydp^ el ovojJiarL tlvl* oriiiaivoipiev rd têov vhajp,

OVTO) Aeyerat • to 8* v7TOKeip,evov /cat o 770Te 6V

25 alpid earIV, ov OeppLov Kal Kad* avrd eari fJLev ojs

6ep[i6v ecrriv, eari 8* cu? ov- ev puev ydp rep

Xoyo) vrrdpêi avrov t) OeppLorrjg, cjairep ev rwrod XevKov dvOpconov rd XevKov

f)he Kard irddos,

TO atâ ov KaO^ avrd Oepixov.^

*0fiOLOJS he Kal rrepl ^r]pov Kal vypov. hid Kal

^ ^T]pa Peck : ^7/pov vulg.^ olov Tt Bekker. haec, signo interrog. adscr., seclusi.

^ yap Z : om. vulg.* ovo/xttTi TLVL PSUZ^ : ovofiaTL Ti EY : ovofiari vulg.

^ 11. 22-29 interpunctionem correxi.

" i.e. they assume the shape of the receptacle into whichthey are put.

130

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. iii.

These terms are used in several senses. E.g." solid " and " fluid " may mean either potentially

solid and fluid or actually solid and fluid. Ice

and other congealed fluids are said to be solid

actually and by accident, though in themselves andpotentially they are fluid. On the other hand, earth

and ash and the like, when they have been mixedwith a fluid, are fluid actually and by accident, butpotentially and in themselves they are solid. Whenthese mixtures have been resolved again into their

components, we have on the one hand the wateryconstituents, M'hich are anaplestic,^ and fluid actually

as well as potentially, and on the other hand theearthy components which are all solid : and these

are the cases where the term " solid " is applicable

most properly and absolutely. In the same way,only those things which are actually as well as poten-tially fluid, or hot, or cold, are such in the properand absolute sense of the terms. Bearing this dis-

tinction in mind, we see it is plain that in one wayblood is hot [e.g. what is the essential definition of

blood ?], for the term " blood " is used just as the

term for " boiling water " would be, if we had a

special name to denote that ; but in another way,i.e. in respect of its permanent substratum, blood is

not hot. This means that in one respect blood is

essentially hot, and in another respect is not. Heatwill be included in the logos of blood, just as fair-

ness is included in the logos of a fair man, and in

this way blood is essentially hot ; but in so far as

it is hot owing to external influence, blood is not

essentially hot.

A similar argument would hold with regard to the

solid and the fluid. And that is why some of these

e2 131

ARISTOTLE649b

^ ^ ^

ev rfj cf)V(j€L Twv tolovtojv to, fX€V depjJLa Kal vypd,

so xwpL^ôjjLeva 8e TTiqyvvrai Kal i/jvxpcL âtVerat, otov

TO alfia, ra 8e Oepfia Kal tto-xo? expvra KaOdrrep r)

XO^tJ, x^ptfo/xei-a S' €K rrjs (f)VG€OJs rojv exovrcDV

TovvavTiov TTaox^^' 4'^X^'^'^^ 7^9 '^^^ vypaiverai' to

likv yap alfia ^rjpaiverai /xaAAov, vypaiverai 8' r]

âvdr) X^^l- '"'^ ^^ fJidXXov Kal rjrrov ju,eTe;)(ety rwv35 dvTiK€iixev(x>v 60S" VTTapxov^ Set Tidevai rovrotg.

650 a Hcos" /xev ouv deppLov Kal ttcos vypov, Kal ttojs

T(JL)V ivaVTLWV Tj (jiVGLS TOV atjU-ttTOS" KeKOlVOJVTjKeV

y

€LprjTaL crx^Sov.

'Ettci 8' dvayKT] ndv to avâvopievov Xap-^dveiv

Tpo(f)'r^v, Tj 8e Tpo(f)rj Trdoiv i^ vypov Kal ^7]pov, Kal

5 rovTOJV Tj TriijjLs yiverai Kal tj pieraôXr) 8td tt^s" tov

Oeppiov Svvdfiewg, Kal ra â)a rrdvra Kal ra </)UTa,

Koiv el pLTj 8t' aXXriv alriav, dXXd hid ravrrjv dvay-

Kolov exîv dpx^v deppiov (f)VGiK7Jv. [Kal ravrrjv

ojGTTep] at {8'y ipyaoiai rrjs rpo(f)rjs TrAetovcov elal

fioplojv' 7) pikv yap Trpcorrj (f)av€pd rois ^coois

10 Xeirovpyia hid rod oropiaros ovaa Kal ra)v iv

rovrcp pLopicov, oacnv tj rpo(f)rj Seirai hiaipioeojs.

dXX avrrf piev ovSepiids airia 7Tei/jea>£, dAA' €v-

TTeijjias pidXXov rj ydp els piiKpd hiaipeois rrjs

rpocj^rjs pdo) TTOiel rep deppicp rrjv ipyaoiav rj 8e rr]s

dvcD Kal TTJs" Kdro) KoiXias rjhr] pierd deppiorrjros

^ vndpxov Peck : virdpxovTa vulg.' KOI ravT-qv uxnTcp seclusi, <8') supplevi : Kal ravr-qv

(^vXeloai fJLopiois ivvTrdpxovaav} Camus.

" See above, note on 644 a 17.* See Introduction, p. 34.* Lit. " the dynamis of the hot substance," perhaps here

something more than a mere periphrasis for " the hot sub-

132


substances while in the Hving organism are hot andfluid, but when separated from it congeal and are

observed to be cold, as blood does ; others, like

yellow bile, are hot and of a thick consistency while

in the organism, but when separated from it undergoa change in the opposite direction and become cool

and fluid. Blood becomes more sohd, yellow bile

becomes fluid. And we must assume that " moreand less " ° participation in opposite characteristics

is a property of these substances.

We have now pretty well explained in what wayblood is hot, in what way it is fluid, and in whatway it participates in opposite characteristics.

Everything that grows must of necessity take food.

This food is always supplied by fluid and solid matter,

and the concoction ^ and transformation of these is

eifected by the agency of heat.'' Hence, apart fromother reasons, this would be a sufficient one for

holding that of necessity all animals and plants

must have in them a natural source of heat ; thoughthere are several parts which exert action upon thefood. In the case of those animals whose food needsto be broken up, the first duty clearly belongs to

the mouth and the parts in the mouth. But this

operation does nothing whatever towards causing

concoction : it merely enables the concoction to

turn out successfully ; because when the food has

been broken up into small pieces the action of the

heat upon it is rendered easier. The natural heatcomes into play in the upper and in the lower gut,

stance," as emphasizing its proper and specific naturalcharacter, which makes it a particularly good agent foreffecting concoction. See Introduction, pp. 30-32.

133

ARISTOTLE650 a

15 ^voLKTjS TTOielrai TTjv ireifjiv. woTrep 8e /cat to

arojJLa rrjs aKarepydarov rpocfyrj? nopos iori, /cat

TO Gvvex^? aura) fiopiov o KoKovaiv olao^dyov,

ooa Tcov t,a)OJV e^cL rovro to fiopiov, 'iojs els

TTjv KoiXiav, ovTio /cat aXXovs hel nopovs^ etvat, St'

cov arrav XijifjeTai to aojpLa ttjv Tpoîqv, warrep

20 e/c cfyaTvrjg, e/c ttjs KoiXtas /cat ttjs tcx)v ivTf.pcov

(f)V(T€(x>s. TO, fj-ev yap <^VTd Xapi^dvei ttjv Tpo(f)'qv

KaT€ipyaopi€vr)v €/c Trjg yrjs rat? ptfat? (Sto /cat

TTepLTTCOfJLa ov ytVerat rots* cjiVTols' ttj yap yfj /cat

TTJ ev avTTJ depjJLOTTjTL xprjTai ayorrep koiXlo), to, 8e

t,wa TrdvTa fxev ox^Sov, to, Se nopevTiKa (f)av€poj?y

25 olov yi]v €V avTols e;^'et to tt^S" kolXlos kvtos, i^

-j^S", a)07Tep eKelva Tat? plâLS, TauTa Set Ttvt ttjv

Tpo(j)r]v XapL^dveiv, ecus* to ttjs ixo{JLdvr]s Treipeajs

Xd^Tj TeXos. Tj fjLev yap tov UTopiaTos ipyacrla rrapa-

StScoat ttJ KOiXia, rrapd Se TavTiqs €T€pov dvayKalov

Xapi^dveiv , orrep avpLJê^rjKev at yap (jyXeêg /caTa-

30 TeivovTai hid tov ixeoevTepiov Trapdnav, KdTCoOev

dp^dpievai pi^xpi Trjg /cotAtas". Set Se TavTa deojpeZv

€/c T€ TCOV dvaTopiOJV /cat TTJs (f)vaLKrjs loTopias.

'ETret Se Trdoris Tpo(f)rjs euTL tl SeKTLKov /cat tcov

ytvopievwv vreptTTCo/xaTCOv, at Se Âe'/8es" otov dyyelov

alpLaTos elai, <âvep6v oVt to atjLta r] TeXevTaia

35 Tpo(f)r] TOLS t,oiois Tols eVai/xot? eVTt, TOt? S dvaipLois

^ aXXovs Set TTopovs Peck : aXXas dpxo.s Set irXelovs vulg.

" Cf. Shakespeare, Coriolanus i. i. 133-152.* The membrane to which the intestines are attached." Dissections (or Anatomy) is a treatise which has not

survived.

134,


which effect the concoction of the food by its aid.

And, just as the mouth (and in some animals the

so-called oesophagus too which is continuous with

it) is the passage for the as yet untreated food, andconveys it to the stomach ; so there must be other

passages through which as from a manger the bodyas a whole may receive its food from the stomach andfrom the system of the intestines." Plants get their

food from the earth by their roots ; and since it

is already treated and prepared no residue is pro-

duced by plants—they use the earth and the heat

in it instead of a stomach, whereas practically all

animals, and unmistakably those that move about

from place to place, have a stomach, or bag,—as it

were an earth inside them—and in order to get the

food out of this, so that finally after the successive

stages of concoction it may reach its completion, they

must have some instrument corresponding to the

roots of a plant. The mouth, then, having done its

duty by the food, passes it on to the stomach, andthere must of necessity be another part to receive it

in its turn from the stomach. This duty is under-

taken by the blood-vessels, which begin at the bottom

of the mesentery,^ and extend throughout the length

of it right up to the stomach. These matters should

be studied in the Dissections ^ and my treatise on

Natural History.^

We see then that there is a receptacle for the food

at each of its stages, and also for the residues that

are produced ; and as the blood-vessels are a sort of

container for the blood, it is plain that the blood (or

its counterpart) is the final form of that food in Uving

^ The Natural History, otherwise History of Animals or

Researches upon Animals. See 495 b 19 IT., 514 b 10 ff.

135

ARISTOTLE650 a

TO avaXoyov. kol hia rovro fxrj Xaix^dvovcrl t€

650 b Tpocfirjv vTToXeLTTCi TOVTO Kal XafJi^dvovGiv av^dverai,

Kal XPV^'^V^ M^^ ovGtjs vyieivov, (jyavX-qs 8e (f)avXov.

on fxev ovv to atjLta Tpo(f)rjg ev€K€v vnapxei roXg

ivaifioLS, (f)av€p6v eK rovrcov Kal tojv tolovtcov. /cat

yap S(,d TOVTO dtyyavofievov atodrjULV ov Trotet

5 [ojOTTep ot)S' aXXo tcov TTepLTTajjjLaTOJV ovSev, ovS^ rj

TpO(f)r)) KaOdvep udp^-^ avTiq yap dtyyavofievr] TroLel

ata6r](jLV. ov yap ovvex^S eVrt to atjLta TavTrj ovSe

avjJLTTecjiVKOs, aAA' olov eV dyyeico Tvyxdvei Keijievov

€V T€ TTJ Kaphia Kal rat? (^XeiJjLV. ov Se Tporrov

XapL^dvei ef avTOV ra pLopia t7]v av^-qaiv, €tl 8e

10 TTepl Tp0(f)rj£ oXco?, iv toIs irepi y€V€aea>£ Kal iv

irepoLS olKeioTepov eVrt hieXdeiv. vvv 8' cmToorovTOV elprjodix) (togovtov yap xp^^f^H-ov) ^ otl to

aljxa Tpocf)rjs eVe/ca Kal Tpo(j)r\s tcov fiopLWV eoTiv.

IV. Tds" Se KaXovpiivas Ivas to fxev exî at/xa

15 TO 8* OVK eXî, olov TO tG)V €Xd(f)(jOV Kal TTpOKCJV.

SioTTcp ov TriqyvvTai to tolovtov atfia' tov yap

OLfxaTO? TO [lev vSaTcoSes fidXXov^ ioTL, 8l6 Kal ov

TTTiyvvTai, TO 8e yecoSe? TrriyvvTai oruveâTfilôvTOs

TOV vypov' at S' tves" yrjs eluiv.

2t»jLt/SatVet S* eVta ye Kal yXa(jiVpajTepav ex^LV

20 ri7V Stavotav tojv tolovtcov, ov Std ttjv ipvxpoTTjTa

TOV at/xaros", dAAct 8td tt^v XeTTTOTTjTa [xaXXov Kal

^ 11. 4 f., interpunctionem correxit Cornford.^ fidXXov Z : /xdAAov ijjvxpov vulg.

" In the Second Book. Also in De gen. et corr.

^ With the sentiments of the following passage and its

terminology (" more intelligent," " soul," " blend," etc.)

compare the very interesting passage in Hippocrates, Ilepi

hiaL-rqs, i. 35. Cf. 648 a 3.

136

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. iii.-iv.

creatures. This explains why the blood diminishes

in quantity when no food is taken and increases

when it is ; and why, when the food is good, theblood is healthy, when bad, poor. These andsimilar considerations make it clear that the purposeof the blood in living creatures is to provide themwith nourishment ; and also why it is that when the

blood is touched it yields no sensation, as flesh doeswhen it is touched. Indeed, none of the residues

yields any sensation either, nor does the nourishment.This difference of behaviour is because the blood is

not continuous with the flesh nor conjoined to it

organically : it just stands in the heart and in the

blood-vessels like water in a jar. A description of

the way in which the parts of the body derive their

growth from the blood, and the discussion of nourish-

ment in general, comes more appropriately in the

treatise on Generation " and elsewhere. For the

present it is enough to have said that the purposeof the blood is to provide nourishment, that is to

say, nourishment for the parts of the body. Somuch and no more is pertinent to our present

inquiry.

IV. The blood of some animals contains what are The uniform

called fibres ; the blood of others (e.g. the deer and Bîood!

the gazelle) does not. Blood which lacks fibres doesnot congeal, for the following reason. Part of the

blood is of a more watery nature, and therefore

does not congeal ; while the other part, which is

earthy, congeals as the fluid part evaporates off.

The fibres are this earthy part.

Now some of the animals whose blood is wateryhave a specially subtle intelligence.^ This is due not

to the coldness of their blood, but to its greater thin-

ARISTOTLE660b ^

^

Sia TO KaSapov etvaf ro yap yeajSes ovSerepov ex^t

TOVTCDV. €VKivr]TOTepav yap e)(OVGi rr]v atodrjcrLV ra

XeTTTorepav exovra rrjv vyporrjra /cat KaOapajrepav.

SiOL yap rovTO Kal tojv avaipLCOv eVia avvercorepav ex^L

25 rr]v ipvxrjv ivlcov ivaifjLOJv, KaOdnep etprjraL Tvporepov,

olov 7) /xeAtrra Kal ro yevos to tcov pivppLriKOJV Kav

et Tt erepov tolovtov ianv. SeiXorepa 8e to. Atav

vSarcvSr). 6 yap (f)6ôs Karaijjvxî' TTpocohoiToiqTai

ovv TO) TTadei ra TOLavr7]v exovra rr]v iv rfj Kaphia

80 Kpaaiv ro yap vSojp ro) ifivxp^ TTrjKrov eGriv. Sto

Kal raXka ra dvaifxa SeiXorepa rcov evaipiojv iarlv

d)5 OLTrXiog eiTreXv, Kal aKivqrLêi re (f)oô-u[JL€va Kal

TTpoterai TreptrrcajLtara /cat [xeraâXXei, evia ras

XpocLS avrcov. ra be ttoXXols exovra Xlav tvas Kal

TTaxîas yecohearepa rrjv (f)vaiv eorl /cat dvfJLcoSr} ro

85 rjOos Kal eKorariKa 8td rov dvfiov. depfiorrjros

yap TTOLTiriKov 6 dvjio?, ra 8e orepea depfiavdevra

651 a fxdXXov depixaivei rwv vypcov at 8' tides' arepeov Kal

yewSes, (Lore yivovrai olov rrvpiai ev rco alfxart

Kal t,eGLV 7TOLOVGLV iv rols OvfiOLS. 8to ol ravpoL Kal

ol Kairpoi OvfJicoSeis Kal eKorariKoi' ro yap alfxa

Tovrojv IvajSeorarov, Kal ro ye rod ravpov rdxi'Orra

6 TTT^yvvrai iravrcov. iâtpovfievajv Be rovrcov rajv

Ivcjv OX) TTrjyvvrai ro alfia' Kaddnep yap e/c tttjXov

€L ns eêXoL ro yecoSes ov irrjyvvrai ro vSojp, ovro)

Kal ro at/xa* at yap tve? yT]?- p^^] eâipovpLevoiV

• At 648 a 2 ff.

'' For the connexion between fear and cold cf. 667 a 16,

692 a 22 ff., and Rhetoric, 1389 b 30.

138

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. iv.

ness and clarity, neither of which characteristics

belongs to the earthy substance ; and an animalwhich has the thinner and clearer sort of fluid in it

has also a more mobile faculty of sensation. Thisis why, as I said before," some of the bloodless

creatures have a more intelligent Soul than someof the blooded ones ; e.g. the bee and the ants

and such insects. Those, however, that have ex-

cessively watery blood are somewhat timorous.

This is because water is congealed by cold ; andcoldness also accompanies fear ; therefore in thosecreatures whose heart contains a predominantlywatery blend, the way is already prepared for

a timorous disposition.^ This, too, is why, gener-ally speaking, the bloodless creatures are moretimorous than the blooded ones and why theystand motionless when they are frightened anddischarge their residues and (in some cases) changetheir colour. On the other side, there are theanimals that have specially plentiful and thick

fibres in their blood ; these are of an earthier

nature, and are of a passionate temperament andliable to outbursts of passion. Passion produces heat

;

and solids, when they have been heated, give off

more heat than fluids. So the fibres, which are solid

and earthy, become as it were embers inside theblood and cause it to boil up when the fits of passion

come on. That is why bulls and boars are so liable

to these fits of passion. Their blood is very fibrous ;

indeed, that of the bull is the quickest of all to congeal.

But just as when the earthy matter is taken outof mud, the water which remains does not congeal

;

so when the fibres, which consist of earth, are takenout of the blood, it no longer congeals. If they are

139

ARISTOTLE651 a ^

^

8e TTT^yvvraL, olov vypa yrj vtto xp'u'xpvs' rod yap

depfJLOv VTTO rod ipvxpov iKdXiôpilvov auveJarjLtt^ct

10 TO vypov, KaOoLTTep €Lpr]TaL irporepov, /cat TTiqyvvraL

ovx v'ô Oepfiov dAA' vtto ipvxpov ^rjpaLvojJievov. iv

Se rots' GcojjLaaLv vypov eVrt 8ta rrjv dcpfiorrjra ttjv

iv TOZS ^CpOL?,

IIoAAcov S' iarlv airla rj rod aljxaros <j>vois koi

Kara to ^dos rolg ^cpoi^ kol Kara rrjv alod-qaiv,

euAoyoJS" v\y] yap icrn Travrog rod awpLaros' r] yap

15 Tpo(f>rj vXt], to S* at;Lta -q iaxdrr] rpo(j)ri. ttoXXtjv

ovv 7T0i€L hia(f)opav depfiov ov /cat ipvxpov /cat Actttov

/cat TTaxv /cat OoXepov /cat Kadapov. Ix^P ^' ^^''"^

to vSarojSe? rod alpiaros Sta to pLrjTTCo 7T€Tr€(f>9ai rj

SLe(j)ddp9aL, 6oo-t€ o [lev ef dvdyKrjs lx^P> ^ ^'

aljiaros X^P^^ eVrtV.

20 V. HifjLeXrj 8e /cat areap SLa(f)€povaL jxev dAA-jÂaJV

/caret TTjV Tov at/xaro? hiaôpdv. eort yap Iko.-

T€pov avTOJV at/xa ireTrefJiiJLevov 8t' evrpoîav, /cat ro

jLt'J7 KaravaXiGKOfxevov els to GapKwSes fxopLov rcov

^q)ajv, €V7T€7TTOv 8e /cat eurpaê?. SiÂot Se ro

25 AtTrapov aiJTcDv rcov ydp vypojv ro Xirrapov kolvov

dipos /cat TTvpos ioriv. Std rovro ovhkv e;^€t rail'

dvaipiojv ovre TnpLeXrjv ovre areap, on ovS^ atfia.

rdJv 8' ivaijjLCxJV rd [xev GOJfiarcohes exovra ro af/xa

oriap exî [laXXov, ro yap oriap yea)8e? eVrt, 8t6

" As it were, the " raw " material.^ I have used the terms " lard " and " suet " rather than

" soft fat " and " hard fat " because they represent moreclosely the distinction made by Aristotle. The difference

between them is now known to be less fundamental, and is

140

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. iv.-v.

not taken out, it does congeal, as moist earth does

under the influence of cold : the cold expels the heat

and makes the fluid evaporate, as has been said

before ; so it is due to the solidifying effect of

the cold, and not of the hot, that what remains

becomes congealed. And while it is in the body the

blood is fluid on account of the heat which is there.

There are many points both in regard to the tem-perament of animals and their power of sensation

which are controlled by the character of the blood.

This is what we should expect : for the blood is the

material " of which the whole body consists—material

in the case of living creatures being nourishment, andblood is the final form which the nourishment assumes.

For this reason a great deal depends upon whetherthe blood be hot, cold, thin, thick, muddy, or clear.

Serum is the watery part of blood ; and it is wateryeither because it has not yet undergone concoction or

because it has been already corrupted ; consequently

some of the serum is the result of a necessary process,

and some is there for the purpose of producing blood.

V. The difference between lard and suet ^ is parallel i-ard and

to a difference in the blood. They both consist of^^^

blood that has been concocted as the result of plentiful .

nourishment ; that is, the surplus blood that is not

used up to nourish the fleshy parts of the animal, but

is well concocted and well nourished. (This point

is proved by their greasiness, for grease in fluids is

a combination of Air and Fire.) This explains

why there is no lard or suet in any of the bloodless

animals. And among the others, those whose blood

is denser tend to contain suet rather than lard. Suet

due to varying proportions of unsaturated triglycerides andthe lengths of the carbon chains.

141

ARISTOTLE•51 a

TTrjyvvraL KaOdnep Kal to atfjia to tvcDSe? kol avro

Kac OL l,cofjLol OL TOLovTOi' oXiyov yap ex^L vSaros,

30 TO oe TToXv yrjS' Sto to, pLJ] dfjuc/xjohovra dXXa

Keparwhr) areap exî. (j)av€pd 8' rj <f)vois avrcbv

rod roLovrov gtolx^ôv TrX^prjs ovaa rep Keparcohrjs

€Lvai Kal darpayaXovs exîv diravTa yap ^r]pd kol

yerjpd rrjv <j)VOLv iarlv. rd 8' djxcpcoSovra /cat

85 CLKepara /cat TToXvGXiSrj TnfJLeXrjV exî dvrl orearog,

7] ov TnjyvvraL ovSe OpvTTrerai îqpaivoiiivr] hid to

^Tj €Lvai yecoSr] rrjv (fiVGiv avrrjs.

Merpca puev ovv ravra ovra iv rot? jJLoptois rcov

651 b t,a)Ci>v coêAet [Tvpos pêv yap aiaOrjaiv ovk ejU,7ro8i'êt,

TTpds 8' vyieiav /cat SvvapLLV exî ôiqBeiav), vnep-

^dXXovra Se rco TrX'qQeL (jideipei /cat ^Xdnreu. et

yap TTav yevoiro rd oajpâ mpLeXr^ /cat areap y 0,770-

Aoit' dv. t,(x)ov jjiev yap iari Kard to al(j0r]TiK6v

5 pôpiov, Tj 8e odp^ /cat to dvdXoyov aioOriTLKov' rd

8' at/xa, coo7T€p e'lprjrai /cat rrporepoVy ovk ex^t

alaOrjGiv, hid ovhe mpLeXj] ovhe areap- atjLta ydp

TreTTefipêvov eariv. coar^ el irdv yevoiro rd aajpia

roiovrov, ovk dv exoi ovhepiiav aiadrjaiv. hid kol

yrjpdaKei raxecjs rd Xiav niova' oAtyat/xa ydp are els

10 rr)V TTiorrjra dvaXiaKOjJievov rod alpâros, rd 8' oAty-

atjLta rihr] ttpoojhoTToiiqrai Trpds rrjv (f)dopdv' rj ydp

<f)dopd dXiyaipLia ris eari, Kal rd dXiyaipiov^ rradr]-

riKdv Kal VTTO ipvxpov rod rvxdvros /cat vtto BepyLov.

^ sic Th. : animal pauci sanguinis S : oXlyov vulg.

142

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. v.

is of an earthy character ; it contains but Httle

water against a large proportion of earth ; so it

congeals just as fibrous blood and broths do. So

too the animals which have horns but have teeth

in one jaw only contain suet. And it is clear that

their natural constitution is full of this element(earth) from the fact that they have horns and huckle-

bones, for they are all of them solid and earthy in

constitution. On the other hand, the animals which

have incisor teeth in both jaws and have toes (not

uncloven hoofs), but no horns, contain lard instead

of suet. Lard neither congeals nor splits up into

small pieces when it dries, owing to the fact that

it is not earthy.

Lard and suet when present in the parts of animals

in moderate quantities are beneficial : they do not

hinder the action of the senses, and they contribute

towards the health and strength of the body. Butwhen the amount of them is excessive they are

destructive and injurious. This is shown by the

consideration that if the whole body were to becomelard and suet, it would perish. The sine qua non of a

living creature is its sensory part, which is flesh or its

counterpart ; and since, as I have said before, blood

is not sensitive, neither lard nor suet, which are just

concocted blood, is sensitive. Therefore, if the whole

body were to become either of these, it would have

no sensation whatever. For this reason, too, unduly

fat animals age quickly : their blood gets used up to

produce fat, so there is very little of it left ; andanything that has but little blood is well on the road

to decay. In fact, decay is just a form of blood-

deficiency ; and an animal deficient in blood is

easily susceptible to the effects of accidental cold and

143

ARISTOTLE651 b

^

Koi dyovcxjrepa Srj ra ttlovo. Ion 8ta Tr]v avrrjv

airiav o yap eSet €K rod at/xaros' et? TrjV yovrjv

15 levai K0.1 TO GTvepfxa, rovr els rrjv TTipLeXr^v ava-

XiGKerai koL to areap' Trerrofievov yap to at/xa

yLverat ravra, ware -r) oXcos ov yiverai 7reptTTC0/xa

avrois ovhkv rj oXlyov.

Kat TTepl [lev alp.aros Kal Ixcopos Kal TTLfJLeXrjs

Kal orearos, rl re iariv eKaarov avrcbv Kal 8td

TLvas airlag, e'lprjrai.

20 VI. "EaTt 8e Kal 6 fjLveXog aifiaros res (f>VGL9, Kal

ovx cQGTrep olovral rives, rrjs yovrjs OTrepfiarLKT]

SvvafJLLS' SrjXoL 8' iv rots veois TrdpLTTav are yap

i^ aifxaros (jvvearwrojv rcov pLoplcxJV /cat t-^s" rpo(f)rjs

ovarjs rols ijJi^pvoLs aljxaros, Kal iv roXs oarols o

25 fjLveXos alpiarojh'qs eorlv avâvofxevcov 8e Kal ner-

rofxevcov, KaOdnep Kal ra fiopia fxeraâXXeu Kal ra

aTrXdyxycL rds XP^*^^ [virepôXfj yap alpLarwhes Kal

rd)v OTrXdyxyojv eKaarov euriv en vewv 6vra)v),

OVTOJ Kal 6 piveXos.

Kat rojv piev TrtjLteAojScov XcTrapos Kal TnpLeXfj

opLOLOs, oaois 8e pLT) TnpLeXfj opLOLOv^ dXXd oreap

80 yiverai ro atpLa irerropievov, rovrois 8e o-TeaTcoST)?.

8t6 Tot? piev Keparo(f)6poLs Kal pir] dpLcfjcoSovciL

arearcoSr]s , rols 8' dpucjxjjhovGi Kal iroXvax^î^^^

TTipLeXcoS-qs. (rJKLcrra be roiovros 6 paxlrrjs earl

pLveXos 8ta TO 8etv avrov elvai avvexrj Kal Ste;êty

Sta Trdcrrjs rrjs pdx€Cos hirjp'iqpiev'qs Kara rovs

85 G(f)OvSvXovs' XiTTapos 8' cov T) orearwSrjs ovk av

opLolojs TjV Gvvexijs, dXX* rj Opavaros rj vypos.)

^ ofjLOLOv Z^ : ofMotos alii.

" e.g. secretion of semen. See above, on 647 b 27." Plato, Timaeus, 73 c.

144

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. v.-vi.

heat. The same cause is responsible for the com-parative sterility of fat animals : that part of the

blood which ought to go to form semen and seed gets

used up in forming lard and suet, which are formed

by the concoction of blood. Hence in fat animals

there is either no residue " at all, or else very little.

I have now spoken of blood, serum, lard and suet,

describing the nature and the Causes of each of them.

VI. Marrow, again, is really a form of blood, and not, Jrarrow.

as some^ think, the same as the seminal substance''

of the seed. This is proved by the case of very younganimals. In the embryo, the parts are composed out

of blood and its nourishment is blood ; so it is not

surprising that the marrow in the bones has a blood-

like appearance. As they grow and become mature,^

the marrow changes its colour just like the other parts ^

of the body and the viscera, which while the creature

is young all have a blood-like appearance owing to the

large quantity of blood in them.Animals which contain lard have greasy marrow,

like lard ; those whose concocted blood produces not

a substance like lard but suet have suety marrow.

Hence, in the horned animals which have teeth in

one jaw only the marrow is suety, and in the animals

that have teeth in both jaws and are polydactylous it

is like lard. (The spinal marrow cannot possibly be

of this nature because it has to be continuous andto pass without a break right through the whole

spine which is divided into separate vertebrae ; and if

it were fatty or suety it could not hold together as

well as it does, but it would be either brittle or fluid.)

" Dynamis. See Introduction, pp. 30 if. and note on 646 a 14.

^ Lit. " are concocted."• A good instance of Aristotle's usage of the term " part."

14'5

ARISTOTLE

"KvLa 8' ovK e;)(et raJv ^cLcov cos aîcos €L7T€lv

jxveXov, OGOJV TO, Surd laxvpa Kal ttvkvol, olov ra

652 a Tou XeovTOS' rovTov yap ra oord, Sua to TrdfXTTav

darjfjLov e'x^tv, So/cet ovk €X€lv oAco? fJLveXov. eirel

8e T19V jLtev TcDv ocrrcov avdyKf] (f)V(nv vnapxîv toZs

t,cpOLs r] TO dvaAoyov Tot? do-TOtS", ofov TOtS" ivvSpois

6 rrjv aKavdav, dvayKolov eviois v-napx^^v Kal fiveXov,

ilirrepiXa}Jiâvop.iviqs rrjg rpo(f)rjs e^ ':7s' yiverai ra

Sard, on 8' rj Tpo(f>rj Tjdoiv alfxa, €ip7]TaL irpo-

repov. €vX6yoJs 8e /cat orearajheis ol {iveXol Kal

7n/xeAa)8ets" elcrlv Std yap rrjv dXeav ttjv yLVOfJbevrjv

vrro rod Trepiex^crdaL roXs ogtols TTeTreraL to at/xa,

10 75 8e Kad" avro Triipis alpiaTOS oreap Kal TTLpLeXi]

iaTLv. Kal iv toIs ^r] ra Sard ttukvo, kxovcn Kai

laxvpoL €vX6yoJS iv roig fxev ovk eveon, rots 8'

oXlyos^ eveoTLV els yap ra Sard dvaXiaKerai rj

Tp0(f)lj.

*Ev 8e Tot? fxr] exovGiv Sard dAA' aKavdav 6

pax^T7]s fxovos iarl [xveXos' dAtyat/xd re yap </>ucret

15 vTTapx^L ovra, Kal kolXt] aKavOa piovov rj rijs pa-

êcos" lorIV. hio iv ravrrj iyyiverai' p.ovrj re yap

e;êt ;^ct>pav, Kal pLovTj Selrai avvSeufJiov Sid rds

SiaX7ji/j€Ls. 8td Kal 6 ivravda pLveXog, (Zanep

elprjrai, dXXoiorepos ioriv hid rd dvrl rrepovrjs

1 oXiyois per errorem Bekker.

146

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vi.

Some animals have no marrow worth mentioning l

these are they whose bones are strong and close-

textured : for instance, the Lion, whose bones con-

tain so insignificant an amount of marrow that they

look as if they contained none at all. Now in view of

the fact that the bodies of animals must have in themeither bones or the counterpart of bones {e.g. the

spines in water-animals), it follows of necessity that

some of them must contain marrow as well, due to the

enclosing of the nourishment out of which the bonesare formed. Now we have stated already that the

nourishment of all the parts of the body is blood.

And it is quite reasonable that the various sorts of

marrow should be suety and lardy ; because the

blood undergoes concoction owing to the heat pro-

duced by its being surrounded by bone, and the

product of blood when it undergoes concoction byitself is suet and lard. And also, of the animals that

have strong, close-textured bones, some have nomarrow, others have but little, and this is reasonable

too, because the nourishment gets used up to supplythe substance of the bones themselves.

In those animals that have no bones but spine

instead, the backbone contains the only marrow theypossess. It is the nature of these creatures to havebut a small amount of blood, and their only hollow

spine is that of the backbone. Therefore the marrowis formed in it—indeed, it is the only bone wherethere is room for the marrow, and the only onewhich requires something to connect it together,

owing to its being divided up into segments.

This also explains why the marrow here is (as

I have already said) somewhat different from the

marrow elsewhere. It has to serve as a fastening,

147'

ARISTOTLE652 a

yap yiveadai yXiaxpo?, koL vevpajh-qs iarlv tv'

20 Ata Tt fxev ovv ixveXov e;^6t to, Joia ra eôvra

fjLveXov, etprjTav Koi ri ianv 6 jjLveXos, eV tovtojv

<j)av€p6v, OTL rrj5 alfjLarLKrj? Tpo(j)rjs rrjs et? ogto,

Kal aKavOav ixepiHôpievrjs iarl to e/x7reptAa^j8avo-

fxevov TTepLTTOjfia Tr€(j)dev.

VII. Ylepl S* iyK€(f)dXov gx^ôv icrnv ixofJLevov

25 elneXv ttoXXoXs yap Kal 6 eyKecâXos So/cet fiveXos

etvai Kal apx^} tov [xveXov 8ta ro ovvex'^ tov

paxcTTjv avTO) opdv fJiveXov. eori he irdv rovvavrlov

avro) T7JV (f)VGLV (1)£ elrreZv 6 {lev yap lyKecjyaXos

ijjvxpoTarov rcov iv rco aaypLari fioptajv, 6 Se piveXog

deppLos TTjv (/iVGLV StjXol 8' Tj XiTTapoTrjg avrov Kal

30 TO ttIov. 8 to Kal Gvvex^s 6 paxiTT}? ray iyK€(f)dXa)

€GTLV' del yap rj (jiVGLS [xr^xci^'drat irpos ttjv eKdorov

VTTepôXrjv PorjOeLav rrjv rod ivavriov TrapeSplav, tva

dvLGdl^T] TT^v darepov vTrepôXrjv Odrepov. on fiev

ovv 6 p.veX6s Oeppios^ Igtl, hrjXov ck ttoXXcov. tj 8e

35 tov iyK€(f)dXov ijjvxpoTiqs (jiavepd fxev Kal /cara t'))^

dl^LV, €TL 8' dvaipLOTaTov T(2)v vypcov Tojv iv T(h

GWfiaTL TrdvTOJv {ovS^ oTLOvv yap atfiaTOs exî €V

652 b avTcp) Kal avxp^'TjpoTaTOV. cgtl 8* ovt€ TrepiTTOjpLa

ovTe Tiov Gvvex^v popiajv, dXXd Ihios r) (f)VGL9, Kal

evXoyoJS ToiavTrj. otl p.ev ovv ovk exî Gvvexî-OLV

ovSefxlav irpos rd acGdrjTLKa pLopia, SrjXov fiev Kal

5 8ta TrJ9 oipeo)?, ert 8e /jlclXXov toj pi]Sepiav TTOielv

aLG9r]GLV 6iyyav6p.evoSy wGirep ovhe to atpia ovSe to

TTepLTTa>p.a tojv ^cocov.

* Oepnos PZ : depiJLOv vulg.

148

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vi.-vii.

and so it is sticky ; and it is sinewy too so that it

can stretch.

We have now explained why marrow is present in

certain animals. We have also made clear whatmarrow is. The surplus of the blood-like nourishmentwhich is distributed to the bones and spine gets

enclosed within them, and after it has undergoneconcoction then it is marrow.

yil. The brain is the next subject on our list. It Brain,

comes appropriately after the marrow, as many think

that the brain is really marrow " and is the source of

the marrow, because, as observation shows, the spinal

marrow is continuous with the brain. As a matterof fact, however, the two are quite opposite in nature.

The brain is the coldest of all the parts in the body,whereas the marrow is hot, as is shown by the fact

that it is greasy and fat. And that is the real reasonwhy the spinal marrow is continuous with the brain.

Nature is always contriving to set next to anythingthat is excessive a reinforcement of the opposite sub-

stance, so that the one may level out the excess of

the other. Now there are many indications that themarrow is hot ; and the coldness of the brain is

shown not only by its being cold to the touch, butalso by its being the driest of all the fluid parts of thebody and the one that has the least blood in it—in

fact, it has none at all. It is, however, not a residue,

nor is it to be classed among the parts that are con-tinuous. It is peculiar in its nature, and this after all

is but reasonable. Inspection shows that the brainhas no continuity with the sensory parts, but this is

shown still more unmistakably by the fact that like

the blood and the residue of animals it produces nosensation when it is touched.

« Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 c, d.

149

ARISTOTLE652b ^

^

*Y77ap;êt Se roZs ^</>ot? rrpo'S rrjv ttjs (f)VG€OJs

oXrjg GOJTrjpLav. ol fxev yap rod ^cpov rrjv ifjvx'^v

rideaai TTup tj TOiavrrjv tlvol SvvajjLLv, ôprtKajs

Tidevres' êXriov 8' 'Igojs (j)dvai iv tolovtco tlvl

10 crco/xart avveordvai. rovrov S' atrtov on rolg rrjs

ipv)(fj£ epyoLS VTrr^peTLKcorarov tojv uiopLdrcov ro

depfxov ianv ro rpecjieiv yap Kal klv€lv ^v)(7Jg

epyov iori, ravra Se Sta ravrrj^ /xaAtara yiverai

rrjs Svvdfieojs. ojiolov ovv ro rrjv ipvxr]v elvat

(f)dvaL TTvp Kal ro Tipiova r) rpvTravov rov reKrova

15 ^ '7"']^' reKroviKrjVy on ro epyov rrepaiverai iyyvs

dXX-qXcxJV ovoiv. on fiev ovv OeppLoriqros rd Joja

fierex^LV dvayKalov, hrjXov e/<r rovrojv eVet S'

diravra Setrat ttj? ivavrlas porrrj?, Iva rvyxdvr} rov

fierpiov Kal rod piiaov (rr]v yap ovoriav €;êt rovro

Kal rov XoyoVy rojv 8' aKpojv eKdrepov ovk e;!êt

20 x^P^^)} ^^d ravrrjv rr]v airlav rrpo? rov rrjg KapSlas

roTTOV Kal r7]v iv avrfj OeppLonqra piefjLTjxdvqrai rov

iyK€(f)aXov rj (J)vgls, Kal rovrov X^P^^ VTrdpx^t rovro

ro [jLopLov rolg ôjols, rrjv <^vgiv exov kolvtjv vSaros

Kal yrJ9y Kal Std rovro rd {/xev)^ evaijda exî- rrdvra

iyKe<paXov, rwv 8' dXXojv ovSev tus" etVetv, ttXtjv ore

25 /caret TO dvdXoyoVy otov 6 ttoXvttovs' oXiyoOeppia ydpTrdvra hud rr^v dvaipilav.

'0 pikv ovv eyKe<f>aXos evKparov rroieZ rrjv iv rrj

Kaphla OeppLorrjra Kal ^€Glv Iva he Kal rovro ro

fjLopLov rvyxdvr) pLerplas Oepfiorrjrog, a^* eKaripas

rrjg Âeôs", rrjs re fxeydXr^s Kal rrjs KaXovpLevrjs

80 doprrjg, reXevrcoGiv at Âeê? elg rr]v pnqviyya rrjv

^ </xev> Rackham.

"e.ff. Democritus ; see Aristotle, De anima, 403 b 31.

' Or, " proportion."

150

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vii.

The brain is present in order to preserve the animal

organism as a whole. Some " maintain that the Soul

of an animal is Fire or some such substance. This is

a crude way of putting it ; and might be improvedupon by saying that the Soul subsists in some bodyof a fiery nature. The reason for this is that the

hot substance is the most serviceable of all for the

activities of the Soul, since one of the activities of

the Soul is to nourish ; another is to cause motion;

and these are most readily effected by means of

this substance (\iz. the hot). So to say that the

Soul is fire is like saying that the craftsman, or his

craft, is the saw or the auger which he uses, on

the ground that the activity is performed while the

two are near together. From what we have said this

at any rate is clear : animals must of necessity have in

them a certain amount of heat. Now, everything needs

something to counterbalance it, so that it may achieve

moderation and the mean ; for it is the mean, andnot either of the extremes apart, which has re-

ality and rationality.^ For this cause nature has

contrived the brain to counterbalance the region of

the heart and the heat in it ; and that is Avhy animals

have a brain, the composition of which is a combina-

tion of Water and Earth. Hence, although all

blooded animals have a brain, practically none of

the others has (unless it be just a counterpart, as

in the case of the Octopus), for since they lack blood

they have but little heat.

The brain, then, makes the heat and the boiling in

the heart well blent and tempered ; yet in order that

the brain may still have a moderate heat, blood-

vessels run from the great Blood-vessel and what is

known as the Aorta, till they reach the membrane

151'

ARISTOTLE662 b

Tvepl rov iyK€(f>aXov. npos Se to rfj 9ep[x6Tr]TL firj

jSAaTrretv, dvrl fxev jxeydXcov (^Kacy oXiyojv nvKval

Kal Aerrrat (/)Ae/3es" 7r€pL€)(ov(jLv avrov, dvrl he BoXe-

pov^ Kal Ttaxôs atâro? Actttov /cat Kadapov. 8to

Koi rd pevpiara rols GcopiaaLV e/c rrjs K€(f)aXrjs eari

35 TT^v dpx^jv, doois dvfj

rd irepl rov iyKe(f)aXov

ipvxpdrepa rrjs crvp^pêrpov Kpdoeojs' dvadvpLioj-

653 a pLevTjs ydp hid rdJv ^Xe^cov dvco rrjs Tpo(j)'r]S to

TTepiTTCo/xa i/jvxop'^vov hid rrjv rov tottov tovtov

hvvapLiv pevpâra Troiei Âey/xaros" Kal Ix^jpog.

hei he XafieZv, (hs pieydXco irapeiKatôvra puKpoVy

ofxoLcos Gvpiâlveiv axjirep rrjv rwv vercov yeveaiv

5 dvaOvpiicjp.ev'qs ydp eK rrjs yrjs rrjs drpiihos Kal

(fyepopLevqs vtto rod deppiov irpos rov dvco roirov,

drav ev rco v-rrep rijg yrjs yeviqrai depi dvri ijjvxp<^,

Gvviorarai rrdXiv els vhojp hid rrjv ipvîv Kal pel

Kara) Tvpos Tr)v yrjv. dXXd rrepl jjiev rovrcov ev rais

rwv vogcjov dpxoiis dppiorrei Xeyeiv, ecf)^ ogov rijs <f>v-

10 GiKT]s îXoGO(j)ias iorlv elireZv irepl avrojv.

riotet he Kal rov vttvov rols ^cpois rovro rd

fjLopiov rols exovGiv eyKeâXov, rols he p.r] eôucrt

TO dvdXoyov Karaipvxov ydp rrjv diro rrjs rpo^rjs

rod aifiaros errippvoiv (j] Kal hid rivas opioias

alrias dXXas), âpvvei re rov roirov {hio rrjv KecjiaXrjv

15 Kaprjl3apovGiv oi vrrvcoGGovres) Kal Karco noiei ro

deppiov V7TO(j>evyeiv pierd rov a'ipiaros. hio rrXeZov

d6poil,6pievov errl rov Kdrco rorrov drrepydtêrai rov

VTTVOV, Kal ro hvvaodai eGrdvai 6p6d d(f)aipeiraL

OGa ru)v t,cx)Lov 6p9d rrjv (f)VGiv eGri, rcov S* d'AAcoi'

* (Kal) Rackham.2 OoXepov colli. Buss, (turbidi 2) : ttoAAou vulg.

152


which surrounds the brain. And in order to preventinjury being done through heat, the blood-vessels

surrounding it are not few and large but small andmultitudinous ; and the blood is not muddy andthick but thin and clear. This also explains whyfluxes begin in the head ; they occur when theparts around the brain are colder than the rightly-

proportioned blend." What happens is that, as thenourishment exhales upwards through the blood-

vessels, the residue from it becomes cooled owingto the specific nature of the brain, and producesfluxes of phlegm and serum. And we should be justi-

fied in maintaining that this process resembles, ona small scale, the one which produces rain-showers.

Damp vapour exhales up from the earth and is carried

into the upper regions by the heat ; and when it

reaches the cold air up aloft, it condenses back again

into water owing to the cold, and pours down to-

wards the earth. However, so far as Natural Philo-

sophy is concerned with these matters, the properplace to speak of them is in the Origins of Diseases.^

Furthermore, it is the brain (or, if there is no brain,

its counterpart) which produces sleep in animals.

It cools the onflow of blood which comes from the

food (or else is due to other causes of the same sort),

and weighs down the part where it is (that is whywhen a person is sleepy his head is weighed do>\Ti),

and causes the hot substance to escape below to-

gether with the blood. Hence, the blood accumu-lates unduly in the lower region of the body andproduces sleep ; at the same time it takes awayfrom those animals whose nature is to stand upright

the power to do so, and the others it prevents from

* See p. 38. " No such treatise exists.

153

ARISTOTLE653a

^ ^ ^ N X r ./ t

20 aura eV re rots' Trept alaB-qoeoJS koL Trepl vttvov

hiojpLGixevois.

"Otl S' IgtIv 6 iyK€(f>aXog kolvos vSarog Kal

yTjs", Si-jXoL TO GvpLâlvov 7T€pl avTov €ifj6pL€vo? yap

yiverai irjpos Kal OKXvipos, Kal AetVerat ro yewhes

iârpLLaOevTOS rod vSaros vtto rrjs deppLonqros,

a>u7T€p TO, TcDv -^(êhpoTrojv lifj-qpLara Kal tojv aAAcov

26 KapTTOJV, Sea TO yrjs elvai to TrXeZorov piepog, i^-

LOVTog rod pii)(6evros vypov' Kal yap ravra yiverai

OKXrjpa Kal yerjpa TTapLvav.

*'E;)(et Se rajv ^cocov iyKecfiaXov TrXelarov avOpcorros

(1)5 Kara piiyeBos, Kal raJv dvOpwTTOJV ol appeves rwvdrjXeicnv' Kal yap rov rrepl rrjv Kaphiav Kal rov

80 TrXevpLova roTTOV Oepporarov Kal ivacpLorarov. Sio

Kal pLovov iorl rwv tâxMV 6p66v rj yap rod OeppLOV

<f)VGis ivLGXvovGa TroL€L rrjv av^rjGLv 0.770 rod piCGOv

Kara rrjv avrrjg (f)opdv. rrpos ovv 7ToXXr]v deppiorrjra

avriKeirai TrXeiwv vyporrjg Kal i/jvxporrjg, Kal Sid ro

TrXrjdog oxjjiairara m^yvvraL ro rrepl rrjv K€(f)aXrjv

86 oGrovv, o KaXovGL ^peypta rives, Sto, ro ttoXvv

Xpovov ro deppLov aTrarpLitêLV rcov 8' aAAcov ovSevl

rovro Gvpâcvec rwv evaipicov ^cowv. Kal pa<f)dg 8e

653 b rrXeiGras exec rrepl rrjv Ke(f)aX-qv, Kal ro dppev

TrXeiovs rdjv drjXeiiov, hid rrjv avrrjv alriav, ottojs 6

rorros evrrvovsfj,

Kal pidXXov 6 irXeicov eyKe(f)aXos'

vypatvopLevos ydp rj ^rjpaLvopLevog pdXXov ov TTOL-qGeu

ro avrov epyov, aAA' rj ov ipvêt rj Tn]êL, wGre

« See J)e somno, 455 b 28 ff., especially 456 b 17 ff.

*• The cranial bone, which covers the anterior fontanelle.

154


holding their heads upright. These matters have

been spoken of separately in the treatises on Sensation

and on Sleeps

I said the brain is compounded of Water andEarth. This is sho\Mi by what happens when it is

boiled. Then it becomes solid and hard : the earthy

substance is left behind after the Water has evapor-

ated owing to the heat. It is just what happenswhen pulse and other forms of fruit are boiled ; they

also get hard and earthy altogether, because the

greater part of them is earth, and the fluid mixedwith it departs when they are boiled.

Of all the animals, man has the largest brain for

his size ; and men have a larger brain than women.In both cases the largeness is due to there being a

great deal of heat and blood in the region around the

heart and the lung. This too explains why man is

the only animal that stands upright. As the hot sub-

stance prevails in the body it induces growth, begin-

ning from the centre along its o\\'n line of travel.

It is against great heat, then, that a large supply of

fluid and cold is provided. This bulk of moisture

is also the reason why the bone that surrounds the

brain (called by some the bregma) ^ is the last of all

to solidify ; the hot substance takes a long time to

evaporate it off. This phenomenon does not occur

in any other of the blooded animals. Again, manhas more sutures in the skull than any other animal,

and males have more than females. The size of the

brain is the reason for this also ; it is to secure

ventilation, and the larger the brain, the moreventilation it requires. If the brain becomes unduly

fluid or unduly solid, it will not perform its proper

function; but will either fail to cool the blood or else

F 155.

ARISTOTLE653b ^

^

6 voGovs Kal TTapavoias TTOLeiv /cat davdrovs' to yap

€V rfj KapSla Beppiov Kal rj dpx'^ avpLTraBeGrarov

ean Kal ra^êlav TToielrai rr^v aiGdrjaLV ju-era/SaA-

XovTos TL Kal TTaaxovTOs rod irepl rov iyKi<j)aXov

alpLaros.

YVepl fi€V ovv Tcov aviK^vTOJV Tols ^cooLg vypojv

10 ax^ôv elpiqrai rrepl Travrcov rcbv 8* vor^poyevcbv

ra T€ Tre/JiTTcu/xaTa rrj? Tpo(f)rjs iarl, to tc rrjs

Kvarecos UTroCTri^/xa Kal to t-^s" /cotAta?, Kal Trapa

raura yovrj Kal ydXa rols tt€(J)Vk6uiv ^xîv eKaora

rovTCov. rd fiev ovv rrjg rpoc/irjs TTepirrajpiara nepl

rrjv rijs Tpo(f)rj? OKeipiv Kal decnpiav oiKelovs ^x^^

15 rovs Xoyovs, tlol re rcjv t^cpcjv vTrdpxî' Kal Sid

rivas alrias, rd Se TT€pl UTTepfiaros Kal ydXaKros iv

roTs TTepl yevioeojs' to puev ydp dpx^ yevioecjs

avTOJV €GTL, TO Se x^P^^ yevcaeojs.

VIII. Ilepl 8e Tcov dXXojv jdopicov raJv 6fJLOi,o~

20 fJLepwv OKerrriov, Kal Trpwrov nepl oapKos iv rolg

^xovai GapKas, iv 8e rols a'AAoi? to dvdXoyov rovro

ydp dpxî Kal atoâ KaO'' avro rcov l,cpa)v iariv.

SrjXov 8e Kal /caret, rov Xoyov rd ydp ^coov opi-

lôfjLeOa rep €;\;€tv aiodrjaiv, npcarov Be rrjV Trpcjorrjv

avrrj 8' iorlv d(j)'q, ravrrjs 8* alodrinqpiov rd roiov-

25 rov fxoptov ioTLV, -rjroL ro npcorov, ioairep 7] Koprj

" At De gen. an. 722 a, 776 a 15 fP.

156

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. vii.-viii.

will make it set fast, thus producing various forms ofdisease, madness, and death. Indeed, the heat thatis in the heart, being the source, is extremely re-

sponsive to any influence upon it ; and if the bloodwhich surrounds the brain undergoes any change or

any other affection, then this heat at once becomessensitive of it.

We may now claim to have considered all the fluids

which are present in animal bodies from their veryearliest stages. There are others which are first

produced only at some latter stage, and among thesewe must reckon the residues of the nourishment

—

that is to say, the deposits from the bladder andfrom the gut ; and also semen, and milk ; thesemake their appearance according to the species andsex of the animal concerned. Discussion of the resi-

dues of the nourishment will come in appropriately

during our general consideration and examinationof nourishment ; we shall then show in what animalsthey occur, and why they do so. Semen, whichgives rise to generation, and milk, which exists onaccount of generation, we shall deal with in thetreatise on Generation.'^

VIII. We must now go on to consider the rest of Flesh and

the uniform parts. Let us take first of all Flesh (and, ^^^^^*

where Flesh is absent, its counterpart), for this is to

animals both a principle and a body in itself. Its

primacy can also be logically shown, as follows. Wedefine an animal as something that has the powder of

sensation, and chiefly the primary sensation, whichis touch ; and the organ through which this sensation

is effected is the flesh (or its counterpart). Andflesh is either its primary organ (comparable to the

pupil in the case of sight), or else it is the organ and

157

ARISTOTLE653b ^ ^

TTJs oipecos, 7) TO 8t' ov GVveLX-qiiixivov , cjanep dv et

rt? TTpoaXdÔL rjj Kopj] ro 8ta(/>aves' rrdv. eirl fiev

ovv rdjv dXXwv aLuOi]<j€Cx}v dh-vvarov re koI ovhev

rrpovpyov rovr tjv TTOirjaaL rfj cf)vaeL, to 8' aTTTLKou

i^ dvayKfj^' jjlovov yap 7) pLaXiGTa rovr iarl crojâ-

80 TcuSes" rcvv aludririqpiojv. Kara he rrjv a'iodr]GLV

<f)avep6v Tvdvra rdXXa rovrov X^P^^ ovra, Xeyoj 8*

otov dord /cat Sepfia /cat vevpa /cat cf)Xeês, ert 8e

rpLX^s Kal ro rojv 6vvx<J^v yevog, /cat et rt roiovrov

erepov eoriv. rj fiev yap rojv dardJv ^vuis Gcort]-

pias eveKev fieinqxdvrjrat (rovy^ [laXaKov, OKXrjpd

85 r7]v (j)VGiv ovoa, ev rol? exovacv Sard' ev 8e rot?

piT] exovcTi, ro dvdXoyov, olov ev rots' IxO^Grt- toZs

fjLev aKavda roXg 8e x^^^P^^-To, fiev ovv ex^t row ^cocov evros rrjv rotavrrjv

654 a ôiqOeiaVy eVta he rojv dvaipiojv e/cros", wanep rdJv np.aXaKO(jrpaKOiv e/caarov, otov /cap/ctVot /cat rd rdJv

Kapdôjv yevog, /cat to rojv oarpaKoheppcov (Jjg-

avrcog, otov rd KaXovfieva oarpea' Trdai yap rovrotg

TO pev oapKcoheg evros, rd he Gvvexov /cat (f)vXdrrov

6 e/CTO? TO yedjheg eoriv Trpos ydp rfj (jyvXaKfj rrjs

ovvex^ôLS, TO) exî-v dXiyov avrdjv rrjv <f)VOLV deppiov

dvalpcov dvrojVy olov TTViyeds ris rrepiKeipievov rd

dorpaKov (j}vXdrrei rd epLTreTTvpevpievov Oeppidv. rj

he x^^djvrj /cat rd rojv epbdhajv yevos dpLolcos €;êtv

1 (tov) Ogle.

" Apparently because the objects with which it deals are

more " corporeal " than those of the other senses—it hasto be in bodily contact with them.

* As apart from a priori reasoning." Sometimes, as here, " counterpart " could be represented

by the modern term " analogue."^ Lit., " the soft-shelled creatures."

158

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. viii.

the medium of the sensation combined in one (com-

parable to the pupil plus the whole of the transparent

medium in the case of sic^ht). Now not only was it

pointless, it was impossible for Nature to make such

a combination in the case of the other senses ; with

touch, however, it was due to necessity, since its

sense-organ is the only one which is corporeal

—

or at least it is definitely the most corporeal one."

It is also clear from our actual experience in sensation^

that all the other parts exist for the sake of the organof touch (the flesh). In these I include the bones, the

skin, the sinews, the blood-vessels ; also the hair, nails

of every sort and kind, and the like. The bones,

for instance, which are hard in substance, have beendevised for the preservation of the soft parts. Thesame is true of the counterpart ^ of the bones in other

creatures : two examples in species of fish are spine

and cartilage.

Now with some animals this hard supporting

substance is situated inside the body, with others

(some of the bloodless ones) it is outside. It is out-

side in the case of all the Crustacea ^ {e.g. the Crabsand the group of Crayfish), and the group of Testacea*

too, e.g. those that are known as Oysters. All these

have their fleshy part inside, and the earthy part

which holds it together and protects it is out-

side—outside, because it performs an additional

function as well : since these creatures are bloodless,

they possess but little heat, and the shell acts like

a couvre-feu ; it encloses the faintly burning heat

and protects it. Another quite different group of

creatures, the Turtles and the group of freshwater

* Lit., "the shell-skinned creatures." "Testacea" is the

nearest modern term. See Introduction, p. 23.

159'

ARISTOTLE654a

^ ^

OoKeZ TOVTOLS, erepov 6v yivos toutojv. to. 8*

10 cvrofia tujv l,tpojv /cat ra fiaXaKLa rovrois r

evavTLOis Koi avrols avrt/cet/xe't'cos" avvearrjKev ovBev

yap ocrtoSe? ^X^'-^ eoLKev ovSe yerjpov dnoKeKpL-

fievoVf 6 TL /cat aftov etVetv, dXXa rd fxev juaAa/cta

ax^ôv oXa aapKcoSr] /cat /xaAa/ca, 77/30? oe to {xtj

€V(f)6apTOV elvai to acofjia avrojv, KaOdrrep rd

15 GapKcoSr), fiera^v aapKos /cat vevpou ttjv (f)VGLV e;êt.

jLtaAa/coi/ jLtey yap ojGTrep adp^ euriv, exî 8e rdoiv

woirep vevpov rrjv 3e ax^cri'V '^X^^ '^1^ aapKos ov

Kar €vdvojpiav dXXd Kara kvkXovs hLaiperrjv

OVTOJ? ydp [av]^ ^X^^ XPV^^H'^'''^'^^^ ^^ ^'^V^ Trpos ttju

20 Icrxvv. VTrapx^L 8' eV auTot? Kal to amAoyov Tat?

TOJV IxOvcov aKavdais, otov iv fiev Tat? (jrjTTLaLS to

KaXovfievov otjttlov, iv 8e Tat? revdiGL rd koXov-

fievov ^Lcf)og. rd^ 8' av tojv ttoXvttoSojv (yevo^y*

TOLOVTOV ovSev ex^t- 8td to [xiKpov ^x^lv rd kvtos

rrjv KaXovfxevTjv K€(f)aX^v, ddrepa 8* cvfJLT^Kr]. Sto

TTpds rrjv dpOorrjra avrcov /cat rrjv dKapufjiav vtt-

25 eypaipe ravra rj ^vuis, cjorrep r(x)v ivaipicjv rots

fjL€v OGTOvv rots 8' aKavdav. rd 8* evrojjia rovrois

T ivavriojs e;)êt /cat Tot? eVat/xot?, KaOdnep etVojitev*

ouSev ydp dôjpLGpievov epêt GKXrfpov, rd 8e fiaXa-

KOVy dAA' oAov rd Gcofia GKXrjpoVy GKXrjporrjra 8e

ToiavrrjVy oGrov fxev GapKCoSeGrepav, GapKos 8'

^ [av] seclusi. * pfpT^CTt/ia^Ta-a €177 SU.3 TO Piatt : rd vulg. * {y^vos) Piatt

160

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. viii.

Tortoises, are apparently in like case. On the otherhand, the Insects and the Cephalopods are differ-

ently constructed from these, as well as beingdifferent from each other. Not only, as it appears,

have they no bony part, but they have practically

no earthy part at all distinct from the rest of the

body. The Cephalopods are almost wholly soft

and fleshy, yet in order to prevent their bodiesfrom being easily destructible as fleshy struc-

tures are, the substance of which they are formedis intermediate between flesh and sinew, having thesoftness of flesh and the elasticity of sinew. Whenit is split up, it breaks as flesh does, that is, notlongitudinally but into circular portions. The reason

for this seems to be that such a structure secures

the greatest strength. There is found also in these

creatures the counterpart of the spinous bones of

fishes ; examples are : the " pounce " (os sepiae) of

the cuttlefish, and the " pen " (gladius) of the

calamaries. Nothing of this sort, however, appears

in the Octopuses : this is because in them what is

called the " head " forms but a small sac, whereasin the cuttlefish and calamaries the " head " is of

considerable length. So we see that, in order to

secure that they should be straight and inflexible,

nature prescribed for them this hard support, just

as she gave to the blooded creatures bones or spines.

Quite a different contrivance obtains in the Insects

—

different both from the Cephalopods and from the

blooded creatures, as has already been stated. In

the Insects we do not find the clear-cut distinction

of hard parts and soft ; here, the whole body is hard,

yet its hardness is such that it is more fleshlike than

161

ARISTOTLE654 a ^

SO OGTcoZeoripav /cat yecohearepav, npos to /xtj eu-

Bialperov etvat to crco/xa avrcov.

IX. *'E;)êt S' ofioLOjg rj re rtDy ocrrcov /cat -j^

ra)V (fyXe^cbv ^voi£. e/carepa ydp avrayv dcf)^ eVos"

TjpyiJLevr] ovvex'^S ecrrt, /cat owr' ocrrouy iariv avro

85 /ca^' aiJTO ovhev, aAA' -^ pLopiov d)s avvexov? rj

aiTTopievov /cat TrpoGSeSefievov, tva xprjrai rj (f)VGLS

654 b /cat COS" eVt /cat auve;êt /cat c5? Sfcrt /cat Sir^pr^pievoLg

irpOS TTjV KOijJUpLV. OfJiOLOJS 8 6 /Cat Âcj/f ovSejJLLa

» \

t^' auTTiv iuTLv, dXXaavrrj /cat; avrrjv eunv, aAAa Traoai fiopiov /Lttas"

etcrtv. OCTTOUV re ydp et rt KexojpLGjJLevov rjv, to t*

6 epyov ovK dv erroUi ov X^P*-^ V '^^^ ootcov eVrt

(f)VGLs {ovTe yap dv Kapupecos rjv aiTiov ovt^ opdo-

TTjTOs ouSe/xtas" fir) ovvex^? ov dAAd StaAetTrov), ert

r e^XaTTTev dv caarrep aKavdd rts" rj jSeAos" ivov rat?

aapîv. etre Âei/f t^v rt? Kex^Jiipiopiivri /cat /LtT^

ovvex'^S rrpd's Trjv dpxrjv, ovk dv ecrcoê to iv avTjj

10 atjLta* rj yap cxtt' eKeiviqs depixoTrjs KCoXvei TT-qyvv-

adai, âtVerat 8e /cat arjTTOjJievov to x^P^ôpuevov.

dpx^ Se TcDv jLt€V (f)X€â)v rj Kaphia, rcuv 8' ocrrajv 7^

KaXovjjievrj pdx^S rols exovGLV ocrra TrduLV, d(f)^ rjg

Gwex^jS rj Tcjjv dXXojv ogtwv €Gtl cJ)vgls' rj yap to

jiTjKos /cat TTjv opOoTrjTa GvvexovGa tojv t^wcov rj

16 pdx^S eGTLV, eTTel 8' dvdyKrj Kivovfjudvov tov ôjov

162

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. viii.-ix.

bone is and more bony and earthy than flesh. Thepurpose of this is to ensure that the body shall noteasily break up.

IX. The system of the bones is similar to that of Bonea.

the blood-vessels : each is a connected system begin-ning from one point. There is no such thing as abone by itself in isolation ; every bone is either

actually part of the connected scheme, or else is

attached to it and so is in contact with it. Thisenables Nature to use any couple of bones either

as a single connected piece, or, when flexion is

required, as two distinct pieces. In like manner,there is no such thing as a blood-vessel by itself in

isolation : they are all of them parts of one blood-

vessel. An isolated bone could never discharge the

function for which all bones exist ; for, being dis-

continuous and disconnected from the rest, it could

never serve as the means either for bending or for

straightening a limb ; but worse than that, it wouldbe a source of harm, like a thorn or an arrow sticking

in the flesh. Similarly, if we imagine a blood-vessel

isolated and not connected with the source of themall, it could never keep the blood within it in a propercondition, since it is the heat which comes from that

source which prevents the blood from congeahng, as

is shown by the putrefaction of blood when separ-

ated from it. This source of the blood-vessels

is of course the heart, and the corresponding source

of the bones in all bony species is what is called the

backbone. The system of the bones is a connectedwhole, starting from the backbone, since the back-bone connects together the length of the animal's

body and holds it straight. Now although this back-

bone is a unity because it is connected together, it

f2 163

ARISTOTLE654 b ^

KdfjLTTTeoOaL TO CTcojua, jJLLa ji€v Slol TTjV ovve)(€iav

ioTL, TToXvfJLcprj^ §6 ttj hiaipiaî rcov ottovSvXcov .

CK 8e ravTrjs toZs eôvGi KcoXa Gvvexrj [npos avrrjv]

ra TOVTOJV Sard [rcoy apfiovLcov] eoriv ra} fiev [e;(et

TO, KwXa KajjufjLV GvvSeSejjLeva tols^ vevpoLg, Kal] rcov

20 eo-xdrcjov ovvappLorrovTCjov , rod p.ev ovros kolXov

Tov Se 7TepL(f)€povs, ^ Kal ajJL(f)OT€pci)v KOiXcov, iv

fiecjcp be 7TepieiXr](j)6Ta>v y olov yojJLcfiOV, darpdyaXov,

tva yivqrai Kdpujjis /cat eKrauLs (aAAcus* yap rj oXojg

dSvvarov, tj ov KaXaJg dv eTTOLOVv ttjv TOLavrr]v kl-

vrjaLv)' eVta S' avTcov ojioiav exovra r-qv dpx'^v ttjv

25 Baripov rfj reXevrfj Oarepov [ovvSeSeTau vevpoLs]'^

Kal x'^vhpcxjhri he piopia fiera^v rcov Kdpupecov

eOTlv/ olov UTOLp-q, TTpOS TO dXXvjXa (JLT) TpLêiV.

Hepl Se TO, oCTTa at adpKeg TrepLTrecJyvKaGL,

TTpoaeiXrjpLpievai XeTTTol? Kal IvcjSeai Secr/xots"* ojv

eveKev to tcov ogtcov ecrrt yevos. wunep yap ol

80 TrXdTTOVTes eK tttjXov ^wov yj tlvos dXXrj^ vypd?

avGTdaecos xxîGrdoi rcov arepeojv n acofidTajv, etO^

OVTiX) TrepLTrXdTTOVGL, TOV aVTOV TpOTTOV rj (f)VaLS

heSrjfjLLOvpyrjKev eK rcov oapKCJV to â)OV. tols

fxev ovv aAAois" vireoTiv octtcl rots' GapKcoSeai /xo-

piois, Tols fJiev Kivovp,evoi£ Sta Kdiiiptv tovtov

35 x^pLV, Tols S' dKivqTOis (f)vXaK7Js eveKev , olov at

655 a ovyKXeiovuai jrXevpal to orrjOos oojTrjpias X^P^^

^ TO. Peck : TO? Z :fj

vulg'. : ooto. tcjv [xopicov iariv ras fieu

(^ fiev vulg.) €X€L TO. KojXa Kal KafupLV Z.

^ TOLS SU : re vulg. : ye EY.^ 11. 16-25: hunc locum correxi, partim 2 et Albertum

secutus. vid. p. 46. fortasse et cVei 8' dvayîj . . . anovSvXcov (11. 14-16) secludenda.

* elaiv vulg.

164,

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ix.

is also a thing of many parts because of its division

into vertebrae, since the body must be able to bendwhile the animal is in motion. And the bones of the

various limbs (in those animals which have them)are connected with this backbone, from which theyoriginate. Some of them have extremities which fit

on to each other : either (a) one is hollow and the

other rounded, or (h) both are hollow and hold a

huckle-bone between them (as it might be a bolt),

to admit of bending and extension, since these

movements would be quite impossible or at any rate

unsatisfactory ^^'ithout such an arrangement, (c)

There are some joints in which the adjacent ends of

the two bones are similar in shape;[these are bound

together by sinews,] and there are pieces of cartilage

inserted in between them, like a pad, to prevent

them from rubbing against each other,"

Now the w^hole system of the bones exists to sub-

serve the fleshy parts of the body, which have their

place around the bones and are attached to them bythin fibrous threads. Modellers who set out to mouldan animal out of clay or some other plastic substance

begin first of all with a hard and solid core and mouldtheir figure round it. Nature's method has been the

same in fashioning animals out of flesh. With one

exception, all the fleshy parts have a core of bone :

for the parts that move and bend, this is present as

a means for enabling the limb to bend ; for those

that do not move, it serves as a protection : anexample of this are the ribs, enclosing the chest,

which are a means of protection for the viscera in

" The text of this paragraph has been confused by anumber of interpolations, most of which I have omitted in

translating.

165

ARISTOTLE655 a ^ XX , , X X X X

TcDv Trepl tt^v Kaphiav OTrXdyxvcov ra 8e Trept tt^v

KOiXtav dvoGTea Trdoiv, ottco? firj KCjoXvr) rrfv av-

oih-quiv TTjv 0,770 rrjs rpO(f)rjg yivofievr^v rot? t,o)Ois

i^ dvdyK-qg /cat roX? di^Xecn rrjv iv avrol? rcbv ifi-

6 To. jjiev ovv ôjOTo/ca rtuy ^cocov /cat iv avrdls /^cit

^KTOS TrapaTrXrjGLav e;êt ttjv tcov ogtwv BvvafJLLV /cat

LGXupdv. TToXv yap /xet^co navra rd roiavra rdv

fiT] iôjoTOKOJv CO? /card Xoyov elrreiv ra)V GOJfxarojv'

6VLa)(ov yap ttoAAo, ytverat fieydXa rcbv ^cootokojv,

10 OLOV iv Ai^vrj Kal rots tottols tols depfioXs /cat rot?

^TjpoXg. rots' S^ jJLeydXoig LGxvporipojv Set rcov

VTrepeiGixdrajv /cat fjieiôvojv /cat GKXrjporlpcjv, /cat

TOi;ra;v auroiy rot? ^LaGriKcoripois. hid rd rcbv

dppivojv GKXiqporepa t) ret rcov OrjXetcov, /cat rd rcov

aapKO(f)dya)v [r] rpo(l>r) ydp Std pLax^]? rovrois),

a)G7T€p rd rod Xeovros' ovrco ydp ^x^^ ravra

15 GKXfjpdv rrjv (J>vglv ojGr i^drrreGdai rvTrropbdvcov

Kaddrrep e/c XiOojv TTVp. e;Y€t Se /cat o SeA^ts" ou/c

aKavdag dAA' oora- Jworo/co? ycip iGriv.

Tots' S' fcVat/xots" ftev jLtT7 ^cooro/cots' 3e Trap-

aAAdrret /card puKpov r) <J)Vgls, olov roZs opviGiv

oGrd jLteV, dGOeviGrepa Se. rcDv 8* IxOvcov rots pL€v

20 cporoKOLs aKavda, /cat rots' d<j)€GLV aKavdwSrjs iGrlv

T) rcbv oGrcbv (f)VGi£, TrXrjV rolg Xiav /xeydAots" rov-

roLs Se, St' d'Trep /cat rots' ^cporoKOis, Trpos rr)v

LGxvv LGXvporepcov Set rcbv Grepeojfidrojv. rd Se

KaXovfjLeva oeXdxf] ôJ^Spd/cai^â r^v (J)vglv eGnvvyporepav re ydp dvayKalov avrcbv elvai rrjv kl-

<» Cartilaginous fishes, including the sharks.

166


the region of the heart. The exception is the parts

near the belly, which in all animals are boneless.

The purpose of this is that the swelling which takes

place of necessity after the receipt of nourishmentmay not be hampered, and (in females) to preventany interference with the growth of the fetus.

The nature of the bones is similar in all viviparous

animals (that is, internally viviparous as well as

externally) ; and as the Vivipara are much larger

proportionately in bodily size than other animals,

their bones are strong. In some places many of these

animals grow to a great size, as for example in Libyaand other hot dry countries. These large animals

need stronger and bigger and harder supports,

especially those of them that are particularly violent

in their habits. Hence, the bones of males are harder

than tlie bones of females, and those of carnivorous

animals than those of herbivorous, because the car-

nivorous have to fight for their food. An exampleis the Lion : it has such hard bones that when theyare struck fire is kindled as it is from stones. Notethat the Dolphin, being viviparous, has bones like the

other viviparous creatures, and not fish-spines.

In the creatures which though blooded are not

viviparous Nature has made a series of graduatedchanges : for example, birds have bones, but theyare weaker than the bones of the Vivipara. Theoviparous fishes have fish-spine, not bone ; and the

serpents have bone whose nature is that of fish-spine;

except the very large species, and they have bones,

because (just like the Vivipara) if their bodies are

to be strong the solid framework of them must bestronger. The creatures called Selachia " have spines

made of cartilage. This is because their movement

167

ARISTOTLE655 a

25 vTjaiVy coare Set Kal ttjv tojv epeiGjJidrcov firj Kpav'

pov elvai aAAa fiaXaKcorepav, Kal to yecoSes ets"

TO Sepfia TTOLV avriXcoKev rj ^vgis' a'fta 8e ttjv avrrjv

V7T€po-)(r]v els TToXXovs TOTTOVs dSwarei 8taye/xetv rj

<f)V(jLS. €V€OTi he Kal iv rols t^cooroKois ttoAAo. tojv

OCTTCov xov^p(J^hr], iv octols ovii(f>epei [JuaXaKov etvai

80 Kal fivôjSes^ TO OTepeov hid tj]v odpKa ttjv nepi-

K€Lfievr]v, OLOV GVfjLê^rjKe Trepi re ra cora /cat

Tovs fjLVKTrjpas' dpaveTai ydp Ta Kpavpa TaxioiS

iv Tois direxovaLv. r) he cJjvgls tj avTrj x^^^P^^Kal OGTOV iGTLy hiaîpei he to) jJidXXov Kal rJTTOV

Sto Kal ovheTepov av^dveTai d-noKOTTev.

85 Ot ixev ovv iv Tols TTeôts a/xueAot x^^^P^^ kcxo)-

pLGfievo) fjLveXcp' to yap ;)(a)ptô/xevov ets* dnav

pLepayixevov fiaXaKTjv iroiel Kal fxvôjhrf ttjv tov

xdvhpov GVGTaGLV. iv he rot? oeXdx^GLV rj pdx^S

655 b x^^^P^^^^S" piiv ioTLv, ex^L he fiveXov dvT* ogtov

ydp avTOis VTrdpxî- tovto to jiopLov.

^vveyyvs Se /caret ttjv d(j)7]v eVrt rot? ogtoXs koI

TO, TotaSe Tcjv jiopiajVy olov ovvxis re /cat OTrAat /cat

X^jXal Kal KepaTa Kal pvyx^] to, rcuy opvidoiv. navTa

5 he TavTa ôrjOeias exovGi X^P^^ ['^^ ?^ct]'' ra ydp ef

avTCov GVveoTrjKOTa oXa Kal Gvvcjvvjxa toZs jLtoptotS',

olov ottXtj re dXrj Kal Kepas oXov, jjLefjirjxdvrjTat, irpos

TTjv GCJTTjpiav eKdoTOis. iv TOVTCp he to) yevei /cat

^ û/uD8e? Z. ^ ^vîathr) EPSZ.^ [ra â)a] secludit Rackham.

*• Cf. the " law of organic equivalents."^ See note on 644 a 17.

168


has to be somewhat supple, and accordingly the

supporting framework of their bodies must be some-what pliable, not brittle. In addition. Nature cannot

allot the same plentiful supply of any one substance

to many different parts of the body ;° and in the case

of the Selachia she has used up all the available earthy

substance in constructing their skin. In the Vivipara

too there are many instances of cartilaginous bones :

they are found where it is an advantage that the

solid framework should be pliable and glutinous for

the benefit of the flesh that surrounds them. This

applies to the ears and the nostrils. Such projecting

parts quickly get broken if they are brittle. Car-

tilage and bone are the same in kind and differ

only by " the more and less " ^; so neither of them

continues to grow when it has been cut out of the

living organism.

The cartilages of land -animals contain no marrow

—

that is, no marrow existing as a separate thing.

What in ordinary bones is separable is here mixedin with the body of the cartilage and gives it its

pliable and glutinous character. In the Selachia,

however, although the backbone is cartilaginous it

contains marrow, because it stands to these creatures

in place of a bone.

The following substances or ** parts " resemblebones very closely as regards their feel : the various

sorts of nail ; hoof and talon ; horn, and beak.

All these substances are present for the sake of self-

defence. This is shown by the fact that the complete

structures which are made out of them and bear the

same names

—

e.g. the complete hoof, or horn—havebeen contrived in each case by Nature for the creature's

self-preservation. We must reckon the teeth in this

169'

ARISTOTLE655b

^ ^ ^ ^

T] Tojv oSoi'TCov earl (j)VGis, rols fJLev vnapôvaa

10 TTpos €v epyov rrjv rrj? rpocfirjg Ipyaaiav, rolg he

TTpos re TOVTO Kal irpos aXKrjv, olov rolg Kapxap-

oSovGi Kal x^vXiohovuL TTaaiv. e^ avayKiqs Se

TTOLvra ravra yecohrj Kal orepeav exec ttjv (f)VGLV'

ottXov yap avrrj Svvajjug. 8to /cat Trdvra to. rotaura

pidWov ev TOts" rerpaTTOGLV virapx^t' ^4ôl9 rcov

15 ^(xjoTOKOJV, Sta TO yewheoTepav €;êtv TTai'ra rrfv

G-uoraaiv t) to rcov avdpojTTOJV yevos. aXXa Kal

TTepl rovra>v Kal rcov exojJLevatv, olov Sepjjiarog Kal

KVGTecDs^ Kal vfievo? Kal rpix^v Kal Trrepajv Kai

TOJV avdXoyov rovrois Kal e'i ri roiovrov eari fjiepos,

varepov djjia rots dvopiOioixepeoL 6ea>prjreov rrjv

20 alrlav avrcov, Kal rivos eveKev vnapxî tols ^cool?

eKaarov eK rcov epyojv yap yvwpitêiv, axmep

KOiKetva, Kal ravra dvayKatov dv elr]. dXX onavvajvvfJLa rols oXois rd fi^py], ttjv rdîv dneXaêv

iv rot? ofiOLoixepeoi vvv. elal S' dpxoil Trdvrcjv

Tovrojv TO T€ oorovv Kal r] odp^. en he rrepl

yovrj? Kal ydXaKros direXiTTop.ev ev rfj Tvepl rwv

25 vypwv Kal 6pLOiopL€pa)V decupia- rols yap Trepl

yeveaeojs Xoyois dpfxorrovoav e;êt rr)v CKeipLv ro

fjL€V yap avra>v dpx^ 'to 8e rpocjij] rcjv yLvofievajv

ecnriv.

X. Nw 8e XeyojpLev otov dn^ ^PXV^ ndXiv, dp^d-

jJLevoL TTpcbrov dTTo rcov TTpcorojv. irdoi yap rols

^ aKvreos Buss. {oKvreojs EY),

170

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. ix.-x.

class too. In some creatures teeth are present to

discharge one function only—viz. mastication ; in

others they are a means of force as well {e.g.

sawlike teeth and tusks). All these parts are

of necessity earthy and solid in character ; that

is the proper sort of substance for a weapon.So there is a tendency for all parts of this sort to

appear in the four-footed X'îvipara more extensively

than in man, because the former all have more earthy

matter in their constitution. We shall, however, con-

sider these substances, and the other kindred ones

such as skin, bladder, membrane, hair, feather, andthe counterparts of them, and all such parts, whenwe come to deal with the non-uniform parts. Thenalso we shall consider the Causes of them and for

what purpose each of them is present in animal bodies

;

since it is true to say, of both sets of things, that our

knowledge of them must be derived from a study of

the functions which they discharge. The reason whywe have just been taking them with the uniformsubstances and out of their proper order is that in

them the name of the complete structure is the sameas that of a portion of it, and also because the sources

and principles of them all are bone and flesh. Wealso left out all mention of semen and milk \vhen wewere considering the fluid uniform substances. Assemen is the source of the things that are generatedand milk is the food that feeds them, the proper place

to discuss these is in the treatise dealing withGeneration.

X. We may now make what is practically a fresh The non-

beginning. We will begin first of all with the thingspaJ.tJ'^'^

that come first in importance.

171

ARISTOTLE655 b

5 / r /

30 ^cpoLS rols TeXelois^ Svo ra avayKaiorara fiopia

ioriv,fjre SexovraL rrjv Tpo(f)rjv /cat 7^ ro TrepLTTOjfia

dchtdaLv^- ovre yap elwai ovre av^dveoOai ivSex^rai

dv€v rpo(f)rj?. [rd pLev ovv cfyvrd—/cat ydp ravra l,rjv

cjiapev—Tov ptev dxp'qcrrov TTepLrrajpLaros ovk €X€L

85 TOTTOV ei< rrj? yrjs ydp XapL^dvet TTeirepLpiiirqv ty]v

Tpo(f)7^v, dvTL he rovTOV rrpoterai rd GneppLara /cat

Tous" KapTTOvs.) TpLTOV 8e pLepo9 eV Trdalv eon to

Tovrcjv pieoov, ev (L rj dpx'q eonv 7) ttjs ^Ci)y]9. rj

656 a pueV ovv TOJV (f)VTCOV (f>VOL? OVOa pLOVLpLOS OV TToXv-

etSr^S" eoTt rcov dvojxoLopepibv Trpos ydp oXiyag

TTpdêis oXiycov opydvcov rj XPV^^^' ^^^ 6ecopr]reov

Kad^ avrd Trepl ttjs tSea? avTOJV. rd Se Trpos Tcp

t^rjv aioOrjoiv exovra 7ToXvpiop(f)orepav ex€L ttjv

5 Iheav, /cat tovtojv erepa rrpd erepojv pidXXov, /cat

TToXvxovorepav oocov pLTj pLovov rod i^rjv dXXd /cat

rod ev t/qv rj (j>voLS pieTeLXrj(f)ev. tolovto 8* eorl rd

TU)V dvdpcoTTOJV yevos' ri ydp pLovov ju,ere;\;et rod

Beiov rojv rjpuv yvajpipLCov ^wcov, rj pidXiora Travrajv.

wore Sid re rovro, /cat 8ta to yvcopipLov elvai

10 pidXior avrov rrjv rwv e^codev pLOpiojv piop(j)tjv,

TTepl rovrov XeKreov rrpcorov. evdvs ydp /cat to,

<f)Voei pLopia Kard <j>voLV exî' rovrco pLovco, /cat rd

^ Tot? TcAetots' Peck : rots ye t. Ogle : /cal TeAeioy/xeVots kox

TcAet'oi? Piatt : koX reAeiots vulg:.

^ d(f)idat,v SUY : a(f)-qaovaLV alii.

« These three parts of the " perfect " animals are again

referred to at De juv, et sen. 468 a 13 ff. At De gen. an,

172

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.

An animal can neither exist nor grow without food.

Therefore in all living creatures of perfect formation <*

there are two parts most necessary above all : one bywhich food is taken in and the other by which residues

are eliminated. (Plants—which also we include

under the head of living things—have, it is true, no

place for the useless residue, but this is because their

food, M'hich they get out of the earth, is already con-

cocted before it enters them, and instead of this

residue they yield their fruit and seeds.) And in all

creatures there is a third part intermediate betweenthese indispensable two, and this is the seat of the

source and principle of life. Plants, again, are so madeas to remain in one place, and thus they do not exhibit

a great variety of non-uniform substances ; they havefew actions to perform, and therefore but few organs

are needed to perform them. For this reason we mustconsider plants and their formations separately. Butwith creatures that not only live but also have the

power of sensation, the formations are more varied,

and there is more diversity in some than in others, the

greatest variety being found in those creatures which

in addition to living have the capability of living the

good life, as man has. Man is the only one of the

animals known to us who has something of the di\'ine

in him, or if there are others, he has most. This is

one reason why we ought to speak about man first,

and another is that the shape of his external parts is

better kno\vnthan that of other animals. Another andobvious reason is that in man and in man alone do the

natural parts appear in their natural situation : the

733 b 1 and 737 b 16, 26, the " perfect " animals are the

viviparous ones. For the " most highly finished " animalssee 666 a 28.

173-

ARISTOTLE656 a

^ « ,/ ,/ V f \

TOVTOV avco irpos ro rod oXov e;êt avw [lovov yap

OpOoV €GTL rOJV t,(l)Cx)V avdpCjDTTOS

.

To /xev ovv ex^LV ttjv Ke(f)aXrjv aoapKOV €K tojv

15 776/31 Tov lyKeâXov elprjiJLevcov dvayKOLOV avfi-

^€^r]K€V. ov yap woirep rivks XeyovGLV, otl et

oapKajh-qs riv, fiaKpoîCJTepov av '^v to yevog,

oAA* evaiod-qoias eVe/cev aoapKov elvai <f)auLV

aloddveoOai fiev yap rep iyK€(f)dX(p, ttjv S' alodr]Giv

ov TTpooUuOai rd pLopia rd uapKcoSr] Xiav. TOvra>v

20 S' ovSerepov eariv dXrjdes, dXXd TToXvaapKOS ftev

o TOTTos (J^v 6 TTepl Tov €yK€(f)aXov Tovvavriov av

d7T€Lpyd^€TO ov eV€Ka V7Tdp)(€i ToXg ^CpOLS 6 €y-

KecjiaXos {ov ydp av eSuVaro KaTaijjv-x_€iv dXeaivojv

avTos Xiav), tojv r aiGOiqaeajv ovk alrios ovhep,idSy

OS ye dva'iad'qros Kal avros Igtiv ojUTrep oriovv

25 TOJV TTepLTTCOfjLdrcov. dAA' ovx evpioKovres hid

TLva alriav eVtat rwv aloQ-qaeajv iv ttj K€(f)aXfj

ToZs t,(jjoLs €LGL, TOVTO 8' opcovTes IhiaiTepov ov

TOiv oKkojv pôpLCDv, CK GvXXoyLOfiov 7Tp6? dXXrjXa

avvSvdôvGLv. OTL fi€v ovv dpx'Q ra>v alGd'qaecjv

€GTIV 6 TTepl TTjV KaphiaV TOTTOS, hlOjpLGTai TTpO-

Tepov iv ToZs TTepl alGdrjGeojs , Kal Slotl at jjiev Svo

80 âvepojs rjpTrjfjLevaL TTpds ttjv Kaphiav €lglv, rj re

Tcov aTTTwv Kal rj tojv x^fxdjVy tGjv 8e Tpiojv y] jxev

TTJS OG(f)prjG€OJS IxiGt), dKOYj Sc Kal OlJjiS pdXiGT €V

Tjj K€<âXfj hid TTjv TOJV aiGdriTiqpiajv <f)VGLV eiGL, Kal

" See the identical phrase in De resp. 477 a 22." Cf. Plato, Timaeus 75 a-c.

174


upper part of man is placed towards the upper part

of the universe.^ In other words, man is the only

animal that stands upright.

In man, the head is lacking in flesh, and this follows of the

of necessity from what we have said about the brain.gra^'aJJi®

Some ^ say (erroneously) that if the head abounded Sense-

wlth flesh mankind's lifespan would be longer than °^s^^^-

it is, and they explain the absence of flesh as on pur-

pose to facilitate sensation, their view being that the

brain is the organ of sensation, and that sensation

cannot penetrate parts that are too fleshy. Neither

of these assertions is true. The truth is that if

the part surrounding the brain were fleshy, the

effect of the brain would be the very reverse

of that for which it is intended : it wôuld beunable to cool the rest of the body because it wouldbe too hot itself. And, of course, the brain is not

responsible for any of the sensations at all ; it has no

more power of sensation than any of the residues.

People adopt these erroneous views because they are

unable to discover the reason why some of the senses

are placed in the head ; but they see that the headis a somewhat unusual part, compared with the rest,

so they put two and two together and argue that

the brain is the seat of sensation. The correct view,

that the seat and source of sensation is the region

of the heart, has already been set forth in the treatise

Of Sensation/' where also I show why it is that two of

the senses, touch and taste, are evidently connected

to the heart ; of the remaining three, smell is placed

between the other two, hearing and sight, and these

are practically always located in the head : this is

owing to the nature of the organs through which

• De sensu, 438 b 25 flf.

175'

ARISTOTLE656 a

Tovrojv rj oipLs ttololv' inel rj y olkotj /cat -q oa^prjOLS

35 ezrt rcov l-)(dv(x)V /cat rcov roiovrojv Troiet ro Aeyo-

[jL€vov (f}av€p6v' OLKovovGL fikv yap /cat oocj^paivovTai,

alad-qr-qpLov 8' ovSev exovai <j>avep6v iv rfj Kecf)aXfj

rovTOJV tCjv alo6rjT(2)v} rj 8' oj/rt? 77-ao-t rot? eôvaiv

656 b €v\6yois iorrl rrepl rov eyKe(f)aXov 6 jxev yap vypos

/cat ifjvxpo?, rj 8' vSwp ttjv (f)vaLV eoTiv rovro yap

Tcov SLa(f)ava)V evcfyvXaKTorarov Igtiv. ert 8e ra?

oLKpLêarepas tcov alodriGewv 8ta tojv Kadapajrepov

ixovTWv TO at/xa piopiojv avayKaiov a/cptêcrrepas'

5 yiveudai- eKKOTTTei yap rj Trjs ev tw atjxaTi dep-

jxoTrjTOS KLvr]aL<i ttjv alaOrjTLKrjV ivipy€iav' 8ta

Tavras ras" atrta? ev ttj K€cf)aXfj toijtcjov to. aloOrj-

TTjptd ioTiv.

Ov fjLovov 8' ecrrt to epLirpoGdev aoapKov, dAAo, to

OTTLodev TTJs KecfiaXrjS, 8td to Trdui rots' ^xovglv

avTrjv opdoTaTOV heZv elvai tovto to fxopLov ovSev

10 yap opdovaOai SvvaTai cfiopTLOV ^xov, rjv 8' av

TOiovTOV, el G€GapKa>fxevrjv elx^ Trjv Ke<âX'iqv,fj

/cat

SrjXov OTi ov Trjs tov iyK€cf)dXov alad-^Geats X^P^âGapKO$ rj K€(j)aXrj ecrrtv to yap orriGdev ovk ex^L

iyKecjiaXov, aGapKov 8' ojxolcjjs.

''E;\;et 8e /cat ttjv aKorjv evXoycos evia tcov ^cocov

15 €V TO) TOTTCp TCp 7T€pl TTjV Ke(f)aX'^V TO ydp K€v6v

KaXovfxevov depos TrXrjpes eGTL, to 8e Trjs dKorjs

alGdrjTrjpiov dipos elvai âjiev,

^ (eVel . . . aloOrjTwv) Cook Wilson, qui et {ov) post

Aeyofxcvov, 1. 35.

176


they operate. Sight is always located there. Thecase of hearing and smell in fishes and the like

shows that the opinion I maintain is patently correct.

These creatures hear and smell, although they haveno obvious and visible organs for these senses in thehead. As for sight, it is reasonable enough thatwhen present it should always be located near thebrain, for the brain is fluid and cold, and the sense-

organ of sight is identical in its nature with water,which of all transparent substances is the easiest to

keep confined. Again, those senses which are in-

tended for more precise work than the others mustnecessarily receive greater precision by being situ-

ated in parts where the blood is specially pure, since

the movement of the heat in the blood ousts theactivity appropriate to sensation. These are the

reasons why the organs of these senses are placed in

the head.

Now the back of the head is free from fleshiness as

well as the front. This is because the head is the

part which all animals that possess one have to hold

as upright as possible. Nothing that carries a burdencan raise itself upright, and the head would beburdened if it were well covered ^\dth flesh. Andthis is another reason to show that the lack of flesh

on the head is not for the purpose of enabling the

brain to function in sensation. There is no brain in

the back of the head, although the back has no moreflesh on it than the front.

Some animals have their organ of hearing as well

as of sight located in the region of the head. This is

well explained on our view, which is that the organof hearing is of air. The space in the head called the

vacuum is full of air.

177

ARISTOTLE656 b

'Ek: jJLev ovv tcov ocjidaXiJLcov ol rropoi cpepovGLV et?

TCLS Trepl Tov iyKecfiaXov Âe/3a?* ttolXlv 8* c/c rcbv

(jjTOJv ojoavrojs TTopos et? rovTriaOev ovvaTrrei.

["EcTTt S' ovr dvaif-LOV ovSev aladiqriKov ovre ro

20 alfxa, dXXa rojv eV tovtov tl. hionep ovhev iv

rots ivalpLOis dvaifjiov aLadrjriKov, ouS' auro to

alpLo}- ovhev ydp tcov Jojcov /xoptov.]'*

''E;êt 8' ev rol efiTrpoaOev tov iyKe(l>aXov TrdvTa

TO. exovTa tovto to pLopiov, hid to efx-npoodev

elvai i(f)^ o alaOdveTai, ttjv 8' aluO'qoiv diro ttj^

25 Kaphia?, TavTrjv 8' etvat eV rot? epLTrpoaOev, Kal

TO aladdveadac hid tujv evalficjov yiveodai jjiopLOJV,

(ffXe^dJv 8' elvai k€v6v to oTnodev kvtos. rera/crat

Se TOV TpoTTOV TOVTOV TO, alodrjTripia ttj (fivaei

KaXcbg, Td fJLev Trjs dK07]s eirl fxeorj^ ttj? '7T€pi^€peias

[aKovei ydp ov fxovov /car' evdvcxjpiav dXXd ndv-

80 Todev), Tj 8' 6ipi£ €1? TO efjLTTpoaOev {dpa ydp /car

evdvcoptaVy rj he Kivqais els to e/JLTTpoadev, npoopdv

he hel e(f)^ o r) Kivqai?). rj he Trjs oGcfypyjaeajs

(xeTa^v TOJv d/x/xarcov evXoycDS. hnrXovv fiev ydp

€GTLV eKaoTov Tcjv aiGO'qTTjplojv hid TO hiTrXovv

etvai TO GQjfjLa, to fxev he^tov to 8* dpiGTepov. eVt

86 /xev ovv TT^s d(f>rjs tovt dhrjXov tovtov 8' atrtov

OTL ovK ecrrt to npcoTov alGdt^TiqpLOV rj Gdpi Kal to

TOLOVTOV fxopiov, dXX ivTos . errl he Trjg yXojTTTjs

•^TTOV fieVj {xaXXov 8' rj eirl ttjs d(f)r]S' eoTL yap olov

* ovh* avTO TO at/ia om. E." 11. 19-22 scclusi (20-22 Ogle) : partim ex 666 a 16 trans-

lata.

" This passage seems to be a note on a remark which comesa few lines below, and should probably be omitted from the

text. Part of it is taken from 666 a 16.

178


Passages (or channels) run from the eyes to theblood-vessels that are round the brain. And, again,

a passage runs from the ears and connects to theback of the brain.

[No bloodless part is capable of sensation, norindeed is the blood itself. It is the parts which are

made out of blood that have this faculty. Hence,in the blooded animals, no bloodless part is capableof sensation, nor indeed is the blood itself, for it is

no part of animals.] ^

The brain, whenever there is one, is in the forepart

of the head. This is (a) because all acts of sensation

take place in a forward direction; (6) because the

heart, from which sensation has its origin, is in theforepart of the body ; and (c) because the process

of sensation depends upon parts that have bloodin them, whereas the sac at the back of the headcontains no blood-vessels at all. In fact. Naturehas located the sense-organs in a very satisfactory

manner. The ears are half-way round the circum-ference of the head, because they are to hear soundsfrom all directions alike and not only from straight

before them. The eyes face front : this is becausesight is along one straight line, and we must be ableto see along the line in which we are moving, whichis directly forward. The nostrils are between theeyes, and this is quite reasonable. Each of thesense-organs is double, because the body itself is

double : it has a right side and a left side. It mustbe admitted that this duality is not at all clear in thecase of touch : this is because the primary sense-organ of touch is not the flesh or a corresponding part,

but something internal. With the tongue the duality

is not very clear, but more so than with touch.

179'

ARISTOTLE

657 a a(f)'q Tt? Kol avTYj r) aLGdrjaig. ofiojg 8e SrjXov Kal

irrl ravTTjs' (f)aLV€TaL yap iuxLayLevq. errl he rcov

aAAcov alaOiqrripicjv (jyavepcorepcDs iarlv rj aLoOrjuLS

SijjLepij?- (Zrd re yap Svo Kal opLfxara Kal r) twv

fjLVKTTipojv SvvapLLg SLcf)Vi]g ioriv. aXXov ovv av

5 rpoTTOV K€Lji€vr] Kal Si€a7TaajJLevrj , Kaddnep rj rrjs

aKorjg, ovK av iiroUi ro avri]? epyov, ovhe to

fiopLov iv (L eaTiv Sta yap rrjs dvaTTVorjg r) aloQ-qGis

rdls e)(ovGL fjLVKrrjpaSy rovro Se ro pLopiov Kara

[leGov Kal iv rots efXTrpoadev iariv. hioirep et?

jxeaov rojv rpicbv aiGdrjrrjplwv avvqyayev rj (f>VGLs

10 Tovs jivKrrjpag, otov irrl ardOfxrjv Vetera fxlav em rrjv

rrjs dvarrvorjs KivrjGiv.

KaAcos" Se Kal rocs dXXoLS e^€i ravra rd alodrj-

rrjpia t,cnois upos rrjv ISlav (jivaiv iKdurco. XI.

rd jxkv yap rerpdnoSa dnrjprrjiJLdva €)(ei rd cora Kal

dvojOev rojv 6jXfidra)v, cus" Soêiev av, ovk e;)êt Se,

1^ dAAa (jiaiverai Sta to jxrj opBd elvai rd ^cpa dXXd

KVTrrcLV. ovroj 8e to irXelarov Kcvovfievcov ;!^pT]o-tâ

jjLer€0Jporepd r dvra Kal Kivovjieva' hex^âi ydp

Grpe(f)6fieva rrdvrodev rov£ ^6(ôvs jxdXXov.

XII. 01 S' opviOes rovs rropovg povov eôvGi hid

rrjv rod hepjiaros GKXijporrjra Kal rd e^îv jirj

20 rptxcis dXXd TTrepcord elvac ovk ovv eêi roiavrrjv

vXrjv i^ rjs dv eVAaae rd ojra. ofiolajs he Kal rcov

<» Aristotle seems to refer here to the forked tongues of

certain animals. See 660 b 7 flF.

180

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. x.-xii.

(Taste, in fact, is itself, as it were, a sort of touch.)

The duality is plain, however, even with this sense,

for it is seen to be divided.^ With the other senses,

the organ is more evidently parted into two : there

are two ears and two eyes, and two passages for the

nostrils in the nose. The sense of smell, if it hadbeen other^^^se placed—separated into two, that is,

like the sense of hearing—would not have beenable to perform its proper function ; nor wouldthat part of the body in which it is situated, since

in animals which have nostrils, the sensation of

smell is effected by means of inspiration, and this

part is at the front and in the middle. This is

why Nature has brought the nostrils together in a

straight line and made them the central of the three

sense-organs in the head, located where the motionof in-breathing takes place.

In the other animals as well as in man these sense- Ears.

organs are very satisfactorily arranged as required

by the peculiar nature of each animal. XI. Forinstance, the quadrupeds have ears that stand out free

from the head, and they are higher than the eyes

—

or appear to be, although this is not really so : it is

an illusion due to the fact that these animals are notupright but stand on all fours. And as they are

usually in this posture when in motion, it is useful for

them to have their ears well up in the air, and also

movable : this enables them to be turned round andoick up sounds better from all directions.

XII. Birds have the auditory passages only,

owing to the hardness of their skin, and becausethey have feathers instead of hair, which means that

they have not got the right material for formingears. The same argument applies to those oviparous

181'

ARISTOTLE657 a

rerpaTToSojv to. cooroKa /cat ôXihcxird' o yap avros

apfioaei /cat eV eKcivcov Xoyos. ^x^l Se /cat t]

(f)a)K7] Twv l^cpoTOKOJV ovK (JjTa dXXo. TTopovs dKorjs

»

hid TO TTeTTrjpcojjievov etvai rerpdiTOVv,

25 XIII. Kat ol jLtev dvdpojTTOL /cat ol opviOes /cat rd

t^cporoKa /cat rd cooroKa rwv rerpaTToSojv (f)vXaKr]v

exovGL TTj? oipeojg, rd fxev ^cooroKa ^Xi(j>apa hvOy

ols /cat oKaphapLvrrovai, rcjv 8' opvidcav dXXoi re

/cat ol âpels /cat rd cooroKa rd)v rerpaTTohcov rfj

30 Karoj /3Ae</)aptSt pLVovoiv CT/capSa/xurroucrt 8' ot

opvides e'/c TcDv KavddJv ujuevt. row //ev ouv (f)vXaKr]v

€X€iv atVtov TO uypa to, opLfiara etvat tva ofu

pXeTTCOdL [rovTov rov rporrov vtto rrjs <j)voecosf'

GKX-qpoSepjJLa ydp ovra d^Xaêorepa [lev dv rjv

VTTO rd)V eôjOev TTpooTTnrrovrcjv , ovk o^vcjoird Se.

rovrov fxev ovv* eVe/ca Xerrrov ro Sep/xa to Trept

35 Trjv Koprjv earl, rrj? Se ocxyrripias X^P^^ '^^ ^Xecfyapa-

/cat 8td rovro orKapSap,vrr€L re Trdvra /cat p-dXior

dvdpojTTOSy Trdvra piev ottcjos rd TrpouTrLTTrovra rols

657 b ^Xe(j)dpoLs KcoXvajGt (/cat rovro ovk e/c Trpoaipeaeajs,

dXX 7] (f)vaLg eTToirjcje), TrXeLaraKLs 8' o dvOpojTTos

hid ro XeTTrohepporaros etvat.

*H he Âeâpts" eoTt heppari TTepieiXrjppem]- hio

/cat ov (jvp(f>verai ovre ^Xecbapis ovr' aKpoTTOodia,

on dvev uapKo^ heppiard eoriv.

5 Twv 8' opviOojv oCTOt rfi Kara) ^Xe(f)apihi jLtuouat,

/cat rd cporoKa rojv rerpaTTohcoVf hid rrjv OKXrjpo-

" Or, " imperfectly developed." Cf. Bk. III. ch. viii,

182

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xii.-xiii.

quadrupeds which have horny scales. One vivi-

parous animal, tlie Seal, has no ears but only auditorypassages ; but this is because, though a quadruped,it is deformed."

XIII. Man, the Birds, and the Quadrupeds (both Eyes,

viviparous and oviparous) have a protective coveringfor their eyes. The viviparous quadrupeds havetwo eyelids to each eye (which also enable themto blink) ; some of the birds, especially the heavilybuilt ones, and the oviparous quadrupeds, whenthey close their eyes, do so with the lower eyelid ;

birds, however, can blink, with the aid of a mem-brane that comes out of the corner of the eye. Thereason for the existence of these protective cover-

ings is that the eye is fluid in order to ensurekeenness of vision. If the eye had been con-

structed with a hard skin it would of course havebeen less liable to injury by impact from without,

but its vision would have been duller. For this

cause the skin round the pupil is left thin and fine,

and the safety of the eye is ensured by the addition

of the eyelids. The movement of the eyelids knownas blinking is a natural and instinctive one, notdependent on the will, and its object is to preventthings from getting into the eyes. All animalsthat have eyelids do it, but human beings blink

most of all, because they have the thinnest andfinest skin.

Now the eyelid is encased ^vith skin ; and that is

why, like the tip of the foreskin, it \\'ill not unite

again once it has been cut, because both of themare skin and contain no flesh.

We said just now that some birds and the ovi-

parous quadrupeds close the eye with the lower

183 '

ARISTOTLE657 b

rrjra rou Se/j/xaro? rod Trepl rrjv K€(f)aXrjv ovtcd

fjLVovcTLV. oi fJLev yap fâpel<^ tcov TTrepwTOJv Slol to

flTj TTTrjTLKol €LVaL Tr]V TWV 7TT€p(JL)V aV^7](JLV 61? TTjV

rod hepjiaros TTaxvrrjra T^rpaixjilvrjv €XOVOlv. Slo

10 /cat ovTOi fjLev ro) Kcirco ^X€(f)dpco fivovai,, Trept-

arepal 8e /cat to, roiavra d/xôtv. ra 8e rerpairoha

T(x)v choTOKOJV (fioXiScoTO, Igtiv TauTa 8e gkXtjpo-

repa navra rpiôs, (joore /cat ra Sep/xara rod

hipfxaros to ptev ovv irepl rrjV K€(f)aXr]v uKXrjpov

ecjTLV avTolg, hioirep ovk e;êt ^Xecjyapov eKeWev,

15 TO 8e KOLTcodev aapKcoSeg, coot' ^x^lv to ^Xed>apov

XeTTTOTTJTa KCLL TOLatV.

^KapSapLVTTOvori S' ol âpels opvides tovtw fiev

ov. Tip 8' vpL€VL, 8ta TO ^paSelav elvai ttjv tovtov

KLvrjoiv, SeXv 8e Ta)(elav yiveodai, 6 8* vpLrfv tolov-

Tov. c/c 8e Tou Kavdov tov irapa tovs piVKTrjpa?

20 OKaphapLVTTOVOlV , OTL êXtLOV aTT* O-PX^S puds TTjV

(f)vaLV etvat avTwv, ovtol 8' exovGiv a.px'^v ttjv irpos

TOV piVKTrjpa Trp6o-(f)vaLV' /cat to irpoadiov apx'rj tov

nXayiov pidXXov.

Ta 8e TeTpoLTToSa /cat cooTOKa ov OKapSapLVTTeL

opLOLOjg, OTL ovh^ vypoLV avTols dvayKaZov e;^€tv /cat

aKpi^Tj TTJV OijjLV €7TLyeLOL£ OVGLV TOt? 8' OpVLOLV

2o avay/catov, noppojOev yap rj XP^^*^^ t^? oi/jeajs. 8t6

/cat Ta yapupwvvxci' p-^v o^vajTrd {dvojdev yap avTols

7) Oeojpia TTJs Tpo(j)7Js, 8to /cat dvaTreTOVTai TavTa

p-dXiUTa TCOV opvecov el? vifios), rd 8' eVtyeia /cat

^07 TTTTjTLKdf olov dX^KTpvoves Kal rd ToiavTa,

184

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiii.

eyelid only. This is due to the hardness of the

skin which surrounds the head, (a) The heavily

built birds are not great fliers, and so the material

which would have supplied growth for the wings has

been diverted, resulting in thickness of the skin.

These creatures, then, use only the bottom eyelid to

cover the eye ; whereas pigeons and such use botheyelids. (6) With regard to the oviparous quad-rupeds : As the horny scales with which they are

covered are in every case harder than hair, so their

skin also is harder than ordinary skin. And as the

skin on their heads is hard, they can have no uppereyelid ; but lower dovvn the skin has some flesh with

it, and so they have a lower eyelid that is thin andextensible.

Now the heavily built birds blink not with this

lower eyelid, because its motion is slow, but A\ith

the membrane above mentioned, whose motion is

swift, as is requisite. This blinking or nictitating

begins at the corner of the eye nearest the nostrils,

because it is better that the membranes should haveone place of origin rather than two, and in these birds

this is where the eye and nostril are conjoined ; also,

the front is more a place of origin than the side.

The oviparous quadrupeds do not blink in this

way, because, unlike birds, which have to use their

eyes over great distances, they go upon the ground,and therefore there is no need for them to havefluid eyes or great accuracy of sight. The crook-

taloned birds are sharp-sighted, for they view their

prey from above, and that also explains why theyfly to a greater height than other birds. Thebirds that remain on the ground, however, and donot fly much (e.g. barn-door fowls and the like) are

185 -

ARISTOTLE657b ^

^

ovK o^vwnd- ovhev yap aura Kareireiyei rrpog

rov ^Lov.

30 Ot 8' IxOvc? Kal ra evro/ia /cat ra aKXr^poSepfj-a

Siacfiepovra fiev e)(OvoL to, o/x/xara, ^X€(f)apov 8'

ovSev avrwv ^)(êi. ra f-iev yap GKXrjpoSepjJia oAco?

OVK exî'' y] he rod f^Xecjidpov )(prjaLs Ta;!êrai' rrjv^

SepixarLKrjv e;êt ipyaauav aAA' dvrl rarjTqs rrj?

35 (f)vXaKrjs TTOvra OKXripocfydaXpid icrrtv, oiov ^XeirovTa

Sid rod ^Xec^dpov ttpoGTTe(j)Vkotos . inel 8' dvay-

Koiov hid TTjv GKX-qpoTqra dp.pXvTepov pXeTretv,

KLVOVfieVOVS i7TOL7](7€V Tj (f>VGiS TOV9 6(f)9aXlJiOVS TOL?

658 a eVTOflOLS, Kal fJidXXoV €TL ToX? GKXrjpohepilOLS , CJGTTep

kvia Tiov rerpaTTohajv rd cura, ottco? 6^-UT€pov ^Xerrrj

GTpe(f)ovTa TTpos TO (j)djs Kol 8e;ô^£va Trjv avyqv.

OL 8' l)(dv€s vyp6<^6aX}ioi fiev €lglv' dvayKaia ydp

5 TOtS" TToXXriV TTOlOVpiivOLS KLVTjGLV Tj TT]S 6l/j€0JS €K

TToXXov XPV^^S' Tolg fiev ovv TretôZ? 6 drjp ei)-

hiOTTTOS' eK€iVOlS 8' €7761 TO vhojp TTpOS fJi€V TO O^V

ÂeVetv ivavTLOv, ovk exî he TroXXd ra TrpoGKpoiJG-

jLtara npos ttjv oipLv oiGirep 6 drjp, hid fxev tout

OVK exî ^Xe(j)apov {ovhev ydp rj (jiVGis rroiel fJLdrrjv),

10 TTpos he T7]v TTaxvTTjTa Tov vhaTOS vyp6(f)6aXjJLOL

eiGiv.

XIV. J^Xecf)apihas 8' eTri tojv ^Xe(f)dpcov exovGiv

OGa TpixoiS exovGiv, opviOes he Kal tcov (f)oXih(x>Td)v

ovhev ov ydp exovGi Tpixas. rrepl ydp rod GTpov-

6ov TOV Ai^vKov TTjv atTtW VGTepov epovpev tovto

^ T17V Ogle : Kox vulg. : tt^v ante ipyaaiav vulg., om. SU.

186

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiii.-xiv.

not sharp-sighted, since there is no urgent necessity

for it in their kind of hfe.

Many differences in the eye itself are found amongthe Fishes, the Insects and the hard-skinned Crus-

tacea, thougli not one of them has eyeUds. In the

hard-skinned Crustacea there cannot be an eyehd at

all, for the action of an eyelid depends upon swift

working of the skin. To compensate for the lack

of this protection, all these creatures have hardeyes : it is as though the eyelid were all of a piece

with the eyeball, and the creature looked through

the lid as well. But since the vision is bound to bedimmed by this hardness of the eye, Nature has

given the Insects (and even more noticeably the

Crustacea) movable eyes, just as she has given somequadrupeds movable ears ; this is to enable themto turn towards the light and catch its rays and so

to quicken their vision. Fish have fluid eyes for the

following reason. They move about a good deal andhave to use their sight over long distances. Nowwhen land-animals do this, they are looking through

air, which is highly transparent ; but fish move about

in water, which is inimical to sharpness of vision ; so

to counteract its opacity their eyes are fluid in

composition. At the same time, water contains far

fewer objects to strike against the eyes than the air

does ; hence fish need no eyelids, and because

Nature never makes anything without a purpose,

they have none.

XIV. Those animals that have hair on their body Eyelashes

have eyelashes on their eyelids : the others (birds ^°*^ ^*^"

and the creatures with horny scales) have none.

There is one exception to this rule : the Libyan

ostrich, which has eyelashes. The cause of this

G 187

ARISTOTLE658a ^ ^

15 yap e)(€L jSAe<âptSa? to i,wov. /cat tojv ixovrojv

Tptâs" eV* dfX(f)6Tepa ol dvdpcoTTOi fxovov exovcnv.

rd ydp rerpdnoSa tojv t,a)OJV iv rols vtttlols ovk

€X€L TpLXCL?, aAA' iv TOt? TTpaveGL fiaXXov ol 8*

dvdpojrroi rovvavTiov iv rots vtttlol? fxaXXov rj iv

rois TTpaviuLV. GKeTrrj^ yap X^P^^ ^^ Tpix^S vtt-

dpxovGL TOtg exovGLV rot? fJiev ovv Terpdrroai rd20 TTpavrj SelraL fidXXov rrjg crKeTTrjg, rd Se Trpoadia

TLfJLLwrepa jjiiv, dXXd Aectêt Sid rr)v Kafjupiv rols

S' dvdpcijTTOis inel i^ luov hid rrjv opdorrjTa rd

TTpoodia rols OTTiaOioLS, rols nfMLCorepoig vrriypaxpev

Tj (f}VGLS rrjv ÔTjOetav del ydp iK rG)v ivSexo-

ixivojv alrla rod êXriovos iartv. /cat Std rovro

25 rajv rerpaTToScov ovOkv ovre ^XetâpiSa e;êt rrjv

Karcodev, aAA' vtto rovro ro ^Xicfyapov iviois rrapa-

(f)Vovrai fiaval rpix^s, ovr iv rals /xaapâAats" ovr

inl rrj? rj^T^S, wcrTrep rols dvOpcoTTOLS' aAA' avrt

rovrojv rd fiev Kad^ dXov ro crco/xa TTpaves^ 8eSa-

crvvrai rals dpi^lv, otov ro rcov kvvcov yevos, rd 8e

80 Xo(f)Ldv ex^L, Kaddirep lttttol /cat rd roiavra rcov

^cpcov, rd 8e ;)âtT7]v, cooTrep 6 apprfv Xeojv. ert 8'

oua KepKovs ex^t jjltjkos ixovaas, /cat ravras CTrt-

KeKOGfirjKev rj (fivcns Opiî, rols p-ev puKpov exovau

rov oroXov paKpals, (Zonep rols Ittttols, rols 8e

35 jiaKpov j3pax€LaLs, /cat /cara rrjv rov dXXov acop-aros

cf)V(TLV' TTavraxov ydp aTroStSwcrt Xaftovaa ireptodev

TTpos dXXo pLopiov. oGOis 8e ro ocopa Saav Xiav

658 b 7T€7TOLr]K6, rovroLs ivheojs e;\;€t rd rrepl r7]v KepKov^

otov €771 rdJv dpKrcov avp,ê^rjK€V,

^ Tipavks delet Piatt.

188

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiv.

will be explained later. '^ Man is the only animal

which has eyelashes on both lids. Why is this ?

The quadrupeds tend to have more hair on their

backs than on the underside of the body ; but in

man the reverse is true. The purpose of hair is to

give protection ; and as the quadrupeds go on all

fours, they need more protection on their backs ; so

they have no hair on their front, although the front

is the nobler of the two sides. Man goes upright,

and so there is nothing to choose as regards his needof protection between front and back. Therefore

Nature has prescribed the protection for the nobler

side, the front—an example of how, out of given

conditions, she is always the cause of that which is

the better. This, then, is why none of the quad-

rupeds has lower eyelashes (though some have a

few scattered hairs growing on the lower eyelid),

or hair in the axillae or on the pubes, as man has.

Instead of this, some of them have thick hair all

over the back part of ^ their body {e.g. dogs), someof them have a mane {e.g. horses and such), others

a flowing mane, like the male lion. Again, if ananimal has a tail of any length. Nature decks that

with hair too ; long hair for tails with a short stem{e.g. horses), short hair for tails Mith a long stem.

This, however, is not independent of the general

condition of the whole animal, for Nature gives

something to one part of the body only after she

has taken it from another part. So when she has

made an animal's body extremely hairy, we find

that there is not much hair about the tail. Anexample of this is the Bears.

« See 697 b 13 ff.

* Piatt deletes " the back part of."

189

ARISTOTLE658 b

Trjv he K€(f)aXr]v avdpcoTTOS eon rwv ^cocov Sacrv-

rarov, i^ dvayKT]? (xev 8ta rrjv vypor-qra rod

eyK€(f)dXov Kal Sta rds pacj^ds (ottov yap vypov /cat

6 depfxov TrXelaTOV, eVrau^' dvayKolov 7tX€lgt7]v elvat

rrjV €K(f)VGLv), €V€K€V Se ÔTjdeLa?, OTTCOS GK€7Td^CO(7L

<j)vXdTrovGai rds VTrepôXds rod re ipvôvs Kal ri^s

dXeas. TrXeiGTOs S' cov Kal vyporaros 6 ra)v

dvdpcoTTCOV iyK€cf)aXos TrXeioTris Kal rrj? ^vXaKTjS

heirai' ro yap vyporarov Kal êt Kal xfj-ux^raL

10 fidXicrra, to S' eVavrioj? ^xov aTTaOearepov ioriv.

'AAAo. 7T€pl ixkv TOVTCov TTapeK^rjvaL GVjJLê^T^KeV

ixofJLevois T7J9 TTcpl rds ^Xe(j)apihas atVta?, 8td ttjv

ovyyeveiav avraJv, cucrre nepl rcov Xolttcov iv rols

OLKeloL? Kaipols aTTohoreov rrjv fiveiav.

XV. At 8' 6(f)pv€? Kal at ^XecfiaplSes dpiôrepai

15 ôrjOelas X^P'-^ €lglv, at /xev o^pves rwv Kara-

paLvovTOJv vypojv, ottojs aTTOGreycoGiv olov drroyei-

crcujLta Tcor drro rrjg Ke(f>aXrjg vypajv, at Se /3Ae</)apt8€S

rcbv TTpo? rd ofxjJLara ttpogttltttovtcjv eVe/cev, olov

rd pâpa/ccojLtara ttolovgl rives Trpo rcov epyfidrajv}

elal 8* at [xev 6(f)pves errl Gwdeoei oorcov, 8to Kal

20 SaCTUvovrat TroAAotS" dTToyrjpdaKovoLV ovtcjjs ojore

SelaOat Kovpds' at he ^Xe(j)apihes eTrl Trepan

<f)Xe^LOJV, fjyap to Seppua Trepaivei, Kal rd (j)Xeîa

^ epyfioLTcov scrips! : epyfxdTCJv Bekker : ipvudrcov ed itores.

« This is one of the passages fastened upon by Bacon in

his tirade against the importation of final causes into physics,

Adv. of Learning (publ. 1605), ii. pp. 29, 30 :" This I finde

done not onely by Plato, who euer ancrcth vppon that shoare,

but by Aristotle, Galen, and others, who do vsually hkewisefall vppon these flatts of discoursing causes ; For to say that

the haires of the Eye-liddes arefor a quic-sette andfence about

190

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xiv.-xv.

Man has the hairiest head of all the animals. This

is (a) due to necessity, because the brain is fluid, andthe skull has many sutures ; and a large outgrowthnecessarily occurs where there is a large amount of

fluid and hot substance. But also (6) it is on purpose

to give protection ; that is, the hair affords shelter

both from excessive cold and from excessive heat.

The human brain is the biorsrest and the most fluid

of all brains ; therefore it needs the greatest amountof protection. A very fluid thing is very liable bothto violent heating and \dolent cooling, while sub-

stances of an opposite nature are less liable to such

affections.

This, however, is a digression. We were led into it

because the subject was connected with our investi-

gation of the cause of eyelashes. Anything further

that there is to be said about it will be said in its

proper place.

XV\ Both eyebrows and eyelashes exist to afford

protection to the eyes : the eyebrows, like the eaves

of a house, are to protect the eyes from the fluids

that run down from the head ; the eyelashes are Ukethe palisades which are sometimes put up in front of

an enclosure ; their purpose is to keep out things that

try to get in." However, the eyebrows are placedwhere two bones join (which is why they often get so

thick in old age that they have to be cut) ; and the eye-

lashes are placed at the ends of small blood-vessels,

which have to stop where the skin itself comes to

the Sight . . . and the like, is well inquired & collected in

Metaphisicke, but in Phisicke they are impertinent." Butthere is no incompatibility, p. 33, " For the cause rendredthat the haires about the Eye-liddes are for the safeguard of the

sight, doth not impugne the cause rendred, that Pilositie is

incident to Orifices of Moisture.'" See also Xen. Mem. i. 4. 6.

19F

ARISTOTLE658b

^ ^ ^ / r/ , ,

TTepas €X€i rod iJ,y]Kov£- coctt' dvayKolov Sta ttjv

OLTTLovaav LKfJidSa acofjLartKrjv ovaav, dv fi'q ri rrjs

(f)V(T€a>? epyov eixTTohior^ irpos aXkriv •)(prJGLV, Koi

25 hid TTjv Toiavrriv atTiav ef dpdyKTjs iv rots roTTOt?

TOUTot? yiveoOai rpixo-s.

XVI. Tot? piev ovv aAAoi? ^cools toTs rerpdrrooi

/cat ^cporoKOLS ov TToppw rpoTTOV TLvd SiearrjKev

dXX-qXcov TO rrjs OGcfyp-âecos aloO-qT-qpLOv, aAA' daa30 fxev ex^L 7TpopLr]K€LS et's" orevdv d7rrjyp.€vas ra?

GLayovas, ev rw KoXovpLevo) pvyx'^^ Kal ro rcbv

pLVKTiqpojv ivvTTdpx^L piopiov /caret rov ivSexop-cvov

rpoTTOv, roZs S' aAAot? /xaAAov SLrjpOpcopevov earl

TTpos rds Giayovas. 6 8' eAe</)as' IhiairaTov e;\;et

Tovro TO pLopiov Tcbv dXXcov i,a)Cov TO re ydp35 pLeyeOos /cat rrjv SvvapiLv e;êt TrepLrrrjv. pLVKrrjp

ydp iuTLV (L TTjv Tpo(f)rjv TTpoadyerai, Kaddrrep X^^P^€59 a ;)^ptu/xevos', rrpos to GTopLa, t7]v re ir]pdv /cat tt^p'

vypdvy /cat to, SevSpa TT^pLeXiTTajv dvaGTra, /cat

XprJTai Kaddrrep dv el X^^P^- '''V^ 7^9 '/"^crtv eAajSe?

a/xa TO ôjov eVrt /cat 7Tet,6vy coctt* eVet tt^v Tpo(j)'y]v

i^ vypov Gvveâivev e;êtv, dvaTTvetv 8* dvay/catov

6 Treôv ov /cat evatpLov, /cat /xi^ ra^êtav Trotetaât tt)^

pL€TaPoXr]v e/c tou vypov TTpos to ^r]p6v, Kaddrrep

eVta Ttov l^cpoTOKOJV /cat ivalpajv /cat dvaTTveovTcov,

TO ydp pLeyedos ov virep^dXXov, dvayKoiov opLoicos

rjv XPV^^^^ '^'^ vypcp ojonep /cat Tif^ y^. otov ouv

rot? KoXvpL^rjTOLS evioi irpos ttjv dvanvorjv Spyava10 TTopiôvTai, Lva TToXvv xpoiôv ^^

"^fjOaXdTTT) jLte-

vovt€£ eXkcoglv eôjdev tov vypov Stct tov dpydvov

Tov depa, tolovtov tj (f)VGLg to tov pLVKTrjpos pL€-

yedos €7T0LrjG€ toIs iXeâGiv. hiorrep dvarrveovGLV

• Or " strength."

192

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xv.-xvi.

an end. Thus, owing to the fact that the moisturewhich comes off is corporeal in composition, hair mustbe formed at these places even on account of a neces-

sary cause such as this, unless some function of Natureimpedes by diverting the moisture to another use.

XVI. The general run of viviparous quadrupeds Nostriia.

differ very little among themselves as regards theorgan of smell. The following variations occur, how-ever. Those animals whose jaws project forward andbecome gradually narrower, forming what is called

a snout, have the organ of smell in their snout—this

being the only possibility ; in the others, the jawsand nostrils are more definitely separated. Theelephant's nose is unique owing to its enormous size

and its extraordinary character. '^ By means of his

nose, as if it were a hand, the elephant conveyshis food, both solid and fluid, to his mouth ; bymeans of it he tears up trees, by winding it roundthem. In fact, he uses it for all purposes as if it

were a hand. This is because the elephant has a

double character : he is a land-animal, but he also

lives in swamps. He has to get his food from the

water ; yet he has to breathe, because he is a land-

animal and has blood ; owing to his enormous size,

however, he cannot transfer himself quickly from the

water on to the land, as do quite a number of bloodedviviparous animals that breathe ; hence he has to beequally at home on land and in the water. Somedivers, when they go down into the sea, provide

themselves with a breathing-machine, by means of

which they can inhale the air from above the surface

while they remain for a long time in the water.

Nature has provided the elephant with something of

this sort by giving him a long nose. If ever the

193

ARISTOTLE659 a ^

dpavres o-vco Sta rod vharos rov fxvKrrjpa, dv nore

TTOLCJvrai hi vypou rrjv nopelav Kaddrrep yap15 elTTOfxev, pvKTijp ianv 77 TrpoôoKls rols e'Aeâcrtv.

€7761 S' d'^vvarov rjv elvai rov jjLVKrrjpa tolovtov p^rj

fxaXaKov ovra p.7]Se KdpLnreaOaL Svvdpcvov (eveiro-

hitê yap dv rw [X'qKei Trpog to Xaêlv ttjv dvpadev

rpocfyijv, KaOdrrep cpaal rd Kepara rols OTTiodovopiois

20 ôvoiv Kal ydp eKeivovs vepêadai (fyaoLV vtto-

)îDpovvras TTaXijiTTvyrihov)—vrrdpâvros ovv tolov-

tov Tov pLVKTTipos, T] ^VGis TTapaKaTaxprjrai, KaO-

aTTep €LCjodeVj €7tI TrXeiova tols avTols popioiSi dvTl

TTJs Tcov TTpoaOiojv 7Tohcx)v xp^ÔL^' TOVTOVs ydp ra

TToXvhdKTvXa TCOV TeTpaTTohoJV dvTl X^^pd>^ €X0VGIV,25 aAA* ov p.6vov €vex VTTooTdoecjJs tov ^dpovs' ol S'

iX€(f)avT€s TCOV TToXvSaKTvXcxJv eloL, Kal ovT€ Sixd-

Xovs exovGLV ovT€ pcovvxo^S TOV? TToSas' iirel 8e to

fieyedos ttoXv /cat to ^dpo<; to tov crc6/xaTOS", Sta

TOVTO piovov ipeiopiaTos etcrt x^P^'^> '^^^ ^^^ ^WPpaSvTTJTa Kal ttjv d(f)vtav ttj? Kdpipecos ov XPV'UipLOL^ TTpOS dXXo OvOlv.

so Ata /xev ovv ttjv dvanvorjv e;êt pLVKTrjpa, KaddnepKal TCOV dXXojv €Ka(jTOv Twv ixovTcov nXevpovatâxDV, Sta Se Tr]v iv tw vypco hiaTpi^riv Kal ttjv

ppaSvTTJTa TTJs CKeWev pLeTaôXi]? Swdpievov iXiT-

T€odai Kal piaKpov d(f)'r]p7]p€V7]? Se ttjs toov ttoScov

85 XPV^^^^Sy ^Ctt Tj (j)VGLS, d)G7T€p €L7T0pL€V, KaTaXp'r]TaL

Kal TTpos TTjv dno TCOV TToSojv yLvopL€vr]v dv po-qdeiav

TOVTO) TO) pLOpiLp,

659 b Ot S' opviBes Kal ol 6(f)€is Kal oGa d'AA' eVat/xa

* XpTôLixoi Rackham : p^pTâi/iov vulg.

194.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvi.

elephant has to make his way through deep water,

he will put his trunk up to the surface and breathe

through it. This is possible, because, as I have said

already, the trunk is really a nostril. Now it wouldhave been impossible for the nostril to be put to all

these uses if it had not been soft and able to bend ;

for then by its very length it would have prevented

the animal from getting its food, just as they say the

horns of the " backward-grazing " oxen do, forcing

them to walk backwards as they feed.^ So the trunk

is soft and pliable ; and in consequence Nature, as

usual, takes advantage of this to make it discharge

an extra function beside its original one : it has to

serve instead of forefeet. Now in polydactylous

quadrupeds the forefeet are there to serve as hands,

not merely in order to support the weight of the

animal ; but elephants (which must be included underthis class of animals, because they have neither a

solid hoof nor a cloven one) are so large and so heavythat their forefeet can serve only as supports ; andindeed they are no good for anything else because

they move so slowly and are quite unsuited for

bending.

So the elephant's nostril is there, in the first place,

to enable him to breathe (as in all animals that have

a lung) ; and also it is lengthened and able to coil

itself round things because the elephant spends

much of his time in the water and cannot quickly

emerge upon land. And as his forefeet are not

available for the normal function, Nature, as wesaid, presses the trunk into service to supply whatshould have been forthcoming from the feet.

The Birds and Serpents and the quadrupeds which

*» See above, on 6-A8 a 16. This is from Herodotus, iv. 183.

g2 195-

ARISTOTLE659 b

Kal OJOTOKO} TCJV TCTpaTToScOV, TOVS /LtCV TTOpOVS

€)(ovai Tcov iivKT-qpojv TTpo rod GToyiaros, cucrre O

elireXv jjLVKrrjpas, el fir] Sua to epyov, ovk cxovgl

âvepa)s hnqpOpcopLevovs' aAA* tj y opvig wore

5 firjOev av eiTreZv ex^t^ plvas. rovro he GvpLê^rjKev,

on avTt oLayovojv eêi to KaXovpievov pvyxos- alricL

8e TOUT60V Tj (j)VGL£ 7) TCOV OpviQoJV GVVeGT7]Kvla

TOVTOV Tov rpoTTov. hiTTOVv ydp eGTL /cat rrrepv-

yojTov, oiGT dvdyKrj puKpov to ^dpos ^xîv to tou

avx^vos Kal to tt]? KecfyaXrjs, cjG-nep Kal to GrrjOos

10 Grevov ottcos l-iev ovvfj

;^pTô-t/xov npog re rrjv

dXKTjV Kal Sid T'qv Tpo(f)TJv, ooTtuSe? exovGi ro

pvyxos, GTEVov Se Sid ttjv fJUKpoTrjra rrjs K€(f)aXrjS.

iv 8e TO) pvyx^L tovs rropovs exovGL rrjs OG^priGecuSt

fjLVKTTJpas S' ^x^LV dSvvarov.

Ilepl 8e Tojv dXXcov ^cocov rwv fXTj dvarTveovrcov

16 etpTjrai, irporepov hi rjv alriav ovk exovGL p,v-

KTrjpaSy aXXd rd pi€v 8ta rcjv ^payxicov, rd 8e 8ta

rov avXov, rd 8* ivrofxa Sid rov vTro^wfiaro?

aloddvovrai tcjv ogijlojv, Kal iravra rep GV[i(j)VTCp

7Tvevp.aTL rev GojjJiaros (prrep^ (K.aX)*' Kivelrai' rovro8* VTrapx^t, (l)VG€L TTaGi Kal ov dvpaOev eireiGaKrov

€GTLV,

20 'Ytt-o 8e Tous" fJLVKTTJpas T] rwv ;)êtAcov eo"Tt (f)VGLS

rots exovGL rojv evaipLOJV ohovras. roXs yap opvcGi,

KaOdnep eiTTopiev, hid rrjV rpO(f)rjv Kal rrjv dXKTjv ro

pvyxos oGrcJobes eonv GVviJKrai ydp €ls eu avr

ohovrcxjv Kal ;)êtAajp', wG-rrep av et Tt? aêAtuv

25 dvdpcjTTov rd x^^^V '^^^ ou/xûoa? tous" dvcodev

^ ojOTOKa Z, vul^. : ^woroKa EPSUY.* €X€i S : ixîv vulg.

196


like them are blooded and oviparous, have their

nostril-passages in front of the mouth : but they havenothing which except for its function can be called

nostrils—nothing distinctly articulated. A bird, at

any rate, one might say has no nose at all. Thereason for this is that its beak really replaces jaws.

And this is because of the natural structure of birds.

A bird is a winged biped ; hence its head and its neckmust be light in weight, and its breast must benarrow ; and it has a beak, which (a) is made out of

bony material, so that it will serve as a weapon as

well as for the uptake of food, and (h) is narrow, owingto the small size of the head. It has the passages for

smell in this beak, but it is impossible for it to havenostrils there.

We have spoken already about the animals that donot breathe, and shown why they have no nostrils :

some of them smell by means of the gills, somethrough a blow-hole ; while the insects smell throughthe middle part of the body. All of them smell, as

all of them move, by means of the connate pneuma °

of their bodies, which is not introduced from without,but is present in all of them by nature.

In all blooded animals that have teeth, the lips have Lipa.

their place below the nostrils. (As stated already,

birds have a bony beak for getting food and for de-fence ; and this is as it were teeth and lips run into

one. The nature of the beak can be illustrated thus.

Supposing, in a human being, that the lips wereremoved, and all the upper teeth were welded to-

" Cf. De somno et vig. 455 b 34 fF. For a full account of'Lvfi<f)irrov YLveufia see G.A. (Loeb edn.), pp. 576 ff.

' coTTcp SUZ^ : coanep vulg'. • <Kal> Peck.

197'

ARISTOTLE659b

^^

ohovrag ;^copt? /cat rovg Kariodev TTpoaydyot [XT]ko9

TTOirjaas ajJicfyoTepcjodev ets" arevov et-q yap dv rovro

tJSt] pvyôs opvidojhes. roZs jxev ovv aAAot? ^cLois

TTpOS GCUTl^plaV TCJV oSoVTCJV 7) TtUV ;)êtAcDy (f)V(TiS

iuTL Kal rrpos <f>vXaKr]Vy hioirep ojs eVetVcov /Lter-

80 exovGL rod aKpiô)^ Kal KaXojs r) rovvavriov, ovrco

Kal Tov SirjpdpaxjOaL rovro ro pLopiov exovuiv ol 8*

avdpoQTTOi /xaAa/ca Kal oapKOjhr] Kal SvvdjJLeva X^P^~êoOat, (f)vXaKr]s 9^ eVe/ca rwv ohovrcov warrep Kal

rd d'AAa, Kal fxaXXov en Sta to €V' Trpos yd.p ro

XpTjodai ro) Xoycp Kal ravra. woirep yap r7]v

35 yXcjrrav ovx oyLoiav rots aAAots" eTroLTjaev r] <^vols,

TTpos ipyaoias hvo KaraxprjcroLfJievY] , KadaTrep

660 a etTTOjLtev TTOLelv avrrjv inl ttoXXcov, rr^v [xev yXdJrrav

rctjv re ;)(U/xa)V €V€K€V Kal rod Xoyov, rd he x^^^VTovrov 6^ eve/cev /cat rijs rojv oSovrcov (fyvXaKTJ?. 6

fxev ydp Xoyos 6 Std rrjg (fjojvijg e/c rojv ypa[Xfxdrwv

GvyKeiraL, rrj? Se yXojrr-qs fJirj roiavriqs ova-qs [JLy]he

5 ra)V x^^Xcjv vypojv ovk dv rjv (Ôeyyeadai rd TrXeiora

rojv ypa[jifidrajv rd fiev ydp rrjs yXcorrr]? elal

TTpooôXaiy rd he ovpiôXal rcov ;\;€tAajv. rroias Se

ravra Kal TTouag Kal rivas ex^L hiacjiopds. Set

TTwddveodai irapd rcov [xerpiKcov.

ÂvdyKT) 8* -qv evdvs aKoXovOrjaai rovrcov rcov

10 fiopLcov eKarepov Trpds rrjv elpiqpLevriv XP^^^^ evepyd

Kal roLavrrjv exovra r-qv (j>vGiv hid odpKiva. fjia-

XaKcordrrj S' t] adp^ r) rcov dvdpcoTTCOV v7Trjpx€v.

rovro Se 8ta to alaOrjrLKcorarov elvat rcov ôjcov

rr]v hid rrjs d(l)fjs aLuOrjcnv.

198


gether, and similarly all the bottom teeth, and theneach set were extended in a forward direction, andmade to taper : this would result in a beak such as

birds have.) In all animals except man the lips are

intended to preserve and to protect the teeth ; hencewe find that the distinctness of formation in the lips

is directly proportionate to the nicety and exactitude

of formation in the teeth. In man the hps are soft

and fleshy and can be separated. Their purpose is

(as in other animals) to protect the teeth ; but

—

still more important— they subserve a good pur-

pose, inasmuch as they are among the parts that

make speech possible. This double function of the

human lips, to facilitate speech as well as to protect

the teeth, may be compared with that of the humantongue, which is unlike that of any other animal, andis used by Nature for two functions (a device of hers

which we have often noted), {a) to perceive the

various tastes, and (h) to be the means of speech.

Now vocal speech consists of combinations of the

various letters or sounds, some of which are producedby an impact of the tongue, others by closing the lips

;

and if the lips were not supple, or if the tongue wereother than it is, the greater part of these could not

possibly be pronounced. For further particulars

about the various differences between these sounds

you must consult the authorities on Metre.

It was wece^âr?/, however, from the start that each of

these two parts should be adapted and well-fitted for

their function as stated above ; therefore their nature

had to be suitable thereto, and that is why they are

made of flesh. Human flesh is the softest kind of flesh

there is ; and this is because man's sense of touch is

much more dehcate than that of any other creature.

199

ARISTOTLE660 a

XVII. 'Ytto 8e Tov ovpavov ev rep aropLari 17

15 yXayrra rols Repots icrrl, rolg fxev tteôIs ct^^Sov

ojiOLCOs Trdai, rot? S* aXkois avoyiOLOJs koL avrols

Trpog aura /cat 77/36? ra Treâ rcov tôjojv. 6 [M€V ovv

avBpwTTos dTToXeXvfJuevrjv re jLtaAtara ttjv yXcorrav

/cat TrXarelav /cat /xaAa/ccurarr^v ^X^''*^ ottojs Trpos

api(j)oripas rj ras ipyaoias xPV^''lôSy vpos re rrjv

20 Tcjv x^H-^^ aiodiqoLV (o yap dvdpcoTTOs evaLCidrjro-

raros raJv aAAcov t^cpojv, /cat 77 jjLaXaKrj yXcorra

(âLaOrjTLKajrdrrjy' dTrrLKOjrdrT] ydp, r) Se yeucjts" etc/)!]

Tts" eVrtv), /cat Txpos" tt^v tcov' ypafjLjJLdrajv hidpdpujaiv

/cat 77p6s" Toy Aoyov 7] piaXaKT] /cat TrAareta XP'?"

oipios' ovareXX^Lv ydp /cat npo^dXXeLV TravrohaTTrj

25 TOLavrr] ovoa /cat dTToXeXvfxevT] pidXior dv SvvaiTo.

Sr)XoL 8' ocrots" /at) Atav aTToAeAuraf t/jeXXiôvrai

ydp /cat TpavXiôvGL, rovro 8' ecrrtv evScia rcDv

y/oa/A/Aarcoj^.

"Ev T€ TOJ TrAaretav etvat /cat to cttcvtJv ecrrtv

ev yap to) fieydXco /cat to yuKpov, iv 8e tw fiLKpa)

TO jLteya ot)/c eariv. 8t6 /cat tcov opviOcov ol ixdXiora

80 <l)d€yy6fJievoL ypdyipbara irXarvyXajTrorepoi rwv dX-

Aa>v €t(7tV. to, 8* evaifxa /cat t^cooroKa rcov Terpa-

TToBoJv jSpaêtav tt^s" (Jxjjvtjs e^ct SidpOpcoGLV

GKXrjpdv T€ ydp /cat ou/c dTToXeXvfievrjv exovGi

/cat Trax^tav tt^v yAa/TTav. tcov 8' opvldcov eVtot

7ToXv(j)(x>voLy /cat TrXarvrepav ol yajJUpcovvxoL exovaiv.

85 7ToXv(j)(JJVOl 8' Ot fJLLKpOTepOL. /Cat Xpd^'^'^^'' '^fj

yXwrrrj /cat 77^6? epfirjvetav dAATÂots" Trdvres pi^v,

660 b erepoL Se tcDv crepcov iâXXov, aJoT* ctt* ivlcov /cat

^ /cai /LiaA. €^€1 post re Vlilg. ; traiisposui.^ aladrjTiKCJTaTr) supplevi.

200

PARTS OF ANIMALS, II. xvii.

XVII. Under the vaulted roof of the mouth is Tongu©.

placed the tongue, and it is practically the same in

all land-animals ; but there are variations in the other

groups, whose tongues are as a whole different fromthose of land-animals and also different among them-selves. The human tongue is the freest, the broadest,

and the softest of all : this is to enable it to fulfil

both its functions. On the one hand, it has to per-

ceive all the various tastes, for man has the mostdelicate senses of all the animals, and a soft tongueis the most sensitive, because it is the most re-

sponsive to touch, and taste is a sort of touch. It

has, also, to articulate the various sounds and to

produce speech, and for this a tongue which is soft

and broad is admirably suited, because it can roll

back and dart forward in all directions ; and herein

too its freedom and looseness assists it. This is

shown by the case of those whose tongues are slightly

tied : their speech is indistinct and lisping, whichis due to the fact that they cannot produce all the

sounds.

A tongue which is broad can also become narrow,on the principle that the great includes the small,

but not vice versa. That is why the clearest

talkers, even among birds, are those which have ^

the broadest tongues. On the other hand, the

blooded viviparous quadrupeds have a limited vocal

articulation ; it is because their tongues are hardand thick and not sufficiently loose. Some birds

—

the smaller sorts—have a large variety of notes.

The crook-taloned birds have fairly broad tongues.

All birds use their tongues as a means of communica-tion with other birds, and some to a very consider-

able extent, so much so that it is probable that in

201

ARISTOTLE66D b

fiddrjCLV etvai Sok€lv nap' aXXriXojv eipr]rai 8e Trepl

avrcjv iv rats laropiais rat? Tre/ot rwv S^cocov.

Tcov 8e 77€^cDv Kal cootokcov Kal ivaipLWV npos

/lev T17V T7]? cf)a)vrjs ipyaulav dxp'r]crrov ra ttoXXol

6 TTjv yXojrrav e;^€t /cat TrpoaheSepLev-qv Kal OKXrjpdv,

rrpos Se tt^v twv ^^vjjlojv yevatv oi r' 6(f)eis Kal ol

aavpoi fjLaKpdv Kal hiKpoav exovcnv, ol jjl€V ocjyeis

ovTCD jxaKpav ojgt e/creiVecrât e/c fiiKpov inl ttoXv,

hiKpoav he Kal to aKpov XeTrrov Kal rptp^coSe? hia

rr]v Xi)(y€Lav tt^s (f)iJGecos' hiTrXrjv yap rrjv rjhovrjv

10 Krarai tojv x^H-^^y wanep hLTrXrjv exovra ttjv rrjs

yevaeoj? aiodrjuLV.

*'E;êt he Kal ra (jlt] eVat/xa rcov t^coajv to alody)'

TLKov raav x^l^^^' p-opiov Kal ra eVat/xa iravra' Kal

yap 60a fJLT) hoKel rols ttoXXoXs e;êtv, otov evioL rcjv

ixOviov, Kal ovTOL rpoirov riva yXlaxpov exovon, Kal

15 GX^hov TTapaTrXrjaLOjg roXs TTorapLLois KpoKohelXotg.

Ol) (âtVovrat S' 01 TrXelGTOi avrojv exetv hid tlv*

alriav evXoyov dKavdcohr]^ re ydp eVrtv o ro-rrog

rod orofiaros Trdoi rols roiovrois, Kal hia ro

fjLLKpov xpovov etvai rr]v alod-qaiv rols evvhpoLs rwvXVjJLCOV, wGTrep Kal rj ;^p7Jcrt? avrrjs ^paxela, ovrcx)

20 jSpa^êtav exovGiv avrrjs Kal rrjv hidpOpcuGiv. raxela

S' T) hlohos els TTjv KoiXiav hid ro fir] oiov r eivai

hiarpiêiv eKx^piitôvras' TrapeinriTrroL ydp dv ro

vhctjp. ojGr edv jjirj ris ro Grofxa eiriKXivr], firj

(f>aiveGdai dcêGrrjKos rovro ro piopiov, aKavOcohrjs

8' iarlv ovros 6 rottos ' GvyKeirai ydp €/c rrjs

25 Gvpn/javGecjDS Tcbv ^payx^coVy (Lv rj (f)VGis aKavdcohrjs

ioriv.

" See Hist. An. 504 b 1, 536 a 20 ff., 597 b 26, 608 a 17.

202

PARTS OF ANIiMALS, II. xvii.

some cases information is actually conveyed from onebird to another. I have spoken of these in theResearches upon Animals.^

The tongue is useless for the purpose of speech in

most of the oviparous and blooded land-animals be-cause it is fastened down and is hard ; but it is veryuseful for the purpose of taste, e.g. in the serpents andlizards, which have long, forked tongues. Serpents'tongues are very long, but can be rolled into a smallcompass and then extended to a great distance ; theyare also forked, and the tips of them are fine and hairy,

owing to their having such inordinate appetites ; bythis means the serpents get a double pleasure outof what they taste, o\ving to their possessing as it

were a double organ for this sense.

Even some of the bloodless animals have an organfor perceiving tastes ; and of course all the bloodedanimals have one, including those which most peoplewould say had not, e.g., certain of the fishes, whichhave a paltry sort of tongue, very like what the river-

crocodiles have. Most of these creatures look as if

they had no tongue, and there is good reason for this.

(1) All animals of this sort have spinous mouths;

(2) the time which water-animals have for perceiv-

ing tastes is short ; hence, since the use of this

sense is short, so is the articulation of its organ.The reason why their food passes very quickly into

the stomach is because they cannot spend much timesucking out its juices, otherwise the water would getin as well. So unless you pull the mouth well open,you will not be able to see that the tongue is a sepa-rate projection. The inside of the mouth is spinous,

because it is formed by the juxtaposition of the gills

which are of a spinous nature.

203'

ARISTOTLE630b

^ ^ , , , , X

Tot? Se KpoKoSeiXots uvfiâXXeral tl Trpos Tqv

rod fjiopiov TOVTOV avaTrrjpiav koi to rrjv oiayova

TTjv KOLTaj OLKLvqTov e;^€tv. €GTL jJL€V yap -q yXaJrra

TTJ KOLTaj GviJi(j)vr]s, ol 8' exovGLV cooTTep avdiraXiv

TTjV dvCO KOLTOJ' TOls yap aAAot? "J] civOJ dKLVrjTOS.

30 Trpog [lev ovv rfj dvoj ovk exovGL rr^v yXcarrav, onevavTiOJS dv eôi irpos rrjV rrj? rpo(f)rjs €lgoSov, upos

he rfj Kara), on coGrrep fieraKeLfievT] rj dvoj ecrrtV.

en he Kal Gvpiê^rjKev avrco 7Tel,cp ovn l^rjv IxOvojv

^Lov, wGre Kal hid rovro dvayKatov dhidpdpoirov

avrdv exîv rovro rd fiopiov.

35 Tdv 8' ovpavov GapKcohrj 77oAAot Kal rdJv IxQvojv

exovGL, Kal rcjjv TTorajiiojv evioi G(j)6hpa GapKwhr]

Kal fiaXaKov, olov ol KaXovfievoL Kvrrplvoi, cjGre

661 a hoKelv roLS pur] gkottovglv aKpiâjs yXwrrav ex^t,v

ravrrjv. ol 8' IxOves hid rrjv elp'qpievqv alriav

exovGi pLev ov Gacf)rj 8' exovGL rrjv hidpdpojGLV rrjs

yXcvrrrjs. eirel he {rrjS rpo^r^s x^P^^^^ ^<^^ '^^^

6 pûjLtcuv aiGOiqGis eveGn /xev ro) yXojrroeihel pLopicp,

ov rravrl^ 8' opôlajs dXXd ra> aKpcp /xaAtcrra, hid

rovro roig ixOvgi rovr d(j)a)piGrai pLovov.

'ETTtû/xtav 8' e;êt rpocfirjs rd ^cpa Trdvra cos

exovra aiGOrjGiv rrjs rjhovrjs rrjs yivopievrjs eK rrjs

rpo(f)rjs' r) ydp eiTidvpLia rod rjheos eoriv. dXXd rd

fxopiov ovx dpioiov rovro ttolgiv, cL rrjv aiGdrjGiv

10 TTOiovvrai rrjs rpocf)rjs, dXXd rois piev drroXeXvpLevov

roZs he TrpoGTrecfjVKOs , ogois pir)hev epyov virapxei

^ [ttjs Tpo<l)T}s xcipi*'] praecedentium interpretationem seclusi,

cetera correxi : t^s" ev toIs x^H-'^^^ earlv r) aiadrjois {els olaQriaiv

Z) TO fiev (/xcv TO EYZ) yXcoTTOCLbes eêi (e;êi oni. Z) fi6pu)v

vulg. * navri Z : Travr^j vulg.

204.


Among the factors which contribute to the de-

formity of the crocodile's tongue is the immobihtyof its lower jaw, to which the tongue is naturally

joined. We must remember, however, that the

crocodile's jaws are topsy-turvy ; the bottom one is

on top and the top one below ; this is clearly so,

because in other animals the top jaw is the immovable

one. The tongue is not fixed to the upper jaw (as

one might expect it to be) because it would get in

the way of the food as it entered the mouth, but to

the lower one, which is really the upper one in the

wrong place. Furthermore, although the crocodile

is a land-animal, his manner of life is that of a fish,

and this is another reason why he must have a tongue

that is not distinctly articulated.

Many fish, however, have a fleshy roof to their

mouths. In some of the fresh-water fish

—

e.g.

those known as Cyprinoi—it is very fleshy and soft,

so that casual observers think it is a tongue. In

fish, however, for the reason already given, the

tongue, though articulated, is not distinctly so ;yet,

inasmuch as the power also of perceiving tastes

resides in the tongue-like organ, though not in the

whole of it equally but chiefly in the tip, therefore on

this account in fish the tip only is separate from the

jaw.

Now all animals are able to perceive the pleasant

taste which is derived from food, and so they have a

desire for food, because desire aims at getting that

which is pleasant. The part, however, by which this

perception or sensation of the food takes place, is

not identical in all of them, for some have a tongue

which moves freely and loosely, others (which have no

vocal functions) have a tongue that is fastened down.

205

ARISTOTLE661 a

(f)iov7]g, Kal TOLS jLtev OKXiqpov roZs he /LtaAa/cov

•q crap/ca>8es'. 8to Kal rols yLoXaKoorpaKois, olov

KapdôLs Kal Tols roiovroiSy ivros vTrdpêL n rov

15 aropLaros tolovtov, Kal rots fiaXaKLOis, olov 07]7TLaLS

Kal TToXvTTOGLv . TcDv 8* ivTopLOJV ^cpajv Ivitt fxev

ivros €)(eL ro toiovtov pLopiov, olov to tcDv ju,t»p-

pir^KUJV yivos, djaavrcos 8e Kal rcjv oorpaKoheppaov

TToXXd' rd 8' Iktos, olov Kevrpov, aop.(f)6v 8e rrjv

<f)voLV Kal KotXov, wad^ dpia rovrco Kal yeveadai Kal

20 Tr)v rpo<f)riv dvaairdv. hrjXov 8e rovro evrt t€ pLVLcov

Kal pLcXiTTajv Kal Trdvrcov tojv toiovtcjv, ert 8'

€7T* ivLOJV TcDv oGTpaKohlppiOJV Tols ydp 7Top(j)vpais

TOcravTTjv e;!êt SvvapiLV rovro ro ptopLov ojore /cat

rGiV KoyxvXiojv hiarpv7Ta)GL rd oarpaKov, olov rojv

arpopLâtv oh heXedôvaiv avrds. ert 8' ot r

olarpoL Kal ol pLvajTres ol pLev rd rdJv avSpajirajv

25 ol 8e Kal rd rwv dXXojv t,(l)0)v Sepptara hiaipovoiv,

iv piev ovv rovroig roXg t,a)OLs -q yXojrra roiavvq

TTjV (f)VOLV earivy woirep dvrLGrp6(f)a)s eôvoa rep

pLVKrrjpL ro) rdJv eXe^dvrojv Kal ydp eVetVots" rrpog

ôiqdeiav 6 pLVKri^p, Kal rovrois rj yXcorra dvrl

Kevrpov iorLV. iirl 8e rchv dXXojv ^cpcov rj yXcorra

80 TTavrajv iorrlv otavrrep elVo/xev.

« Under this name Aristotle probably includes several

species of Purpura and Murex. Tyrian purple (6, 6' dibrom-

206


Some again have a hard tongue ; others a soft or

fleshy one. So we find that even the Crustacea

—

e.g.

the Crayfish and such—have a tongue-Hke objectinside the mouth, and so have the Cephalopods

—

e.g.

the Sepias and the Octopuses. Of the Insects, somehave this organ inside the mouth (e.g. the Ants),

and so have many of the Testacea. Others have it

outside, as though it were a sting, in which case it is

spongy and hollov/, and so they can use it both for

tasting and for drawing up their food. Clear ex-

amples of this are flies and bees and all such creatures,

and also some of the Testacea. In the Purpurae," for

instance, this " tongue " has such strength that theycan actually bore through the shells of shellfish with

it, including those of the spiral snails which are usedas baits for them. Also, there are among the gad-flies and cattle-flies creatures that can pierce throughthe skin of the human body, and some can actually

puncture animal hides as well. Tongues of this sort,

we may say, are on a par with the elephant's nose ;

in their tongue these creatures have a useful sting

just as the elephant has a handy implement in his

trunk.

In all other animals the tongue conforms to thedescription we have given.

indigo) is obtained from Murex brandaris. For the boringpowers of these creatures' tongues see the reference for

Purpura lapillvs given by Ogle (Forbes and Hanley, Brit,

Mollusca, iii. 385).

207

661a*E;)ÔjLtevov 8e rtDv elp-qixivojv 'q rcov oSovrcov

35 ecrrt (f)VGL? rois t,(joois, kol to arofxa ro Trepi-

^xoy^^vov VTTO Tovrcov /cat avveGrrjKos €k tq-utcov,

661 b Tots' [xev ovv aAAots" r] roJv oSovrcov (f>vaL9 Koivrj

jLtev eVt Ti^v T-r]? rpo^rjs epyaoiav v7Tdpx€L, x^^pt?

8e Kara yevq rot? juev dA/crJ? X^P^^> '^^^ ravrrjs 8t-

r)prjlJL€V7)S, iTTL T€ TO 7T0L€LV Kal TO /Xt) TTOLGXCIV

TO, fi€V yap aii(j)oZv eVe/cev e;)^ft, /cat tou ^t^ Tradetv

6 /cat ToO TTOtetF, otov ocra oapKocfxiya rcov dyplajv

rrjv <j)VGLV ecTTtV, Tct Se ôrjOelas X^P^^» axjirep

TToXXd ra)v dypicjv /cat tcDv 'qfiepajv.

*0 3' dvOpOJTTOS TTpOg T€ TI^V KOLVTjV XP'^^^^ KoXcJS

€;\;et rrecjiVKOTag' rovg fiev Trpoadlovs oêts", tva

Statptoot, TOWS' Se yoiKîovs irXareZs, Iva Xeaivcoaw

10 oplôvGL 8' eKarepovs ol KvvoSovres, jiiaoi rrjv

(f)VGLV dfJL(f)OT€pcjov 6vT€S' TO Tc yap jjilaov dii<j)OT€pa>v

fi€T€Xî' ra)v a/cpcov, ot Tt /cuvo8ovTes' rfj fJLev

diets' T7y 8e TrAarets" eloiv opioicjs 8e /cat €7rt

Toiv ciAAcov tîpcjv, oaa {jltj navras exovoiv diets'

—pidXiora he /cat toutous" TotouTous' /cat toctou-

Tous' Trpos" Tr)V 8tdAe/CTOv ttoAAo. ydp Trpo? Tr]V

208

BOOK III

The subject which follows naturally after our pre\'ious Teeth-

remarks is that of the Teeth. We shall also speakabout the Mouth, for this is bounded by the teeth

and is really formed by them.

In the lower animals teeth have one commonfunction, namely, mastication ; but they have addi-

tional functions in different groups of animals. In

some they are present to serve as weapons, offensive

and defensive, for there are animals which havethem both for offence and defence (e.g. the wild

carnivora) ; others (including many animals bothwild and domesticated) have them for purposes of

assistance.

Human teeth too are admirably adapted for the

common purpose that all teeth subserve : the front

ones are sharp, to bite up the food ; the molars

are broad and flat, to grind it small ; and on the

border between the two are the dog-teeth whosenature is intermediate between the two : and just as

a mean shares the nature of both its extremes, so

the dog-teeth are broad in one part and sharp in

another. Thus the provision is similar to that of

the other animals, except those whose teeth are

all sharp ; but in man even these sharp teeth, in

respect of character and number, are adaptedchiefly for the purposes of speech, since the

209

ARISTOTLE681b ^

15 yeveoLV tojv ypajJLfidTCov ol Trpoodioi tojv oSovtojv

"Evta he TOJV ^wojv, wuTrep etVo/xev, rpo(f)rjg X^P'-^

€)(€L jiovov. ooa §e Kal rrpos ôrjOetdv re /cat rrpo^

dXK-qv, rd fxev ;)âuAioSovTa9 e;êt, KaBdirep vs, rd

S' dêl? Kal eVaAAarrovra?, odev Kap)(ap6SovTa

20 /caAetrat. eVet ydp iv rolg oSovglv tj lax^s avrcjv,

rovTO he yivoLT dv hid ttjv 6^vTr]ra, ol y^prûipioi

TTpds TTjV dXKrjv ivaXXd^ epLTTiTrrovoiv, ottojs p-y)

dp,^XvvojvTai rpiôpevoL npog aXXt^Xovg. ovhev he

rcov t,(jpcxjv eorlv dpa Kap-)(ap6hovv Kal )(avXL6hovv,

Sta TO pLTjhev pdnqv TTOielv rrjv (f)vaLV p.rjhe Trepi-

25 epyov eoTL he rajv p.ev hud 7rX7]yrJ5 r) ôijOeia,

Tcbv he hid hi^ypharos, hiorrep at ^TÂetat rwv vtov

haKvovGiv ov ydp e)(ovGi )(âvXi6hovras

.

(KaôAou he ;Ypea»v tl Xaêlv, o Kal eirl rovrcov

Kal errl ttoXXojv tojv vorepov Xe-xdriaopiivcov earat

XpT](Jt'P'OV. rcbv re ydp Trpo? aA^r^v re Kal ôrjdeiav

30 opyavLKcjjv pLoploJV eKaara aTTohihcoGiv rj (pvoig rots

hvvap,evoL? XpT]<^daL p.6vois "?) juaAAov, /xaAtcrra he

TO) /xaAtcrra, olov Kevrpov, TrXrJKTpov, Kepara,

XavXiohovra? Kal ei tl toiovtov erepov. errel he rd

dppev luxvpdrepov Kal BvpuKojrepoVy rd /xev piova

TO, he pidXXov ex^t' to. roiavra rojv /xoptojv. oaa

85 pi,ev ydp dvayKaXov Kal rots" dj^Xeaiv ^xîv, olov rd

TTpos rr^v Tpo</)7yv, exovai jLtev rjrrov 8' exovGLVy oaa

he TTpds piTjhev ra>v dvayKaicoVy ovk exovoLV. Kal

" See note on 644 a 17.

210

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. i.

front teeth contribute a great deal to the formationof the sounds.

As we have said, the teeth of some of the animalshave one function only, to break up the food. Ofthose animals whose teeth serve also as a defenceand as weapons, some (like the SA\ine) have tusks,

some have sharp interlocking teeth, and are called" saw-toothed " as a result. The strength of theselatter animals lies in their teeth, and sharpness is

the means of securing this ; so the teeth which areserviceable as weapons are arranged to fit in side byside when the jaws are closed to prevent them fromrubbing against each other and becoming blunt. Noanimal has saw-teeth as well as tusks ; for Naturenever does anything without purpose or makes any-thing superfluously. These teeth are used in self-

defence by biting ; tusks by striking. This explains

why sows bite : they have no tusks.

(At this point we should make a generalization, "The more

which will help us both in our study of the foregoingJ-^^^

F^^

cases and of many that are to follow. Nature allots

defensive and offensive organs only to those creatures

which can make use of them, or allots them " in agreater degree," " and " in the greatest degree " to

the animal which can use them to the greatest ex-

tent. This applies to stings, spurs, horns, tusks, andthe rest. Example : Males are stronger than femalesand more spirited ; hence sometimes the male of aspecies has one of these parts and the female hasnone, sometimes the male has it "in a greater degree."Parts which are necessary for the female as well as

for the male, as for instance those needed for feed-

ing, are of course present though " in a less degree ";

but those which serve no necessary end are not

211'

ARISTOTLE

662 a Slcl rovTO Tcov iXdcf)OJV ol jJLev appevcs eôvoi

Kepara, at 8e ^7]Aetat ovk exovcnv. hiaêpei 8e

/cat ra Kepara rwv dr]\eicJL)v ôtov /cat rcov ravpcjv

ofiOLCOs Se Kal iv roZs Trpo^drois. /cat TrXrJKrpa

6 Tojv dppevcov ixovTcov at TroXXal rcov drjXeioJv ovk

exovGLv. COS" S' avTOJS €;êt rovro Kal ivl rwvdXXojv rcov roLovrojv.)

Ot 8' LxOveg Trdvres etcrt KapxapoSovre? , 7TXr]v

rod ivos rod KaXovfjLevov uKdpov rroXXol 8' exovGi

Kal iv rats yXojrrais ohovras /cat iv rots ovpavols.

rovrov 8* atrtov on dvay/catov iv vypoZs ovol

10 TrapeLuSex^crdaL ro vypov dfia rfj rpo(f)fj, Kal rovro

raxio)^ iKTrifirreiv. ov yap eV8e;\;eTat Xeaivovras

SiarpLêLV elupioL yap dv ro vypov els rds KoiXias.

8ta rovro iravres elalv dêls npos rrjv hiaipeoiv

[xovoVy Kal^ TToXXol Kal TToXXaxfj, tva avrt rod

Xeaiveiv els 77oAAa Kepjiaritâtoi rco rrXr^dei. yapujjol

15 8e 8ta TO rrjV dXKTjv axehov aTracrav avrols 8ia

rovra>v etvai.

*'E;(et Se /cat rrjv rod arojJLaros (f>vcnv rd t,cpa

rovrcov re rcov epyojv eVe/ca /cat en rrjs dvaTTVorjs,

oaa dvaiTveZ rcov ^cocov Kal Karaipvx^rau Ovpadev.

7] yap (j>vois avTY] Kad^ avri^v, cooTrep et7ro/xev, rois

20 KOLVols ndvrojv [xopLOis els TroAAa rcov tStojv /cara-

Xprjraiy olov Kal irrl rod Gr6p.aros rj fiev rpocfnj

Trdvrcov kolvov, tj S* dXKTj nvcJov 'lSlov Kal 6 Xoyos

iripcoVy en 8e rd dvarrveZv ov Trdvrcov kolvov. tj 8e

^ sic P : hialpcaiv. tto-Xlv koI vulg.

o Probably the parrot-fish. Cf. 675 a 3.

212


present. Thus, stags have horns, does have not.

Thus, too, cows' horns are different from bulls' horns,

and ewes' from rams'. In many species the maleshave spurs while the females have not. And so withthe other such parts.)

All fishes are saw-toothed except one species,

the Scarus.'* Many of them have teeth on their

tongues and in the roof of the mouth. This is

because as they live in the water they cannot helpletting some of it in as they take in their food, andthey have to get it out again as quickly as possible.

If they failed to do so, and spent time grinding the

food small, the water would run down into their gut.

So all their teeth are sharp and intended only for cut-

ting up the food. Further, they are numerous andplaced all over the mouth ; so by reason of their

multitude they can reduce the food into tiny pieces,

and this takes the place of the grinding process.

They are also curved ; this is because practically thewhole of a fish's offensive force is concentrated in

its teeth.

The mouth, too, is present in animals on purpose Mouth,

to fulfil these same offices, but it has also a further

purpose, at any rate in those animals which breatheand are cooled from without—namely, to effect re-

spiration. As we said earlier. Nature will often quitespontaneously take some part that is common to all

animals and press it into service for some specialized

purpose. Thus, the mouth is common to all animals,and its normal and universal function has to do withfood : but sometimes it has an extra function, peculiarto some species only : in some it is a weapon, in othersa means of speech ; or more generally, though notuniversally, it serves for respiration. Nature has

213

ARISTOTLE632a ^ ^

(j)VGis airavra ovvriyayev els eV, TTOiovaa Staôpdv

avTOV rod jiopiov Trpo? ras" rrjs epyaaias hiacjiopas.

25 Sto TO, /xeV ecrrt ovGTO^Lojrepay ra Se /xeyaAoaro/xa.

ocra jLtev ydp Tpo(j>T]s kol dvaTTVorj? Kal Xoyov -x^dpiv,

avGTOfjLcjorepa, rwv Se jôrjOeias X^P^^ '^^ H'^^

Kapxo-pohovra Trdvra dveppojyora- ovorjg yap

avTols rrjs dXKrjg iv rols îjyiiaoi xPV^Îôv ro

jjLeydXrjv etvac ttjv dvdrrTV^Lv rod OTOjiaros' TrXeloai

80 yap Kal Kara fieitôv hrjêrai, ouovrrep dv iirl to

TrXeov dveppcoyr] ro Grof-ta. exovGi 8e /cat ra>v

IxOvoJV ol hrjKriKol /cat GapKo^dyoi roiovrov aro/xa,

ol he fjiTj GapKO(j)dyoL fivovpov roLovrov yap avrols

Xpr}OLfxov, eKelvo 8e dxpy]crrov.

Tot? S' opviGiv eon ro KaXovfj.evov p'uyxps aro/xa*

35 rovro yap dvrl ;)êtAtov /cat ohovrojv exovGLV. 8ta-

662 b (jtepei he rovro Kara rds XP'^^^^^ ^^^^ "^^^ ôrjdeias.

rd fiev yap yafiipcovvxo^ KaXovfieva hid ro oapKO-

(jiayelv Kal piiqhevl rpeêGdai Kaprra) yapujjov e;êt rd

pvyxos drravra' ;)^/37]crt/xov ydp irpos rd Kparelv /cat

^laGriKcorepov roiovro 7r€cf)VK6g. r) 8* dA/o] ev

5 rovro) re Kal rots ovvî' 8td /cat rovs ovvxols

yapujjorepovs exovGLV. rdv 8' d'AAcov e/cdcrroj npos

rdv îov XPV^'-P'OV ecrrt rd pvyxos, olov rols p-ev

hpvoKOTTOLs LGxvpdv Kal gkXtjpov, Kal Kopa^L Kal

KopaKojheGi, roXg he puKpols yXa(f)vpdv irpos rds

GvXXoyds rcbv KapircJov Kal rds Xiqifjeis rwv t,(x)-

10 hapiojv. OGa he 7Torj(f)dya Kal ocra Trap^ eXt]^fj,

214.


brought all these functions together under one part,

whose formation she varies in the different species to

suit its various duties. That is why the animalswhich use their mouths for feeding, respiration andspeaking have rather narrow mouths, while those

that use them for self-defence have wide and gapingmouths. All the saw-toothed creatures have these

wide mouths, for their method of attack is biting, andtherefore they find it an advantage to have a mouththat will open wide ; and the wider it opens the

greater the space the bite will enclose, and thegreater the number of teeth brought into action.

Biting and carnivorous fishes have mouths of this

sort ; in the non-carnivorous ones it is on a tapering

snout, and this suits their habits, whereas a gapingmouth would be useless.

In birds, the mouth appears in the form of a beak, Beak,

which serves them instead of lips and teeth. Various

sorts of beak are found, to suit the various uses in-

cluding defensive purposes to which it is put. All

of the birds known as crook-taloned have a curvedbeak, because they feed on flesh and take no vegetablefood : a beak of this form is useful to them in master-

ing their prey, as being more adapted for the exertion

of force. Their beak, then, is one weapon of offence, ^

and their claws are another ; that is why their claws

are exceptionally curved. Every bird has a beakwhich is ser\-iceable for its particular mode of life.

The woodpeckers, for instance, have a strong, hardbeak ; so have crows, and other birds closely related

to them ; small birds, on the other hand, havea finely constructed beak, for picking up seeds andcatching minute animals. Birds that feed on herb-

age and that live by marshes (e.g. swimmers and

215

ARISTOTLE662 b

^ ^ ^ ^ / ^ ^ X vxxKaOdirep ra ttAcoto, Kal ureyavoTTOoa, ra jJLev aAAov

TpoTTOv xp'^f^^H'OV ex€i TO pvyxos, ra 8e TrXarvpvyxC'

avrcov ecrrtv tolovtco yap ovri paStcu? hvvarai

6pvG(j€LV, a)<j7T€p Kal Tojv TerpaTToScjov TO rrjg vo?'

Kal yap avr-q pLô(f)dyos. €TL 8' exovai Acat ra

15 pit,o^dya Tcov opviwv Kal rcJbv opLOLO^LCov eVta ra

aKpa rod pvyxovs /ce;âpay)LteVa* 7Tor]^dyois yap

rOVTOLS OVGL TrOL€L paSiO)?.

Hepl fiev ovv rcJov dXXcov [loptajv tcov iv rfj

Ke(f)aXfj ux^ôv etpr^rai, rcov 8' dvdpojTTWv KaXelrai

TO pLera^v rrj? K€(f)aXrjg Kal rod avx€vos TrpoaajTTOVf

20 a770 rrjs rrpdêajs avrrjs ovopLaaSiv^ cos €0lk€V' hid

yap ro jjlovov opdov etvac rwv i,cx)(x)v (jlovov Trpoa-

codev OTTCJTTe Kal rrjv (f)a>vr]v et? to Trpoaco 8ta-

II. liepl 8e Kepdrojv Ae/CTeov Kal yap ravra

7T€(î;/c€ Tots' exovoiv iv rfj K€(f)aXfj. e;(et 8* ovSev

25 fJiTj t,a)or6KOV. KaO^ opioioriqTa 8e Kal p.€ra(f>opdv

Xiyerai Kal irepcov rivcbv Kepara' dAA* ouSevt

avTOJV TO epyov rod Keparog VTrdpxî" ô-qdeias

yap Kal aA/CT^s" X'^P'-^ exovoi to, ^(pOTOKa, o rcbv

dXXojv tCjv XeyopL€v<jJv exîv Kepas ovh^vl ovp.-

êprjKev ovSev yap XPV'^^^ '^'^^^ Kepaoiv ovr

80 djJLvvopevov ovre Trpos to KpaTelv, direp loxôs

€otIv epya. doa pcev ovv TToXvaxf-^yj tcuv ôJcov,

oi;Sev ex^t Kepas. tovtov 8' a'criov otl to pLev

Kepas ôTjQeias aiTLov Iotl, toIs Se ttoXvox^^ôlv

VTidpxovoiv €Tepai ôrjOeiai' SeSojK€ yap rj (j)VGis

Tols pi^V OVVXOLS Tols 8' oSoVTa? pLaXTjTlKOVSt TOIS

" Under this heading all the Mammalia known to Aristotle

216

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. i.-ii.

web-footed birds) have a beak adapted for their

mode of hfe, a special instance of which is the broad

beak, which enables them to dig for roots easily, just

as the broad snout of the pig enables it to dig—anexample of a root-eating quadruped. These root-

eating birds and other birds of similar habits some-times have sharp points at the end of the beak. This

enables them to deal easily with the herbaceous food

which they take.

We have now, I think, spoken of practically all

the parts that have their place in the head ; but

in man, the portion of the body between the headand the neck is called the Prosopon (Face), a namederived, no doubt, from the function it performs.

Man, the only animal that stands upright, is the

only one that looks straight before him (^prosothen

opope) or sends forth his voice straight before him(jproso, opd).

II. We still have to speak of Horns : these also, HomR

when present, grow out of the head. Horns are

found only in the Vivipara ; though some other

creatures have what are called horns, owing to their

resemblance to real horns. None of these so-called

horns, however, performs the function proper to horns.

The reason why the Vivipara have horns is for the

sake of self-defence and attack, and this is not true

of any of these other creatures, since none of themuses its " horns " for such feats of strength either

defensively or offensively. The polydactylous ani-

mals," moreover, have no horns, because they possess

other means of defence. Nature has given them claws

or teeth to fight with, or some other part capable of

are included, except ruminants, solid-hoofed animals, andCetacea.

217-

ARISTOTLE662b ^ ^

35 S' aAAo TL jJLopLov LKavov ajjivveiv. Tojv Se St^*^^^^

663 a ra fiev rroXXa Kepara e;êt irpos olXk-qv, /cat rwv[lojvvxojv eVta, ret 8e Kal Trpos ôiqdeiav, ogols^ pLrj

SeSojKev T) (f>VGLS dXXr]v dXKrji> npos oojTr^piav, olov

Ta)(VT7]Ta Gcoiiaros, KaOdrrep roZs lttttols êôrjOrj-

K€V, rj jjLeyeOog, cooTrep rat? Kap.rjXoLS' Kal yap6 fieyedovs VTrepôXrj rrjv 0.770 rwv dXXcov ^cocov

<f)dopdv LKavT] Ka)Xv€LV, oTTep GVfiê^'qKe rals Kafx-q-

XoLS, €Tt 8e jJLaXXov rots iXecjjaaLV. ra Se ;)âuAt-

oSovra, wanep /cat ro tcjv vd)v yivos, hi-)(aXov (pv).^

"Ocrots" S' dxpT](yTOs 7T6(j)VK€v Tj TOJV Kepdrojv

eôxT], TOVTOLs TTpOGTeOeLKev irepav ô'qdeiav r)

10 (f)VGLS, OLOV rats' /xev iXdcjôig rdxo? {ro yap fxe-

yedog avrdjv /cat to 7roAuo-;(iSe9 jLtaAAoy ^Xdirrei 7)

ccxêAet), /cat ôv^dXois he /cat hopKdGL {irpos eVta

/xev yap dvOiGrdpieva rots Kepaaiv dp^vvovrai, rd Se

drjpiwSr] /cat /xa;îjLta d7TO(f)€vyovGL) , rols he ôvdGOLs

(/cat ydp TO-UTOis yafii/jd rd Kepara 7re(f)VKe rrpos

15 dXXriXa) rrjv rod TrepLrrcopLaro? d(f)€GLV' rovrco ydpdpivverai (jioîjdevra- /cat ravrrj Se rfj npoeGCL Sta-

oojêrat erepa. dpia S* t/caras" /cat irXeiovs ôr^êtas"

01) SeSa>/cev t^ (f)VGLs rols avrols.

"Ecrt Se TO, TrAetara rojv K€paro(f}6pojv Si;âAa,

Aeyerat Se /cat picovvxov, ov KaXovGiv 'IvSt/cov oVov.

20 To, /xev ovv TrXelora, Kaddirep /cat ro otu/xa

hifipr^rai rdJv l,d)OJV ots Tiotetrat tt^v KcvrjOLV, Se^tov

/cat dptorrepov, /cat Kepara Svo 7Te(j>VKev e;j(etv Sta

1 Sc post oaoi? vulgr. : del. Piatt, Thurot2 <ov> Ogle.

Cf. above, on 6 J-8 a 16.

* The European bison.* This is probably the Indian Rhinoceros. This account

218

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ii.

rendering adequate defence. Most of the cloven-

hoofed animals, and some of the solid-hoofed, havehorns, as weapons of offence ; some have horns for

self-defence, as those animals which have not beengiven means of safety and self-defence of a different

order—the speed, for instance, which Nature has

given to horses, or the enormous size which camels

have (and elephants even more), which is sufficient

to prevent them from being destroyed by other

animals. Some, however, have tusks, for instance

s^vine, although they are cloven-hoofed.

In some animals the horns are a useless appendage,"

and to these Nature has given an additional meansof defence. Deer have been given speed (because

the size of their horns and the numerous branches

are more of a nuisance to them than a help). So

have the antelopes and the gazelles, which, although

they ^îthstand some attackers and defend them-selves with their horns, run away from really fierce

fighters. The Bonasus,^ whose horns curve inwards

to meet each other, protects itself when frightened

by the discharge of its excrement. There are other

animals that protect themselves in the same way.Nature, however, has not given more than oneadequate means of protection to any one animal.

Most of the horned animals are cloven-hoofed,

though there is said to be one that is solid-hoofed,

the Indian Ass," as it is called.

The great majority of horned animals have twohorns, just as, in respect of the parts by whichits movement is effected, the body is divided

into two—the right and the left. And the

of it comes from the Indica of Ktesias of Knidos, quoted in

Photius's Bibliothecay Ixxii. pp. 48 b 19 (Bekker) foil.

H 219

ARISTOTLE663 a ^

^ ^ ^ ^

rr)V avrr]v atVtav^- ecrrt 8e kol jjlovokIparay olov 6

T* opv^ Kal 6 'IvSt/cos" KaXovjxevos ovos". ecrrt 8' o

jLtey opu^ 8/;)âAoi^, o 8' ovo? fjLcovvxov. e;êt 8e to,

25 jjiovoKepara to Kepas iv toj pLdaa) rrjs K€(f)aXrjs'

ovTco yap eKarepov rojv jjLcpaJv /xaAtar' av e;(Ot

Kepas €V TO yap fxeoov 6p.0LCx)s kolvov aiiôripcov

tCjv iaxo-Tcov. €vX6ya)s 8' dv 8dêt€ piovoKepojv

€LvaL TO ficovvxov rod hiâXov fxdXXov ottXt] yap

Kal XV^V '^V^ avrrjv e;\;et Kepari <f)VGLV, cucr^' dfia

80 /cat TOt? auTots" ")} ox^cri'S yiverai rajv ottXojv /cat

rd)v Kepdrcxjv. en 8' t^ CT;(tcrt? /<at to 8i;)âAov xaT

eXXeixpLV rrjg (fivaews iariv, war* euAoya>S" Tots"

fjLa>vvxoLS iv Tat? OTiAat? 8ouo'a rrjv vrrepox'^v

rj (f)VGis dvcoOev dcjieXXe Kal fjLovoKepwv irrolrjaev.

ÔpddJs 8e /cat TO e77t rrjg K6(f)aXrjs TTOLrjuai rrjv

85 T(vv Kepdrojv <f)vcnv, dXXd firj Kaddnep 6 Algwttov

Mco/xos" StajLte/Lt(êTat tov ravpov on ovk eiri rots

663 b wpLOLs €X€L rd Kepara, odev rag TrXrjyds eTrotetT*

dv laxvpordras, aAA' €7tI tov doOeveordrov fiepov?

TTJs Ke(f)aXrjS' ov yap o^v ^Xiirajv 6 MojjLtos" TauT

iTTeTLpLr^Gev. warrep yap Kal el eTepa)di ttov rod

5 acofiarog Kepara i7Te(f)VKeL, ^dpos dv rrapeZx^'^ ^^~

Xojs ovhev ovra XP'^^^^^ f^^^ ejjLTToSia rujv epya)V

TToAAois" Tjv, ovra> Kal irrl rwv cjpLOJV 7re<f)VK6ra. ov

yap fjLovov XP'^ aKorreZv rroBev laxvporepai at ttAt^-

yat, dAAa /cat TTodev rroppcorepaf ojcjr errei ^^'Ctpas"

fxev OVK exovGLV, errl 8e rojv TTohujv dhvvarov, iv 8e

^ avTTjv aiTiav Peck : alrlav Tavrrjv Vlllg".

* See Babrius, Myth. Aesop, lix. 8-10.

220


reason in both cases is the same. There are, how-ever, some animals that have one horn only, e.g.

the Oryx (whose hoof is cloven) and the " IndianAss " (whose hoof is solid). These creatures havetheir horn in the middle of the head : this is thenearest approximation to letting each side have its

own horn, because the middle is common equally to

both extremes. Now it is quite reasonable that the

one horn should go with the solid hoof rather thanwith the cloven hoof, because hoof is identical in

nature with horn, and we should expect to find

divided hoofs and divided horns together in the sameanimal. Again, division of the hoof is really due to

deficiency of material, so it is reasonable that as

Nature has used more material in the hoofs of thesolid-hoofed animals, she has taken something awayfrom the upper parts and made one horn only.

Again, Nature acted aright in placing the horns

on the head. Momus in Aesop's fable " is quite

\\Tong when he finds fault with the bull for havinghis horns on the head, which is the weakest part of

all, instead of on the shoulders, which, he says,

would have enabled them to deliver the strongest

possible blow. Such a criticism shows Momus 's

lack of perspicacity. If the horns had been placed

on the shoulders, as indeed on any other part of the

body, they would have been a dead weight, andwould have been no assistance but rather a hindrance

to many of the animal's activities. And besides,

strength of stroke is not the only point to be con-

sidered : width of range is equally important.

Where could the horns have been placed to secure

this ? It would have been impossible to have themon the feet ; knees with horns on them would have

221

ARISTOTLE663b ^

^

Tots" yovaGLV ovra rrjv kolijliJjlv eKcoXvev av, avay-

10 KOLOV CUCT77ep VVV €)(ÔVaiVy €7TL TTJ? K€<f)aXTJS €;^€tV.

dfia Se /cat npog ras ctAAa? klvt^g€ls rod acofjiaros

dvejJLTToSLGTa 7T€(f)VKeV OVTCO jJidXiGTa.

"Eart 8e rd Kepara St' oXov ureped rot? iXd(l)ois

fjLovoLs, KoX diTO^dXXeL piovov, ev€Kev pL€V cicêAetas"

Kov(f)Ll,6pievov, ef dvdyKTjg 8e Sta to fSdpos. tojv S*

15 a'AAcov rd Kepara p-^xpi nvog KolXa, rd 8' a/cpa

areped Sid to TTpos rds TrXrjyds tovt etvat XP"^'

Gifiov. oTTOjg 8e /xrySe to KotAov aoêves" ^7 o^

7T€(j)VKev €K Tov SeppâTog, iv rovrco^ iv^pp.ocrraL

(rdy^ arepeov ck tojv octtcDv outco ydp /cat Ta

K€paTa exovTa Trpog aAK'T^v t€ XPV^'-I^^'^^'^* eoTt*

20 /cat TTpog TOV d'AAov ^lov dvoxXoraTa.

TiVo? /xev ovv eveKGV r) tojv KepaTOJV (jivaig,

elpr]Tai, /cat 8ta TtV atVtav tcz /xev exovuL ToiavTa

Td 8' ou/c exovGivYiojg he TTJg dvayKaiag (jjvoeojg exovorrjs toIs

virdpxovuiv i^ dvdyKrjg rj /caTO, tov Aoyov (fyvaug

€V€Kd tov KaTaKexp'TjTai, Xiyojpiev.

86 WpojTOV pukv ovv TO GOjpLaTOjhcs /cat yeajSes" TrXelov

vrrapx^t Tolg pbellôGL tojv l,qjojv, K€paTO(f)6pov Se

pLLKpov irdpLTTav ovhev ta/xev eAap^tcrTOV yap CCTTt tojv

yvojpLt,opL€vojv SopKag. Set Se ttjv <j>voLV Oeojpelv

€Lg Td 77oAAa ^XenovTa' r) ydp iv Toi TravTL rj cos" eVt

TO TToXv TO /caret (f)VGLV eGTLV. TO 8' OCTTOiSeS' eV

^ o Peck, cf. Hist. An. 500 a 8: ov vulg., om. EPY: ov

suprascr. Z (v. p. 46). ^ tovtco Peck : touto) 8' vulg.3 <To> Peck : cf. Hist. An.^500 a 9.

* icTTL Piatt : efi'ai vulg. : €117 av Thurot.

• For the contrast between "necessary nature" and

222


been unable to bend ; and the bull has no hands ; so

they had to be where they are—on the head. Andbeing there, they offer the least possible hindrance

to the movements of the body in general.

Deer alone have horns that are solid throughout

;

and deer alone shed their horns : this is done (a) onpurpose to get the advantage of the extra lightness,

(b) of necessity, owing to the weight of the horns.

In other animals the horns are hollow up to a certain

distance, but the tips are solid because solid tips are

an advantage when striking. And to prevent undueweakness even in the hollow part, which grows out

from the skin, the solid piece which is fitted into it

comes up from the bones. In this way the horns

are rendered most serviceable for offensive pur-

poses and least hampering during the rest of thetime.

This completes our statement of the purpose for

which horns exist and the reason why some animals

have them and some have not.

We must now describe the character of that** necessary nature," owing to which certain things

are present of necessity, things which have beenused by " rational nature " to subserve a " purpose." **

To begin with, then : the larger the animal, the

greater the quantity of corporeal or earthy matterthere is in it. We know no really small homedanimal—the smallest known one is the gazelle. (To

study Nature we have to consider the majority of

cases, for it is either in what is universal or whathappens in the majority of cases that Nature's

ways are to be found. Now all the bone in animals'

" rational nature" see above 640 b 8-29, G41 a 25 ff., 642 a

1 fiF., and cf. G.A. (Loeb edn.), Introd. § 14.

223

ARISTOTLE663 b

SO Tots' oiojJiaoi Toiv t^comv yecoSe? virdp^^L' Sto Krat

TrAetaroy ev rolg iieyiGroLS dis cttl to ttoAu jSAe-

ipavras elirelv. rrfv yovv tolovtov aajfiaTOS Trepir-

rojfiaTLKTjv vnepôX-qv eV TOts" fxetlôGi tojv ôjcuy

VTTOLpxovaav eVt ô-qOeiav kol to avjjLcfiepov Kara-

Xprjrat r) (jivais, koL rrjv peovcrav i^ avdyKT]? elg rov

85 dvoj TOTTOV Tols {JLev CIS oSovTa? /cat ;âL'AtoSovTa?

ciTreVet/xc, TOtS" 8' ets" Kepara. 8to tcuv Keparo-

cfyopcov ouSev eariv dpLîohov dvco yap ovk epêt tous"

664 a TTpoudiovs oSo^Tas" dêXovoa yap evrevdev tj (f>VGLs

TOLS KepauL 7Tpooedr]Key /cat r] hihopilvr] rpocfirj et?

tous" oSovTa? TOUTOUS' €LS TTjv TOJV Kepdrcxiv av^-qoiv

dvaXiGKerai. rov Se rds 9r]\eias iXd(f)ovs Kepara

fikv fir] eêtv, Trepl 8e rovs oSovTas" opLOLcos roZs

5 dppeoiVy aiTLOV to tt^v avrrjv etvat (J)vglv dpi(f>olv

/cat K€paro(f)6pov, dcji'^prjrai Se to, Kepara rals

O-qXelaLS Stct to xPV^'-H'^ /^^^ i^''?^^^^tt jLti^Se Tot?

dppeGLv, ^XdnreGOaL 8' tjggov 8td tt^v lgx^v.

Tcov 8' aAAcDV i,cpajv ogols (jltj els Kepara 0,770-

Kpiverai to TOtoi;Tov jxopiov rov Goyfiaros, evLOis

10 /xev TcDv o8oyTCDV auTcDv errr]v^r]Ge ro jieyeOos KOLvfj

irdvriov, eviois 8e ;(;auAtoSovTas' coGrrep Kepara e/c

Ttav yvddojv eTTolrjGev.

Uepl [lev ovv rcov ev rfj Ke(f)aXfj /xoptcov ravrrj

SiCOpLGda).

III. *T77o 8e TT^v Ke(f)aX7]v 6 avx'^v 7Te(j)VKa)g eGri

rot? eôvGiv aO;)êVa tojv i,ci)a>v, ov yap iravra

15 rovro ro piopiov e;)êt, dAAa /xdva to, eôvra coy

" i.g. constituent substance. See on 648 a 2.

224

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ii.-iii.

bodies consists of earthy matter ; so if we consider

the majority of cases, we can say that there is mostearthy matter in the biggest animals.) At any rate,

in the larger animals there is present a surplus ofthis corporeal or earthy matter, produced as a

residue, and this Nature makes use of and turns to

advantage to provide them with means of defence.

That portion of it which by necessity courses upwardsshe allots to form teeth and tusks in some animals,

and to form horns in others. And we can see fromthis why no horned animal has incisor teeth in bothjaws, but only in the bottom jaw. Nature has

taken away from the teeth to add to the horns;

so that the nourishment which would normally besupplied to the upper teeth is here used to grow the

horns. Why is it, then, that female deer, althoughthey have no horns, are no better off for teeth thanthe male deer ? The answer is : Both of them are,

by nature, horned animals ; but the females havelost their horns because they would be not only

useless but dangerous. The horns are indeed of nomore use to the males, but they are less dangerousbecause the males are stronger.

Thus in some animals this " part "^ of the bodyis secreted for the formation of horns ; in others,

however, it causes a general increase in the size of

the teeth, and in others again it produces tusks,

which are like horns springing out of the jawsinstead of the head.

We have now dealt with the " parts " that apper-

tain to the head.

III. The place of the neck, when there is one, is Of the

below the head. I say " when there is one," becauseoesopha^'us

only those animals have this part which also have

225

ARISTOTLE664 a ^

;!âptv o avx'^v 7T€cf)VK€V ravra 8' ecrrtv o re (f)dpvy^

/cat o /caAoujLtevo? oloo(j)dyos

.

*0 /xev oi;v (j>dpvy^ rod TTvevfJiaTog ev€Kev ire^vKev

hid TOVTOv yap elody^Tai ro TTvevfia rd ^wa /cat

e/C77e/X7r€t dvanveovra /cat eKTrveovra. 8t6 to, jLti^

20 exovra TrXevfJLova ovk exovaiv oi)S' au;êVa, otov

TO TcoF IxOvcov yivo£. 6 8' oloo(j)dyos iarl 8t' ou

-j^ rpo^T] TTopeverai cts" tt^v KotXlav a)o9* daa jjurj

e;êt ai3;\;eVa, ouS' OLGO(f)dyov iTnS-qXoJs exovacv.

OVK dvayKOLOV 8' e;êtv rov otcroâyov tt)? rpocfyrjg

ev€Kev ovdev yap -napaoKevdlêL rrpos avr^v. €tl

25 8e fierd rrjv rov oroixaros deaiv ivSex^rau /cetaât

T-qv /cotAtav evdecos, tov 8e TrXevjiova ovk ivhex^Tau.

8et yap etvat rtva /cotvov otov avXcova, 8t' ou jLte-

pLelraL to Trveu/xa /caret ras" dprrfpia^ els rdg

Gvpiyyas, SLfzeprj ovra^' /cat /caAAtcrr' av ovrcos

aTToreXol rrjv dvaTTVorjv /cat eKTTVorjv. rov 8' dp-

80 yavou rod nepl ttjv dvaTrvorjv i^ dvay/cr^S" exovrog

lirJKog, dvayKalov rov olao(f)dyov etvai fxera^v rod

oropLaros /cat ri^s KoiXias. eon 8' d jLtev oloot^dyog

GapKcoSrjs, €X^v vevpcohrj rdoiv, vevpcoSr^s ^teV,

OTTOJs €XJ) SidraoLV eloiovorjs rrjs Tpo^rjs, oapKcoSrjs

85 Sc, OTTOis /xaAa/cd? 7^ /<:at ei'8t8a) /cat /xt) ^XdTrrrjTai

rpaxwopievos vtto rdJv Kariovrcov.

'H 8e KaXovpevTj (j)dpvy^ /cat dprrjpia ovveor-qKev

664 b e/c ;\;ov8ptt>8oL'S" aajp-aros' ov yap pLovov dvaTTVorjs

€V€K€V ecrrtv aAAa /cat (fxjjvrjs, 8et 86 rd iljO(j)riG€LV

pulXXov Xelov elvai /cat orepeor-qra €X€lv. /cetrai 8'

epLTTpooOev 7] dprrjpla rod OL(JO(j)dyov , Kaiirep e/x-

TTohitôvaa avrdv irepl rrjv VTrohox^lv rrjs rpo(j)rjs'

6 edv ydp rt TrapeiGpvfj ^r]p6v 7) vypdv els ttjv dprr}-

^ 8Lfj.€prj ovra Peck : 8tfj.€pr)S ojv vulg. : Bifiepovs optos Th.

226

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iii.

those parts that the neck subserves—viz. the larynx

and the oesophagus, as it is called.

The larynx is present for the sake of the breath :

when animals breathe in and out, the breath passes

through the larynx. Thus creatures which have nolung {e.g. fish) have no neck either. The oesophagusis the passage by w^hich the food makes its wây to

the stomach ; so those that have no neck have nodistinct oesophagus. So far as food is concerned,

however, an oesophagus is not necessarv'-, since it

exerts no action upon the food ; and there is really

no reason why the stomach should not be placed

immediately next the mouth. The lung, however,

could not be so placed, because some sort of tube

must be present, common to both lungs, and divided

into two, by which the breath is divided along the

bronchial tubes into the air-tubes : this is the best

method for securing good breathing, both in and out.

This respiratory organ, then, of necessity, is of somelength ; and this necessitates the presence of an

oesophagus, to connect the mouth to the stomach.

Now the oesophagus is fleshy, and it can also beextended like a sinew. It is sinewy so that it can

stretch as the food enters in ; and it is fleshy so that

it may be soft and yielding and not be damaged bythe food grating on it as it goes down.What are called the larynx and windpipe are Larynx and

constructed of cartilaginous substance, since the pur- ^'"'î^^P^*

pose they serve includes speech as well as respira-

tion ; and an instrument that is to produce soundmust be smooth and firm. The windpipe is situated in

front of the oesophagus, although it causes it somehindrance when food is being admitted^—as when a

piece of food, no matter whether solid or fluid, gets

h2 227-

ARISTOTLE664 b ^

ptav, TTviyixovs kol ttovovs koI ^rjx^^ ;âAe7ra?

i/jLTTOiel. o Srj Kal davfidueLev dv rts" twv Xeyovrcov

(x)£ ravTYj TO TTOTOV 8e;êTat to ^coov cru/x/âtVet yap

<f)av€pa)S ra XexOdvra ttciglv oh av Trapappvfj tl rrjs

10 Tpo(j>r\s- TToWaxf] 8e yeXolov âtVerat to Xeyeiv djs

ravrr] to ttotov elohex^Tai to, â>a. rropos yap

ovheis ioTLV els ttjv KOiXiav 0.770 tov nXevfiovos,

wcTTep CK TOV OTopiaTos opojpLev TOV olaocfxxyov.

€Ti 8' iv TOLS ep.eT0L5 Kal vavTcaLS ovk dSrjXov rrodev

TO vypov (jyaiveTai 7Topev6pi€vov. SrjXov he Kal otl

15 ovk evdecus els rrjv kvgtlv avXXeyeTai to vypov,

aAA' els TTjV KoiXiav rrpoTepov to, yap ttjs KoiXias

TTepLTTWfxaTa âiveTai ;\;pct)jU,aTtêtv r] IXvs rod pe-

Xavos o'lvov GVpLê^TjKe Se tovto rroXXaKLS (f)avep6v

Kal inl TWV els ttjv KOiXiav Tpavp-aTOJV. dXXd yap

loojs evrjOes ro tovs evrjOeis tujv Xoyojv Xiav

eêTatêiv

.

20 *H 3' dpTTipia Tw hiaKelodai, KaOdnep eLTTop.ev,

iv rw TTpoudev viro rrjs rpo<j)r\s cvopÂetTat* aAA* r]

^VULS TTpos TOVTO pêpLTjxdvqTaL TTjV emyXcjTTiha.

TavTr)v 8' OVK exovoLV diravTa Ta t,cpOTOKovvTa,^

aAA' oca TrXevpôva e;(et Kal to Seppia Tpt;(CUTOV, Kal

25 piTj (f)oXiha)Td pirjSe TTTepcoTa TTe(j)VKev. tovtols 8'

dvTt T7]s eTTLyXojTTiSos ovvdyeTai Kal StolyeTaL 6

cfidpvyi ovTTep TpoTTOV eKeivois' eiriâXXeL Te Kal

dvaiTTVGueTaL, tov (^pLevY rrvevpuaTOS ttj elaoSco Te

Kal eôho) dvaTTTVGGOi-Levos , rrjs 8e Tpo(/)rjs €ta-

^ t,a)OTOKOvi>Ta] l^cLa to. evaifxa Op;le.

* (jjL€v) supplevi et interpunctionem hie correxi.

228


into the windpipe by mistake, and causes a great deal

of choking and distress and violent coughing. Thissort of thing occurs and can be observed whenever apiece of food goes the wrong way ; yet they must bemysteries to those who hold that animals take in their

drink by way of the windpipe. ** And there are manycounts on which we can show that this is a ridiculous

opinion to hold, (a) There is no passage leading fromthe lung into the stomach, such as the oesophagus,which, as we can see, leads thither from the mouth.And again, (6) there is no doubt where the fluid dis-

charge comes from in cases of vomiting and sea-sick-

ness, (c) It is plain, too, that the fluid matter whichwe take does not collect immediately in the bladder,

but goes first into the stomach. This is shown bythe fact that the dregs of dark wine affect the co-

lour of the residual discharge from the stomach ; andthis colouring has often been observed in cases wherethe stomach has been wounded. Still, perhaps it is

silly to be too minute in discussing these silly theories.

The windpipe, as we have said, is situated in front, Epiglottis.

and therefore is interfered with by the food. To deal

with this difficulty, Nature has contrived the epi-

glottis. Not all Vivipara ^ have this, but only those

which have a lung, and a hairy skin, and are not

covered with horny scales or feathers. Those that

are so covered have, to serve instead of the epiglottis,

a larynx which closes and opens, just as the epiglottis

does in the others ; it comes down and lifts up again :

it lifts up during the entrance and exit of the breath,

and subsides while food is being taken, to prevent

" See e.g. Plato, Timaeus 70 c 7, and Taylor ad loc.

* Ogle chancres the text here to read " blooded animals,**

which brings the statement nearer the truth.

229-

ARISTOTLE664b ^

^

LOvcrr]g eTnTTTvaaofJievos , tva fjur^dev Trapappvfj rrpog^

30 Trjv dprrjpLav. iav Se rt TTXrjjjLjjLeXr^dfj napa ttjv

TOLavrrjv KLvrjaiv /cat Trpoucjiepoixivris rrjs Tpo(j)r\s

dvaTTvevarj ris, ^rjx^^ '^^^ TTViypiovs Trotet, KaOaTrep

ctpr^rai. ovrco Se /caAto? fjLefjLrD^dvrjTaL Kal rj ravrr]?

Kal 7} rrjg yXcurr-qs KLvrjais, cogt€ rrj^ Tpo<j)rjs iv [xev

Tip GTopLari XeaLvojJLevrjs, Trap* avrrjv 8e Suovarjs,

35 T7]v fiev oXtyaKLs VTTO Tovs oSopras 7tl7tt€lv, els 8e

rrjv dpriqpLav Girdviov ri TrapappeXv.

665 a OvK €X€L Se rd Xexdevra ôia rrjv imyXiOTTiha

Sta TO ^Tjpds elvai rds odpKas avrojv Kal to Sep/xa

OKXrjpOVy OJGT OVK dv eVKLVTjTOV rjv TO TOtOUTOl^

fjLopLov avrolg €K roiavrrjg oapKos Kal Ik tolovtov

SepfJLaros avvearrjKog, aAA' avrrjg rrjs dpr-qpias

5 Toiv ia)(dTCov ddaaov eyiver dv rj avvaycoyrj ttjs €.k

rrjs OLKelas aapKos eTTiyXcorrihos , tjv €)(ovai rd

rpLxcoTa.

At' rjv fjiev ovv alriav rd jxev ex^t, tojv l^cpcnv rd 8'

ouk: e;)(et, ravr elpTâOco, Kal StoTt rrjs dpriqpias rrjv

(f)avX6rr)ra rrjg deaecjos IdrpevKev r) (f)VGLS, /X7^;âv7^-

GapbevT] rr)V KaXovfiivrjv eTnyXcorruSa. KeZrai 8'

10 epLTTpooOev rj (f)dpvy^ rod oluo<^dyov i^ dvdyKTjg. rj

fjLev ydp Kaphia eV Tot? ep^Trpoodev Kal iv pLeoco

Kelraiy ivfj

rr)v dpxî^ â/xev rrjg t,a)rjg Kal Trdarjs

Kivqoeojs Te /cat alodijoews (eVt to /caAou/xevov ydpepLTTpooOev T) alodriuis Kal rj KivTjcng' avrw ydp ro)

15 Xoycp rovrcp hiojpiuraL rd epLrrpoadev Kal OTTiodev),

6 8e TrXevpicov Kelrai ov rj Kaphia /cat rrepl ravrrjv,

r) 8* dvaTTVorj 8ta re rovrov"^ Kal 8ta rrjV dpx^v rrjv

iv rfj Kaphia ivvTrdpxovoav . rj 8' dvanvorj yiverai

rots t,a>OL'S hid rijs dprrjpias' cuctt' inel rrjv Kaphiav

^ npos PZ : -napa vulg.

230


anything coming in by mistake into the windpipe. If

there is any error in this movement, or if you breathein while you are taking food, coughing and chokingresults, as I have said. But the movement of theepiglottis and of the tongue has been so neatly

contrived that while the food is being masticated in

the mouth and is passing over the epiglottis, thetongue seldom gets in the way of the teeth, andhardly ever does any food slip into the windpipe.

I mentioned some animals that have no epiglottis.

This is because their flesh is dry and their skin hard

;

and thus if they had one, it would not move easily,

because it would have to be made out of constituents

of this sort. It is quicker to contract the edges of thewindpipe itself than it would be to close an epiglottis,

if, as in the hairy creatures, it wêre made out of the

same sort of flesh as the rest of their bodies.

This will suffice to show why some animals have anepiglottis and some not ; how Nature has contrived

it so as to remedy the unsatisfactory position of

the windpipe in front of the oesophagus. Still, the

windpipe is bound by necessity to be in this position

for the following reason. The heart is situated in the

middle of the body and in the fore part of it ; and in

the heart, we hold, is the principle of life and of all

movement and sensation. Both of these activities

take place in the direction we call forwârds : that is

the very principle w^hich constitutes the distinction

between before and behind. The lung is situated in

the region of the heart, and surrounding it. Nowbreathing takes place for the sake of the lung andthe principle which is situated in the heart : and the

breath passes through the windpipe. So, since the

* Tovrov SUY : tovto vulg.

231-

ARISTOTLE665a ^ ^ ^

iv rots' efJLTTpoodev 7Tpa)T7]v dvayKalov Keiadai, /cat

20 rov (fxipvyya /cat rrjv aprripiav nporepov dvayKOLOV

Keiddai rod oloo(f)dyov' tol {lev yap TTpos rov

TrAeu/xova retVet /cat Tr]v Kaphcav, 6 8* els ttjv

/cotAtav. oAa;^ 8' aet to êXnov /cat TLpmLrepov,

O7T0V iJLTjSev fieiJôv erepov e/XTToStêt, rod jJLev

dvoj /cat Kdrco iv rocs /xaAAov eoriv dvco, rov 8'

25 epiTTpoodev /cat OTTiodev ev rot? efJiTTpoadev, rov

8e^tou 8e /cat dpLurepov ev roXs 8eftot?.

Kat Trept jLtev au;êVos" t€ /cat OLGO(f)dyov /cat

aprrjpuas elprjrai, enofievov 8' cart Trept arrXdyxvcov

eiTTeZv.

IV. Taura 8' eartv tSta rail/ ivaufxajv, /cat rot?

so jLtev drravd^ V7Tdp)(eL, rot? 8' oi3;( i;7rap;êt. rcDv 8'

dvatfiajv ovSev eêu unXdyxvov. Ar^jjiOKpLros 8*

€Ot/cev oi) /caAcos" StaXaêlv irepl avrojv, elnep coi^dr]

8ta pLLKporrjra rcov dvaijiojv t,wcov dSrjXa elvat

ravra. avviarafjievcov yap evOecxJs rd)v ivalfxcov /cat

rrdfiTrav ovrcov jjuKpcuv evSrjXa yiverai Kaphia re /cat

35 '^nap' (f)aLveraL yap ev fxev rots cools eviore rpiraiois

665 b ovGi (jrLyfirjs exovra fieyedos, TrdpLpLLKpa 8e /cat ev

rots eKôXlpiOLS ra)v ifx^pvcov. crt 8' a>G7rep rcov e/c-

ros fJiopLOJV ov rrdcTL rcov avrcov XPV^^^> ciAA' e/ca-

aroLS tSia TTeTTopiurai rrpos re rovs ^lovs /cat rds

ictvT^CTet?, ovrco /cat rd evros dXXa Tre<^VKev aAAotS".

Ta 8e GirXdyxya rcov alfjuariKcbv eurlv t8ta, 8to

/cat GVvearrjKev avrcov eKaarov i^ alfJLartKTJs vXr]s.

hrjXov 8' ev rots veoyvots rovrcov alixarcoheorepa

yap /cat pbeyiora Kara Aoyoi^ 8ta rd elvai rd elBos

Limited by Aristotle to blood-like viscera only.

232

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iii.-iv.

heart must of necessity be situated in the front place

of all, both the larynx and the windpipe, which lead

to the lung and the heart, must of necessity besituated in front of the oesophagus which leads merelyto the stomach. Speaking generally, unless somegreater object interferes, that which is better andmore honourable tends to be above rather than below,

in front rather than at the back, and on the right side

rather than on the left.

We have now spoken of the neck, the oeso-

phagus, and the windpipe, and our next topic is the

viscera.

IV. Only blooded animals have viscera.'^ Some, but internal

not all, have a complete set of them. As no blood- blooded

less animals have them, Democritus must have been animals.

wrong in his ideas on this point, if he really supposedthat the viscera in bloodless creatures are invisible

o^ving to the smallness of the creatures themselves.

Against this we can put the fact that the heart andthe liver are visible in blooded animals as soon as they

are formed at all, that is, when they are quite small

:

in eggs they are visible, just about the size of a point,

sometimes as early as the third day, and very small

ones are visible in aborted embryos. Further, just

as each animal is equipped Mith those external parts

which are necessary to it for its manner of life and its

motion, and no two animals require exactly the sameones, so it is with the internal parts : they vary in the

various animals.

Viscera, then, are peculiar to the blooded animals, Heart,

and that is why each one of the viscera is formed of

blood-like material. This is clearly to be seen in the

new-born offspring of blooded animals ; in them the

viscera are more blood-like, and at their largest in

233.

ARISTOTLE665 b

rrjs vXrjs /cat to TrXrjdos e/xâyeWarov /caret rrjv

10 Trpwrrjv ovoraaiv. /capSta jLtev ovv airauLV V7Tap)(6L

Tols IvaiyiOLS' 8t' rjv S' alriav, e'iprjraL /cat Trporepov,

alfia fiev yap e;\;€tv rot? ivalfioLs SrjXov cLs dvay-

KOioVf vypov 8' ovTos Tov at/xaros" dvay/catov dy-

yetop- VTrapx^LV, i(f)^ o Sr] /cat (haiverai fjLepLrjxavrjadai

TOLS <j)\eâs Tj (fiVGLS' o.pxy]V 8e tovtojv dvayKOLOV

1^ etvat jLttav (ottov yap eVSe;(€Tat, filav îXriov r)

77-oAAds"), r^ 8e Kaphia rchv cfyXe^cov apxT^' <f)aivovrai

yap e/c ravTrjg ovaaL^ ko.l ov Std ravrr]?, /cat t]

(f)VOLS avTTJg (f)Xe^coSr)s d>s ofioyevovs ovaiqs. e;)(et

he /cat 0] BioLS avrrjs dpxf'Krjv x^P^^' """^pt [leaov

yap, fiaXXov 8' ev roi dya» t^ Karco /cat efiTrpoadev tj

20 OTTiodev iv TOLS ydp TLpaajTepois to TLjJLicjTepov

KadlSpVKev 7] (j)VGLg, ov /xrj rt /ccoAuet /xetôv. e/x-

<f>av€GTaTOV 8e to XexOev ioTLV eirl tcjv dvdpw-

TTOJv, jSouAerat 8e /cat ev rots' d'AAot? o/xoAdycos" ev

jjLeao) Kelodai tov dvayKaiov aoj/xaros", rodrou 8e

iripasfi

Ta TrepLTTWfjLaTa d-Tro/cptVerat* rd 8e /cdiAa

26 iT€(f)VKev dAAot? dAAto?, /cat ou/c eart tcov Trpog

TO l^rjv dvayKaicoVy 8td /cat d<j>aipovfxevcjJv t^cooiv

hrjXov 8* CO? oi}8e TrpoGTidefxeva (jideipeL.

01 8* ev r^ K€(f)aXfj XiyovTes T-qv dpx^v tcov

(fiXcôjv ovK opOojs VTTcXaôv. rrpcJJTOV fxev ydp

TToXXds dpxds /cat SiCGTraafJievas^ ttoiovglv, efr' ev

^ Lovaai Z. - 8i€a7Tapfi€vas ESUYZ.

• The first observer after Aristotle to realize the disparityin the relative sizes of- the parts with time was Leonardo daVinci (a.d. 1452-1518).

234

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iv.

proportion" : this is because the nature of the material

and its bulk are especially obvious at the first stage

of a creature's formation. The heart is present in

all blooded animals, and the reason for this has beenalready stated : It is obviously necessary for all

blooded creatures to have blood, and as blood is a

fluid, there must of necessity be a vessel to hold

it, and it is evidently for this purpose that Nature

has contrived the blood-vessels. And these blood-

vessels must have a source—one source (one is

always better than many where it is possible), andthis source is the heart. This is certain, because the

blood-vessels come out of the heart and do not pass

through it ; and again, the heart is homogeneous andin character identical with the blood-vessels. Further-

more, the place in which it is set is the place of

primacy and governance. It is in a central position,

and rather in the upper part of the body than the

lower, and in front rather than at the back ; Naturealways gives the more honourable place to the morehonourable part, unless something more important

prevents it. WTiat I have just said is seen mostclearly in the case of man, yet in other animals the

heart tends in a similar way to be in the centre of

the " necessary body," i.e. the portion of it which

is terminated by the vent where the residues are

discharged. The limbs vary in the various animals,

and cannot be reckoned among the parts that are*' necessary " for life, which is why animals can lose

them and still remain alive ; and obviously they could

have limbs added to them without being killed.

Those who suppose that the source of the blood-

vessels is in the head are wrong, because : (1) this

involves holding that there are many sources,

235

ARISTOTLE665 b ^

SO TOTTCp xjivxpo). h'qXol 8e hvupiyos OJV, 6 Se Trepl ttjv

Kaphiav rovvavriov. wanep 8' eXex^'f], Sto, /xev ra)V

aXXcov urrXdyxvoiiv hUxovuiv at (fjXejês, Slol 8e rrjs

Kaphlas 01) hiareivei i^Xeip' odev kol hrjXov ort,

jiopLOV Kal O-px^ Tojv chXe^cov iorlv r] Kaphia. Koi

TOUT* euAoyoJS" p-eoov yap to rrjs /capSta? iarl

35 awfxa TTVKVov Kal KoZXov 'n€(j)VK6s, eVt Se TrXrjpes

666 a atpLaros (Ls rcov (fjXejScov ivrevdev rjpyfjievajv, koZXov

fieV TTpOS TTjV VTTohoX^V TOV at/XaTO?, TTVKVOV Se

TTpOS TO (j)vXdGG€LV TTjV dpX^V TtJ? depfJLOTTjTO? . €V

ravrr) yap piovrj tojv OTrXdyxvojv Kal rod aayfiaros

6 atfjia avev (jiXeâjv €gtl, tcov 8' dXXojv fiopLOJV

€KaaTOV iv rat? cfyXerjAv e;(€t to at/xa. Kal tovt ev-

Adycus"- efc ttjs Kaphias yap eVoxeTeueTat \_KaXf eh

ras (jiXeâs, el? Se ttjv Kaphiav ovk dXXodev avTTj

yap eoTLV dpx^ Kal TTrjyrj tou atfiaTos rj VTroSoxrj

TTpoiTT]. Ik twv dvaTOfJLOJV 8e KaTaSrjXa fidXXov

10 ravTa, Kal eK tojv yeveaeojv evOeujs yap eoTLV

evaipLOS TTpojTT] yivopLevrj tcov pLopiajv dnavTajv. en8* at KLvrjaeis tcov rjSecov Kal tcov XvTTTjpcov Kal

oXcos 7Tdo7]s alod^decos evTevOev dpxop.evai (jjal-

vovTai Kal TTpOS TavTr]v TTepaivovoai. ovtoj S* ex^L

Kal KaTCL TOV Ao'yov, d-px^v yap etvai 8et /xtav, ottou

15 evSex^rat,' ev(f)vdoTaTos 8e tojv tottojv 6 jxeaos, ev

yap TO jxeaov Kal ctti Trdv ecjyLKTOv ofxotcos "5 rrapa-

ttXtjolcds. CTt 8' eTTel ovTe tcov dvaipicov ovdev

^ Kal om. Z.

** Or " traverse." The connotation of this term seems to vary.

236


scattered about ; and (2) it involves placing themin a cold region (its intolerance of cold proves this).

The region round the heart, on the other hand, is

warm. And (3) as has been said already, the blood-

vessels run all through " the other viscera, whereasnone passes through the heart ; which clearly showsthat the heart forms part of the blood-vessels andis their source. Which is reasonable enough ; since

the centre of the heart is a body of dense and hollowstructure, and this is full of blood ; it is hollow to

form a receptacle for the blood ; dense to guard the

source of heat ; and the store of blood is obviously

there because that is the starting-point of the blood-

vessels. In none other of the viscera and in no other

part of the body is there blood and yet no blood-

vessels ; in each of the other parts the blood is con-

tained in blood-vessels. And this too is reasonable,

as the blood is conveyed and conducted away fromthe heart into the blood-vessels, whereas none is

thus conveyed into the heart from elsewhere, for the

heart is itself the source and spring of the blood, or

the first receptacle of it. All this, however, is moreclearly brought out in Dissections and Formative

Processes, where it is sho^n that the heart is the

first of all the parts to be formed and has blood in it

straightway. Further, all motions of sensation, in-

cluding those produced by what is pleasant and pain-

ful, undoubtedly begin in the heart and have their

final ending there. This is in accord with reason;

since, wherever possible, there must be one source

only ; and the best situation for that is the centre,

because there is only one centre, and the centre is

equally (or nearly equally) accessible from everydirection. Again, as every bloodless part, and the

237

ARISTOTLE666 a ^

aiaOr^TLKov ovt€ to alfia, SfjXov cos to npcoTOV €XOV

ws eV dyyelu) S' eôv dvayKalov ctvat rrjv dpx'rjv.

Ov fj-ovov he Kara rov Xoyov ovtojs ^X^'-^ </)atVeTat,

20 dXkd Kal Kara, rrjv aiodiioLV. iv yap rols iji^pvoLS

€vdea)s y] Kaphia (jiaiverai KivovpêvT] rcov fiopLCJV

Kaddrrep el ^coov, cos dpx^ Ti]s (fivaecos rols evaipLOis

ovaa. fjcaprvpLov Se rcov elprjiiivcov Kal to Trdai

rols evaiyiois VTrdpx^LV avrrjv dvayKalov yap avrols

€X€LV TTjv dpxr]v rod at/iaros". vnapxî Se Kal to

25 Tjirap Trdai rols ivalfioLS' dAA* ovOels dv dîojoeiev

avTO dpX'Tjv etvai ovre rod oXov acofjâros ovre rov

atjjLaros' Kelrai yap ovSaficbs rrpos dpxoeuSrj OecnVf

€;êt 8' coGTrep dvrl^vyov iv rols iidXiur dirriKpiâ}*

fievoLs rov aTrXrjva. en 8' VTToSoxrjv alp,aros ovk

30 €X€i- iv eavro) KaOdnep rj Kaphta, aAA' cooirep ra

XoLTTo, iv 0AejSt. en he reivei hi avrov Âe?/f, 8t**

iKeivqs 8' ovhepiia' TTaocov yap rcov (pXe^cbv iK rrjs

Kaphias at dpxoLt. iirel ovv dvayKT] [xev ddrepov

rovrcov dpxrjv etvai, ix-q ion he to rjirap, dvdyKTj

rrjv Kaphlav etvaL Kal rov alpLaros dpx'^^v. ro fxev

85 ydp â>ov alodTqaei copiorai, aladrjnKov he rrpcorov

ro ITpoorov evaipLov, roiovrov 8' r) Kaphia' Kal ydp

666 b dpx^ rod atfiaros Kal evaLfiov Trpcorov.

"EcTt 8' avrrjs ro aKpov o^v Kal orepecorepov,1 hi Th. : ii vulg. ; mox €Keivov EUYZ.

• Cor primum v'lvens ultimum moriens : cf. De gen. an.741 b 15 ff., and Ebstein & al., Mitt. z. Gesch. der Medizin u,

Naturw., 1920, 19, 102, 219, 305. * See 655 b 29, n.

238


blood itself as well, is without sensation, it is clear

that the part where the blood is present first, andwhich holds it as in a receptacle, must of necessity bethe source.

This reasoning is supported by the evidence of

the senses. In embryos, as soon as they are formed,the heart can be seen moving before any of the

other parts, just like a living creature <*; which

shows that it is the source of their nature in all

blooded animals. Another piece of evidence to

support this is that all blooded creatures have a

heart : why ? because they are bound to have a

source for their blood. All blooded creatures, it is

true, have a liver too ; but no one would care to

maintain that the liver is the source either of the

blood or of the whole body, because it is nowhere nearthe place of primacy and governance, and, also, in

the most highly finished ^ animals it has somethingto counterbalance it, as it were, viz. the spleen.

Again, the liver has no receptacle for blood in itself

as the heart has : like the rest of the viscera, it keepsits blood in a blood-vessel. Again, a blood-vessel

runs all through it, whereas no blood-vessel runs

through the heart : all blood-vessels have their source

from the heart and begin there. Since, therefore, of

necessity the source must be one of these two, the

heart or the liver, and as it is not the liver, it must of

necessity be the heart which is the source of the blood

just as it is of the rest. An animal is defined by the

fact that it possesses sensation : and the part of the

body to have sensation first is the part that has blood

in it first—in other words, the heart, which is the

source of the blood and the first part to have it.

The apex of the heart is sharp and more solid than

239

ARISTOTLE666 b

Kelrai 8e rrpos ra> orqdei /cat oAoj? eV roZg npoodev

rod GOJiiaros vpos to firj Karaifw^ôdai avro' Trdai

6 yap daapKorepov to GT7]do?, to. he vpavrj aap/coj-

heoTepa, Sto rroWr^v e;(et GKeTTrjv to depf-iov /card

TOP' vcoTOP'. ecTTt 8' 7'^ Kaphia toZs li€V aAAoi? l>cx)ois

KaTOL piioOV TOV GTiqBlKod TOTTOV, Tols S' avBpOJTTOlS

fjLLKpov els TO, evojvvjxa TrapeKKXivovaa irpos to

aviGovv TTjv KaTonjjvîv Tcov dpLGTepcbv fjidXiGTa yap10 TCOV dXXcov îpcx)v dvOpcoTTos ex^t KaTei/jvypêva tol

dpiGTepd. OTL 8e /cat ev toIs Ix^vglv 6[jlolcjs rj

Kaphia KeiTai, TvpoTepov etprjTai, /cat Stort (fyaiveTai

avopLoioJS. exî he rrpos ttjv Ke(f)aXr]v to o^v' €GTt8' auTT^ TO TrpoGdev, eVt TavTiqv yap rj kIvtjgl?.

"E;Yet he /cat vevpojv TrXrjOog rj Kaphia, /cat tout*

15 evXoycos' 0,770 TavTrjs yap at KivrjGeLS, TTepaivovTat

he hid TOV eA/cetF /cat dvteVat- 8et ovv TOLavT7]c

VTTTjpeGLas /cat LGXvog. rj he Kaphia, KaOdnep€L7TO[j,ev /cat rrpoTepoVy olov t,(x}6v tl 7Te(j)VKev ev

rols exovGLV.

*'EorTt 8* dvoCTTeos" TrdvTOJV OGa /cat rj/JLels Teded-

ixeda, TrXrjV tcdv lttttcov /cat yevovg tlvos ôcJov

20 TOUTOi? he hid TO jjieyedog otov epeLGfiaTOS X^P^ÔGTOVV VTTeGTl, KaddlVep /cat TOt? oAot? GWfiaGLV.

KotAta? 8' exovGLV at pcev tcqv fieydXojv t,ipcov

TpeZs, 0.1 he TCOV eXaGGovcov hvo, [xlav he Traoat* 8t*

T]v 8' aiTLav, e'iprjTaL. hel ydp elvac tottov TLvd tt^s

• At Be respir. 478 b 3. And see the next note.^ Instead of towards the breast. The meaning of this

passage is made clear by Hist. An. 507 a 2 ff. In all animals,says Aristotle, the " apex " of the heart points forwards, andin most animals " forwards " is towards the breast. Fishes

240


the rest, and it lies towards the breast, and altogether

in the fore part of the body so as to prevent it from

getting cooled : for in all animals the breast has com-paratively little flesh on it, while the back is well

supplied and so gives the heat of the body ampleprotection on that side. In animals other than manthe heart is in the centre of the region of the breast

;

in man it inclines slightly to the left side so as to

counteract the cooling there, for in man the left side

is much colder than in other creatures. I have

said already that the placing of the heart is the

same in fishes as in other animals, though it appears

to be different, together ^^'ith the reasons" for the

apparent difference. In fishes its apex is turned to-

wards the head ^; but in them the head is " forwards,"

because the head is in the line of direction in which

they move.The heart has in it an abundance of sinews, which

is reasonable enough, as the motions of the body have

their origin there ; and as these are performed bycontraction and relaxation, the heart needs the sinews

to serve it and to give it strength. We have said

already that the heart is like a living creature inside

the body that contains it.

In all cases that we have examined the heart is

boneless, except in horses and a certain kind of ox.

In these, owing to its great size, the heart has a bone

for a support, just as the whole body is supported

by bones.

In the large animals, the heart has three cavities, in

the smaller ones, two only ; and in no species has it less

than one. The reason for this has been given : there

appear to be an exception to this rule, but only because in

them " forwards " is towards the head.

241

ARISTOTLE666 b

KapSiag /cat viroSox^jv tov irpojrov aijJLaro?. [on

25 Se TTpojTOV iv TTJ /capSto, yiverai ro alfia, ttoXXolkls

elpijKafjLev.) Std 8e^ to tcls dp)(r)yovs cfyXeâs hvo

elvai, r-qv re [xeydXriv KaXovfievqv Kal rrjv doprii^v,

€KaT€pas S'^ ovdYjg dipxrj? tojv Âe/Scov, Kal Sta-

<f)opds e)(ovacx)v, Trepl cov vorepov ipovfiev, jilXriov

Kal rds dpxcis avTcov /ce;^coptaâf tovto 8' dv etrj

30 8i(f)vovs ovTOs rod atfxaros Kal /<:e;\;6opto'ju,evoi>.

SioTTep iv ots" evhex^rat, Su' €lgIv u7ToSo;ât. €V-

SeêraL S* iv rols /xeyciAot?* rovrojv yap €)(ov(n /cat

at /capStat [xeyeOog. en Se jSeArtov rpet? etvat ra?

/cotAta?, 07760?77

/xta ap;;^?] /cotvr^* to 8e /JLeaov /cat

nepLTTov dpx^' cocttc [xcyeOovs 8et fielôvos avralg

35 aet, hiOTTep at ixiyLorai rpels exovau fiovai.

667 a TouTCOv 8e TrAetCTTOv ju-ev af/xa /cat BeppLorarov

exovGLV at 8eftat (Sto /cat tcuf pepojv depjjLorepa to.

Sefta), iXdxi'f^TOV Se Kal ijjvxpdrepov al dpiGTepai,

ixioov 8* at jLteo-at toj rrXriOei /cat depporrjTLy KaOa-

pwrarov Se* 8et yap ti^v '^PXW ^'^^ fxdXior ripepêlv,

6 TOiavrr] 8' ay etT7 KaOapov rod aifxarog ovrog, rep

TTXr^dei he Kal deppLonqri [xeaov.

*'E;!ôi>CTt 8e /cat hidpOpcouiv riva at /cap8tat napa-

7rXr)OLav Tats" patâlg. ovk elal Se Gvva(f)€.l? co?

Ttvo? e/c TT-Aetovojv avvderov, dAAct Kaddnep etTTo/xev,

hiapOpajoet pdXXov. elal 8e tcDv )Ltev aladrjTLKcov

10 dpOpojBeGTepaL, tojv 8e vcoOporepajv dvapOporepai,

1 8ta 86 ESUYZ : 8ia vulff.

' S' Peck : ydp vulg., om. Ogle.

242


must be some place in the heart which will be a

receptacle for the blood when first formed. (As wehave stated several times, blood is first formed in

the heart.) Now there are two chief blood-vessels,

the so-called Great Blood-vessel, and the Aorta ; each

of these is the source of other blood-vessels ; andthe two differ from each other (this will be discussed

later) ; hence it is better for them to have separate

sources. This result can be obtained by having twoseparate supplies of blood, and thus we find tworeceptacles wherever this is possible, as in the larger

animals ^vhich of course have large hearts. But it is

better still to have three cavities, and then there is

an odd one in the middle which can be a commonsource for the other two ; since, however, this requires

the heart to be particularly large, only the very

largest hearts have three cavities.

Of these cavities it is the right-hand one which

contains the most blood and the hottest (that is whythe right side of the body is hotter than the left) ;

the left-hand cavity contains least blood, and it is

colder. The blood in the middle cavity is inter-

mediate both in amount and heat, although it is the

purest of them all ; this is because the source mustremain as calm as possible, and this is secured whenthe blood is pure, and intermediate in its amount andheat.

The heart has also a sort of articulation, which

resembles the sutures of the skull. By this I do not

mean to say that the heart is a composite thing,

consisting of several parts joined together, but an

articulated whole, as I said. This articulation is moredistinct in animals whose sensation is keen, and less

distinct in the duller ones, such as swine. There are

243

ARISTOTLE667 a

KaOdirep at rtDr vchv. at he hi,a(j>opai rrjs KapSlag

Kara jjLeyedo'^ re kol ixiKpoTiqTa Kal GKX'qporrjrd re

/cat fiaXaKOTTjTa t€lvovol rrrj kol Trpos to. tiOt]' to.

fiev yap dvaLuOrjra GKXrjpdv €-)(€.l rriv Kaphiav kol

15 TTVKvqVy rd 5' aloOiqriKd fiaXaKCorepaVy Kal rd pikv

IxeydXas €)(ovra rd? KapSla? SeiXd, rd 8' iXdaaovs

Kal jieGas OappaXewrepa (to ydp GvjJLâiVov rrdOos

VTTO rod (jyoêZoBai TrpouVap^êt rourots' Sta to pir]

dvdXoyov €)(êLV rd Beppov rfj Kaphia, puKpdv 8' ov

iv peydXoig dpavpovoOai, Kal rd alpa i/jvxpdrepov

20 etvat) . pieydXas Se Ta? Kaphiag exovGL Xaycog,

€Xa(f)os, /XL'S", vaLva, ovos, rrdphaXis^ yaXrj, Kal

TaAAa o-)(ê'd6v Trdvd^ dua <j)av€p(x)s 8etAd t) 8ta

(f)dôv KaKovpya.

HapaTTXrjGuo? Se Kal inl ra>v Âe^cDv Kal eirl

rwv kolXlojv ex^t' ipuxpal ydp at peydXai (f)Xej3€S

25 Kal KOiXiai. coGTTep ydp ev piKpco Kal eV peydXcp

olK-qpLan rd lgov TTvp rJGGOv ev rols peitôGi 6ep-

paivei, ovroj Kav rovrois rd Oepfxov dyyeta ydp

Kal Tj (J)Xeifj Kal rj KoiXia. en 8' at dAAoTptat /ctvyy-

Geis eKaGrov rojv deppLoJv KaraijjvxovGLV , ev 8e Tats"

evpvxojpeGrepai? rd nvevpa rrXeZov Kal evLGxdei

30 /xaAAov Std rcov pieyaXoKoiXiojv ovhev ovhe rcov

pLeyaXofjiXeâjv ttlov eGri Kard GapKa, dAAct ndvra

7] ra TrXeiGra rcov roLovrcov dSrjX6(f)Xeâ Kal puKpo-

KoiXia (jiaiverai.

Mdvov he rojv GnXdyxvcov Kal oXws rcov iv rep

' TrapSaAts] SopKaXis Piatt.

244


other differences in the heart ; some hearts are large,

some small, some are hard, some soft ; and these

tend by some means to influence the creature's

temperament. Illustrations of this are : animals

whose powers of sensation are small have hearts that

are hard and dense, those whose sensation is keenhave softer ones ; and those with large hearts are

cowardly, those with small or moderate-sized ones,

courageous (this is because in the former class the

affection which is normally produced by fear is

present to begin M'ith," as their heat is not proportion-

ate to the size of their heart, but is small and there-

fore hardly noticeable in the enormous space that it

occupies ; so that their blood is comparatively cold).

The following creatures have large hearts : the hare,

the deer, the mouse, the hyena, the ass, the leopard,

the marten, and practically all other animals M'hose

cowardice is either outright or else betrayed by their

mischievous behaviour.

Similar conditions obtain in the blood-vessels andthe cavities of the heart : if they are large, they are

cold. The effect of the same-sized fire is less in a

large room than in a small one ; and the same applies

to the heat in these receptacles, the blood-vessels andthe cavities. Further, extraneous motions have a

cooling effect upon hot things ; and the more roomya receptacle is, the greater the amount of air (or

pncuma) in it and the stronger its effect. Thus wefind that no animal which has large cavities or large

blood-vessels has fat flesh, and conversely, that all (or

most) fat animals have indistinguishable blood-vessels

and small cavities.

The heart is the only one of the viscera—indeed

« Cf. 650 b 27. See also 692 a 20.

245

ARISTOTLE667 a

craj/xart [lopicov tj Kaphia ;!âAe7r6v TraQos ovhev

i)7TO(f)ep€i, KOI Tovr evXoyoJS' <f)deLpofJL€V7]s yap rrjs

35 dpx'^^ ^^^ eoTiv i^ ov yeVotr' dv ôiqdeia rols

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avTTjv woTT€p €7tI tcov dXXojv CTTrAayp^vcov. OL T€

yap V€<^pol TToXXaKLs âivovrai Xid(jov ficGTol /cat

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/cat o TrXevjiajv, fidXiura 8' o anX-qv. iroXXd Se /cat

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rrj? re fieydXrjs /cat rrjs doprrjs' avrai yap e/c tt^?

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20 dyyeiov 8etTat, /cat ro <j)Xepu)v yevos dyyetov, to 3*

2i6

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. iv.-v.

the only part in the whole body—which cannotwithstand any serious affection. This is readily

understood : the other parts depend upon the heart,

and when this source itself is ailing, there is no place

whence they can obtain succour. A proof that theheart cannot put up with any affection is this : Neverhas the heart in a sacrificial victim been observedto be affected in the way that the other viscera

sometimes are. Very often the kidneys are foundto be full of stones, growths, and small abscesses ;

so is the liver, and the lung, and especially thespleen. Many other affections are observed in

these organs ; but in the lung they occur least

often in that portion which is nearest the Mindpipe,

and in the liver in that portion which is nearest its

junction with the Great Blood-vessel. This is readily

understood : those are the places where they are

most closely in communication with the heart.

Those animals, however, which die as the result

of disease, and affections such as I have mentioned,when cut open are seen to have diseased affections

of the heart.

We have now spoken of the heart : we have said

what its nature is, what purpose it serves, and why it

is present ; and that will suffice.

V. I suppose that the next subject for us to discuss Blood-

is the Blood-vessels, that is, the Great Blood-vessel ^^^^® ^'

and the Aorta. It is these into which the blood

goes first after it leaves the heart, and the other

blood-vessels are merely branches from these. Wehave already said that these blood-vessels are present

for the sake of the blood : fluid substances always

need a receptacle, and the blood-vessels generally

are the receptacles which hold the blood. We may

24,7.

ARISTOTLE687 b

af/xa €V ravrais' Slotl 8e 8vo Kal oltto fxids oipxV^

Kad* arrav to aoj/xa SiareivovGL, Xeyojfxev.

Tov fxev ovv els filav dpx'f)^ avvreXelv /cat oltto

fJLids aLTLOV TO jLtlW €)(€LV TTOLVTa rTjv alad'qTLKrjv

i/jvx^v ivcpyela, coare Kal to jjLopLov ev to TavTTjv

€xov TTpojTOJS (eV pikv Tols evaip,ois /caret hrjvap.iv

25 /cat /car' ivepyecav, twv S' avaipuDV ivlois /car'

evepyecav p,6vov)y 8to /cat ttjv tov deppLou apx'rjv

dvayKaXov iv to) avTco tottco elvai- avTT] S' IotIv

atria /cat to) atjitart tt^s" vypoTTjTos /cat rT^S" êp-

pLOTTjTOS' hid pukv ovv TO iv ivl etvai pLoplcp ttjv

alG9r]TiK7jv dpx^v Kal tyjv ttjs 6eppi6T7)T0S Kal tj

80 TOV atjLtaros" dno puds idTiv dpxrjs, hud he ttjv tov

atpLaTos ivoTTjTa Kal rj rcDv (fyXe^cov aTTO pads.

Ai;o S' etVt Sta to to, croj/xara etvât hipLeprj tcov

ivalpLCDv Kal TropevTLKOJV' iv Trdui yap tovtols

Stco/Dtarat to eprrpoodev Kal to oTTioOev Kal to

he^Lov Kal TO dpLGTepov Kal to dvco Kal to /cara>.

35 oact) he TipnojTepov Kal rjyepLoviKWTepov to epu-

868 a vpoadev tov oTTiodev, tooovto) Kal rj pieydXrj (fiXeifj

TTJs dopTTJs' rj pLev ydp iv tols epLTrpooOev, rj 8' iv

Tols OTTiodev KeiTaiy Kal ttjv p,ev dnavT^ e;)êt ra

evaipâ âvepcos, Trjv 8* eVta pêv dpivhpojs evia 8'

d(j)av6js.

Tov 8' els TO TTdv hiahehouOai to cjcopia Tas

6 (fyXeâs a'lTiov to navTOS elvai tov aco/xaros" vXrjv

TO at/xa, Tots" 8' dvaipiois to dvdXoyoVy raura 8' iv

* And potentially many ; cf. 682 a 4 ff

.

248

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.

now go on to explain why there are two of these blood-

vessels, why they begin from a single source, and whythey extend all over the body.

The reason why finally they both coincide in onesource and also begin from one source is this. Thesensory Soul is, in all animals, one actually ; there-

fore the part which primarily contains this Soul is

also one (one potentially as well as actually in the

blooded animals, but in some of the bloodless animals

it is only actually one °), and for this reason the source

of heat also must of necessity be in the selfsame

place. But this concerns the blood, for this source

is the cause of the blood's heat and fluidity. Thuswe see that because the source of sensation and the

source of heat are in one and the same part, the blood

must originate from one source too ; and becausethere is this one origin of the blood, the blood-vessels

also must originate from one source.

The blood-vessels are, however, two in number, be-

cause the bodies of the blooded creatures that moveabout are bilateral : we can distinguish in all of

them front and back, right and left, upper and lower.

And just as the fore part is more honourable andmore suited to rule than the back part, so is the GreatBlood-vessel pre-eminent over the Aorta. The GreatBlood-vessel lies in front, while the Aorta is at the

back. All blooded creatures have a Great Blood-

vessel, plainly visible ; but in some of them the Aortais indistinct and in others it cannot be detected.

The reason why the blood-vessels are distributed

all over the body is that blood (and in bloodless

creatures, its counterpart) is the material out of

which the whole body is constructed, and blood-

vessels (and their counterparts) are the channels in

21-9,

ARISTOTLE668 3

(f)X€^l Kal TO) avaXoyov Ketadai. ttcos" /xev ovv

Tpe(f)€Tai ra â)a koL €K rivos Kal riva rpoTTOv

dvaXafi^dvovcnv ck rrjs KOiXlas iv tols Trepl yeve-

crecD? Aoyots" fJ^dXXov dpfJiolêL GKorreZv Kal Aeyetv.

10 [EvviGrafjievcov Se rcov pLoplcov eV rod at/xaro?,

Kaddirep eiTTOfiev, evXoycns r) rcov Âe/3ctjv puat?

Std TTavTog rod awfiaros 7re(f)VK€V' Set yap Kal ro

atfJLa Slcl TTavTos Kal irapd Trdv etvai, elnep rdJv jxo-

picov eKauTOV eV rovrov Gwear-qKev^

"EotKe 8' ojOTTep €v re rols ki^ttols at vSpaycoylai

IT' KaraoKevdljOVTat drro puds dpx^js Kal Trrjyrjg et?

TToXXous 6x€rov? Kal dXXov? del irpos to Travrrj

pLeraSiSovaL, Kal iv rat? OLKohopiiais irapd ndaav

TTjv rcov depLeXiojv VTToypa^riv Xidoi Trapaê^XrjvraL,

Sid TO TO, pL€v Kr]7T€v6pL€va (jiveoOai eK rod vSaroSj,

Tovs Se depLeXiovs eK rwv XtOcov olKohopLeiadai, rov

20 avrov rpoirov Kal rj <^vgl? to atpia Std Travros

wX^TevKe rod owpLaros, cVetST) navro? vXt] 7T€<f)VK€

Tovro. yiverai he KaTaSrjXov iv rols pLaXcara Kara-

XeXeTTTvapiivois' ovOev yap dXXo (f)aLveTai irapd rds

(j)Xeâg, KaBdrrep iirl rdjv dpLTreXivajv re Kal avKivajv

25 (f)vXXu)v Kal du dXXa roiavra' Kal ydp tovtojv

avaivopievcov^ (fiXiês XeiTTOvraL piovov. rovrcuv S*

auTLov OTL TO afjLta Kal ro dvdXoyov rovrco Suva/xet

aojpLa Kal odp^ t) ro dvdXoyov iariv KaOdirep ovv

* 11. 10-13, quae praecedeiitia 1). 4-7 repetunt, secludenda.^ avau'Ofieicov attice Bekker.

« This seems to be an unnecessary repetition of the last

sentence but one.

250


which this material is carried. As regards the

manner in which animals are nourished, the source

of the nourishment, and the processes by which

they take it up from the stomach, it is more appro-

priate to consider these subjects and to discuss themin the treatise on Generation.

[But since the parts of the body are composedout of blood, as has been said, it is easy to see whythe course of the blood-vessels passes throughout

the whole body. The blood must be everywhere

in the body and everywhere at hand if every one of

the parts is constructed out of it.] **

The system of blood-vessels in the body may becompared to those water-courses which are con-

structed in gardens : they start from one source,

or spring, and branch off into numerous channels,

and then into still more, and so on progressively, so

as to carry a supply to every part of the garden.

And again, when a house is being built, supplies of

stones are placed all alongside the lines of the

foundations. These things are done because (a)

water is the material out of which the plants in the

garden grow, and (6) stones are the material out of

which the foundations are built. In the same way,Nature has provided for the irrigation of the whole

body with blood, because blood is the material out

of which it is all made. This becomes evident in

cases of severe emaciation, when nothing is to beseen but the blood-vessels : just as the leaves of vines

and fig-trees and similar plants, when they wither,

leave behind nothing but the veins. The explana-

tion of this is that the blood (or its counterpart) is,

potentially, the body (that is, flesh—or its counter-

part). Thus, just as in the irrigation system the

I 251

ARISTOTLE668 a

iv rats ox^Teiais at jLteytarat rwv Td(f)pa)v 8ta-

fXcvovGLV, at 8' eXd)(LGTa(, Trpwrai koI raxôjg vtto

TTJ? IXvo? dâvtôvrat, ttolXlv S* iKXeiTTOvcrqs

30 (jiavepal yivovrai, tov avrov rponov /cat tojv (jiXe^cbv

at /xev jLteytcrrat hiafiivovuiv, at 8' iXd^^Lurai yi-

vovrai udpK€s ivepyeca, Suya/xet 8' etatv ov8ev

rJGGov (f)Xe^€s. 8 to /cat GCjL)l,o}xivcov rdv GapKwvKad^ oTLovv alfia pel hiaLpovpievcjv' Kairoi dv€V pLev

Âeô? ovK eGTLV at/xa, <f)Xeîov^ 8' 07}8ev 87jAoy,

35 COGTTep OvS^ €V ToZs OX^TOiS 0.1 Td<f)pOl TTplv "^ TrjV

668 b tAuv iâipeOrjvaL.

'E/c /Ltetôvcov 8' €t? e'AacrcroL'S' at Âeê? aet

TTpoipxovrai ea>? rou yeveGdai revs iropovs iXdG-

Govg rrj? rod atfîarog TTayrurrjros' 8t' ayv rep /xev

alpLan SloSog ovk €Gri, ro) Se TTepirrcLpiari rrjs

vypdg LKpidSog, ov KaXovpLev ISpcbra, /cat rovro

5 StaOeppLavdevros rod GcopLaros Kal rajv (jyXeîwv

dvaGropLOjdevrcov. tJSt] 8e rtatv ISpojGaL Gvve^r]

at/xarcoSet Trepirrwpiari 8td Ka^^îav, rov pLev

GcjpLaros pvdhos /cat pLavov yevopLevov, rod 8' at-

pLaros i^vypavOevros 8t' d-n-eipLav, dSvvarovGTjs rrjs

iv roZs (f^Xe^LOLs deppLorrjros Trecraetv 8t* oXLyorrjra.

10 {etprjraL yap on rrdv ro koivov yrjs /cat vharos

TTaxvv^Tat TveGGopLevov, rj 8e rpocfirj /cat ro alpLa

pLiKrov i^ dp(f)OLV.) dSvvarel 8e neGGeiv rj deppLorrj?

ov pLovov 8td r7]v avrrjs oXiyorrjra dXXd /cat 8id

TrXrjdog /cat VTvepôXrjV ri^s €lG<f>epopiiv7]s rpo<f)7Js'

1 (Âe/3tov Bekker.

*• Could Aristotle have seen a case of haematoporphyria ?

252


biggest channels persist whereas the smallest onesquickly get obliterated by the mud, though whenthe mud abates they reappear ; so in the body the

largest blood-vessels persist, while the smallest ones

become flesh in actuality, though potentially theyare blood-vessels as much as ever before. Accordingly

we find that, as long as the flesh is in a sound con-

dition, wherever it is cut, blood will flow ; andalthough no blood-vessels are visible, they must bethere (because we cannot have blood without blood-

vessels)—just as the irrigating channels are there

right enough, but are not visible until they are

cleared of mud.The blood-vessels get progressively smaller as they

go on until their channel is too small for the blood

to pass through. But, although the blood cannot

get through them, the residue of the fluid moisture,

which we call sweat, can do so, and this happens whenthe body is thoroughly heated and the blood-vessels

open wider at their mouths. In some cases, the sweatconsists of a blood-like residue °

: this is due to a badgeneral condition, in which the body has become loose

and flabby, and the blood watery owing to insufficient

concoction, which in its turn is due to the weaknessand scantiness of the heat in the small blood-vessels.

(We have already said that all compounds of earth

and water are thickened by concoction, and this cate-

gory includes food and blood.) The heat may, as

I say, be in itself too scanty to be able to cause

concoction, or it may be that it is scanty in comparisonwith the amount of food that enters the body, if

See A. E. Garrod, Itiborn Errors of Metabolism, Oxford, 1923,

pp. 136 ff. Also H. Giinther, Deutsches Archiv /. klin.

Medizin, 1920, 134, PP- 257 fF.

253

ARISTOTLE668 b ^

yiverat 8e rrpos TavTr)v oXiyr]. r^ S' VTrepôXrj

15 SiCTG'q' Kal yap rep ttogo) /cat raj ttoico' ov yap ttov

6pLoia>s evrrerrrov. [pel he fxaXiara ro aifia Kara

rovs evpv)(cop^(yTOirovs rcov iropcov SiOTrep e/c rojv

IJAJKrripojv Kal rcov ovXcvv Kal rrjs eSpas, eviore he

Kal e/c rod orofiaros alfJLoppothes dnovoL yivovrai,

Kal ov)(^ (jjcrnep e/c rrjg apriqpias p.era /Stas".)

20 Atecrrojcrat 8* avcodev tj re p.eydXr] (^Xeip Kal rj

doprrj, Kara) 3* evaAAacjcroL'crat (TVvexovGi ro aaypâ.

TTpo'Covuai yap oxitôvrai Kara rrjv Siûtav rcov

KOjXajv, Kal T) fxev e'/c rod efiTrpoodev els rovmodev

npoepx^rai, rj 8' e/c rod oinoOev els rovfXTTpoaOev,

25 /cat GVfJi^dXXovaiv els ev warrep yap ev rots irXeKO-

fievois eyyiverai ro Gvvexes [JidXXov, ovroj Kal Sta

ri]s rd)V ^Xe^dov evaXXdêws GwhelraL rd)V aojpid-

rojv rd Trpoodia rols dmadev. ofiolajs he Kal dno

rrjs Kaphias ev roXs dvoj ronois GVfiâlvei. ro he

fjier dKpiêias d)S exovaiv at (jjXeês rrpos dXXiqXas,

30 e/c re rojv dvaroficov Set OeujpeZv Kal e/c tt^s* âjLKrjs

taroplas.

Kat Trept piev <j)Xel3d)V Kal Kaphlas elp-qcdoj,

rrepl he rd)v dXXajv urrXdyxyajv OKeTrreov Kara rrjv

avrrjv fxeOohov.

VI. UXevpLova pev ovv e;\;et 8ia ro nelov elval nyevos rd)V t,wajv. dvayKalov pev yap yiveodai ro)

85 OeppLcp Kardipv^Lv, ravr-qs he heXrai OvpaOev rd

669 a evaipâ rcov l^cLcov deppcorepa ydp. rd he /x?) eVatâ

" The posterior rena cai'a.

* Hist. An., especially 511 b 11—515 a 26.

254

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. v.-vi.

this is excessive ; and this excess may be due either

to the quantity of it or (since some substances are

less patient of concoction than others) to its quaUty.

(Haemorrhage occurs most where the passages are

widest, as from the nostrils, the gums and the

fundament, and occasionally from the mouth. Atthese places it is not painful ; when, however, it

occurs from the windpipe, it is violent.)

The Great Blood-vessel " and the Aorta, which in

the upper part are some distance from each other,

lower down change sides, and thus hold the bodycompact. That is to say, when they reach the place

where the legs diverge, they divide into two, andthe Great Blood-vessel goes over to the back fromthe front, and the Aorta to the front from the back

;

and thus they unite the body together, for this

changing over of the blood-vessels binds together

the front and the back of the body just as the cross-

ing of the strands in plaiting or twining makes the

material hold together more stoutly. A similar

thing occurs in the upper part of the body, wherethe blood-vessels that lead from the heart are inter-

changed. For an exact description of the relative

disposition of the blood-vessels, the treatises onAnatomy and the Researches upon Animals ^ should beconsulted.

We have now finished our discussion of the heart

and the blood-vessels, and we must go on to consider

the remaining viscera on the same lines.

VI. First the Lung. The reason why any group of Lung,

animals possesses a lung is because they are land-

creatures. It is necessary to have some means for

cooling the heat of the body ; and blooded animalsare so hot that this cooling must come from outside

255

ARISTOTLE669a ^ ^

/cat Toj (7Vfi(f)vrco TTvevfJLarL Suvarat Kara\jjv')(€iv

,

dvdyKT] Se Karaipvx^LV e^cudev 7] vSari tj depi.

SiOTTep Tijjv fiev l-)(9vojv ovheis ex^L TrXevfJiova, dXX*

dvrl Tovrov ^pdyxLo., Kaddnep eipTirai ev tols irepl

5 dva7TV0T]S' vSarc yap TTOLclrai ttjv Kardifjvîv rd8* dvaiTveovTa rep dipt, hioirep Trdvra to, dva-

TTviovra e;^€t TrXevpiOva. dvaTTvel Se rd fxev TTcl^d

Trdvra, eVta 8e /cat rojv ivvSpojv, olov <j)d\aiva /cat

heX(j>ls Kal rd dva(f)VGdjvra Kiqrri Trdvra' TToXXd ydp10 ra)V t)Cx)Oiv €TTayL(j)or€pit,€i rrjv cf)VGLVy Kal rdjv re

TT€l,a)v /cat rdv dipa Sexofievcov Sta rrjv rov ocxijiaros

KpdcTLV ev vypcp StareAet rov TrXeZorov xpovov, /cat

rojv ev ro) vypcp pêrexei rooovrov evia rfjs 7Tel,rjs

(f)VGeaj9 wor ev rep TTvevpLan avrcvv elvau ro reXos

rov l^rjv.

Tov 8* dvaTTvelv 6 vXevpLcov opyavov eon, rr)v fiev

15 dpx'Tjv rrj? KLvrjaecos ex^JV dTTO rrjs /capSta?, ttoiwv8' evpvx<^pLav rfj elaoSco rov TTvevpiaros hid rrjv

avrov GOfjicfyor-qra /cat ro fieyeOos' alpofxevov pev

ydp elupeZ ro TTvevp,a, GvvLovros 8* eêpx^rau TrdXiv.

ro 8e TTpos rrjv dXatv elvai rov vXevp,ova rrj? Kap-

8tas' ovK eip-qrai /caAcos" ev dvdpajTTO) re ydp ovpt,-

20 âivei puovov cos eiTreiv rd rijs Trrjhijaews 8ta to

jjLovov ev eA7rt8t yiveaOai /cat TrpoohoKia rov p.eX-

XovroSy dTTexî r' ev rols TrXeiorois ttoXvv roTiov /cat

Kelrai rrjv deoiv dvcorepoj rod TrXevpiovos, ojare

p^TjSev ovp^dXXeodai rdv TrXevpova Trpds rrjv dXatv

rrjs Kaphlas.

Ataêpet 8' d TrXevfJiOiv ttoXv rotS" ^cools. rd fiev

« See above, on 659 b 17. " 476 a 6.

« See above, on 650 b 19 ff.

*• This view is expressed by Timaeus in Plato's Timaeus, 70c.

256

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vi.

them, though the bloodless ones can do their owncooling by means of the connate pneuma.^ Nowexternal cooling must be effected either by water or

by air. This explains why none of the fishes hasa lung. They are water-cooled, and instead of alung they have gills (see the treatise on Respiration).^

Animals that breathe, on the other hand, are air-

cooled, and so they all have a lung. All land-animalsbreathe ; so do some of the water-animals (e.g. thewhale, the dolphin, and all the spouting cetacea).

This is not surprising, for many animals are inter-

mediate between the two : some that are land-

animals and breathe spend most of their time in thewater o^ving to the blend ^ in their bodies ; andsome of the water-animals partake of the nature of

land-animals to such an extent that the limiting

condition of life for them Ues in their breath.

Now the organ of breathing is the lung. It has

its source of motion in the heart, and it affords a

wide space for the breath to come into because it is

large and spongy : when the lung rises up, the

breath rushes in, and when it contracts the breath

goes out again. The theory ^ that the lung is pro-

vided as a cushion for the throbbings of the heart is

not correct. This leaping of the heart is practically

not found except in man, and that is because man is

the only animal that has hope and expectation of

the future. Besides, in most animals the heart is

a long way off from the lung and lies well aboveit, and so the lung cannot be of any assistance in

absorbing the throbbings of the heart.

^

There are many differences in the lung. Some

* In quadrupeds the lung is above the heart, but not in

man, owing to the difference of posture.

257

ARISTOTLE

25 yap evaijiov e;)(et kol /xeyav, ra 8' iXdrraj /cat

aofi(f)6p, ra îkv ^cporoKa Std T')7v O^pixoTrjTa ttjs

(pvGecos /xetjco /cat TToXvaifxov, ra 8' cooroKa ^rjpov

/cat fjLLKpov, SwdfJievov 8e fJLeydXa Suaracrdai iv rw

eix<f)vodo6at, cjorrep rd rerpdiroha jJLev (horoKa Se

30 Tojv Tret.ujv, olov 61 re oavpoi /cat at ;êAajvat /cat

77-ay TO TOiovrov yevos, ert 8e Trpos" rovrois r) rcov

TTTrjvaJv (f)VGLS /cat KaXovfievojv opvidcov. TrdvTOJV

yap TOVTOJV goijl<J)6s 6 TrAeu/xcov Kat ofiotos d(f)pa)'

/cat yap 6 d(f)p6s e/c ttoXXov puKpog ytVerat Gvyxô-

/xevo?, /cat o rourcov rrXevpLCuv fiLKpog /cat viievcLSrjg.

85 Sto /cat dSn/ja /cat oAtyoTrora ravra Trdvra, Kat

Suvarat 77oAuy ev roi vypo) dve-xêodai XP^^^^' ^'^^

yap oXiyov eôvra Oepfiov iKavchs ^.ttl ttoXvv xpoôv

9 b Karaiffux^rai v-n avrrjs rrj? rod vXevfjiovos klvt]-

aeojs, ovTos depojSovs /cat K€vov}

(EvpLJSef^TjKe 8e /cat ra fieyeOi] toutojv iXdrroj rcov

t,a)OJV ojs eTTLTTav etTretv to yap deppLov av^rjTLKOv,

T) Se TToXvaipiia depfiorrjros orjfietov. CTt 8' opdoZ

5 TO, Gdofiara /xaAAov, hioTrep dvdpojTTOs fJL€V rcJov

aAAcov opdorarov, rd 8e ôjoroKa rcJov dXXcvv rerpa-

TToSwv ovSev ydp ofJLOLCog rpojyXoBvTel tcjv t,ojo-

TOKCOVy OVr dlTOVV OVT€ 7T€ll,€VOU.)

"OXoj? pLev ovv 6 TrXevpiCxJV icrrlv dvaTTVorjs X^P^^>

dvaipios Se /cat TotoOTOS' yevovs rivos eVe/cev t,a)Cx)v'

10 dAA' dvojvvpiov TO KOLvov Itt" avTOJV, /cat ovx U)G7r€p

1 /:. ros . . . Keiov Thurot : ovcrqs ... Kcvrj^ vulg.

« Cf. 653 a 30 ff.

258

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vi.

animals have a large lung, which contains blood ;

others a small one and spongy. In the Vivipara it is

large and has much blood in it because these creatures

have a hot nature : in the Ovipara it is dry and small,

but it can expand to a great size when inflated :

examples of these are : among land -animals, the

oviparous quadrupeds like the lizards, tortoises, andall such creatures, and in addition to these the

tribe of winged things, the birds. All these have a

spongy lung, which, like froth, runs together andcontracts from a large volume into a small one. Soit counts as small ; and also it is membranous. As a

result, all these creatures are not much subject to

thirst, and drink but little ; and also they can bear to

remain a long time under the water : this is becausetheir heat is scanty and can therefore be sufficiently

cooled over a long period by the mere motion of the

lung, which is void and air-like.

(Consequently, one may add, in general these

creatures are smaller in size than the majority of

animals, as gro\\i:h is promoted by heat, and a plenti-

ful supply of blood is a sign that heat is present.

Furthermore, heat tends to make the body upright,"

which explains why man is the most upright amongthe animals and the Vivipara the most upright amongthe quadrupeds. And there are no viviparous

creatures, either with or Avithout feet, so fond of

creeping into holes as the Ovipara are.)

The lung, then, is present for the sake of the

breathing : this is its function always. Sometimes,to serve the purpose of a particular group, it is blood-

less, and such as has been described above. Thereis no common name which is applied to all animals

that have lungs. But there ought to be : because

i2 259

AllISTOTI.E669b

^ ^ , , , , , y „ ,

O OpVLS (LvOfiaGTaL 6771 TLVOS yivOVS. StO a)CJ7T€p TO

opviOi elvai €K TLVOS eCTTt, /cat e/cetVcoy cv rry ovcna

vnapx^L TO rrXevfjLova ^xîv.

VII. Ao/cet 8e Ttoj^ cr7rAay;^v6ov to, jiev etvai

ixovo^vi], KadoLTTep KapSca Kal vrAeu/xcuv, ret 8e

15 SL(f)vrj, KadoLTTep ve(f)poL, tol 8' aTTopetrat TTOTepcus

€X€i. âveit] yap av eTrajLtôreptêtv rourots' to

fjTTap Kal 6 cttXt^v Kal yap chs iJLOvo(j)ves eKaTepov,

Kal (Ls av6^ eVos" Svo TrapaTrXiqaiav exovTa ttjv

<j>vaiv. eaTL 8e iravTa hi(j>vd. to 8' atTiov 77 tou

awpiaTos StaoTaotS' SL(j)vr]s fxev ovaa, irpos /xtW 8e

20 o-uyTeAoOo-a dpx'^v' to fiev yap avcx) Kal ko-toj, to 8*

efiTTpoudev Kal oTnoBev, to 8e heîov Kal apiGTepov

ioTLV. hiOTTep Kal 6 iyK€(f)aXos jSouAerat Stêp^^S"

etvat 77a(7t /cat rcDv alodrjTripiojv eKaoTOV. KaTO,

Tov avTov 8e Adyov rj Kaphia Tals KoiXlats. 6 8e

TrXevfJLCJV €V ye^ Tot? ojotokois togovtov SLeGTrjKev

25 a>GT€ SoKeXv 8i;* ^X^*^^ auTo, irXevfiovas. ol 8e

v€(f)pol Kal TTavTl brjXof /caTo, 8e to rJTrap Kal tov

GTrXrjva SiKalajs av tls OLTTop'qGeLev. tovtov 8'

atTtov OTt iv fikv toZs i^ dvdyK7]s exovGL GnXrjva

Sdf€tev av otov vodov etvau rjirap 6 GirX-qVy iv Se toXs

fjLTj i^ dvdyKr)5 exovGiv, aAAd TrdiipuKpov wGTrep

30 Grjfjieiov X^P^^> evapycos Sifiepes to rjirdp eoTiv, Kal

TO /Ltev {/Ltetôyy els Ta Sefict, to 8' eAarrov etV Ta-

piGTepd jSouAeTat ttjv deGLv ^x^lv. ov fxrjv oAAd /cat

iv Tols woTOKOLS "^Jttov jjbev T) inl tovtojv <j)avep6vy

iviois 8e [/cd/cet worrep ev Ttcrt]^ ^cootokols e77t8?]AaJS'

hiiGTT)Kev , OLOV /caTct Ttva? TOTTOvs ol SaGVTToSes ^vo

^ ye Peck : re vulg. ^ /xetôv conieccram ; ma?or//ar5 S.' seclusi : woTrep ev riai cm. EY : Ka/cetVcov coni. Th.

260

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vi.-vii.

the possession of a lung is one of their essential

characteristics, just as there are certain char-

acteristics which are included in the essence of

a " bird," the name which is applied to another such

class.

VII. Some of the viscera appear to be single why the

{e.g. the heart and the lung) ; others double arrdoubie.

{e.g. the kidneys) ; and some it is difficult to place

under either heading. The liver and the spleen ap-

parently are intermediate ; they can be considered

either as each being a single organ, or else as twoorgans taking the place of one and having a similar

character. In fact, however, all of them are double.

And the reason for this is that the structure of the

body is double, though its halves are combined under

one source. We have upper and lower halves, front

and back halves, right and left halves. Thus even the

brain as well as each of the sense-organs tends in all

animals to be double ; so does the heart—it has

cavities. In the Ovipara the lung is so much divided

that they appear to have two lungs. The kidneys

are obviously double ; but there is fair room for

hesitation about the liver and spleen. This is be- Liver and

cause in those animals which of necessity have a "P^^®^

spleen, the spleen looks rather like a bastard liver,

while in those which have a spleen though not of

necessity

—

i.e. a very small one, as it were by wayof a token—the liver is patently double, and the

larger part of it tends to lie towards the right, the

smaller towards the left. Still, there are cases even

among the Ovipara where this division is less distinct

than in those just described, while in some Vivipara

the division is unmistakable

—

e.g. in some districts

2G1

ARISTOTLE669 b ^ „ y „ , ^ y , H ,

35 hoKOvoiv rjTTar ^x^lv, Kaddnep rcbv IxOvcov erepoi

re nves xal ol aeXaxcoSets.

670 a Atd 8e TO TTjv deoiv €X^t,v TO rjTTap iv rois heîoZ?

jidWov 7] rod OTrXrjvos yeyove (f)VGiSy cjor* avay-

KOLOV {lev 7TC05, fJLTj AtttV 8' €LVaL TTOiGL TOt? t,OJOlS >

Tov i-iev ovv SL(f)vrj rr]v (f)VOLV etvai rcov OTrXdy-

Xvcov atrioVy coGirep etTTOfjiev, ro Su' etvai ro Se^tov

5 /cat ro dpiorepov eKarepov yap ^rjreZ ro ojioiov,

wcnrep /cat a?3Ta ôvXerai TrapairX'qGiav /cat hihvpir]v

€X^Lv rrjv (j}-uoLVy /cat Kaddrrep^ e/cetva StSu/xa /xeV,

avvqprrjrat 8' els eV, /cat rcov oirXdyxvcov ojjlolojs

€Kaarov.

"EaTt 8e GTrXdyxvoL rd /cclto) rod vno^cofj-aro?

KOLvfj fiev ndvra rcov Âe^cDv x^P^^* ottojs ovoai

10 ixeriojpoL jLteVcoot toj rovrcov avvSeofJia) Trpos ro

aojfjLa. Kaddnep dyKvpai yap êftXr^vrai rrpos ro

(Tcofia 8td rcov dTTorerafiivijJv ixopiojv diro fxev rrj<;

fxeydXr^s (f)X€^6s Trpos ro rjTTap Kal rov GTrXrjva,

rovrojv yap rcov orrXdyxvo^v rj (J)vgls olov tjXol irpos

ro GcojJLa TTpooXafi^dvovGLV avrrjv, els piev rd

15 TrXdyia rod Gcofxaros ro 6^ rjirap /cat o gttXtjv rrjv

<f)Xeâ rr]v fjLeydXrjv [dTTo ravrrjs yap els avrd pLovov

hiareivovGL (fyXefês), els 8e rd OTnodev ol ve(f)poL.

Trpos 8* eKeivovs ov fiovov aTro rrjs pLeydXrjs

(f)Xe^6s dXXd /cat aTTO r7]s doprrjs reivei (j)Xeip els

eKdrepov.

TauTa St) ovpâivei 8 id ro-urojv rfj GVoraGei

20 rcjv l,a)OJV /cat ro jxev rjrrap /cat o gttXt^v ôrjOel

TTpos rrjv TTeipLV rrjs rpocfyrjs (eVat/xa ydp ovra dep-

^ KoX Kaddvep PZ : «ai om. vulg.

262

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vii.

hares appear to have a couple of livers ; so do certain

fishes, especially the cartilaginous ones.*

The spleen owes its existence to the liver beingplaced somewhat over to the right-hand side of thebody : this makes the spleen a necessity in a way,though not an urgent one, for all animals.

Thus, the reason why the viscera are double in

their formation is, as we have said, that the bodyis two-sided, having right and left. Each of the twoaims at similarity, just as the sides themselves strive

to have a similar nature, and to be as like as twins ;

and just as the sides, though dual, are conjoinedtogether into a unity, so also it is with the several

viscera.

The viscera which are below the diaphragm are

all of them present for the sake of the blood-vessels,

in order that the latter may have freedom of carriage

and at the same time be attached to the body bymeans of the viscera, which act as a bond. Indeed,

there are, as it were, anchor-lines thrown out to

the body through the extended parts : e.g. from the

Great Blood-vessel to the liver and to the spleen, for

these viscera act, as it were, like rivets and fasten it

to the body ; that is to say, the liver and the spleen

fasten the Great Blood-vessel to the sides of the body(since blood-vessels pass to them from it alone), while

the kidneys fasten it to the rear parts. And to the

kidneys—to each of them—there is a blood-vessel

passing not only from the Great Blood-vessel butalso from the Aorta.

These advantages, then, accrue to the animal organ-

ism from the lower viscera. Liver and spleen also

assist in the concoction of the food, since they both

« Sharks, etc.

263

ARISTOTLE870a ^ ^

fXTjV €^€1 TTjV (f>VGLv), ol 8e V€(f)pOL 77/30? TO TTCpLT'

TCUfia TO elg rr)v kvgtlv OLTTOKpLvofievov.

KapSta fi€V ovv Kal r^Trap Trdoiv avayKoia rois

fojot?, 7] fiev Sua Tr]v rrjs OepjxorT^ros o-p-xjiv (Set yap25 eivai TLva olov eoriav, iv

fjKeloeraL rrjs (jivoecos to

t,(JJ7TVpOVV, Kal TOVTO €V<f)vXaKTOV, a)G7T€p CLKpOTToXiS

ovaa Tov Oixifxaros) , to 8' rjirap rrjs neipews x^tptv.

TTOLvra 8e helrai ra eVat/xa hvolv tovtolv, hioTrep

€X€L TTOLvra ra evaifia Suo Ta 07T\ay)(ya ravra^' oaa30 8' avarrveZ, Kal TrXevfjiova rpirov.

*0 8e GTrXrjv Kara GvjJLê^rjKos ef dvdyKrjs vtt-

dpx^L roLS eôvGLV, cjGTrep Kal ra Trepirrajpiara,

TO T iv TTJ KOiXia Kal TO 7T€pl TTjV KVGTLV. SiOTTCp

€V TLGLV e/cAetVet KaTO, to piiy^Bos, ojGirep tojv T€

7TT€pa>Ta)v ivLOLS, OGa depjXTjv €;êt ttjv KoiXiav, olov

670 b TTepiGTepd, Upa^, IktZvos, Kal irrl tcjv choTOKwv

8e Kal TeTpaTToScov opLoicos (puKpov yap TrdjJiTTav

exovGLv), Kal ttoXXoXs tojv XeTTiSajTcov drrep Kal

KVGTLV ovK ex^L Slo, TO TpeTTeodaL TO TTepLTTajfia Slol

fiavojv TOJV GapKcbv els TTTepd Kal XeirlSas. 6 yap5 GTrXrjv dvTLGTTO. CK Trjs KOLXias Tas LKfidSas tols

TTCpLTTevovGas , Kal hvvaraL GVixireTTCLV alfiaTcoSrjs

a>v. dv 8e to TreptTTCofia rrXelovfj

t) oXiyoOepfios 6

GTrX'qVy vooaKepd ylveraL jrXrjp-qs^ (ovGoy Tpocjiris'

Kal 8ta TTjV ivTavda iraXippoLav ttjs vypoTrjTos ttoX-

Aot? at KOLXiaL GKXrjpal yivovTaL GTrXrjvLWGLV, a)G-

10 Trep TOLS Xiav ovprjTLKoZSi 8ta to avrLTTepLGTrdodaL

* Tavra P : ravra fiovov vu\g.* nXi^pm EYZ : TrX-qfyi) vulg.

^ {oSaa) Peck.

264

PARTS OF ANLMALS, III. vii.

have blood in them and so are hot. The kidneysassist in connexion with the residue which is excretedinto the bladder.

Now the heart and the liver are necessary to all

animals. The heart is necessary because there mustbe a source of heat : there must be, as it were, ahearth, where that which kindles the whole organismshall reside ; and this part must be well guarded,being as it were the citadel of the body. The liver is

necessary for the sake of effecting concoction. All

blooded creatures must have these two viscera, andthat is why these two are always present in them.A third, the lung, is present in those animals that

breathe.

But the spleen, where present, is present ofnecessity spleen.

in the sense of being an incidental concomitant, as

are the residues in the stomach and in the bladder.

So in some animals the spleen is deficient in size,

as in certain birds which have a hot stomach, e.g.

the pigeon, the hawk, and the kite ; the same applies

to the oviparous quadrupeds (all of these have anextremely small spleen) and to many of the scaly

creatures. These animals just mentioned also lack

a bladder, because their flesh is porous enough to

enable the residues formed to pass through it and ,

produce feathers and scales. For the spleen drawsoff the residual humours from the stomach and in

virtue of its blood-like nature can assist in the con-coction of them. If, however, the residue is toobulky or the spleen has too little heat, the stomachgets full of nourishment and becomes diseased.

And in many cases, when the spleen is ailing,

the stomach becomes hardened owing to thefluid which runs back into it. This happens with

265

ARISTOTLE670b ^

^ ^

rag vyporriras. olg Se oXiyi) TrepirrayoLS yiverai,

Kaddirep roXg opvioLs koI tols Ixdvat, ra pikv ov

fxeyav ex^L, ra 8e orîxeiov ;)(aptv. /cat ev rots

rerpoLTTOGi Se roTg (1)Ot6kols fiLKpo? Kal GTK^pos kol

ve^poihrjs 6 gtt\i]v cutl 8ta ro rov TrXevjJLOva oofiôv

15 elvai KOI oXiyoTToreZv kol to Trepiyivoixevov Treplr-

rcofJLa rpeTTeoOai els to crco/xa /cat ras (j)o\ihas,

wavep etV ra rrrepa rols opvioiv.

'Ev Se rot? KvcfTiv exovoi /cat tov TrXevjJLOva

evaijJLOV vypog ian Sid re ttjv elpT^fJievqv alriav /cat

Sta TO Tr]v (jyvGLV rrjv Toiv dpiorepayv oXcog vypo-

20 repav elvai /cat i/jvxporepav. hir^p-qrai yap rcjv

ivavTLOJV eKaorov npos rrjv uvyyevrj avaroLXtav,

otov Seîov ivavriov dpLOTepco /cat Oepf-iov evavrtov

ipvxpcp' /cat GVGTOLXOL yoLp aAATJAot? eiVt rov elprj-

fxevov rpoTTov.

Ot Be vecfypol rots exovGLv ovk ef dvdyK-qg dXXdrod €V /cat /caAco? eVe/cev vrrdpxovGiv rrjs yap

25 7T€pirr(xiGeojs X^P^^ "^V^^^'^ "^W f^^^^'^'-^ ddpoit,oii€vr]s

eLGi Kara rrjv Ihiav cf)VGLV, iu ogols TxAetov vtto-

arrjiJLa yiverai ro roiovrov, ottcos êXnov a7ro8t8a>

Tj KVGns ro avrrjs epyov.

*E77et Se rrjs avrrjs eVe/ca ;^/3etas' tous" re ve^povs

GVfjLê^TjKev e;êtv to, â>a /cat rr^v Kvoriv, XeKreov

80 TTepl KVGretos vvv, vjrep^dvras rov ecfje^rjs raJv

fMoplajv dpidfJLov TTepl yap (f)pevcov ovSev tto) 8t-

" The reference to the " columns " or " double list " is

not clear. There was a Pythagorean avaroixia; this andother avGTOLxlai are mentioned in Ross's note on his trans-

lation of Met. 986 a 23.'' i.e. left and cold are both in the same column ; right and

hot are both in the other column.m

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vii.

tliose who make water excessively : the fluids are

drawn back again into the stomach. But in animals

where the amount of residue produced is small, as in

birds and fishes, the spleen is either small or present

simply by way of a token. In the oviparous quadru-peds, too, the spleen is small and compact, andlike a kidney, because the lung is spongy and the

animals drink little, and also because the residue

which is produced is applied for the benefit of the

body itself and of the scaly plates which cover it,

just as in birds it is applied for the benefit of the

feathers.

In those animals, however, which possess a bladder,

and whose lung contains blood, the spleen is watery.

The reason already given partly explains this. An-other is that the left side of the body is generally

more watery and colder than the right. As we know,the opposites are divided up into two columns," so

that each is classed with those that are akin to it, e.g.

right is in the opposite column to left, and hot to

cold ; and thus some of them stand together in the

same column, as I have just indicated.^

Kidneys are present in some animals, but not

of necessity ; they are present to serve a good pur-

pose ; that is to say, their particular nature enables

them to cope with the residue which collects in the

bladder, in those cases where this deposit is somewhatabundant, and to help the bladder to perform its

function better.

Since the bladder is present in animals to serve

precisely the same purpose as the kidneys, we mustnow say something about it. This will involve a

departure from the serial order in which the parts

actually come, for we have said nothing so far about

267

ARISTOTLE670 b

copiorai, TOVTO 8e tl rcov irepl ret cr77-Aay;^va jxopioiv

VIII. Kucrrtv 8* ov Travr* exî to. ^coa, dAA*

eoiK€v Tj cf)VGLg ôvXojxlvrj airohihovai rots e)(ovoi

671 a Toy TrXevyiova evatfiov fiovov, rovroLS 8* evXoyojs.

Sta yap rrjv vnepox'^v rrjs (f)vcr€a)?, rjv exovGLV iv

Tip pLopioj TOVTcp, Sup-qriKa re ravr iorl /xaAtara

rcjv t,(pojv, Kal Setrat rpo(j)y]s ov jjlovov rrjs i'^pds

dXXa Kal TTJg vypds TrXelovos, cuctt' €^ avdyK7]s Kal

; 5 TTeplrTcofia yiveodai nXelov Kal fjurj rooovrov fiovov

oaov VTTO rrjs KOiXta? TrerrecrOaL Kal eKKpiveuSai

fxerd Tov ravTrjs TTepirrajpLaros. dvdyKr) roivvv

ctval ri ScKTiKov Kal rovrov rod TrepiTTcofiarog.

SiOTTep ocra nXevfJiova e)(€i tolovtov, dnavr e;êt

KVGTiv oaa he jjir^ tolovtov, dAA' rj oXiyoTTord eon

10 hid TO TrXevfjiova e^îv GOjJicfyov, rj oXcos ro vypov

TTpOGcfydperaL ov ttotov X^P^'^ dXXd rpO(j)rJ9, otov rd

evTOjJLa Kal ol IxOves, ert he Trrepcurd eoriv rj

XeTTihoird t) ôAtScord, ravra 8t' oXiyorrjrd re rrjs

rod vypov rrpoocjyopds Kal hid rd rpeTreuBai els

ravra rd TrepiyivopLevov rod TTepirriopiaros ovhev

15 €X€i rovrojv Kvoriv, irXr^v at ;êAcDp'at rcov ôAtScu-

TOJV, Kal ivravd^ rj (f)vais KeKoXo^corai jxovov atriov

8' on at jiev OaXdrriai aapKcohrj Kal evaijiov exovoi

rov TrXevjjLova Kal djxoiov rco ôeico, at he ;)(epcratat

jLtetô) 7j /caret Xoyov. en he hid ro oorpaKajhes

20 Kal TTVKVov elvai ro rrepiexov ov hianveovros rov

vypov hid fjiavcov rojv aapKOJv, olov rois dpviai Kal

roZs d(j)eai Kal rois dXXois rois <j)oXih(x}rois , vrro-

268

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. vii.-viii.

the diaphragm, though this is one of the parts that

are near the viscera.

VIII. The bladder is not present in all animals : Bladder.

Nature seems to have intended only those animals

which have blood in their lung to have a bladder.

And this is quite reasonable, when we remember that

such animals have an excess of the natural substance

which constitutes the lung, and are therefore moresubject to thirst than any others ; i.e. they need a

larger amount of fluid food as well as of the ordinary

solid food, and the necessary result of this is that a

larger amount of residue also is produced, too large

in fact for all of it to be concocted by the stomach

and excreted with its own proper residue ; hence it

is necessary to have some part that will receive this

additional residue. This shows us why all animals

which have blood in their lung possess a bladder

too. As for those whose lung is spongy and which

therefore drink little, or which take fluids not as

something to drink but as food (e.g. insects andfishes), or which are covered with feathers or scales

or scaly plates, not one of these has a bladder, owing

to the small amount of fluid which they take andowing to the fact that the surplus residue goes

to form feathers or scales or scaly plates, as the

particular case may be. Exceptions to this are the

Tortoises : though scaly-plated they have a bladder.

In them the natural formation has simply been

stunted. The cause of this is that in the sea-varieties

the lung is fleshy and contains blood, and is similar to

the lung of the ox ; while in the land-varieties it is

disproportionately large. And whereas in birds andsnakes and the other scaly-plated creatures the

moisture exhales through the porous flesh, in these it

269

ARISTOTLE671 a

CTTttCTt? ytverai roaavrrj ware SeladaL rrjv (f>v(JLV

avTcav e\'etv rt fiopiov Scktckov Kal dyycLcvSeg.

KvoTLv jiev ovv ravra fjiovov rwv roiovrcov e;)(et 8td

25 TavT-qv TTjv alriav, rj fxev daXarria fjLeydXrjv, at Se

X^pdatai fjLLKpdv Trdfirrav.

IX. 'OjjLOLCos 8' exî Kal Tvepl vecjipcov. ovhe yapve(f)povs ovT€ rcov TTrepwrcov /cat AeTrtSajrcDv ovhev

€X€L ovT€ Tcov (ôXlSojtcov, ttXtjv at daXaTTcai

X^XojvaL Kal at ;;ê/oo'atat • dAA* d)s rrjs et? rovs

80 v€(f)pov9 Terayixivqs crapKos ovk ixovor^s ;ôjpav

dAAct SLeGTTapfJLevrjs et? TroAAd, TrXaria ve(f)po€ih7J iv

evLOLs TCOV opvidojv eariv. rj S* ifJivg ovt€ kvutlv

ovT€ v€(f)povs ^X^^' ^^^ '^^ fJLaXaKorrjra yap rov

X^XojVLOV evSLaTTvovv yiverai to vypov. r) pikv ovv

Ijxvs hid TavTTjv rrjv atrtav ovk ex^t tojv fjLoplajv

ovheTepov toIs S' dXXois ôjots" toZs exovGLv ev-

35 atfJioVy ajGTTep etpT^rat, tov TrXevfiova vrdat gvjjl-

671 b ^€^r]K€v €X€LV v€(f)pov£. KaTaxpTjTai yap rj (f)vcns

dfia TCOV re cfjXe^dJv X^P^^ '^^^^ Trpos ttjv tov

vypov TTepiTTWjjLaTOS €KKpiGLV (f)6p€L ydp els

avTovs TTopos eK TTJs fieydXrjs (fyXeôs.

''E;;ôfcrt 8' ol vecppol TrdvTcg koIXov, t) TrXelov rj

6 eXaTTOV, TrXrjv ol ttjs cfycoKrjs' ovtol 8* dpLOioi rots'

ôeioL? 6vT€s GTepecoTaTOL irdvTOJV ecGLV. oôtot 8e

Kal ol TOV dvdpciJTTOv Tols ôeiois' €lgI ydp ajGirep

GvyKetfxevoL Ik ttoXXcjv v€(f)pdjv fXiKpaJv Kal ovx

djLtaAetS", a)G7T€p ol twv rrpo^dTCjov Kal tcov dXXcov

TOJV reTpaTToScov. 8to Kal to dppcoGTTjfia toZs

<• Greek, " hemys." This description, which does not fit

270

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. viii.-ix.

cannot do so, because the integument which surrounds

them is dense, hke a shell ; and so the excretion is

produced in such quantities that the Tortoises needsome part which shall act as a vessel to receive it.

That, then, is why they are the only animals of the

kind which have a bladder. In the sea-tortoise it is

large, in the land-tortoise quite small.

IX. Much the same may be said of the kidneys as Kidneyts.

of the bladder. Kidneys are not present in any of

the animals that have feathers or scales or scaly plates,

except the two sorts of tortoises just mentioned. In

some birds, howêver, there are flat Iddney-shaped

objects, as if the flesh that was allotted to form the

kidneys had found no room for its proper function

and had been scattered to form several organs. TheEmys ^ has neither bladder nor kidneys : this is be-

cause it has a soft shell which allows the moisture to

transpire freely through it. But, as I said before, all

the other animals whose lung contains blood have

kidneys, since Nature makes use of them for two pur-

poses : (1) to subserve the blood-vessels ; and (2) to

excrete the fluid residue. (A channel leads into themfrom the Great Blood-vessel.)

There is always a hollow (lumen), varying in size,

in the kidneys, except in the seal, whose kidneys are

more solid than any others and in shape resemble

those of the ox. Human kidneys too resemble those

of the ox : they are, as it were, made up out of a

number of small kidneys,^ and have not an even

surface like those of the sheep and other quadrupeds.

Thus, when once an ailment attacks the human

any animal now known as Emys, seems to be that of somefreshwater tortoise.

'' This is not true of the normal adult, but it is true of

the foetus.

274

ARISTOTLE671 b ^

^

10 avdpcoTTOLs SvaanaXXaKTOV avrcov iariv, av dna^

voarjcrojGLV' avfiâtvei yap ojairep ttoXXovs v6(f)povs

vooovvTixjv x^^XeTTOjrepav etvaL ttjv laaiv "q rcov eva

VOOOVVTCOV

.

'0 8' OLTTO Ti]5 (f)Xe^6£ reivojv iropos ovk et? to

KolXov TcJuv v€(f)p(jijv KaTareXcvrd, dAA' el? to ocofxa

KaravaXiuKeTai rwv v€(f)pa)V' hioirep ev rols kolXols

15 avTOJv OVK iyyiverai alfMa, ovSe m^yvvrai reXev-

TcLvTiov. eK 8e tov koLXov TCOV V€(f)pCOV cf)€pOVGL

TTopoi dvai/jLOi et? ttjv kvgtlv hvo veaviKoi, i^

eKarepov ef?, Kal aAAot e/c ttjs doprijs laxvpol /cat

avvexels. ravra 8* e;êt rov rponov rovrov ottojs

eK fxev TTJs" Âeôs" to TreptTTCo/xa Trjs vypoTTjTO?

20 âhitpr^ els tovs ve(f)povs, eK 8e rtuv ve(f)pcx)V rj

yuvofievq virouTauis StrjOovfJievcDV tcov vypcov Bid

tov (jcLpLaTos Tcbv ve(f)pa)v els to fxeaov avpperj^ ov

TO KoZXov ol TrXeluToi exovGLV avTcov {Slo Kal Sva-

coSeGTaTOV tovto tojv GTrXdyxvojv euTLv)' eK 8e tov

fjieaov 8ta. tovtojv tojv TTopojv els ttjv kvgtlv tJSt]

25 fJidXXov CVS TTepLTTajfjia dTTOKpiveTai. KaBojppiiGTai

8' -q KVGTLS eK TOJV ve(f)pdjv' TeivovGi ydp, ojGirep

eLprjTat, iropoi iGxvpol irpos avTiqv,

01 fiev ovv vecjjpoi hid TavTas ras" atrta? etcrt, Kal

ras" Svvdpieis exovGi ras" elprjfxevas.

'Ev TTaGL 8e ToXs exovGL vecf)povs 6 Se^Los dvojTepco

TOV dpiGTepov eGTLv 8ta ydp to ttjv klvtjglv elvaL

80 eK TCOV Se^Lcov Kal iGxvpoTepav 8td raur' etvat ttjv

• The ureters.

272

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ix.

kidneys, the trouble is not easily removed, becauseit is as though the patient had many kidneys diseased

and not one only ; and so the cure is more difficult to

effect.

The channel which runs from the Great Blood-

vessel to the kidneys does not debouch into the

hollow part of the kidneys, but the whole of whatit supplies is spent upon the body of the kidneys ;

thus no blood goes into the hollows, and at deathnone congeals there. From the hollow part of thekidneys two sturdy channels ** lead into the bladder,

one from each ; these contain no blood. Otherchannels come from the Aorta to the kidneys

;

these are strong, continuous ones. This arrange-

ment is on purpose to enable the residue from the

moisture to pass out of the blood-vessel into the

kidneys, and so that when the fluid percolates

through the body of the kidneys the excretion that

results may collect into the middle of the kidneys,

where the hollow is in most cases. (This explains,

incidentally, why the kidney is the most ill-scented

of all the viscera.) From the middle of the kidneythe fluid is passed off through the aforesaid channelsinto the bladder ; by which time it has practically

taken on the character of excremental residue. Thebladder is actually moored to the kidneys : as hasbeen stated, there are strong channels extendingfrom them to it.

We have now given the causes for which thekidneys exist, as well as their character and functions.

The right kidney is always higher up than the left.

The reason for this is that as motion always begins onthe right-hand side, the parts that are on that side are

stronger than those on the other ; and owing to this

273

ARISTOTLE671 b ^

^ ^(j)VGiv TTjv rcbv 8e^ta>v, Set TrpooSoTTOLrjoaGdai Blol

rr]v KLvrjGLV irpos ro avoj ravro} ra /xopta /xaAAov,

eVet Kal rrjv o(f)pvv rrjv Seftav aipovcri pLoXkov /cat

€TTLKeKapipL€vr]v €xov(jL TTJs dpLGTepds jLtaAAov. /cat

35 Sta TO aveoTTaodai avojrepov rov 8eftov v€(j)p6v ro

•^TTap aTTTeraL rov Se^tou v€(f)pov iv Tracrtv eV rot?

672 a Se^totS" yap to rjirap.

"KxovGL 8' OL ve(j)pol jLtctAtCTra rcDv GnXdyxvcov

TTipieXriv, i^ dvdyKrjg pêv 8ta to SLrjdeiadai to

TTepLTTOjpLa Sid Twv v€(f)pcov TO ydp AetTTOftCVOV

at/xa KaOapov ov evTreiTTov cart, reAo? 8' evTreiplas

6 aLpLartKrjg TnpeXr) /cat oTeap eoriv. [ajuirep yap ev

Tols 7T€TrvpcopievoLs ^ripols, olov Tjj Te(f)pa, eyKara-

AetVerat tl Trvp, ovtoj /cat iv tols TrevepLpLevois

vypoZs' ey/caraAetVerat ydp tl ttjs elpyaopLevqs

OeppLOTTlTOg pLOptOV. hlOTTCp TO XlTTapOV KOV(j>6v CGTi

/cat €7Ti7ToXdt,€L iv TOt? vypols) €v avTolg pcev ovv

10 ov ytVerat rot? ve<f)pOL? 8ta to ttvkvov elvai to

oirXdyxyov , eôj 8e TrepttWarat TnpLeXrj pL€V iv rot?

77tjLteAcL>8ecrt, crreap 8' ev rots' o-rearcoSeotv ly 8e

SLa(f)opd TOVTOJV eip'qTai rrporepov iv eripoLS.

'E^ dvdyKrjg pLev ovv TTt/ieAajSets" ytVovrat 8ta

ravTTjv TTjv aiTiav iK tcov GvpLâLvovrcDV e| dvdyKTjg

15 rots' eôvGi v€cf)povs, eVe/ca 8e GCOTrjpLas /cat rou

Oepprjv elvac ttjv (f)VGLV TrjV tujv v€(j>p(x)V. eoxaroL

re yd/3 oWes aAeas' heovTai TrXelovos' to pikv ydp

vojTov GapKwhis ioTLV, OTTOJSfj

TTpoôXrj Tols TTept

^ ravra Peck : Trdvra villfiT.

« See Book II. ch. v.

274,


motion they are bound to make their way upwardsbefore the ones on the left. Tlius people raise theright eyebrow more than the left, and it is morearched. A result of this drawing up of the right

kidney is that in all animals the liver, which is on the

right side of the body, is in contact with it.

The kidneys contain more fat than any other of the Fat in

viscera. This is partly a necessary consequence upon ^^'^'i^y^

the percolation of the residue throuirh the kidneys :

in other words, the blood which gets left behind there

is easy of concoction because it is pure, and whenblood undergoes complete concoction the final pro-

ducts are lard and suet. (A parallel is to be found in

the case of solid substances which have undergonecombustion : e.g. a certain amount of fire gets left

behind in ash. So, in fluid substances which haveundergone concoction : some portion of the heatwhich has been generated remains behind. That is

why oily substances are light and come to the top of

fluids.) This fat is not formed actually in the kidneysthemselves, because they are so dense : it collects

outside them. In some it has the form of lard, in

others the form of suet, according to the character of

the animal. (The difference between the twô has

been explained already in another connexion.) "

This formation of lard, then, about the kidneys is

the necessary consequence upon the conditions whichnecessarily obtain in animals that possess kidneys.

But there is another reason for its formation, and that

is, on purpose to safeguard the kidneys themselvesand to preserve their natural heat. The kidneys are

the outermost of all the \'iscera, and therefore theyneed more warmth. WTiereas the back is liberally

supplied with flesh, which enables it to act as a

27:5

ARISTOTLE672 a

rrjv Kaphlav OTrXdyxi'OLg , rj 8' 6o(j)vs aaapKos[auapKoi yap at KapLTral ttolvtcov) • olvtI crap/cos" ovv

20 Tj TTLfieXr] TTpo^Xrjjjia yiverai roZs V€(f>poL?. en he

hiaKpivovGi Koi TrirrovGi ttjv vyporrjra fiaXXov

TTLOves ovres' to yap Xiirapov Oepfiov, Trerrei S* r]

OepfjiOTr]?.

Ata ravras fxev ovv ras alrias ol vecfypol TTifxeXco-

Seis eloiv, ev ndcn Se tols ^(x)ols 6 Sextos" dnLfjieXa)-

repos eoTLV. atriov he ro rrjv (J)Vglv ^r^pdv etvai

25 rrjv rcjv Se^LCJV Kal KivqrLKCjrepav' rj he Kivrjcn^

ivavria- nqKei yap to rrlov fiaXXov.

Tols pêv ovv dXXois Repots ovp(j)epei re rovs

ve^povs ^X^''^ TTLOvaSy /cat TroAAa/cts" e-)(ovoiv oXovs

TTepLTrXeoJS- to he TTpoâTov orav tovto TrdOrj

aTTodvrjGKeL. dXX dv Kal Trdvv TTioves wglv, dpLots

so eAAetVet rt, dv prj /car' dp(f)OT€povs, dXXd /cara tov

he^Lov} a'iTLOv he tov pLovov tj pidXiGTa tovto

Gvpâlveiv eirl tcov TTpo^dTOJV, otl rot? piev mpe-XcoheGLV vypdv to ttIov, cocrr' ovx dpioiws cy/cara-

KXeiopeva to, rrvevpaTa TToieZ tov ttovov. tov he

G(f)aK6XLGpiov tout' a'iTcov eGTLv hid Kal TCOV dv-

3^ dpCjJTTOJV Tols TTOVOVGL TOVS Ve(f)pOVS, KaLTT€p TOV TTtal-

veodaL GvpL<f)epovTog , dpojs dv Xiav ylvcovTai ttloves,

ohvvai davaT7](f)6poi GvpâivovGiv. tcx)v S* d'AAcov

672 b Tol? GTeaTwheoLV tjttov ttvkvov to GTeap rj tols

npo^dTOLS. Kal tw TrXrjOeL ttoXv Ta TrpoâTa vrrep-

^ctAAef yiveTai yap 7TepLve(f)pa Td^LGTa tcqv ôjcov

Ta TrpoâTa TrdvTOJV. iyKaTaKXeLopevrjs ovv ttjs

vypoTTjTOS Kal Tojv TTvevpdTOJV 8ta tov G(j)aKeXLGpidv

^ oAA* av , , , heîov post elaiv 1. 23 transponit Thurot.

276


protection for the viscera about the heart, the loin,

in common with all parts that bend, is not so supplied ;

and this fat we have been speaking of serves as asafeguard to the kidneys in place of flesh. Further,

the kidneys are better able to secrete and to concoct

the fluid if they are fat, because fat is hot and heatcauses concoction.

These are the reasons why the kidneys are fat. In

all animals, however, the right kidney has less fat

than the left. This is because the right-hand side

is dry and solid and more adapted for motion thanthe left ; and motion is an enemy to fat, because it

tends to melt it.

Now it is an advantage to all animals to have fat

kidneys, and often they are completely filled with fat.

The sheep is an exception : if this happens to a sheepit dies. But even if the kidneys are as fat as can be,

there is always some portion which is clear of fat, if

not in both kidneys, at any rate in the right one. Thereason why this happens solely (or more especially)

to sheep is as follows. Some animals have their fat

in the form of lard, which is fluid, and thus the windcannot so easily get shut up within and cause trouble.

When this happens, however, it causes rot. Thus, too,

in the case of human beings who suffer from their

kidneys, although it is an advantage for them to befat, yet if they become unduly fat, pains result whichprove fatal. As for the animals whose fat is in the

form of suet, none has such dense suet as the sheephas ; and moreover, in the sheep the amount of it is

much greater ; the fact that they get fat about the

kidneys much more quickly than any other animal

shows this. So when the moisture and the wind get

shut up within, rot is produced, which rapidly kills

277

AKISTOTLE672 b ^

5 dvatpovvTaL raxecos' Sta yap rrjg aoprrjs /cat rrj^

(jyXeôs €vdv9 OLTTavra ro ttolOos irpos ttjv Kaphiav

ol he TTopoi avvex^ls oltto tovtcov tcov cjiXe^cav etcrt

TTpOS TOVS V€(f)pOVS.

Hepi fJL€v ovv rrj? /capSta? Kal TrXevfiovos etprjrai,

/cat TTCpl rJTTaros Kal OTrXrjvos Kal v€(f)pa)v. X. rvy-

10 ^dveL 8e ravra K€)(CjpiGiJLeva dXXrjXijjv rep Sta^co-

/Ltart. TOVTO Se to Sta^co/xa KaXovai rives (jipevas*

o Stopiêt rov re TrXevfiova Kal rrjv Kaphiav. KaXelrai

Se rovro ro 8td?co/xa iv rols eVat/xot?, ujairep /cat

etpr^raL, (j^peves. e;^ft he iravra rd evaijjLa auro,

Kaddirep Kaphiav Kal rjirap. rovrov 8' atrtov ort

15 rov hiopLGpLOV X^P^^ ^^'^^ '^°^ '^^ TTepl rrjv KoiXlav

roTTov Kal rod Trepl rrjv Kaphiav, ottojs t) rrjs

aLuOrjriKTJs 4'^XV^ ^PXV diraOrisfj

Kal jjlt] raxv

KaraXapL^dvYjrai hid rrjv diro rrjs rpo(f>7Js yLvofxevrjv

dvaOvpiiaoiv Kal ro ttXtjOos rrjs eireicdKrov 6ep-

{JLorrjros. errl yap rovro hieXajêv rj ^vois, olov

20 TTapoLKohojjirjjjia TTOLVjoaGa Kal (f)payp.6v rag <j>pevas,

Kal 8tetAe ro re rn-UcLrepov Kal ro drifiorepov iv

OGOLS evhex^Tai hieXelv ro dvoj Kal Kdrco' rd fiev

ydp dvco iarlv ov eveKev Kal êXriov, rd he Karco

rd rovrov eveKev Kal dvayKaTov, rd ri]s rpo(f)rjs

heKriKov.

"Eart he rd Sta^cojLta Trpos fiev rds TrXevpdg

25 uapKCoheGrepov Kal iGxvpdrepov, /caret p.€Gov 8'

vpuevcoheGrepov ovrco ydp Trpds rrjv lgxvv Kal rrjV

raGLV ;)^p')7crt/LtajTe/30V. Stort he irpos rrjv 6epp.drr]ra

TTjv Karojdev olov jrapaejivdhes eiGi, GrjjjLelov €k rajv

278

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. ix.-x.

the sheep off. The disease makes its way directly to

the heart through the Aorta and the Great Blood-

vessel, since there are continuous passages leading

from these to the kidneys.

We have now spoken of the heart and the lung ;

and also of the liver, the spleen and the kidneys.

X. These two sets of viscera are separated from Diaphragm.

each other by the diazoma, which some call thephrenes (diaphragm). This divides off the heart andthe lung. In blooded animals it is called j)hrenes, as

I have said. All blooded creatures have one, just as

they all have heart and liver. The reason for this

is that the diaphragm serves to divide the part

round the stomach from the part round the heart,

to ensure that the source of the sensory Soul may beunaffected, and not be quickly overwhelmed by the

exhalation that comes up from the food when it is

eaten and by the amount of heat introduced into the

system. For this purpose, then. Nature made the

division, and constructed the phrenes to be, as it were,

a partition-wall and a fence ; and thus, in those

creatures where it is possible to divide the upperfrom the lower, she divided off the nobler parts

from the less noble ones ; for it is the upper whichis " better," that ybr the sake of which the lower ex-'

ists, while the lower is " necessary," existing ybr the

sake of the upper, by acting as a receptacle for the

food.

Towards the ribs the diaphragm is fleshier andstronger, while in the middle it is more like a mem-brane : this makes it more serviceable as regards

strength and extensibility. An indication to showwhy there are, as it were, " suckers," to keep off the

heat which comes up from below, is provided by

279

ARISTOTLE672 b

GVfxpaivovrojv orav yap Sua rrjp yeirviacnv cXkv-

GCOGLV vypoTiqra depfjirjv Kal TTepLrTCxjfiariKTjv^ cvdvg

80 €7nS-qXoJs rapdrrei t7]v hidvoiav Kal ttjv alodiqGiv,

hio Kal KaXovvrai (jypeves ojs {JLerexovaai rt tov

(l)pov€lv. at Se iderexovGL /xev ouSeV, iyyvs 8*

ovaaL rcov fierexovrajv eTTihriXov ttolovgl ttjv [lera-

ôXrjV TTJ? SiavoLag. Sto /cat Aevrrat /caret fxeuov

elcrlv, ov fiovov ef dvdyKrjs, on oapKcoSas ovaag ra85 TTpos ras" nXevpas dvayKalov etvau oapKco'^^Grepas

,

aAA* tv* on oXiyioTTjs iierexfJôiv LKpidhos' oapKco-

673 a Sets' ydp dv ovGai Kal elxov Kal elXKOv fidXXov

tVjLtaSa TToXX-qv. on he OepfiaLvofxevaL Taîo^S

iTTiSrjXov TToiovGi Tr)v aiadrioiv, uiqixaiveL Kal to

Trept Tovs yeAcora? avfiâlvov yapyaXtôficvoL t€

ydp raxv yeAcocrt, Sta to tt^v Kivquiv dcfiiKveladai

6 Ta^Û TTpOS TOV rOTTOV TOVTOV, OepfJLaivofJLevov^ 8'

rjpejjia 7Tol€lv ojJLCog eTTLSrjXov Kal KiveZv ttjv 8ta-

votav TTapd ttjv TTpoaipeGiv. tov 8e yapyaXit,€Gdai

yiovov dvdpojTTOv atVtov 17 re XcTTTOT'qs tov SepjJiaTO^

Kal TO {jLovov yeXdv tcov t,(jp(jjv dvOpcoTrov. 6 8e

yapyaXiGpids yeXios €GtI Sta KivqGeojs:^ TOLavTT]?

10 TOV [xopLOV TOV 7T€pl Tr)v {xaGxdXrjv.

TiVfjLâlveLV 8e âat /cat irepl Tct? eV Tots' TToXefxois

TrXrjyds et? tov tottov tov 7T€pl Ta? (f)p€vag yeXcjjTa

Sid TTJV €K TTJs TrXrjyrj? yLVOjJbevrjv deppiOTriTa, tovto

^ depiiaivoixevov Peck : depfiaivovat. vulg. : -ovaa SZ : -ovaav

PUY. ^ KVTjaecjs Langkavel.

° The Risus Sardonicus : see Allbutt and Rolleston, ASystem of Medicine^ (1910), viii. 642.

280

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

what actually happens : whenever, owing to their

proximity, they draw up the hot residual fluid, this

at once causes a recognizable disturbance of the

intelligence and of sensation. And that is why they

are called phrenes : as if they took a part in the act

of thinking (phronein). This of course they do not

do ; but their proximity to those organs w^hich doso take part makes the change of condition in the

intelligence recognizable. That, too, is why the

phrenes are thin in the middle ; this is not dueentirely to necessity (though as they are fleshy to

begin with, the parts of them nearest the ribs mustof necessity be more fleshy still) ; there is another

reason, which is, to enable them to have as little

moisture in them as possible, since if they had beenwholly of flesh they would have tended to drawto themselves and to retain a large quantity of

moisture. Another indication that it is when heatedthat they quickly make the sensation recognizable is

afforded by what happens when we laugh. Whenpeople are tickled, they quickly burst into laughter,

and this is because the motion quickly penetrates to

this part, and even though it is only gently warmed,still it produces a movement (independently of the

^\^ll) in the intelligence which is recognizable. Thefact that human beings only are susceptible to

tickling is due (1) to the fineness of their skin and

(2) to their being the only creatures that laugh. Tick-

ling means, simply, laughter produced in the way I

have described by a movement applied to the part

around the armpit.

It is said that when in war men are struck in the

part around the diaphragm, they laugh <* on ac-

count of the heat which arises owing to the blow.

281

ARISTOTLE673 a

^ , , , r , ^ , *yap iidXXov ianv ol^lottlgtcdv aKovaai Xeyovrcov tj

TO TTepl rrfv K€(j)aXi]v, wg aTTOKOTTelaa (j)d€yy€rai

15 T(x)v di'dpcoTTCOv. XlyovGi yap rives eirayopievoL Kal

Tov "Oixrjpov, ojs Sta rovro TTOirjcravTOS

(f)9eyyofxevr) S' dpa rod ye Kaprf kovltjglv

eiiixOri,

d\X ov (j)6€yyofJLevov. rrepl Se ÂpKahiav^ ovroj

ro roLOvrov hieTTiGrevGav wore /cat Kpioiv eiroir]-

uavro TTepl rivos rCov eyxcoplojv. rov yap lepews

20 rod o7rAocr/xtou Ato? drroOavovros, v<f)* orov Se dSi^-

Xov ovros,^ e(f>aodv rive? dKovoai ttJ? Ke(j)aXrjs

d7TOKeKop,[xevr]g Xeyovorjg TToXXdKig

€77* dvSpos dvhpa KepKTtSa? drreKreivev

hio Kal l,r]r7]oavres S ovofia rjv ev rep roTTCp

liêpKiSds, eKpivav. dhvvarov he (f)9eyyeodaL Kexoj-

piopievris rrjg dprrjptag Kal dvev rrjs eK rov ttXcv-

25 jLtovo? KLvrjoeaj£. rrapd re rots âp^dpotg. Trap*

oh d-TTorepLvovoL raêios ras" Kecj)aXds, ovSev ttcj

roLOvrov ovpLê^rjKev. en 8* eirl rcov dXXcjv ^cocov

Sid TtV alriav ov yiverai; \r6 fiev yap rov yeXco-

ros TiXriyeiocJov rcov <f>pevcov eiKorcos, ovSev yap yeXarwv dXXojv rrpoUvai Se ttol ro crcD/xa rrjs Ke(f)aXrjs

80 d<j)7jpr]iJLevrjs ovSev dXoyov, iirel rd y* dvaifia Kal

^ dpKaBiav Z, probat J. Schaefer de Jove apud Cares culto,

pp. 370 sq. : Kapiav vulg^. : Kap . . av E : Kap P.^ Se dbrjXov ovtos Peek : Se St) dSÂcoj viilg. : codd. varia.

<• Iliad, X. 457 and Od. xxii. 329. In both plaees thetext of Homer has SOeyyoixevov (" As he spake . . .").

" The Berlin text here reads " Caria," but the Oxford ms.Z reads " Arcadia." A cult of Zeus hoplosmios is attestedonly for Methydrion, a town in Arcadia, and the nameKerkidas is found in Arcadia, not in Caria. (See A. B-

282

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.

This may be so ; and those who assert it are morecredible than those who tell the tale of how a man'shead speaks after it is cut off. Sometimes they cite

Homer in support, who (so they say) was referring to

this when he wrote

As it spake, his head was mingled with the dust

(not

As he spake, his head was mingled with the dust.) **

In Arcadia ^ this kind of thing wâs at one time so

firmly believed that one of the inhabitants wasactually brought into court on the strength of it.

The priest of Zeus hoplosmios had been killed, butno one knew who had done it. Certain persons,

however, affirmed that they had heard the man'shead, after it had been cut off, repeating the follow-

ing line several times

'Twas Kerkidas did slaughter man on man.

So they set to work and found someone in the

district who bore this name and brought him to trial.

Of course, speech is impossible once the windpipehas been severed and no motion is forthcoming fromthe lung. And among the barbarians, where theycut heads off with expedition, nothing of this sort

has taken place so far. Besides, why does it not

occur with the other animals .'' [For {a) the story

about the laughter when the diaphragm has beenstruck is plausible, for none of the others laughs ;

and (6) that the body should go forward some distance

after the head has been cut off, is not at all absurd,

since bloodless animals at any rate actually go on

Cook, ZeuSy ii. 290, who gives the evidence, and J. Schaefer,

De Jove apud Cares culto^ 1912, pp. 370 f.)

K 283

ARISTOTLE673 a

Cfj TToXvv xpovov SeSrjAojrat he Trepl rrjs alrias

avTcov iv irepoLs.Y

Tlvos fiev ovv €V6Kev ianv eKaorov tCjv oiiKay-

yyo^v, etprjTaL- yeyove S' e^ dvdyKrjg inl rots evros

TTepauL Twv (j)X€â)v, iîdvai re yap tK/xaSa dvay-

673 b Kalov, Kal ravrrjv alfiarLK-qv, i^ rjs ovvLurapiivris

/cat TTTjyvvfievrjs yiveodai to crcojU-a tcx)V cjTrXdyxycov

BcoTrep alfiaTLKa, Kal avrols p-ev 6p,oiav exovai ttjv

rod oojpiaros <j)VULV, rots 8' aAAot? dvopioiav.

XI. Yldvra 8e to, GirXdyxya iv vpiivi iariv

6 TTpoôXrjg re yap Set Trpos to dTraOrj etvai, Kal

ravrr]? iXat^pds, 6 8' i>p,rjv tt^v (l)vcnv tolovtos'

TTVKvos pi€V yap war dTroareyetv, daapKos 8e cocrrc

pLTj e'A/cetv /XT^S' €)(€iv iKpidSa, Xenros 8' oircog kov-

(j)osfj

Kal fjLTjSev TTOLTJ ^dpos . jLteytCTTOt 8e Kal

laxvporaroL rchv vpêvajv elalv ol re Trepl ttjv

10 Kaphiav Kal Trepl rdv eyKeâXov, euAdyco?* ravra

yap helrai TrXeLGrr]? (f)vXaKrjs' rj p.ev yap </»uAa/<:ry

TTepl rd Kvpia, ravra he Kvpia p,dXiara rrjs Jco^s".

XII. "E^xovGi 8' evia fiev rcov l,a)cov Trdvra rdv

dpiOp^dv avrojv, evia 8' ov Trdvra' TTola he ravra Kal

hid riv* airLav, etprjrat Trporepov. Kal rcov €)(6vrcjov

15 he ravra hiacfêpovcnv' ov ydp opLoias ovre rds

Kaphiag exovGL Trdvra rd eôvra Kaphiav, ovre rcov

aAAcuv tus" eLTTelv ovhev. ro re ydp rJTrap rot? p.ev

rroXvaxihes eari roZs he p.ovo(f)ve(jrepov, Trpcbrov

^ codd. edd. varia ; corrupta et inepta seclusi.

284

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. x.-xii.

living for a long time. The reason for these pheno-mena has been explained elsewhere.]

We have now said what is the purpose for whicheach of the viscera is present ; but also they havebeen formed ofnecessity at the inner ends of the blood-

vessels, because moisture, i.e. moisture of a blood-

like nature, must of necessity make its way out there,

and, as it sets and solidifies, form the substance of

the viscera. That, too, is why they are blood-like in

character, and why the substance of all of them is

similar, though different from that of the other

parts.

XI. All the viscera are enclosed in membranes. Membranes.

Some covering is needed to ensure their safety, andit must be a light one. These conditions are fulfilled

by a membrane, which is close-textured, thus makinga good protection ; does not consist of flesh, andtherefore does not draw in moisture or retain it ; is

thin, therefore light, and causes no burden. Thebiggest and strongest membranes are those roundthe heart and the brain, which is natural enough, as

it is always the controlling power which has to beprotected ; therefore the heart and the brain, whichhave the supreme controlling power over the life of

the body, need the most protection.

XII. Some animals possess a full complement of Variationa

viscera, some do not. We have already stated what '^"^^5^^.

animals have less than the full number, and the

reason. But also, the same viscera are different in

the various animals that have them. For instance,

the heart is not identical in all the animals which havea heart ; nor is any other of the viscera. The liver

illustrates this : in some it is split into several parts,

in some almost undivided. This variation of form is

285

ARISTOTLE

avrojv Tcov evat/xcov Kau Lwotokojv en oe fiaAAov

/cat TTpo? ravra /cat Trpo? aAArÂa hia<êpei rd re rojv

20 l-)(6vcov /cat (rajry rerpaTTohcov /cat (horoKcov. ro he

TCOV opvldojv /xaAtCTxa TrpoaefKêpe? rep rcov ^coo-

TOKCov €CTTtv T^VaTf Kadapov yap /cat kvaufjiov to

XpcofJiOL avTOJV ean KaOdnep KaKeivcov. airiov he

TO TO, acofjiara rovrcov evTTvovorara elvai /cat jLt-j)

TToAA-j^y e;(etv (j)av\r]v Trepirrojaiv. hiorrep evia /cat

25 oi)/c e;(et ;ôA')7y rtDv ^cooro/cwv to yap T^Trap ovpi-

jSctAAeTat TToAi) fiepos Trpos evKpaoiav rod GaypLaros

/cat vyieiav ev puev yap rep at/Ltart pLaXiora ro^ttxiJa toutcov TeAos", ro 8' rirrap alpariKcorarov pierd rrjv

Kaphiav rujv GTrXdyx^'OJV . rd he rcov rerpanohcov /cat

choroKOJV /cat rcov l)(9vcov ev(x>xp<^ twv TrXelorcov,

30 ivLWV he /cat cfyavXa rravreXcog , coa-nep /cat to, goj-

piara âvXr^s rervx^f<e Kpduecos, olov ^pvvqs /cat

XêXojvrjs /cat rcjv dXXojv ra)v roiovrojv.

UTrXrjva 8' e;\;et to, jLtev Keparocjiopa /cat St;)âAa

OTTpoyyL'Aov, Kaddrrep at^ /cat rrpoârov /cat tojv

aAAa>y eKaarov, el /xt} Tt 8ta pêyeOos evavêGrepov

674 a €;(et /caTo, pirJKo^, olov 6 rod ô6? rrerTovdev' rd he

TToXvGX^'h'rj irdvra pLaKpov, olov us" Kal dvdpojTro^ /cat

Kvojv, rd he pcLvvxa pLera^v rovrcov /cat puKrov rfj

jLtey ydp rrXarvv e;^€t tt^ he Grevov, olov Irmos /cat

opevs /cat oVos'.

6 XIII. Ov pLovov he 8iaêpet to, GTrXdy^va rrjs

GapKos ro) oyKcp rod Gcoparos, dXXd /cat rco rrjv^

puev e^cxj rd 8' eGO) rrjv OeGiv e;)(etv. atTtov 8' oVt

^ <TJii'> Peck. 2 TT^v KwSUYZ: Ttt vulg.

« See above, on 650 b 24. C/. 677 a 19 ff.

286

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xii.-xiii.

found first of all even among the viviparous bloodedanimals ; but it is more noticeable among the fishes

and oviparous quadrupeds, whose livers differ not

only from those of the Vivipara, but also from eachother's. In birds, the liver very closely resembles

that of the Vivipara : in both, its colour is pure andblood-like. The reason for which is, that their bodies

give a very free passage to the breath, which meansthat they retain very little foul residue; hence, indeed,

some of the Vivipara have no gall-bladder, and this is

largely due to the very considerable assistance given

by the liver in maintaining a good blend" and healthi-

ness in the body. This is because the purpose whichthese viscera serve lies chiefly in the blood, and after

the heart the liver contains more blood than anyother of the viscera. In most of the oviparous

quadrupeds and the fishes the liver is yellowish, andin some of them it is altogether bad-looking, on apar Avith the bad blend of the rest of their bodies.

This happens in the toad, the tortoise, and the like.

As for the spleen : In horned animals that havecloven hoofs it is rounded : e.g. in the goat, the sheep,

and similar animals ; unless greatness of size hasmade it grow out at some point lengthways, as in the

case of the ox. In all the polydactylous animab thespleen is long, as in the pig, in man, and in the dog.In animals with solid hoofs the spleen is intermediatebetween the two and has the characteristics of both :

in one place it is broad, in another narrow, as exempli-fied in the horse, the mule, and the ass.

XIII. Now the viscera differ from the flesh not only

in the bulkiness of their mass, but also in their

situation, for the flesh is on the outside of the body,while they are inside. The reason for this is that

2^7

ARISTOTLE

TTjv (pvuLV €)(€L KOLvojvovaav Tttt? (pAeipL, /cat ra /X6V

Toiv (fyXejâjv ;âpiv, to, 8' oi5/<: dv€v (jyXe^cov ioriv.

XIV. 'Ttto he TO u77o^6DjLia Kelrai r) KoiXia roXg

10 t,a)Ois, Tols l^€v exovGLv OLOO(j>dyovfjreXevra rovro

TO flOpLOV, TOt? 8e /XI7 eXOVGLV €v6v£ TTpOS Tip

OTOfjiaTL' rrjs 8e KoiXias ixop^vov to KaXovjievov

evrepov.

At' -^y 8' alriav exî ravra to. piopia rcov t^cvcov

€Kaorov, (f)av€p6v Trdaiv. koI yap heâoOai ttjv

elaeXdovGav Tpo(f)rjv Kal ttjv eîKfiaGfiev-qv dvay-

15 Kolov iK7T6p.ipaL, Kal fjirj TOP avTou TOTTOV etvat rrjs

t' OLTTeTTrov Kal rod TTepirraypLaros y elvai re riva

8et T077oy ev w fxeraâXXet. ro fxev yap rrjv ela-

eXdovoav eêt fxopLoVy ro Se ro Trepirrajpia ro dxPV~arov cQGTTep 8e ;^pdvos" erepos eKaripov rovrcov,

dvayKalov SL€LXrj(f)9aL Kal rols roTTOis. dXXd nepl

20 /Ltev rovrcov iv roZs rrepl rrjv yeveoLV Kal rrjv rpo(f)rjv

oiKeLorepog ianv 6 hLopLGpios' rrepl 8e rijs Staôpa?

ri]s KOiXias Kal rojv GVvreXayp fJLoplojv vvv em-OKeTTreov.

Ovre yap rols pieyeOeGiv ovre rols eiheoLV opLoias

exovGiv dAArjAots" rd t>cpa' dAA' ooa puev eoriv avrojv

d[j,(f)a)hovra rcov evaipLOJV Kal ruJv lôjoroKajv, piav

25 eêt KoiXiav, olov dvOpojiros Kal kvcov Kal Xewv Kal

rdXXa oaa TToXvhaKrvXa, Kal 60a pLOJvvxo-, olov

LTTTTOS, opevg, ovos, Kal ooa hlxoiXa /xev dpLcjxjjhovra

he, olov v£, nXr^v et^ n 8td pêyedos rod awpLaros

^ vottXt]^ rj el ESUY (^ om. E) : va-nXrj^ nX'qv €i P et COrr.

U : voTrXrjy^ in ras. et supra Kal xotpoj Z^, turn irX-qp el T?- : vs,

el fM-q Bekker : vs. ttAtjv el fxrj Buss.

» See De gen. an. Bk. II. chh. 6 and 7.

288

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiii.-xiv.

their nature shares that of the blood-vessels : someof them exist for the sake of the blood-vessels,

others do not exist apart from the blood-vessels.

XIV. Below the diaphragm is the Stomach, which stomach

is placed where the oesophagus ends (if there is anintestines.

oesophagus ; if not, immediately next to the mouth).

Next after the stomach and continuous with it is whatis called the Gut.

It must be obvious to everyone why all animals

have these parts. It is a necessity for them to havesome receptacle for the food they take in, and to

expel it again when its moisture has been extracted

from it ; and there must be two different places for

these two things—the unconcocted food and the

residue ; there must also be another place in whichthe change from one to the other is effected. Tworeceptacles, then, one for the incoming food, one for

the residue which is no more use—as there is a

separate time for these so there must be a separate

place. However, it will be more appropriate to gointo these matters in our treatise on Geiieration andNutrition.'^ At the present we must consider thevariations that are to be found in the stomach and its

subsidiary parts.

The stomach differs both in size and appearance in

different animals. Those of the blooded Vivipara

which have front teeth in both jaws have onestomach ; e.g. man, the dog, the lion, and the other

polydactyls ; so also those that have solid hoofs,

e.g. the horse, the mule, the ass ; and those whichalthough they are cloven-hoofed have front teeth

in both jaws, e.g. the pig. These rules apply unless

the size of the frame and the character of the food

28^

ARISTOTLE

Kat TTjV rrjg rpocprjg ovvaynv, ovaav ovk cvTrenrov

30 ciAA' OLKavOaySr) Kal ^vXlk^v, e;êt TrXetovg, otov

KaynriXos, woirep Kal ra Keparocfiopa' ra yap

K€paro(f)6pa ovk eariv dficf)a)SovTa. 8ta rovro 8e /cat

ri KajJLTjXos 01) Tojv a[jL(f)a)S6vrajv iarlv, aKeparog

ovaa, Stct TO avayKaiorepov elvai avrfj rrjv KoiXiav

€X€tv roiavr7]v rj rovg rrpoadiovs dSdvra?. coctt'

674 b eVet ravrrjv ofioiav e^î rots /xt] djU-^toSouat, Kal ra

Trepl Tovs dSdyra? ofiOLCxJS e;)(et avrfj, cos" ovSev ovras

npoepyov. dfia 8e /cat eVet t] rpo(j)r] aKavdojhris,

TTJV 8e yAcorray dvdyKT] oapKajhy] elvai, Trpo?

aKXrjporrjra rod ovpavov KaraKexp'^^TaL ro) e/c rojv

6 oSovTCOV yecoSct 77 </'^crtS'. /cat fxrjpvKdlêL 8'tJ

KdpLTjXos coanep ra K€paro(f)6pa, 8ta rd ra? /cotAta?

opioias €;êtv rot? K€paro(f)6poi£. rovrojv 8* eKaarov

ttXelovs €X€l KoiXtag, olov TTpoârov, /Sou?, atf,

eXacfyos, Kal rdAAa rd roiavra ra>v ^cpcxjv, ottco?

iTreih-rj rijs epyaoias cAAetVet 7re/3t rr]v rpo(f)r]v rj

10 Xeirovpyia rj rov oropiaros 8td ri^v €V8etav rcov

dhovrwv, r) rcov kolXlcov irepa Trpos erepas SexV^(^^^

rrfv rpo(f)rjv, rj piev dKarepyaorov , rj Se Kareipya-

opiivrjv pidXXov, rj 8e TrdpLTrav, rj 8e Aetav. 8td rd

roiavra rcov t,cx)(jL>v rrXeiovs ^xî ronov? Kat pLopia.

15 KoXovvrai he ravra KoiXia Kal KeKpv(f>aXo^ Kal

i)^vos /cat rjvvorpov. ov 8'^x^^ rporrov ravra npos

^ bdxrjrai Peck : BexofJ-cvT] vulg.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.

modify them : for instance, if the food is thorny andwoody and therefore not easy to concoct, in whichcase the animal has several stomachs, e.g. the camel

;

so also have the horned animals, as they have not front

teeth in both jaws. Thus also the camel has not the

two rows of front teeth either, although it has nohorns ; this is because it is more necessary for the

camel to have several stomachs than to have all these

front teeth. So, as it resembles the animals whichlack the upper front teeth in that it has several

stomachs, therefore the arrangement of its teeth

is that which normally accompanies the multiple

stomachs : in other words, it lacks these front teeth,

as they would be no use to it. And also, as its food

is thorny, and as the tongue has of necessity to beof a fleshy character, Nature has made use of the

earthy matter saved from the missing teeth to makethe roof of the mouth hard. Again, the camelruminates as the horned animals do, because it hasstomachs that resemble theirs. Every one of thehorned animals (such as the sheep, the ox, the goat,

the deer, and the like) has several stomachs ; and thepurpose of them is this : Since the mouth is deficient

in teeth, the service which it performs upon the food

is deficient ; and so one stomach after anotherreceives the food, which is quite untreated when it

enters the first stomach, more treated in the next,

completely treated in the next, and a smooth pulpin the next. And that is why these animals haveseveral such places or parts, the names of which are

(1) the paunch (rumen), (2) the net or honeycomb-bag{reticulum), (3) the manyplies (omasum), (4) the reed"(ahomasum). For the relation of these to each other

° Or, true stomach.

k2 291

ARISTOTLE674 b

aXXr^Xa rfj deaei kol rot? elheaiv, eV re rrjs loropCas

rrjs rrepl rd â)a Set decxipeiv /cat e'/c roiv avarofxajv.

Aid T17V avTTjv 8' alriav /cat rd rtov opvldcjov

yivos ex^t' hia(j)opav rrept to tt^? rpocf)7J? SeKnKov20 jjiopLOV. CTTel yap ovSe ravra oXoJS rr]v rod uro-

/xaros" aTToStScocrt Xeirovpyiav [avohovra yap) Kal

ovB^ (L 8tat/DT]cr€t ovd^ a> Aeavet Trjv Tpo(f)rjv exovai,

8td TOVTO ra fxev 7Tp6 rrjg KoiXlag exovoi rov

KaXovfievov irpoXoôv olvtI rrjg rod oropiaros ipya-

oias, ol 8e rov oloo(f)dyov TrXarvv, r) irpo rijs /voiAta?

25 avrov jLtepo? n oyKcoSes eV co TTpodrjaavpLôvoL rrjv

OLKarepyaorov rpo(f>-qv, 7) ttJ? KotXlag avrrjs ri

iiraveorriKos , ol 8' avrrjv rrjv KoiXiav Icrxvpav /cat

GapKwBrj TTpos ro hvvaadai ttoXvv xpoôv drjaavpi-

^€tv /cat TTerrecv dXeLavrov ovcrav rrjv rpo(f)'ijv rfj

8urd/xet yap /cat tt^ OeppLorr^ri rrjg /cotAta? ly (^vcng

80 dvaXapL^dv€L rrjv rod uroparos eVSetav. ctcrt 8e

Ttves" ot TOUTOJV oi}8ev e^'oucrtv, dAAd rov irpoXoôv^

jiaKpov, oaa pLaKpoorKeXrj /cat e'Aeta, 8td ri^r rr^s"

rpo(f>rjs vyporrjra. alriov 8' ort "j^ rpo^T] irdoi

rovrois evXiavros , ware GvpLâiveiv 8td ravra rwvTOLOvrojv rd^; /cotAtas" etvat vypds [8td tt^v dneiplav

/cat TT^v rpo(f)'qv].^

675 a To 8e Ttijy Ixdvojv yivos e;)(et êv dSovras", rou-

Tous" 8e Kapx^-pdhovras ox^ôv ws elircZv Trdvres^'

oXiyov ydp ri Ion yevos ro p.r) roiovrov, olov 6

KaXovp,€vos GKdpos, OS Srj Kal 80/cet p^rjpvKdêLV

^ irpoXoôv] cTOfxaxoi' Og-lc, collate Hist. An. 509 a 9.

2 secludenda.' TTavres Ogle : ndvras vulg.

" At 507 a 36 ff. ^ The gizzard.* Ogle reads " oesophagus."

292


as regards position and appearance, the Researches

upon Animals'^ and the treatises on Anatomy should beconsulted.

The same reason as has just been described accounts

for the difference which presents itself in birds in the

part which receives the food. Birds, like the other

animals, do not get the full service from the mouth in

dealing with the food—since they have no teeth at

all, and they have nothing with which to bite up or

grind down the food ; and so some of them have,

before the stomach, what is called the crop, to per-

form the work instead of the mouth. Others havea broad oesophagus ; or their oesophagus has abulge in it, just before it reaches the stomach, in

which they keep a preliminary store of untreated

food ; or some part of the stomach itself sticks out.

Others have a strong and fleshy stomach ^ whichis thus able to store the food up for a long period

and to concoct it although it has not been grounddown ; thus Nature makes up for the deficiency of

the mouth by means not only of the heat of the

stomach but also by its special character. Otherbirds have none of these devices, but a long crop,^

because their food is moist : these are the long-legged

marsh birds. The reason for this is that the foodwhich all of these take is easily ground down, andthe result is that the stomachs of birds of this sort

are moist [o"\\ing to the unconcocted and moist state

of the food].

The tribe of fishes have teeth : practically all havesaw-teeth. There is one small group to which this

does not apply, e.g. the Scarus,^ as it is called, andit seems reasonable to suppose that this is why

^ The parrot-fish ; see above, 6Q2 a 7.

293

ARISTOTLE675a ^

^

5 evXoycos Sia ravra {xovos- Kal yap ra fxr] dju,(^co-

Sovra K€paro(f)6pa 8e fxrjpvKdêi. oêXg 8e Travras^

€xovGiv, a)GT€ SteAety /xev SvvavraL, <f}avXojs Se 8t-

eXeXv ivSLarpLêiv yap ov^ olov re )(povil,ovTag' 8l6-

7T€p ovSe TrAaTet? exovaiv oSovrag, ouS' eVSe;^€-

rai Xeaiveiv juctrr^v av ovv elxov. ert Se arofiaxov

10 ol fjL€v oXojs ovK exovGiV, ol he ^pa^vv. dAAa irpos

rrjv ôi^detav rrjs Trei/jeoj? ol fiev opviBajheis exovat

ras KOiXias /cat uapKwSeis, olov Keorpevs, ol Se

TToXXoL TTapa rrjV KOiXiav d7TO(f)vdhas nvKvas, tv*

iv ravrais coavrep eV TTpoXaKKiois drjaavptiôvre?

ovacrrjTTCjDGL Kal TT-errcocrt ttjv rpocjyiqv. exovui 8'

15 evavTLOJs oL lxOv€9 rots' opvioi ras d7Toj)vdhas' ol

liev yap IxOv^S dvco rrpos rfj KOiXla, raJv 8' opvidcov

OL exovres diro^vdhas Karoj npos rep reXeu rov

ivrepov. exovGL 8* d7T0(f)vdSag eVta /cat Ta>v Jojo-

tokcjov ivrepLKa? Kdroj 8td rrjv avrrjv alriav.

To 8e rcov IxOvcxJV yevos aTrav, 8td to evhecGrepcos

20 e;êtv ra rrepl ttjv rrjs Tpo(f)7]s epyaacav, dAA'

aTreTTra hiaxojpeZv, XaipLapyov rrpos rrjv Tpo(f)T^v

iaTL, Kal Tojv dXXojv 8e TrdvTOJv oua evdvevrepa'

rax^tas yap yivop.eviqs rrjs Siaxcopijoecjos, Kal Sid

ravra ^pax^lag ovoiqs rrjs dTToXavaeoj? , rax^XavdvayKalov yiveodai irdXiv /cat r-qv eVtû/xtav.

26 Td 8' dii<j)OL>hovra on fxkv fxiKpdv e;êt KoiXiav

CLprjrai Trporepov els Scacfiopds 8e TTLTrrovoi hvo

irdoai ax^Bov ra fxev yap rfj rrjs kvvos opLoiav

^ TTavras S: TTavres vulg.

" Probably some kind of mullet.* ** Caecal appendages " (Ogle), or " alimentary sacs."

" The vermiform appendix.

294


it alone ruminates, for horned animals which have noteeth in the upper jaw also ruminate. All teeth in fish

are sharp ; this enables them to bite up their food,

though somewhat unsatisfactorily ; this is becausethey cannot spend long over mastication ; hencethey neither have flat teeth nor may they grind

the food down ; therefore it would be idle to havethe teeth. Furthermore, some fishes have no gullet

at all, others have a short one ; but, in order to as-

sist the process of concoction, some of them, hke the

Kestreus,^ have fleshy stomachs, similar to those of

birds ; the majority, however, have a large numberof appendages ^ by the side of the stomach, in whichto store up the food as it might be in additional cellars

and there putrefy it up and concoct it. The ap-

pendages of fishes are, however, quite different fromthose of birds. In fishes they are fairly high upbeside the stomach, whereas when present in birds

they are down below at the end of the gut. Someof the V ivipara also have appendages ^ of this latter

kind, and their purpose is the same.The whole race of fishes is gluttonous for food,

because their equipment for reducing it is defective,

as a result of which most of it passes through un-concocted. Of all, those which have a straight intes-

tine are especially gluttonous, since the food passes

through quickly, which means that their enjoymentof it is brief, and therefore in its turn the desire for

food must come on again very quickly.

I have already said that in animals with front

teeth in both jaws the stomach is small. Thesestomachs fall into two main classes. Some have astomach resembUng that of the dog, some that of

" 295

ARISTOTLE676 a

êxovGL KoiXiav, ra Se rfj rrjs vos- eari 8* t] [lev Trjg

vos /xet^cov /cat rivas exovoa fierplas TrXaKag TTpos

TO xpovLOJTepav yiveodai rrjv ireifjiv, r] 8e rrjs kvvos

30 fiiKpa TO fieyedos Kal ov ttoXv tov ivTepov virep-

pdXXovoa Kal Xeca to. ivTog. jLtero. yap ttjv KOiXiav

7) TcDv ivTepcjov eyKeiTai (j)vois rrdai rot? l,ajois. exet

he hia(j>opas iroXXas, Kaddirep rj KotAta, Kal tovto

TO fjLopLOV. Tols fJLev ydp OLTrXovv ioTi Kal opLOiov

avaXvopievov, tols S' dvofJiOLOv ivloLs puev ydp evpv-

35 T€pOV TO TTpos TTJ KOlXLa, TO Se TTpOS Tip TcAct

OTevoTepov^ (hioTrep at Kvves /xerd ttovov rrpotevTai

675hrrjv TOLavTTjv TrepLTTWOLv), Tols 8e TrXeioaiv dvojOev

GTevoTepov,^ Trpos tco re'Aet 8' evpvTepov.

MetÔ) 8e Kal dvaSLTrXcnoeLs exovTa TToAAds' rd

Tibv K€paTO(j)6pa)v ecrrt, /cat ol oyKOL ttjs /cotAtas"

TovTOLs pLeitôvs Kal rcDv ivTcpcxJV 8td to pteyedos'

5 TTavra ydp cLs etTretv pieydXa rd K€paT0(f)6pa 8td

TTjv KaTepyaaiav tt^v ttjs Tpo(f)rjs. Trdui 8e toZs /xt]

evdvevTepoLs Trpo'Cdv^ evpvTepov ytverat to pLopuov

TOVTO, Kal TO KaXovpLevov KoXov exovoL, Kal tov

ivTepov TV(j)X6v Tt Kat oy/ccoSes', etT* e/c tovtov

TTaXiv GTevoTepov^ /cat elXiypievov. to 8e /LteTa

10 TOVTO evdif TTpos TTjv €ôhov 8taTetV€t TOt» TrepLT-

TOjpLaTOs, Kat TOLS /xev tovto to pLopLOV, o /caAow-

pL€vos dpxds, kvlocjoStjs ioTLy ToZs 8' aTTLpLeXos.

TrdvTa 8e TavTa pi€pi7]xdv7}TaL Tjj cfyvaeL TTpos Tds

dppLOTTOvoas ipyaalas rrepl ttjv Tpo(f)'rjv Kal tov

yLvopL€VOv TTcpLTTcopiaTos. TTpo'CovTL ydp Kal KaTa-

âLVOVTL TO) TTepLTTcopLaTL €vpvxojpLa ytVcTat, Kol

15 TTpos TO pLeTapdXXeLV loTapLevo) tols evx^XoTcpois

* arevatTepov bis vulg. ^ irpo'Cov Peck : irpolovaw vulg.^ cmvoTipov SU : arevwrepov Vulg.

e96


the pig. The pig's stomach is larger than the dog*s,

and it has some folds of medium size, so as to prolong

the time of concoction. The dog's is small in size

—

not much bigger indeed than the gut, and its inner

surface is smooth. The gut has its place next after

the stomach in all animals. Like the stomach, this

part too presents many various forms. In someanimals it is simple and similar throughout its

length, when uncoiled ; in others it is not similar

throughout. Thus, in some it is wider near the

stomach, and narrower towards the end (that is whydogs find difficulty in discharging their excrement) ;

in the majority, however, it is narrower at the top,

and wider at the end.

In the horned animals, the intestines are longer andhave many convolutions ; and their bulk (as well as

the bulk of the stomach) is greater, owing to the size

of the animal : horned animals being, on the whole,

large in size because of the ample treatment whichtheir food receives. Except in those animals whereit is straight the intestine gets wider as it proceeds,

and they have what is called the colon and the

blind and swollen part of the gut °; and then after

that point it gets narrower again and convoluted.

After this, it goes on in a straight line to the place

where the residue is discharged ; and in some this

part (which is called the anus) is supplied with fat, in

others it is devoid of fat. All these parts have beendevised by Nature to suit their appropriate functions

in treating: the food and in dealinfj with the residue

produced. As the residue proceeds on its way and goes

downwards, it finds a wider space where it remainsin order to undergo transformation ; this is what

" The caecal dilatation.

297

ARISTOTLE675 b

t(Jl)V t,ix)(x)v /cat TrAetovos- SeofievoLs rpo(f)rJ£, Slcl to

IJL€yedo£ 7} T7]v depjionqra rcov tottcov. etr* iv-

revdev ttolXlv, (Zanep oltto rrjs avco KoiXias Sepêrat

GTevorepov^ evrepov, ovrcxjg eV rod kcoXov /cat rrjs

€vpv)(ûjpias iv rfj koltco kolXlo. ttolXlv els orevo-

eXl20 Tepov epx^rai /cat ets" rrjv eAi/ca ro TTepLrrcxjfJLa

e^LKfiaopievov TrdpLTrav, ottojs rajjuevrjraL rj (f>vai,s

Kal fiT] adpoosfj

r) efoSo? rod TTepLrrwfJLaros.

"Ocra fjiev ovv efvat Set tojv I^cocjv ooxjypoviorepa

TTpos TTjv rrjs Tpo(f)rjs ttoltjglv evpvx(^pio.s p-^.v ovk

ex^L fieydXas Kara ttjv Kara) KoiXiav, e'At/ca? 8*

25 €;\;et TrXeiovs /cat ovk evdvivrepd icmv. rj pLev yap

€vpv)((ji)pia TTOiei ttXtjOovs €7n6vp,Lav, r) 8* evdvrrjg

raxvTrjra iTTiOvpiias' SioTrep 60a tojv l^cpojv -^ aTrAas"

ex€i ^ €vpvx(J^povs rds VTTohoxd?, rd pL€v ets" vXrjdos

yaarpLpLapya rd 8* els rdxos iaruv.

'E7r£t 8* iv rfj dvoj /xev kolXlo. Kard rrjv 7rpa)rr)v

80 €tcro8ov rrjs rpo(f)rjs veapdv dvay/catov efvat rrjv

Tpo(j)'qv, Kdro) he TTpo'Covoav KOTrpcohr] Kal e^-

iKpiaapievqv, dvay/catov etvat n Kal ro piera^v,

iv a) pLera^dXXet Kal ovr* en Trp6o(j)aros ovr rjht]

KOTTpos. 8td rovro Trdvra rd roiavra ^coa rr)v

KaXovpievr]v ex^L vrjomv Kal iv rep pLerd rrjv KoiXiav

85 ivrepcp ro) Xenrcp' rovro yap piera^v rrjs r* dvoj, iv

fjrd drreTTrov, Kal rrjs Kara), iv

fjro dxp^^CFTOv rjSr]

rrepirrwpia. yiverai 8' iv ttclgl pLev, S-qXrj 8* iv roXs

^ oT€vwT€poi' bis Langkavel.

" i.e. the " stomach."^ i.e. the " large intestine."


happens in the animals which need and take morefood owing either to their size or to the heat of these

parts of the body. After this, just as it goes into anarrower part of the intestine after it leaves the uppergut," so also it goes into a narrower channel after

the colon or wide part of the lower gut,^ and into

the spiral coil ; into these the residue passes whenits juices have been completely exhausted. In this

way Nature is enabled to keep the material in store,

and the residue is prevented from passing out all at

the same moment.In those animals, however, which have to be more

controlled in their feeding, there are no great widespaces in the lower gut, but their intestine is notstraight, as it contains many convolutions. Spacious-

ness in the gut causes a desire for bulk of food, andstraightness in the intestine makes the desire comeon again quickly. Hence, animals of this sort are

gluttonous : those with simple receptacles eat at veryshort intervals of time, those with spacious ones eat

very large quantities.

Since the food in the upper gut, when it has just Jejunum,

entered, must of necessity be fresh, and M'hen it

has proceeded further downwards must have lost its

juices and be practically dung, the organ which lies'

between the two must of necessity be somethingdefinite, in which the change is effected, where food

is no longer fresh and not yet dung. Therefore all

animals of this sort have what is called the jejunum,which forms part of the small intestine, which is nextto the stomach. That is to say, it has its place

between the upper gut, where the unconcoctedfood is, and the lower gut, where the now useless

residue is. All these animals have the. jejunum, but

' 299

ARISTOTLE

676 a jLtetôcrt Kal vrjarevaauLV dAA' ovk iSrjSoKOcnv' t6t€

yap Srj^ olov^ fieTalxf-itov yiverai rcov tottcuv diJi(f)0-

repcxjv, ihrjhoKOTCov he fXLKpo? 6 Katpo? rrjs /lera-

ôXrjs. rots [jL€V ovv drjXeoL^ yiverai ottov av rvxij

5 Tov dvo) Ivripov rj vtjotls' ol 8* dppeves* exovGL irpo

rov rv(f)Xov Kal rrj<^ Karoj KotAta?.

XV. "Kxovai Se TTjv Ka\ovp.ev7]v TTveriav rd jj-ev

TToXuKolXia Trdvra, rcov Se pLOvoKoiXicxJV haGVirovs.

exî Se rd exovra tojv ttoXvkolXlojv ttjv TTveriav ovr

iv rfj fjLeydXrj KoiXia ovr iv ro) K€Kpv(f)dXcp ovr* iv

10 to) reXevratci) ro) rjvvarpcp, aAA* iv rw jLteraû rov

reXevraiov Kal \hvof tcjv TTpcjrcov, iv rep /caAou-

}ievcp ixivcp. e;êt Se ravra Trdvra TTveriav hid rrjv

7TaxvrT]ra rod ydXaKros' rd 8e fiovoKoiXia ovkeêt, XeTTrov ydp rd ydXa ra)v {jlovokolXlojv. Slo

rcov {lev Keparocf)6pcov Tnjyvurai, rojv 8' aKepdrcjv

15 ov TT-qyvvrai ro ydXa. rep 8e 8acru7roSt yiverai

TTveria 8td rd vepLeodai ottcoSt] iroav 6 ydp roiov-

ros xîôs" CTvvLorrjcnv iv rfj KoiXia rd ydXa roZs

ipL^pvoLS. SiorL 8e rcov ttoXvkolXlojv iv rep ix^^^yiveraL rj TTveria, e'lprjraL iv rols TTpo^X-qpLaaLV.

^ 817 Z : 17877 vulg-.

2 olov PZ, om. vulg.' ^TÂeai] TeAet'ots Z : TrXeloat. Piatt.

* dppeves] Kvves Piatt.^ [8uo] secludendum.

" This seems to mean that \vhen the animal is fastinp: thetwo receptacles do not bulge, and so the jejunum is visible

;

and though alter the animal lias fed you might expect to seethe jejunum^ because it should be full of food which is being

800

PARTS OF ANIMALS, III. xiv.-xv.

it is apparent only in the larger ones, and in themonly when they are fasting, not when they haverecently been eating, for when they are fasting, there

is an interspace between the two receptacles, whereaswhen they have been eating, the time taken by the

change is short." In females the jejwiuju can have its

place in any part of the upper intestine ; in malesit is placed immediately before the caecum and the

lower gut.

XV. Wliat goes by the name of Rennet is present Rennet.

in all animals which have a multiple stomach ; the

hare is the only animal with a single stomach whichhas it. In the former class the rennet is not in the

paunch^ nor in the reticulum, nor in the ahomasum (the

last of the stomachs) ; but in the stomach betweenthe last one and the first ones, i.e. the so-called

omasum (manyplies).'' All these animals have rennet

because their milk is so thick ; similarly, the single-

bellied animals have no rennet, because their milk

is thin. This also explains why the milk of hornedanimals coagulates, while that of the hornless does

not. As for the hare, it has rennet because it feeds

on herbs with fig-like juice ; and this juice cancoagulate the milk in the stomach of sucklings. I

have stated in the Problems'^ why, in the animals

that have many stomachs, the rennet is formed in

the manyplies.

transmuted inside it (see above, 675 b 32), it is not visible,

because the change is effected so rapidly.* Lit. " the great stomach."' See above, 674 b 14 if.

^ No such reference can be found.

-301

A676 a

Tov avTov 8e rponov exî ra nepl ra OTrXdyxva

Kal TTjv KoiXiav kol rcav elprjiiivojv [lopLCov eKaarov

TOLS reTpanoai fxev cootokols 8e ra>v ^cvojv Kal rols

25 aTToaiv, olov rols 6<J)€glv. Kal yap rj rcov 6(f>€OJV

(f)VOL? iarl uvyyevr]s tovtol?' ofiOLa yap eon cravpcp

fjLaKpo)^ Kal (XTToSi. TOvroLS Se Kal rots' Ix^vcri,

TTOLvra TTapaTrXrjGia, ttXtjv ra fiev e;\;6t TrXevyiova 8td

TO 7T€êv€LV, ol S' ovK e;ôuo'tv, dAAa ^pdyxi^ci dvrl

TOV TrXevjjLOVOs. Kvanv S* ovd^ ol IxOves exovaiv

80 ovre rovrcov ovSev ttXtjv x^^^^V^' TpeneraL yap €ls

rds (fioXiSas ro vypov 6Xiyo7T6ra)v ovrojv Std rr]V

dvaLfjLorrjra rod TrXevjiovos, Kaddrrep rols opvioiv

els ra Trrepd. kol eViAef/catVet he ro nepLrrcxifia

TTaoL Kal rovrois, ayoirep Kal rols opviaiVy hiort^ iv

rols exovGL Kvoriv eêXdovros tov TrepLrrcojJLaros

85 v(j)[araraL dXfJLvpls yeojhiqs iv rols dyyeiois' ro yap

yXvKv Kal TTorLfiov dvaXioKerai hid Kov<f)6rr]ra ets"

rds odpKas.676 b Tcxjv S' 6(j>e(x)v ol exîs npos rovs dXXovs exovoi

TTjv avrrjv hLa(f)opdv rjv Kal iv rols lxOvctl to.

aeXdx'T] TTpos rovs d'AAous" l,iporoKovoL yap eô) Kal

rd aeXdx'T] Kal ol ex^LS, iv avrols (poroK-qoavra

TTpcbrov. pLovoKoiXia he rrdvra rd roiavra eori,,

^ (xaKpw Y : fxaKpcp ^ vulg. ^ Sio'ti Ogle : 8i,6iT€p vulg,

302

BOOK IV

What has been said already on the subject of the

viscera, the stomach, and each of the other parts

mentioned, appUes to the footless creatures (such as

the Serpents) as well as to the oviparous quadrupeds.

Indeed, the Serpents are akin to these : for a serpent

is like a long and footless lizard. A third class in

which all these parts are similar is the Fishes : the

only difference is that the first two classes are land-

creatures and therefore have a lung, whereas fishes

have no lung but gills instead. Fishes have no

bladder, nor has any of these creatures (except the

tortoise) ; the reason is that they drink little (because

their lung is bloodless), and the moisture in themis diverted to the horny scales, just as in birds it is

diverted to the feathers. And in all these creatures,

as in birds, the residue ^ is white on the surface,

since in those animals that have a bladder, when the

residue has been voided an earthy salt deposit

settles in the vessels, the sweet and non-briny por-

tion, o^^^ng to its lightness, being used up upon the

flesh.

The Vipers have the same peculiarity among the

Serpents as the Selachia have among the Fishes.

Both of them are externally viviparous, though

they first produce their ova internally. All these

" See Introduction, pp. 32 ff.

^03

ARISTOTLE676 b

5 KaBairep raAAa ra d^^cuSovra* kol GTrXdyxva- Se

TTaiJLTrav fxiKpa k^î, ayairep rdAAa ra firj exovraKVOTTLV. ol 8' OêtS" Sid T7)v TOU CTCU/XaTO? lJLOp(f)rjV,

ovoav fiaKpav /cat ctt^vt^v, /cat rd ax'r]yio,ra tcx)v

OTrXdyxyojv cxovgl Std ravra jLta/cpd /cat rot? rdiv

dAAojv t,cx)cov dvofioia, Std rd Kaddirep iv rvircp rd10 ax'TjlJ-CLT^ avTcov TTXaoOrjvai Std rdv tottov.

ETTtVAoov Se /cat fxeaevrepiov /cat rd Trept T17V

Toiv ivTcpajv (j)V(jiv, en Se rd Std^co/xa /cat ri^v

KapStav TrdvT e;êt rd eVat/xa rcov ^wojv, nXevfiova

Se /cat dprrjpLav irdvra ttXtjv tcov Ixdvcov. /cat tt]v

decTLV Se T-^s" dprrjpias /cat rou olao^dyov ndvra15 ra e;^^^'''^^ ofiOLcos e;êt Std rds" elprjiievag atrta?

Trporepov.

II. 'Ex^*^ ^^ '^^^ ;YÂ'))v rd TroAAd rdiv ivalfxcov

L,a)(jDv, rd fjLev eirl ro) rjiraTt, rd S' aTTrjprrjfxevr^v eirl

Tois €VT€poLs, COS" oucrav ou;^ rjrrov e'/c rr^? /cdrca

KoiXias TTjv (f)VGLv avTrjs . StÂov Se jLtdAtcrr' eTTt rcDv

20 Lxdvcov OVTOL yap exovcrl re Trdyres", /cat ot TroAAot

77/90? Tot?^ ivrepoLs, €vioi Se Trap' oAov rd evrepov

7Tapv(f)aaiJi€vr]v, otov rj dpua' /cat rcov 6(f)€a)v ol

irXeloroi rdv avrdv rpoirov. hioTrep ol Xeyovres rrjv

(fiVGLv rrjs x^^V^ alaOijoecos nvos etvat X^P'^ °^

KaXws XeyovGLV (f)a(jl ydp etvat Std rovro, dnajg

M rijs ^^XV^ '^^ TTepl rd rjirap fxopiov haKVOVoa jikv

GvvLGrfj, Xvopiivr] S' IXecov TTOifj' rd [xev ydp oXojs

^ Toi? PYZ et corr. U : om. viilg.

« See 665 a 10 ff. ^ See 650 a 14." This seems to refer to the views expressed in Plato,

Timaeus^ 71 d.

304

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. i.-ii.

creatures have one stomach only, as do the other

animals that have front teeth in both jaws. Andtheir viscera are quite small, as are those of the

other creatures which have no bladder. However,on account of the shape of the serpents' bodies,

which is long and narrow, the shape of their viscera

too is consequently long, thus differing from those

of other animals. This is because the shape of themis fashioned, as though in a mould, on account of the

space available for them.All blooded animals have an omentum, a mesen-

tery, and the whole intestinal equipment ; also a dia-

phragm and a heart ; and all but the fishes have a

lung and a windpipe too. The relative positions of

the windpipe and the oesophagus are the same in all

of them. The reasons for this have been given

already. **

II. The majority of the blooded animals have a Gaii-biadder

gall-bladder in addition. In some it is placed up ^^'^ ^^^®'

against the liver ; in others it is separate from the

liver and placed against the intestines, indicating

that equally in these its derivation is from the lower

gut.^ This is clearest in the fishes, all of which haveone, and in most of them it is placed against the

intestines, though in some it runs along the wholelength of the intestine, like a woven border, as in

the Amia ; a similar arrangement is found in most of

the serpents. Hence, those who assert that the gall-

bladder is present for the sake of some act of sensation

are wrong. They say its purpose is as follows :

—

on the one hand (a) to irritate that part of the Soul

which is around the liver, and so to congeal it '^; and

on the other hand (6) by running free to make that

part cheerful. This cannot be true ; because some

305

ARISTOTLE676 b ^

^^

ovK €X€L x^^W* ^'^^^' '^'^'ôg Kal opevg /cat ovog /cat

e'Aaô? Kal irpo^' ovk e;êt 8' ovh* rj KOLjjLrjXos

OLTTOKeKpiiJLevqv, dAAa Âe^Sta x'^XwSr] fxaXXov ovk

€xei 8' ouS' Tj (f)coKrj ;ôA7]v, ouSe tcov BaXarriojv

80 heX(j)i5. iv he rols ylveoi tols avroZs ra fikv c^civ

cf)aLV€TaL TO, 8' OVK e)(€LV, OLOV cV TfS TCOV flVcbv

TOVTCxJV 8' ecrrt /cat o avdpojTTOs, eviOL jiev yapij)aivovTai eôvres ^pXriv eirl rod T^Varos", eVtot 8'

ou/c exovres' 8to /cat ytVerat dfX(f)LG^T^T'q(jLS irepl

oXov rod yevovs' ol yap evrvôvres oTTorepcjcrovv

35 exovGL rrepl Trdvrwv VTToXapi^dvovGiv djs d-navrcxiv

ixdvTa>v. crujLtâtVet 8e rotourov /cat Trepl rd Trpo-

jSara /cat rag atyas" to, /xep' yap TrAetara rovrcuv

677 a e;\;et x^^W> <^^' Iviaxov puev rooavrrjv wore 8o/cety

repas elvai rrjv UTrepjSoArjv, otov eV Nafoj, iviaxov8' ou/c exovGLV, OLov iv XaA/ct8t ttj? EujSotas' /cara

Ttva T0770V T'jjs' x^P^^" auTcov. €Tt 8e, cjorrep ^tprj-

6 rat, T^ "T"^^ lxOva)v aTTiqpTiqrai ttoXv rod rJTTarog.

OVK 6p9(x)s 8' ioiKaaiv ol Trepl Âvaâyopav vtto-

XajJL^dveiv ojg alriav ovaav rcov 6êa>v voarnidroiv'

VTTep^dXXovaav ydp dTToppaiveiv irpos re rov TrXev-

fjLova Kal rd? (f)Xeâs Kal rd irXevpd. cr;(e8oy yapols ravra ovjxâivei rd irdO-q tCjv voacov, ovk

10 exovGi xoX'qv, ev re rat? dvarOjLtat? dv eylvero rovro

(f)avep6v' en 8e to ttXtjOos ro r iv rols dppcoorr]-

fiaoLV vndpxov Kal ro aTToppaivoixevov davjji^XTjrov.

dAA' eoLKev rj X^^V^ Kaddrrep Kal rj /card ro dXXo

" This is true of quite a number of species, and as Aristotle

says, the gall-bladder is specially variable in mice. In man,its absence is rare ; and Aristotle's statement may well bederived from his observation of aborted embryos, in whichthe gall-bladder develops somewhat late.

306

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ii.

animals have no gall-bladder at all, such as the horse,

the mule, the ass, the deer, and the roe ; and the

camel has no distinct gall-bladder, but what wouldbetter be described as consisting of small biliary-

vessels. There is no gall-bladder in the seal, nor

(among sea-animals) in the dolphin. Sometimes in

the same group there are some animals which look as

if they have one, and some as if they have none** :

This is true of the Mice ; and also of the humanspecies, as in some individuals the gall-bladder is

placed against the liver and is obvious ; while in someit is missing. The result of this has been a dispute

concerning the group as a whole. Whatever anobserver has found to be the condition of the indi-

viduals he happens to have seen, that he holds is true

of every individual throughout the group. The samehas occurred with regard to sheep and goats, most of

which have a gall-bladder ; but, whereas in someindividuals it is so large that its excessive size is

portentous (e.g. in Naxos), in others it is entirely-

absent {e.g. in a particular district of Chalcis, Euboea).A further point, already mentioned, is that in fishes

the gall-bladder is separated from the liver by a gooddistance. Moreover, it is safe to say that Anaxa-goras's school is wrong in holding that the gall-bladder

is the cause of acute diseases : they say that when it

gets too full it spurts its liquid out into the lung andblood-vessels and sides. This must be ^\Tong, becausenearly everyone who suffers from these affections

actually has no gall-bladder, and this would be provedif they were dissected. Besides, there is no com-parison between the amount of bile which is presentin these ailments and that which is emitted from the

gall-bladder. No ; it seems probable that, j ust as the

' 307

ARISTOTLE

aojfJLa ytvofjievr] TvepLTrajfia rt ecrriv i] avvTrj^tg,

OVTOJ /cat rj errl ro) rjirari X^^V TreptrrcojLta etvat koI

15 ovx €V€Kd Ttvos", a)G7Tep Kal rj ev rrj KOiXia Kai

iv TOis ivripois vTroaraat?. Karaxp^jrai fJLev ovv

ivLore rj (f)vaL? ets" to cuêAt/xov Kal rot? TTepLrrco-

jLtacrtv, ov jxrjv Sta tovto Set l,rjT€Xv Trdvra evcKa

TLV05' dXXd TLVcov ovTcov TotoTJTCOj^ €T€pa i^ dvdyKrj^

avfJLâLvei Sta ravra TToXXd.

"OaoLs ixkv ovv rj rod iJTrarog ovaraoL? vyieivrj

20 eon Kal rj rod aljiaros (f)vais yXvKela rj els rovr

aTTOKpivojJievrjy ravra jikv rj Trdfirrav ovk tcr;jêt x^^W€7tI rod rjTraros, rj eV rtat (/>Ae^tots-, rj rd jikv rd 8*

ov. hid Kal rd rjrrara rd rcvv dxoXcov evxpoj Kal

yXvKepd eoriv (hs eTTiirav eLTretv, Kal rojv ixdvrojv

25 ;ôAt^v to vtto rfj X'^^fj'^^^ rjrraros yXvKvrarov

ionv. rcov Se ovvLurafievajv i^ rjrrov KaBapov

aljxaros rovrov^ iarlv rj x^Xrj rd yivojievov rrepir-

riOjJLa- ivavriov re ydp rfj rpocf)fj rd Trepirrojjia

povXerat elvai Kal rw yXvK€i rd rriKpov, Kal re

at/xa yXvKv rd vyialvov. (fyavepov ovv on ov nvog

30 eveKa, aAA' drroKadapjxd ioriv rj x^^'^- ^^^ ^^'

XCLpi'^crrara Xeyovcn rojv dpxo-iOJV ol <j)duKovr€s

airiov elvai rod TrXeio) t,rjv xp^vov rd jirj ex^LV

XoXrjv, pXeipavres irrl rd pLOJVVxoL Kal rds iXd(f)Ovs'

ravra ydp dxoXd re Kal ^fj noXvv xpovov. en 8e

Kal rd jirj icopajjidva utt' eKeivojv on ovk e'xei

35 xoAtJv, otov S€X(f)ls Kal KafirjXos, Kal ravra rvy-

xdvei jiaKpoîa ovra. evXoyov ydp rrjv rod rjiraros

^ TovTov Peck : tovt* vulg.

308

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ii.

bile elsewhere in the body is a residue or colliques-

cence, so this bile around the liver is a residue

and serves no purpose—like the sediment pro-

duced in the stomach and the intestines. I agree

that occasionally Nature turns even residues to

use and advantage, but that is no reason for trying

to discover a purpose in all of them. The truth is

that some constituents are present for a definite

purpose, and then many others are present ofnecessity in consequence of these.

We may say, then, that in animals whose liver is

healthy in its composition, and in which the blood

that supplies the liver is svv'eet, there is either nogall-bladder at all by the liver, or else the bile is in

tiny vessels, or else in some these are present and in

some not. This is why the livers of gall-bladderless

animals are, generally, of a good colour and sweet ;

and in those that have a gall-bladder the part of the

liver immediately below it is very sweet. But in those

animals which are formed out of blood which is less

pure, the bile is the residue of this ; since " residue"

means that which is the opposite of " food," and" bitter " the opposite of " sweet "; and healthy blood

is sweet. So it is evident that bile exists for no de-

finite purpose, but is merely an offscouring. So that

Mas an extremely neat remark which we find madeby some of the old authors, when they say that if youhave no gall in you your life will be longer. This

was a reference to animals with uncloven hoofs andto deer, which have no gall-bladder, and are long-

lived. And also, certain other animals are long-lived,

such as the dolphin and camel, which, though un-

observed by them, have no gall-bladder. After all,

the liver is vital and indispensable for all blooded

^ 309

ARISTOTLE

(pvGLV, errLKaipov ovoav /cat avayKaiav Tracrt TOtj

677 b ivalfJiOLs t,(joois, alriav elvai, ttololv nv ovoav, rod

t,7Jv iXdrrco rj ttXcloj xpovov. /cat to tovtov [lev rod

GTrXdyxôv etvat TTepirroJiia tolovtov, tcov 8' dXXojv

fjLTjSevos, Kara Xoyov euriv. rij fxev yap /capSta

tolovtov ovSeva 7TXrjGLdt,eLV olov t€ ;)û/xov [ovSev

5 yap Severat Biaiov TrdOos), tcov S' dXXtov ovhkv

GTTAayxvcxJV avayKaiov ecrrt rot? t,ôts", to o rjTrap

fiovov SiOTTcp /cat TOVTO avfjLâivei rrepl avTO pLovov.

aTOTTOV T€ TO /Xt) 7TaVTa)(OV VOpLLêLV, OTTOV dv TLS lStj

<j>Xeypia rj to vTr6oT7]pL,a ttjs /cotAtaj, TreptTTcu/xa

etvat, opLOLOJS he hrjXov oVt /cat ;\;oA')7v, /cat pir)

10 Si,a(f)€peoOaL toZs tottois-

Kat Trept ftev XoArj?, Sta TtV atTtav Tct />tev cxet

TO, 8* ou/c e;Y^^ '''^^ C^<^^> etpr^Tat, III. Trept 8e

pieaevTepiov /cat iiriTrXoov Xolttov etTretv TavTa yap

iv TO) TOTTCp TOVTO) /Cttt jLteTO, TcDv pLOpiOJV €GTL

TOVTOJV.

15 "EoTt 8e TO jLtev eVtVAoov u/xT]y TOt? /Ltev OTeap

exovGL GTeaTcoSrjs, toIs 8e 7npL€Xr]v TTLpLeXcoSrjs-

TTOta 8* CCTTtv e/caTepa toutcov, e'lprjTaL irpoTepov.

TJpT-qTai} 8e to eVtVAoov opLOLCO? tols T€ plovokolXlols

/cat Tot? TToAf/cotAtots' aTTo pi€<jrjs TTJ? KoiXlag /caTO.

tt^v VTToyeypapLpievrjv olov pacfiijv iiTex^L Se to t€

20 AotTTOP' T7^? /cotAtas" /Cat TO Tojv ivTcpcov ttXyjOos

opLOLOJS TOLS ivaipLOLS, eV T€ TOls TTCÔtS" /Cat TOtS"

ivvSpOL? t,(pOLS.

*H )Ltev ow yev€GLS ii dvdyKT]? avpLâlveL TOLavT-q

Tov popiov TOVTOV ^rjpov yap /cat vypov pLLyf.LaTos

OeppLaivopievov to €Gxcltov del 8epp,aTa>8es' ytVcTat

' Tjp/crai SUYZ.310

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ii.-iii.

animals, and so it is quite reasonable to hold that the

condition of it controls the length of its owner's life.

And it is equally reasonable to hold that the liver

produces a residue such as the bile although none of

the other viscera does so. Take the heart : no such

humour as bile could possibly come near the heart,

because the heart cannot withstand any violent

affection. Of the other viscera none is indispensable

to an animal, except the liver only, and that is whythis phenomenon occurs in connexion \\ith the liver

exclusively. And it would be absurd to say that

phlegm and the sediment produced by the stomachare residues when found in some places but not in

others ; and clearly the same applies to bile : its

locality makes no difference.

We have now spoken of the gall-bladder, and wehave shown why some animals have it and why somehave not. III. It remains to speak of the Mesenteryand of the Omentum. These are in the same region

and close to the parts we have just described.

The Omentum is a membrane, formed of suet omentum,

or lard according to the animal in which it is. (Wehave already stated which animals contain suet andwhich lard.) " Whether the animal has one stomachor many, the Omentum is always fastened to the

middle of the stomach, on the line marked o'n it like a

seam ; and it covers the rest of the stomach and mostof the intestines. This is so in all blooded creatures,

land- and water-animals alike.

As for the necessary ^ formation of this part, it

occurs as follows. When a mixture containing solid

substance and fluid is warmed up, the surface of

it always becomes skin-like and membranous ; and

• At 651 a 26 fF. » See Introd. p. 22.

311

ARISTOTLE677 b

^ ^ ^ r V / T / \ /

/cat u/xevtt»Ses", o Se T07709 ovrog roiavriqs TTArjp-qs

25 cotI rpo(f)rjs. eVt Se Sia TTu/cvoTT^ra rou vfievog ro

SirjOoviiei'ov rrjs alfiarcoSovs rpoijyrjg dvayKOLOv

Xmapov elvai {rovro yap XeTTTorarov) Kal 8td rrjv

depfjLOTTjra ttjv irepl rov tottov avfJiTreTTOfJievoy avnoapKojhovs Kal at/xarcoSou? Gvardorecos areap yi-

veoBai Kal 77tjLteArJv. r] [xev ovv yeveais rod cxrt-

30 ttXoov GvpiâiveL Kara rov \6yov rovrov, Kara-

Xprjrai 8' rj (jyvoLs avro) irpos rrjv evTreiptav rijs

Tpocfirjs, oTTios paov Trerrry Kal ddrrov rd t,a)a Trjv

Tpo(j>-qv' TO /Ltev yap depfiov TreTTTiKov, to 8e ttlov

Oepjjiov, TO 8' eTTLTrXoov ttZov. Kal hid rovr airo

[xeGT]? rjprrjTai^ rrjs KocXlas, on ro erreKeiva^ fiepos

35 orvjJLTTerreL ro TrapaKelfievov rjirap. Kal rrepl (jl€V

rod eTTLTrXoov e'iprjrai.

IV. To 8e KaXovjJLevov fxeaevrepLov eom fxev vfJirjv,

StaretVet 8e avvex^? diro rrjs rcjv ivrepojv rrapa-

678 a Tacrecos" et? rrjV (jtXiâ rrjv fieydXrjv Kal rrjv dopmjv,

TrXrjpe^ ov (jiXe^cbv ttoAAcov Kal ttvkvcov, at reivovoiv

diTo raJv ivrepcov et? re rrjv [xeydXiqv cfyXeâ Kal rrjv

doprriv. rr]v [xev ovv yeveaiv ef dvdyKTjs ovoav

5 €vpi^(TOfjL€V ofioLOJs roL£ aAAot? pioploLs^' Std TtVa 8'

alriav VTrdpxei rols ivalfioLs, (jiavepov eoriv em-oKOTTovoiv. inel ydp dvayKalov rd ^cpa rpo(f)7]v

Xapi^dveiv dvpadev, Kal ttoXlv Ik ravrrjg yiveodai

rr)v iaxdrrjv rpocfyrjv, i^ rj(; rjSr] 8ta8t8oTat ets" ret

p-opia [rovro Se rot? jLtev dvaipLois dvcovvfiov, rols 8'

1 ^pKrm EPSUYZ.^ €TTiKCiya Peck : en' eKCivo vulg.

^ <ToiouTois> fiopiois Ogle : [fio/3iots] vfxeai Piatt.

312

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. iii.-iv.

the place \vhere the Omentum is is full of nutriment

of this very sort. Furthermore, owing to the thick-

ness of the membrane, that portion of the blood-like

nutriment which percolates through it must of neces-

sity be fatty, because that is the finest in texture

;

and then owing to the heat in that part it will beconcocted and so become suet or lard instead of somefleshy or blood-like substance. This, then, is the wayin which the formation of the Omentum occurs.

Nature, however, turns the Omentum to advantage in

the concoction of the food, so as to enable the animalto concoct its food more easily and more quickly ;

for the Omentum is fat ; fat things are hot, and hot

things aid concoction. For this reason, too, the

Omentum is fastened to the middle of the stomach ;

since as regards that part of the stomach which is

beyond, the liver which is close by it assists it in

concoction. So much for the Omentum.IV. What is called the Mesentery is also a mem- Mesentery.

brane ; and it extends continuously from the line of

extension of the intestines as far as the Great Blood-

vessel and the Aorta. It is full of blood-vessels,

which are many in number and closely packedtogether ; and they extend from the intestines as

far as the Great Blood-vessel and the Aorta. Weshall find, as with the other parts, that the develop-

ment and formation of the Mesentery is the result

o^ necessity . As for its purpose in the blooded animals,

that is clear enough to those who consider. Animalsmust of necessity take in nutriment from without

;

and, again, out of this the " ultimate nutriment"

has to be made ; and from this store the supply is

distributed directly to the parts of the body. (In

blooded animals this is called blood ; there is no

S13

ARISTOTLE678a

^ ^

10 evalfjiOLg at/xa /caAetrat), Set rt etvai St* ov els ras

(f)X€âg eK rrjs KoiXias olov Sta pit^wv TTopevaerai r)

rpo(f)rj. TO. {lev ovv t^vra rcts" ptâ? ^X^^ ^^^ '^V^ YV^[iKeWev yap XafJLJSdvei Tr]v Tpo0i]v), rot? Se t^cLoig r)

KOiAia Kal Tj rcov ivrepcov SvvajjLLs yrj Iutlv, i^ rjg

Set Xafi^dveiv rr^v Tpo(j)i]v SioTrep rj rov [JLeaev-

16 replov (f)VGLS iartv, olov pittas eôvaa ras St' avrrjs^

<f)Xeâs. ov pLcv ovv eVe/ca to fjLecevrepiov ecrrtv,

ctprjraL' rtVaSe rporrov Aa/x/3avet rrjv Tpo(f)'^v, Kal

7TCOS elGepxerai Sta rojv (fyXeftojv diro rrjs icrxdrr]?^

rpO(f>r\s els rd piopia Trdvra^ to StaStSojuevov etV rds

^Xeâs, iv rots nepl rrjv yevecnv rwv ^cocov Xexîj-

20 aerai Kal Tr]v rpocji-qv.

To, jLtev ovv evaijia rcov t,ix)OJV ttcos e;\;€t fi^xpi' tcDv

StcuptCTjLteVcov jJLopLCov, Kal Sta rivas alrias, e'lprjraL'

nepl Se rcov els rrjv yeveaiv avvreXovvrcov , ols hoKel

Staêpetv to OijXv rov dppevos, ixdp-evov ptev eon25 Kal XoiTTOV rcov elpr]ii€vcov aAA' errethj] irepl yeve-

aecos XeKreov, dppLorrov earl Kal irepl rovrcov iv rfj

TTepl eKeivcov decopla SieXOeiV.

V. To, Se KaXovpLeva ptaXdKia /cat [laXaKoarpaKa

noXXrjv exec Trpos ravra SLacf}opd.v evOvs yap rrjv

rcov GTrXdyxvcov aTrauav ovk exei (f>VGLv. ojioicos S'

80 ouSe rcov dXXcov dvaipLcov ovSev. eon Se Suo yevq

XoLird rcov dvalpicov, rd r oorpaKoSeppLa Kal ro rcov

ivropLcov yevos. ef ov yap ovveorrjKev r) rcov

airXdyxvcov (f)VOis, ovhev rovrcov exei at/xa, Sta to

^ avTTJg Peck : avTTJs vulg.• ioxo-rrjs Peck : eiaiovcrqs vulg.

' iravra Ogle : ravra vulg. : om. Z.

814

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. iv.-v.

special name for it in the others.) Now there mustbe some passage or passages (as it might be roots)

through which this nutriment shall pass from the

stomach to the blood-vessels. The roots of plants

are of course in the ground, because that is the

source from which plants get their nutriment. For

an animal, the stomach and the intestines correspond

to the ground, the place from which the nutriment

has to be derived. And the Mesentery exists to

contain these vessels, corresponding to roots ; they

pass through the inside of it. This completes myaccount of its Final Cause. As for the means bywhich the nutriment is taken up, and the way in

which that portion of the ultimate nutriment whichis distributed into the blood-vessels reaches all the

parts of the body through them, these points will

be dealt with in the treatises on the Generation ofAnimals and on Nutrition.

I have now described the blooded animals as far

as concerns the parts that have been dealt with, andalso the causes that are responsible. It remains,

and would follow after this, to speak of the organs

of generation, by which male and female are dis-

tinguished. But as we shall have to deal with

generation itself, it is more appropriate to speak of

these organs in our consideration of that subject.

V. The animals called Cephalopods and Crustacea internal

are very different from the blooded ones. First of all, bloSless

they have no visceral structure at all. This is true animals.

of all the bloodless creatures, in which are included

beside Cephalopods and Crustacea two other groups,

the Testacea and the Insects. This is because noneof them has blood, which is the material out of which

L 315

ARISTOTLE678a ^

^ ^

rrjg ovGiag avrojv elvat tl tolovtov Trddos [avrrjs]^'

on yap eon ra fiev eVat/xa to. 8' aVatâ, iv ro)

85 Xoycp ivvTrdpêi rco opitôvn rrjv ovoiav avTcov. enS' cov eveKev exovcn ra OTrXdyx^cL to. evaifxa rcbv

^cpcov, ovSev lUTrdpêi roZs tolovtols' ovre yap678 b Âe/Sa? exovoLV ovre Kvonv ovr dvairveovoiv , dX\d

[jLovov dvayKalov e;êtv avroX? to dvdXoyov rfj Kap-

Slo,' to yap alaOrjnKov ^VXV^ '^'^^ '^^ "^V^ ^^t]? ctt-

nov (ivy^ ^PXfl '^^^^ '^^^ fiopLCOv /cat rov awpLarog

VTrapêi Trdoi rols ^coot?. ra he irpo? rrjv Tpo(f)r]v

5 flopLa exî Kal ravra e^ dvdyKrjs Trdvra' ol he

rpoTTOi hLa<j)epovGi hid rovg tottovs ev of? Xafx-

^dvOVGl TTjV Tpo(j)iqv.

"YjXovgi he TO. fiev fiaXdKLa rrepl to KaXovpevovOTopia hijo ohovras, Kal ev rep oropân dvn yXojr-

T7]s aapKcohes n, S Kpivovai rrjv ev rols ehearols

r]hovriv. opLolcjog he Kal ra pbaXaKourpaKa tovtols

10 TOWS' TTpcjTOVs oSovTa? e;Yet Kal to dvdXoyov ttj

yXcoTTT) aapKoJhes. eTi he Kal to. ouTpaKoheppLa

rravTa to tolovtov ex^L p.6pLOV Sta ttjv avT'qv aWlavTOL£ evaipoLs, TTpos rrjv ttJs" Tpo(j)rJ5 aiodrjOLV.

opLOLOJ? he Kal Ta evTopLa Ta pLev ttjv e^Lovoav em-pOOKLha TOV GTOpLaTOS, OLOV TO TC Tcbv jLteAtTTcDv

15 yevo£ Kal to tojv pLVLcov, ojarrep eip-qTai Kal irpo-

Tepov ooa he pnq eaTLV epLTTpoadoKevTpa, ev twGTopiaTL ex^t- TO tolovtov pLopLov, olov TO Tchv

jxvppLTjKOJV yevos Kal el tl tolovtov eTepov. oSdvTa?

he TO, pLev exî' toutcov, aAAotorepous" he, Kaddrrep

^ avTTjg socliisi. ' ev supplevit Th.

" See Introduction, pp. 26 ff.

^ These teeth are the two halves of what might be com-pared to a beak.

316

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.

viscera are made ; and the reason for this is that a

condition of this sort is part of their being : the fact

that some animals are blooded and some bloodless

will be found to be included in the logos '^ whichdefines their being. Further, we shall see that noneof those purposes for whose sake blooded animals

have viscera operate in these other creatures : theyhave no blood-vessels and no bladder, they do not

breathe : the only organ they must necessarily haveis the counterpart of the heart, since the sensitive

part of the Soul and the original cause of life is alwayssituated in some place which rules the body and its

parts. Also, they all have of necessity the parts

adapted for dealing with food and nutrition ; but themanner of these varies according to the places wherethey take their food.

The Cephalopods have two teeth around what is

called their mouth ^ ; and inside the mouth, instead of

a tongue, they have a fleshy object, by means of

which they discriminate the savour of things to eat.

Likewise, the Crustacea have these front teeth andthe fleshy counterpart of the tongue. The Testaceaall have this latter part, too, for the same reason that

blooded animals have a tongue, viz. to perceive the

taste of the food they eat. Similarly, too, the Insects

have, some of them, a proboscis which comes out

from the mouth, as with the Bees and Flies (this has

been mentioned earlier '') ; and the ones which have nosharp protrusion in front have a part such as this

inside the mouth, as Ants, and the like. Some of

these creatures have teeth, though somewhat differ-

ent from ordinary teeth (as the Flies,'^ and Bees) ;

" At 661 a 21 ; cf. Hist. An. 528 b 28.* Or " Ants " (translating Meyer's emendation).

317

ARISTOTLE678 b ^

TO T€ Tojv iJLVLcov^ Kat TO Tcov fj-eXiTTcov yivos y ra 8'

20 ovK €X€i, oaa vypa -x^prirai rfj rpo(f)fj' ttoXXol yapTOJV ivTOfxojv ov Tpo(j)r]s ex^f' X^P^^ rovs ohovras

dAA' dXKrj?.

Tcbv 8' oGTpaKohepfjLOJV ra {xcv, ajoirep iXex^l ^^^^

iv Tols Kar dpxoLS XoyoLs, rrjv Ka\ovp.evr]v eêi

yXwTrav laxvpdv, ol he koxXoi /cat dSovra? Suo,

25 KaOdnep rd ixaXaKoorpaKa. fierd Se to arofia roZs

fiaXaKLOL? eurl oTOjiaxos piaKpos, tovtov S' exo-

fievos TrpoXoôs olog irep tols opviGiv, elra avvexy]?

KOiXla, Kal ravrrjg ixopLevov evrepov dirXovv piexpi

rrj? iôSov. rats /xev ovv o-qiriais koL tols ttoAu-

7TOGLV djU-ota Kat TOt? GXT^P'O.crt' Kal Tjj d(f)fj Ta irepl

30 TT^y KoiXiav Tat? he KaAou/xeVat? TevdiuL hvo p.ev

opLOLOJS at KotAttuSet? elalv VTTohoxciL, tJttov he

TTpoXoôjhrjs Tj eTepa, Kal TOt? CT;(rJ/xaCTtv eKeivcxJV

hLa(f)epovGL Std to Kal to cco/xa Trdv e/c {laXaKOj-

repag ovveoTdvaL oapKos.

TavTa 8' €;êt tci [lopLa tovtov tov Tponov 8td

TTjv avTTjv aLTLav wGTTep Kal OL opvLdes' ovhe yap35 TOVTCx)v ovhev evhex^TaL XeaiveLv ttjv Tpo(f)-^v, hLoirep

6 TTpoXoôs eo-Tt TTpd Trjs AcotAta?.

Ilpds ô-qOeLav he Kal oojTrjpiav ex^L TavTa tov

679 a KaXovpLevov OoXov ev ;)^tTtuvt VfievojheL 7TpoG7T€(f)v-

KOTL^ TTJV eôhov exovTL Kal TO Trepas fjTrep dcj^LaGL

TO TTepLTTCopâ TTjS KotAta? KaTa TOV KaXovpievov

avXov ovTOS 8' eGTlv ev toZs vtttlols. ex^L p.ev ovv

6 ndvTa TO, /xaAd/cta tovto to p.6pLov t8tov, /xdAtCTTa

8*7] GrjTTLa Kal irXelGTOV OTav ydp (f)o^rj6a)GL Kal

^ liviajv^ [xvicov l,a>ov EY : fivpfii^Kcov Meyer.* 7Tp0O7T€<f>VK6Tl Oglc I npoa7T€<f>VK6Ta VUgl.

S18


others have no teeth at all : these are the creatures

whose food is fluid. Indeed, in many of the insects

the purpose of the teeth is not mastication of food at

all, but for use as weapons.Of the Testacea, as we stated in the opening treat-

ise," some have a very strong tongue (so-called) ; andthe Sea-snails actually have two teeth as well, like the

Crustacea. In the Cephalopods there is a long gullet

next after the mouth, and contiguous to that is acrop like a bird's. Continuous with this is the

stomach, then immediately the intestine, which is

simple and reaches to the vent. In the Sepias andOctopuses these parts round the stomach are similar

both in shape and in consistency. The creatures called

Calamaries, like the others, have the two gastric

reC'Cptacles,^ but the first of them is less like a crop;

and they differ in shape from the organs of theprevious classes, and that is because their bodies are

composed of softer flesh throughout.These creatures have these parts arranged in this

way for the same reason that birds have them: they,like birds, are unable to grind down their food ; hencethe crop is placed before the stomach.

The Cephalopods, for the sake of self-defence andself-preservation, have what is called their Ink. This

is contained in a membranous bag which is attached

to the body, and comes to an end in an outlet wherethe residue from the stomach is discharged by the so-

called funnel. This is on the under side of the body.

All the Cephalopods have this peculiar part, but it is

most remarkable in the Sepia, as well as the largest

in size. When the Sepia is frightened and in terror,

" At Hist. An. 528 b 30 ff.

• Viz. the crop and the stomach.

' 319

ARISTOTLE679 a ^

heiaojGiv, olov (j^pdyjia irpo rod acofiaros TTOiovvrat

Ti]v rod vypov [leXaviav /cat OoXcjoglv. at [lev ovv

TevOiSes Koi TToXvTTohes exovcnv avcodev rov doXov

€7t\ rfj {jlvtlSl ijLaXXov, -q Se crr^TTta npos rfj kolXlo.

10 Kara)' TrXeio) yap e^î- Stct to ;^p7]crât fidXXov.

TOVTO 8* avTjj GviJ,âLV€L Sto, TO TTpooyeiov [Jiev elvai

Tov îov avTrfS, p-r] ^X^'-^^' dXX7]v ôrjOeLav, wanep

6 TToXvTTOvs TCtS" TrXeKTO-vas e;)(£t XPV^^H-^^^ ^^'' '^V^

rod ;!^paj/xaTOS' pLeTaôX-qv, 'q (jvpLâlveL avTO),

coGirep Kol Tj Tou doXov TTpoeGis, 8ta SetAtav. t^ Se

16 revdlg TTeXdyLov Igtl tovtojv pLOVOV. irXeioj p.ev ovv

€X€L Tj G7]7Tia TTapoL TOVTO TOV doXov, KaTOjOev Sc 8ta

TO TrXeioj- pahiov yap TTpoteGdat Kal TToppcjdev cltto

TOV TrXeiovos. ytVerat Se [o doX6s\^ KaOajrep rotS"

OpVLGLV VTTOGTT^pia TO XeVKOV €.7tI TOV 7T€pLTTCOpLaT0£

yetoSes", ovtco Kal tovtols 6 OoXos Std to jitT^Se TauT*

20 e;êtv KUOTtv OLTTOKpLveTai yap to yecoSioTaTOV els

avTOVy Kal TTJ G-qiria TrXeiGTOv Sta to TrAetOTOV exîv

yecoSes". Giqp.e'iov Se to GrjTTLOv tolovtov 6v tovto

yap 6 /Ltey ttoXvttov^ ovk e;êt, at Se Tevdihes X^^'SpcoSes" Kal XeiTTov. (St' tjv S* alriav to, pev ovk

ex^t- TO. S' e;êt, Kat ttolov tl tovtojv ex^t eKaTepov,

€ipr]TaL.^)

25 ^Kvaipiojv S' ovTOJV Kal Sta tovto KaT€ipvypL€va>v

Kal (f)o^r)TLKa)v, coGirep iviois oTav Setoojotv rj

KOiXia TapctTTeTat, TOts" S' eV tt^s" KVGTews pel

TTepLTTOJGlS , Kal TOVTOLS TOVTO GvpifSaLveL pLev e^

^ [6 doXos] seclusi : o oin. P.^ eiprjTat, irpoTcpov P.

** The nnjtis, which is the same as the mecon, is an excretoryorgan, and corresponds to the Uver. See below, 679 b 11,

" Cf. above, 67G a 32.

320


it produces this blackness and muddiness in thewater, as it were a shield held in front of the body.Now the Calamaries and Octopuses have this ink-bagin the upper region of the body, quite near the mytis'^',

whereas in the Sepia it is lower down, against the

stomach, since it has a larger supply because it uses

it more. This circumstance is due (1) to its living

near the land and (2) to its having no other means of

defence—nothing like the Octopus, for instance, whichhas its twining feet, which are useful for this purpose ;

it can also change its colour, and it does so (just as

the Sepia emits its ink) when put in fear. Of all

these, only the Calamary lives well out at sea and gets

protection thereby. Hence, compared with it, theSepia has a larger supply of ink ; and because this is

larger, it is lower in the body, as it is easy for it to beemitted even to a considerable distance when thesupply is great. The ink is earthy in its nature, like

the white deposit on the excrement of birds, and it is

produced by these creatures for the same reason

—

they, like birds, have no urinary bladder ^; so the

earthiest matter is excreted into this ink, especially

in the Sepia, for the Sepia contains an exceptionally

large amount of earthy matter. An indication of

this is its bone, which is earthy. The Octopuses donot have this bone, and in the Calamary it is cartila-

ginous and slight. (We have said why some of theseanimals have this part and why some have not, andwhat in each case its character is.)

These animals, as they have no blood, are cold andliable to take fright. While in some other animalsfear causes a disturbance of the stomach, and in somethe discharge of residue from the bladder, in thesecreatures its effect is to make them discharge their

' 321

ARISTOTLE679a

^ ^

di'dyKrjg dÛvai Sta heiXiav, cjOTrep €K Kvarcojg

Tols inovpovGLV, rj Se (^vgls df.La ro) tolovtco xrcpir-

80 Tcofiart Karaxp'TJTai npog fôrjdcLav Kal GcorrjpLav

avTcov.

"KôvGL Se Kal rd ptaXaKoarpaKa, rd re Kapa-

ôclStj Kal ol KapKLVOL, Svo pikv oSovra? tov<^

TTpcorovs, Kal fiera^v ttjv odpKa rr]v yXcjaaoeLSrj,

(jjGTTep e'uprjraL Kal Trporepov, euû? 8* ixdpêvov rod

GTopLaros GTopiaxov puKpdv /caret fxeyeOos rwv35 Gcopbdrajv [rd ju-etjco 77^0? to, eAarrco]^- rovrov he

KoiXiav €xop€vr]v, ecf)* tj^ ol re Kdpaôi Kal evioi

Tojv KapKLvojv ohovrag exovGiv irepov? Sid to tovs

679 b dvco jjLTj hiaipelv txravcos", dird he rrj? /cotAta? 'ivrepov

drrXovv /car' evOv p-^xpi- Trpds ttjv eôhov rod

TrepLTrcjpLaros.

''E;êt 8e Kal tojv oGrpaKoSeppcov eKaGTOv ravra

rd fJLopiay rd /xev Sir]pdpa>pL€va jjLaXXov rd 8' rjrrov

iv 8e rot? pLeitôGi hiahiqXorepd CGriv e/cacrra rov-

6 ro}v. ol /xev ovv koxXoi kol dSovra? exovGi gkXt]-

povs Kol olets", a)G7T€p e'iprjrai rrporepov, Kal rd

jxera^v GapKOjSeg opôlcog rols paXaKiois Kal /LtaAa-

KOGrpaKOiSy Kal rrjv TrpoôGKuSa, Kaddnep eLpr]raL,

fiera^v Kevrpov Kal yXojrrrjs, rod 8e Gropiarog

ixdpi€VOV otov opvidcohri rivd npoXoôv, rovrov 8'

10 ex6pi€Vov GropLaxov rovrov 8' ex^rai rj KoiXia, ivfj

T) KaXovpLevT] fjL-qKOJV, dcji* ^? Gvvex^S eGnv evrepov

dnX-qv r7]v dpxr]v €XOV dno rrjs pLTQKOJVos' €GrL ydp

iv TTaGL rot? oGrpaK-qpols TTcpirrcopLa rovro ro

fidXiora hoKovv elvat ihwhipiov. e;;êt 8' opioiajs rep

* seclusit Rackham.

322


ink ; and though this is an effect due to necessity,

hke the discharge of urine in the others, yet Naturemakes good use of this residue at the same timefor the animal's defence and preservation.

The Crustacea as well, that is, both the Crabs andthe Caraboids, have the two front teeth, and betweenthe teeth they have the tongue-like flesh, as hasalready been stated " ; and immediately next to themouth they have a gullet which is quite small com-pared with the animal's size ; and immediately after

that the stomach ; and on this the Carabi and someof the Crabs have another set of teeth, since the

upper ones do not masticate the food sufficiently.

From the stomach a simply formed intestine runs

straight to the vent where residues are discharged.

These parts are present in every one of the Testaceaas well, more distinct in some, less in others. Theyare more clearly marked in the larger animals.

Take the Sea-snails. These have (1) as stated al-

ready, the teeth, which are hard and sharp, (2) the

fleshy object in between them, similarly to the

Crustacea and Cephalopods ; (3) the proboscis, as

already mentioned,^ something between a sting anda tongue

; (4) immediately after the mouth is a sort

of bird's crop, and (5) after that the gullet; (6) con-

tinuous with that is the stomach, and (7) in the

stomach is what is known as the mecon'^', and (8) at-

taching to this is an intestine : this intestine begins

directly from the mecon. This residue (the mecon)

appears to be the most tasty piece in all the Testacea.

The other creatures that have spiral shells (e.g. the

« At 678 b 10.

" At 661 a 15 ff.

* The hepatopancreas or liver ; see above, 679 a 9.

l2 323

ARISTOTLE679 b ^

15 Kox^cp /cat rdXXa ra arpofJil^coSr], olov 7Topcf)vpai

Kal KrjpvKeg.

"Ecrrt 8e yeurj Kal e'lSrj ttoXXol rtuv oarpaKO-

Sepjjicov TOL jLtev yap GTpoji^coSrj ioTiv, wGTrep ra

vvv elpTjiievay ra he ScOvpa, ra Se fxovodvpa. rpoTTOV

8e rtva Kal ra arpojjL^coS'q ScOvpoig eoiKev ex^L yap

CTnTTTuy/xar' enl rep (pavepcp rrjg aapKos rravra ra

20 TOiavra e/c yeverrjs, olou at re 7Top(f)vpaL Kal

KTipvKes Kal OL vrjpe'lraL Kal irdv ro roiovrov yevos,

77/30? ôi]deiavf)yap firj TTpoê^XrjraL ro oorpaKov,

paSiov ravrr) ^XaTrreaOai vtto rojv OvpaOev irpoG-

TTLTTrovrajv. ra [lev ovv jjiovoOvpa Sta to rrpocr-

7r€(f)VK€vaL GwêraL rco vpaves ^x^tv ro oorpaKov,

25 Kal yiverai aXXorpioj (jypdypiari rporrov rivd St-

dvpov, olov at KaXovfJLevai XeirdSes' ra Se SiOvpa,

OLOV Kreves Kal [xveg, rco ovvdyeiv, rd Se GrpopLâjht]

Tovrcp rep eTTiKaXvpLpiari, cjorrep SlOvpa ycvojjLeva eK

fiovodvpojv. 6 S' exlvo? fidXiora ndvrcov dXewpdv

€X€L' kvkXco yap ro oorpaKov Gvvr]pe(f)e? Kal K€'

80 x'^P^KOjpievov rats aKdvOaig. lSlov S' ex^t, rcov

OGrpaKoSepfJLOJV rovro, KaOdnep etprjraL nporepov.

TcDp' 8e fiaXaKOGrpaKCxJV Kal rcJov oGrpaKoSeppLwv

GvveGrrjKev rj ^vais rols pLaXaKiois avrt/cet/xeVcos"*

rot? /xev yap eôj ro GapKcoSe?, rols S' ivros, eKros

8e ro yeojSes. 6 8' exlvos ovhev exî GapKcoSes.

35 Oavra /xev ovv ex^t^, Kaddrrep e'lp-qrai, Kal rdXXa

rd oorpaKohepixa Grojjia re Kal ro yXcurroeiSes Kal

KoiXiav Kal rod Trepirrcoixaros rrjv eôhov, hiaêpei

* The operculum,

324


Purpuras and the Whelks) are similar to the Sea-

snails in structure.

There are very many genera and species of Tes-tacea. Some have spiral shells, like the ones just

mentioned ; some are bivalves, some univalves. Ina way, the spiral shells resemble the bivalves, as theyhave, all of them, from birth, a covering ° over the

exposed part of their flesh, e.g. the Purpuras, theWhelks, the Nerites, and the whole tribe of them.This covering serves as a protection ; for in any place

where the animal has no shell to protect it, it could

quite easily be injured by the impact of external

objects. The univalves' means of preservation is this

:

they cling to some object, and have their shell on the

upper side ; so they become in a way bivalves in

virtue of the borrowed protection afforded by the

object to which they cling. Example, the Limpets.

The bivalves proper (e.g. Scallops and Mussels) get

their protection by closing themselves up ; the spiral-

shelled creatures by the covering I mentioned, which,

as it were, turns them from univalves into bivalves.

The Sea-urchin has a better defence system than anyof them : he has a good thick shell all round him,

fortified with a palisade of spines. As I stated pre-

viously, the Sea-urchin is the only one of the Testacea

which possesses this peculiarity.

The natural structure of the Crustacea and of the

Testacea is the reverse of that of the Cephalopods.

The latter have their fleshy part outside, the form.er

have the earthy part outside and the fleshy inside.

The Sea-urchin, however, has no fleshy part at all.

All these parts, as described—mouth, tongue-like

object, stomach, vent for the residue—are present

in the rest of the Testacea too, but they differ in

, 325

ARISTOTLE

680 a he Trj Oeoet Kal rot? fJieyeOeaLV. ov Se rponov e^ct

Tovrojv €KaaTov, e/c re tcjv IcrropLCJV rwv nepl ra^cpa decopeLuOoj Kal eV tojv dvaTOfJicov' ra fiev yapToj Xoycp TO. Se Trpo? rrjv oipiv avrojv Gaffyrjvlêiv 8et

fidXXov.

'IStto? S* exovGL Tcov 6orpaKohepp.OL>v 61 r e-)(lvoi

6 Kal TO rojv KaXovfievcov ttjOvcov yevos. exovGL 8* ol

ix^voL oSovras {jlev irevre Kal jxera^v to oapKchhes

,

oirep €7rl Trdvrojv icrrl rtov elpTjjjLevojVy exppievov he

rovrov oropiaxoVy dno he tovtov ttjv KOiXiav els

TToAAo, hiTjp'qpeviqv, warrepavel ttoXXols rod t,a)ov

KoiXias exovTos. Kex(JopL<jf.LevaL p.ev yap elcn Kal

10 TrX-qpeis TreptTraj/xaro?, e^ eVos" S' TJpTrjvraL rod

GTopLaxov Kal reXevTcocn npos pbtav eôhov ttjv rodTTepirrojpLaTOS. vapd he r-qv KoiXiav aapKajhes pLev

ovhev exovGLV, wdTrep e'ipiqrai, rd he KaXovpieva cod

TrXeicu rdv dpidpidv ev u/xeVt ;)(6opt? eKaurov, Kal

kvkXo) dno rod uroptarog pLeXav* drra hteaTrappeva15 Xvhr]v, dvojvvpLa. ovrcov he irXeLovcov yevcbv [ov ydp

ev ethog rcov ex^vcov Trdvrojv eori) rrdvres piev epôucrt

ravra rd pLopLa, dAA' ovk eScoSi/xa Trdvreg rdKaXovpieva cod, Kal puKpd rrdpirrav e^cxj rcov im-TToXaôvrcxjv. oXcos he rovro Kal nepl rdAAa avpL-

20 ê^rjKe rd oorpaKoheppia' Kal ydp at crdpKes ovxopLOicxJS ehajhipLoi TrdvTCov, Kal rd TTepirrcjopia, rj

KaXovpLcvq pLTjKOJv, evLCxJV piev ehcohipos evicnv S' ovkihcohipios. eon he rols orpopi^coheGiv ev rfj eXiKj}

" Hist. An. 52Sh 10 ff.

* This seems to imply that diagrams or illustrations accom-panied the treatises.

* These form what is compared to a lantern at Hist. An.531 a 5, hence the name, " lantern of Aristotle."

326


their position and size. For the details of these, con-

sult the Researches upon Animals^ and the Dissections.

Some points are better explained by inspection'' thanin words.

The Sea-urchin and the genus of Ascidians are

peculiar among the Testacea. The Sea-urchin hasfive teeth,^ and between them it has the fleshy sub-

stance (the same as in all the above-mentionedcreatures) ; after that, the gullet, after that, the

stomach, which is divided into several compartments,so that the animal seems to have several stomachs.

But although they are separated from each other andare full of residue, they all spring from the gullet andthey all terminate in the residual vent. Apart fromthe stomach, these creatures contain no fleshy sub-

stance, as I have said. They have, however, whatare called ova ^

; there are several of them and eachis in a separate membrane ; and scattered at randomround the body, beginning from the mouth, are

certain black objects,^ which have no name. Thereare several kinds of Sea-urchin, and in all of themthese parts are present. Not all, however, haveedible^ ova, and, except in the common^ varieties,

they are quite small. There is a similar distinction

among the other Testacea : the flesh is not equally

edible in all of them, and in some of them the residue

(the so-called mecon) is edible, in others not. In the

spiral shells, the mecon is in the spiral, in univalves

** These are really ovaries (or testes) : gonads.* These may be the ambulacral vesicles, but the identifica-

tion is not certain.' See the story of the Spartan in Athenaeus iii. 41.' The word translated " common " may mean " living near

the surface."

' S27

ARISTOTLE680 a ^

Tovroy TOLS 8e fiovoOupocg iv rco ttvBixIvl, oiov raZs

XeTrdcTLy TOtS" 3e hidvpois rrpos rfj Gvva(f)fj' to 8* wov25 KoXovpLevov iv rots heîoZs, iv he roZs eirl Odrepa r)

€ôhos rod 7T€pLTT(jL)fiaTOs Tots" Sidvpoig. KoXeZrai8* (hov ovK 6pda)s V7t6 tcjv KaXovvrcjJV rovro yap€GTiv olov Tols ivaljjLOLs, OTav €v9r]v6jaLv, Tj TTLorrjs.

Sio Kal yiverai /caret rovrovs rovs Kaipovs rodevtavTov ev ols evOrjvovuLVy ev re to) eapi Kal

IxeroTTOjpcp' ev yap toj ipv)(êi Kal rals aXeais tto-

30 vovGL TTavra rd oarpaKoSepfiay Kal (f)€p€LV ov8uyavTat rag virepjôXas . or^pLelov 8e to GVfJLâlvov

€7Ti Tcov e-xîvojv €vdv£ T€ ydp yivofievoL exovGi Kal

iv rals 7TavGeXi]voL£ fidXXov, ov 8ta to vefieGOaL

Kaddirep rives oiovrai fiaXXov, dXXd 8ta ro dXeeivo-

repas etvau rag vvKrag Sid to (jichs rrjs GeXrjvqs.

35 SvGpiya ydp ovra Sid ro dvaifxa elvau Seovrai dXeas.

Slo Kal iv rep depei fiaXXov Travraôv evdiqvovGiv,

esObTrAiî^ OL iv to) Ylvppaio) evpirrcp' iKelvoi 8' ou;)^

rjrrov rod ;)êt/xtDyo?- a'iriov 8e ro vofjirj? evrropelv

rore [xaXXov, aTroXenrovrcov tcov lyjdvojv rovs ro-

TTOVS /caTO, ravTTjv rrjv wpav.*'E;ôuo't 8' ol i)(ivoi irdvres toa Te rw dpiOpLcp to,

6 cpa Kat TTepiTTd' nevTe ydp exovGLV, togovtovs 8e

/cat Tovs oSovTas Kal Tds KoiXlas. aiTiov 8* on tod)6v iGTL, KaOaTTep e'iprjTai irpoTepov, ovk (hov dXXdrod t^wov evrpo<j)ia. yiveTai he tovto inl ddrepa

" This is true of the sea-urchins in the Red Sea, though notof the Mediterranean ones. The former have a cycle corre-sponding exactly to that of the moon. The five roeSi ovaries, ortestes are large and swollen during the week preceding eachof the summer full moons, and tlie spawning of the eggstakes place during the few days before and after full moon.For a most interesting discussion of this and kindred matters

S28


(like limpets) it is in the tip ; in bivalves it is nearthe hinge. In the bivalves the so-called ovum is onthe right-hand side, and the residual vent on the left.

" Ovum " is a misnomer ; actually it corresponds to

fat in blooded creatures when they are in good con-dition ; and that is why it appears only in spring andautumn, which are the seasons when they are in goodcondition. In great cold and great heat all theTestacea are hard put to it ; they cannot endure in-

ordinate temperatures. The behaviour of the Sea-urchins is a good illustration of this : they have ovain them as soon as they are born, and at the time offull moon these increase in size "

; and this is not, as

some think, because the creatures eat more then, butbecause the nights are warmer owing to the moon-hght. These creatures have need of the heat becausethey are bloodless and therefore adversely affected

by cold. That is why they are in better condition

during the summer, and this is true of them in all

localities except the strait of Pyrrha,^ where theyflourish equally well in winter, and the reason for this

is that in winter they have a more plentiful supply offoodstuff, due to the fish leaving the district at thatseason.

The Sea-urchins all have the same number of ova

—

an odd number, five, identical with the number of

teeth and stomachs which they have. This is ac-

counted for by the " ovum " not being really an ovum(as I said before) but simply a result of good nourish-

ment. The " ovum " is found in Oysters too, though

see H. M. Fox, Selene, especially pp. 35 fF., and id. Proc.Roy. Soc. B., 1923, 95, 523.

" In Lesbos, leading to the lagoon, one of Aristotle's

favourite hunting-grounds : see Hist. An. 544 a 21 (sea-

urchin), 548 a 9, 603 a 21, 621 b 12. Cf. Gen. An. 763 b 2.

' 329

ARISTOTLE680 b

[Movov €v roZs oorpeois, ro /caAou/ierov <h6v. rauro

he rovTO ion /cat to eV rols i\ivoL£. irrcl tolvvv

10 iuTL O(f)aLp0€Lhr]9 6 ixLi'o^y /cat ovx a)07T€p eVt tojv

dXXojv oorpecxjv rod GojpLaros kvkXos els, 6 S* e)(luos

ov rfj ptev TOiovTos rfj8' ov, dXXa Travrrj opiOLos

{G(f)aLpo€iSr]g ydp), dvayKi) /cat to wov opLOLOJS exetv

ov yap ioTLVy (Lorrep rots aAAot?, to kvkXco dv-

opuoLOV iv pL€Gcp ydp Tj Ke(f)aXrj Trdaiv avTols, to) S'

16 dvOJ TO TOLOVTOV pLOpLOV. dXXd pLTjV OuSc GVV€X^S

OLOV T etvai to ojov—ovhe ydp rot? aAAot?—dAA' errl

OaTepa tov kvkXov piovov. dvdyKT] tolvvv, irrel

TOVTO pL6V aTravTCUv KOLvoVy lSlov 8' e/cetVou etrat

TO CTCO/xa aâtpoetSes", pLr) elvai dpTia Ta cod. /caTa

SidpieTpov ydp dv tjv, Std to opLotojg 8etv exîv to

20 €v6ev /cat evOev, et tjv dpTia [/cat /caTo, hidpLeTpov^'

ovTCOS 8' e;(dvTa)V eV dpL(f)6T€pa dv tov kvkXov

ctxOV TO (hov. TOVTO 8' OVK TjV OvS* €7x1 TCJJV dXXoJV

ooTpecxJV i-TTi BdTepa ydp ttjs nepLcfyepeLas exovoL TaOGTpea /cat ot KTives to tolovtov pLopiov. dvdyKT)

Toivvv Tpta 7] 7T€.VT€ elvai r^ d'AAoy Tti^' dptdpLov

25 TTepLTTOv. el pL€V ovv Tpta etx^, TToppoj Xiav (jdvY

TjV, et 8e TrXeLOJ tcjv vreWe, Gwex^s dv tovtcdv Sc

TO pi€v ov ÎXtlov, to 8* OVK eV8e;^d/xevov. dvdyKT)

dpa ttcVt' avTOvs ^X^^^ "^^ ^^•Atd Tr]v avTTjv 8' atTtav /cat tj KoiXia TOLavTTj

€0"p(taTat Kat to tcov oSovtojv togovtov eGTL ttXtjOos.

€KaaTOV ydp tojv cocov, olov aco/xct Tt tov t,a)ov ov,

80 TTpOS TOV TpOTTOV TOV TTjS /COtAta?^ OpLOlOV C^êtV

^ secludenda. ^ (ai^) Ogle.^ KoiXias Ogle : {co^s vulg.

830


on one side of the body only ; it is the same as that ofthe Sea-urchin. Now the Sea-urchin is spherical,

and is not just one flat disk hke the Oysters ; thus,

being spherical, it is not different shapes in different

directions, but equiform in all directions ; hence ofnecessity its " ovum " is correspondingly arranged,since this creature's perimeter is not, as in the others,

non-equiform °: they all have their head in the

centre, whereas the Sea-urchin's is at the top.

Yet even so the " ovum " cannot be continuous,since no other of the Testacea has it thus ; it

is always on one side of the disk only. Hence,since this is a common property of all species

of Testacea, and the Sea-urchin is peculiar in havinga spherical shape, the result follows of necessity that

the Sea-urchins cannot have an even number of ova.

If they were even, they would have to be arranged in

diametrically opposite positions, because both sides

would have to be alike, and then there would be ovaon both sides of the circumference ; but this arrange-

ment is not found in any of the other Ostreae ; bothOysters and Scallops have ova on one side only of

their circumference. Therefore there must be three,

or five, or some other odd number of ova in the Sea-

urchin. If there were three, they would be too far

apart ; if more than five, they would be quite con-

tinuous ; the former would not subserve a goodpurpose, the latter is impossible. Therefore the

Sea-urchin must of necessity have five ova.

For the same cause the creature's stomach is cloven

into five and it has five teeth. Each of the ova, being,

as it were, a body belonging to the creature, mustconform to the general character of the stomach,

• That is, it is circular in all planes, not in one only.

' 331

ARISTOTLE680 b

dvayKalov ivrevOev yap r) av^r]ais. jjLid? ^leu yap

ovarjg tj TToppw dv rjGav, rj ttolv dv Karelx^ 'ô kvtos,

cocrre /cat Svoklvtjtov etvai rov i)(ivov Kal [xtj ttXtj-

povadai rrjs Tpo(l)rjs to dyyelov rrevre 8* ovtcjjv

rcjv StaAet/xjLtarcov dvayKT] irpos eKaGTCp ovaav

85 7T€VTa)(fj SLfiprjadai. Sea rrjv avrrjv S' alriav Koi

TO T(x)v ohovrcxjv €orL TOGovrov ttXtjOo?^' to yap

681 a ofJLOLOv ovTco? dv 7) <f)VGLS ^trj aTroSeSojKvta tols

elprjixevoLS [xoplois.

Atdrt /xev ovv Trepirrd Kal rooavra tov dpidpLov

exî 6 exlvo£ rd cod, etpr^raf Stort S' ol /xey TrdpLirav

pLLKpd ol Se /xeyaAa, atrtov to OepfioTepov? elvat

rrjv (fiVGiv TOVTov?' 7T€TT€iv ydp TO deppiov SvvaTaL

5 Tr]V Tpo(f)r]v pidXXoVy hioTrep TTepirTaypLaros TrX-qpeis

ol dppajTOL pidXXov. Kal TrapaGKevdêL klvtjtlkco-

repOV? Tj TTJS (f)VG€aJS OeppLOTTjS, COCTTC V€pL£Gdai Kal

pLTj pL€V€LV iSpaLOVS. GTjfXeloV §€ TOVTOV TO ^X^LV

Tovs TOLOVTOV9 del Tt irrl tcov dKavdwv ujs klvov-

pL€vov5 TTVKvd' xpdJvTat ydp ttogI Tat? dKdvOaig.

10 To, 8e rrjOva puKpov tcov (f)VTd}V Staêpet ttjv

(f)VaLV, OfJLCOS 8e t,Cx>TlKCiJT€pa TCOV GTTOyyCxJV OVTOL

ydp TrdfJLTTav exovGL cfivrov SvvajjLiv. r] ydp <j)VGis

pLeTaâlvei Gvv^xdos diro tcov diljvx(J^v els to, â>a

8ta TCOV t,(I)VTCov pLev ovk ovtcjjv be ^cpcov, ovtcos

coGre hoKelv TrdjJLTrav fiiKpov hiacfyepeiv darepov

15 darepov rep Gvveyyv? aAAiÂots". o piev ovv GTToyyos,

^ hinc manus recentior E ( =E).

" This is true ; but motion is effected mainly by the tube-feet, not noticed by Aristotle {vide Ogle).

* The " sea-squirts."

332


because growth has its origin from the stomach.Now if there were only one stomach, either the ovawould be too far away from it, or the stomach wouldentirely fill up the cavity, which would make it

difficult for the Sea-urchin to move about and to find

sufficient food to replenish itself. But, as it is, there

are five ova separated by five intervals, and so there

must be five departments of the stomach, one for

each interval. For the same reason there are five

teeth, since this enables Nature to assign one tooth

alike to each ovum and each department of the

stomach.

I have now stated why the Sea-urchin has an oddnumber of ova, and why it has five of them. Nowsome Sea-urchins have quite small ones, and somelarge : the reason for this is that the latter have a

hotter constitution, and the heat enables them to

concoct their food better. This explains why the

uneatable ones tend to be full of residue. This

natural heat also induces the creatures to move about,

and so instead of remaining settled in one place theykeep on the move as they feed. An indication of

this is that Sea-urchins of this sort always have some-thing sticking on to their spines (which they use

as feet),** which suggests that they are continually

moving about.

The Ascidians ^ differ very little in their nature fromplants, but they are more akin to animals than the

Sponges are, which are completely plants. Naturepasses in a continuous gradation from lifeless things

to animals, and on the way there are living things

which are not actually animals, with theresult that oneclass is so close to the next that the difference seemsinfinitesimal. Now a sponge, as I said just now, is in

' 3S3

ARISTOTLE681 a

ojGTTep eiprjTaiy /cat tco t,rjv 7TpoG7Te(f)VK(l)S fJLOvov,

OLTToXvOels Se fJLT] i,TJV, OfjLOLOJS ^X^^ TOt? <j)VToZs

TT-avreAcDs" ra 8e KaXovfieva oXodovpia koi ol irvev-

jjLoves, €TL Se /cat erepa Toiavr iv rfj daXdrrr)

fiLKpov Sia(f)€p€L rovTcov rep aTToXeXvadat' ata^Tjcrtv

20 pi€v yap ovSepLLav €;êt, l^fj S' ojOTrep ovra (j>VTa

aTToXeXvpLeva. eori 8e /cat iv rols imyeiois <j>vroZs

€VLa roLavra, a /cat l,fj /cat yiverai ra pLev iv eripois

(j)vrols, ra he /cat aTToXeXvpieva, olov /cat to e/c rod

YiapvaGGov KaXovpLevov vtto rivcxjv iTriTrerpov rovro

yap l,fj TToXvv ;)^povop' Kpejidpievov dva> eTrt rcov

25 TrarrdXojv. eon S* ore /cat ra rr]dva, /cat et rt

roiovrov erepov yevos, ra> piev TrpooTrecfyvKos ^rjv

pLOvov (j)vr(x) iraparrX-qGLOv, rep 8' *ix^^^ '^^ GapKcoSes

Soêiev dv ex^LV riv* alGdiqGiv' dBr]Xov Se rovro

TTorepojs dereov.

"^X^^ ^^ 'ôvro ro ^cvov Svo TTopovs Kal pilav

80 hiaipeGLV,fj

re hex^rai rrjv vyporrjra rrjv els

rpo(f)'qv, /catfj

TrdXiv SiaTrepLTreL rrjv VTToXeLTTopLevxjv

LKpidSa' TTepirrcjopLa yap ovSev ion hr^Xov exov,

ojGTTep rdXXa rd oGrpaKoSeppLa. 8to pidXiGra /cat

rovro, Kav et rt aAAo roiovrov rcov i,(pajv, (jyvriKov

hiKaiov KaXelv ovhe yap ra>v (jivrcov ovhev €X€L

85 TTepirrojpia. 8ta pieGov he Xeirrov hidt,<jjpLa, iv a>

TO Kvpiov vTrdpxîv evXoyov rrj? ^corjs. a? he

KaXovGLV OL pLev Kvlhas ol 8' dKaX'iq<âs , eGri piev ovk

681 b oGrpaKoheppLa, dAA' e^co TTiTrrei rwv hirjprjpLevwv

yeva)v, iTrapLôrepitêL he rovro /cat (f)vrcp Kal ^cpco

" Or " sea-cucumbers."" The precise reference of this term is not known.* Sea-anemones, called by the Greeks " sea-nettles."

S34


all respects like a plant : it lives only while it is

growing on to something, and when it is pulled off it

dies. What are called Holothuria and the Sea-lungsând other similar sea-animals differ only slightly

from the sponges in being unattached. They haveno power of sensation, but they live just as if theywere plants unattached to the soil. Even amongland-plants such instances exist : living and gro^\ing

either on other plants or quite unattached : for

example, the plant found on Parnassus, sometimescalled the Epipetron (Rockplant). If you hang this

up on the pegs ^ it will keep alive for a consider-

able time. Sometimes it is doubtful whether these

Ascidians and any other such group of creatures

ought to be classed as plants or as animals : In so far

as they live only by growing on to some other object

they approach the status of a plant ; but yet theyhave some fleshy substance and therefore probablyare capable of sensation of a kind.

• This particular creature (the Ascidian) has twoorifices and one septum ; by one orifice it takes in fluid

matter for food, by the other it discharges the surplus

moisture ; so far as can be seen it has no residue like

the other Testacea. And as no plant ever has anyresidue this is a strong justification for classing it

(and any other such animal) as a plant. Through its

middle there runs a thin partition, and it is reason-

able to suppose that the governing and vital part of

the creature is situated here. As for what are called

Knides or Acalephae,^ they are not Testacea, it is

true, but fall outside the defined groups. In their

nature they incline towards the plants on one side

Those common to the Mediterranean are more virulent in

their stinging powers than those of the north.

, 335

ARISTOTLE681 b ^

^

TTjv (f)UGLV. Toj (jLev yap OLTToXvecrOaL Kal rrpoo-

TTLTTTeiv TTpos rTjv Tpo(f)rjv eVta? avTOJV â>t/cov ccrrt,

6 Kal ra> aladdveoOai rcov TTpouTrnnovTayv' en he rfj

rod GcofJLaros rpaxvrr]TL ;)^prJTat TT-pos" rrjv acjTiqplav'

Tip 8' areXes elvai Kal TTpoGcfyveadat rapêcus" rat?

TTerpaig ro) yevei rcov cfyvTcbv TrapaTrX-qGLOv, Kal rwTTepiTTCopLa pLTjSev exeiv âvepov, GTOfJca S' exî-v.

ofMOLOv Se rovTcp Kal ro tujv aGrepojv IgtI yevos—10 Kal yap rouro ttpqgttltttov eKxyj-illêL ttoXXol tojv

oGrpecov—rots' t' a7ToXeXvp.evois rcov elprjfjLevojv

^cpcov, OLOv TOLS TC piaXaKLOLg Kal Tot? [xaXaKO-

GrpaKOLs. 6 S' avros Xoyos Kal rrepl rcov oGrpaKo-

SepjJLcov.

To. fxev ovv pLopia ra Trepl ttjv rpocjy'qVy airep

avayKaZov TraGiv VTrapxeiv, exei rov TrpoeipiqpLevov

15 rpoTTOV, Set 8e St^Xovotl Kal rcov rols evaipiois

VTTapxovrcov Kara ro Kvpiov rcov aiGOrjGecov exeiv

dvdXoyov ri pLopiov rovro yap Set TraGiv vnapxeiv

rols ôjot?. eart Se rovro roZs p.ev pLaXaKioig ev

Vfievi Keifxevov vypov, St' ovnep 6 Grofxaxos rerarai

TTpo? rrjv KoiXiaVy irpoGTre^VKe Se jrpos ra rrpavrj

20 fjLoiXXov, Kal KaXeZrai pLvns vtto rivcov. roiovrov S*

erepov Kal roZs (xaXaKOGrpaKOLs eGri, Kal KaXeZrai

KOLKeZvo fJLvrLg. eGri S' vypov Kal GCOfiarcbSe? dpua

rovro ro jJLopiov, reivei Se St' avrov, KaOajrep

elp-qrai, Sta fxeGOV fxev 6 Grofxaxos' el yap tjv

/JLera^v rovrov Kal rod Trpavovs, ovk dv rjSvvaro

2r, XafjL^dveiv opLOLCog StacrraCTtv elGLOVGr]g rrjs rpocfj-fj?

Sta rr]v rod vcorov GKXrjporrjra. eVt Se rijg fivrf,8os

ro evrepov e^coOev, Kal 6 60X65 Trpos rep evrepcp,

<* That is, dorsal.

336


and the animals on the other. Towards the animals,

because some of them detach themselves and fasten

upon their food, and are sensible of objects that comeup against them ; and also because they make useof the roughness of their body for self-preservation.

Towards the plants, because they are incomplete,

and quickly attach themselves to rocks ; and further,

because they have no residue that can be seen,

though they have a mouth. The group of Starfish

resembles these creatures ; Starfish too fasten on to

their food, and by doing this to oysters suck large

numbers of them dry. But Starfish also resemblethose unattached creatures of which we spoke, the

Cephalopods and the Crustacea. The same may besaid of the Testacea.

The parts connected with nutrition are such as I

have now described. These must of necessity bepresent in all animals. But there is yet another part

which every animal must have. These creatures musthave some part which is analogous to the parts

which in blooded animals are connected with the

control of sensation. In the Cephalopods this con-

sists of a fluid contained in a membrane, throughwhich the gullet extends towards the stomach. It is

attached to the body rather towards the upper " side.

Some call it the mytis. An organ just like this, also

called the mytis, is present in the Crustacea. This

part is fluid and corporeal at the same time. Thegullet, as I said, extends through the middle of it.

If the gullet had been placed between the mytis andthe dorsal side, the gullet would not have been able

to distend sufficiently when the food enters, owing to

the hardness of the back. The intestine is placed upagainst the outer surface of the mytis, and the ink-bag

, 337

ARISTOTLE681 b

Ô77C0S" on TrAetCTTOV aTTexj] rrjs elaoSov Kal to

SvGx^p^S CLTToOevfj

rod êXriovos /cat rr\s dpx^S'on 8' 6(jtI to dvdXoyov rfj Kaphia rovro ro [jLopiov,

80 SryAot o roTTOS [ovro^ yap eanv 6 avros) koL rj

yXvKVTTjg TTjS VypOTTjTOS d)S OVUa 7T€Tr€[XfX€Vrj Kol

aliiarcohrjs.

Ev Se Tols 6orpaKohepp,oig e;\;£t pikv rov avrov

TOTTOV^ TO KVpLov TTjS aLGQ-qdeco? , tJttov S' i7TLhr]Xov.

TrXrjv Set t,7]T€lv del Trepl jLtccrdrT^Ta TavT7]v Tr]v

apx'Tjv, ooa puev piovifiay tov Sexop-evov pLoptov tt^v

85 TpO(f)T]V, Kal St* OV TTOieiTai TTjV dlTOKpLGiV 7]

T7]V GTreppaTLKTjV 7) TTjV TT€pLTTCOpaTLKT^V , OGa §€

682 a Kai TTopevTiKCL Tojv t,(x)ajv, del ev^ ro) pLeGco tojv

SeftcDv /cat rcDv dpiGTepcbv

.

Tots' S* ivTopLoig TO pi€V TTJs ToiavTTis dpx^spiopioVy a)G7rep iv rots" TrpcoTOLs eXexQ'"] Xoyois,

jLteraû K€(f)aX7J? Kal tov Trepl ri^v KoiXiav egtI

KVTOVS. TOVTO Sc TOt? pL€V TToXXolg CGTiV €V, TOLS

5 Se TrAetco, Kaddirep rot? tovAcoSeot /cat /u-a/cpot?"

Sionep hiaTepivopeva t,r). ôvXeTau piev yap rj (j)VGis

€V TTOLGL pLOVOV €V 7TOi€iV TO TOIOVTOV , Kal hwapivT]

pL€V TTOiei pLovov ev, OV SwapLeinj Se TrXeioj.^ hrjXov

8* ev eTepois erepcoy jLtaAAov.

To, 8e TTpos rrjv Tpo(f>r]v pLopua ov ttolglv opLolcJS,

10 aAAa hia(j)opdv e;)êt ttoAAt^p'. ivTos yap tov gto-

pLaTos eVtot? pL€V €GTL TO KaXovpLevov KevTpov,

WGTTepavel GvvdeTOV Kal ^xov yXcoTTrjg Kal êtXcuv

^ roTTOv Pkackham : rponov viilp:. ^ ev V : om. vulg.^ sic SL Y (Suva/u.ei'a bis S) : Kal hvvafjLevrjv fiev, €i> ttolcl ixovov

OV bvvafievT) Se ttXcloj Z : ov bwa/xeirrj S' evepyeia noiel fiovov €v,

bvvdfxeL 8e ttXclw vulg. (cf. 667 b 25).

338


up against the intestine ; this is to ensure that it andits unpleasantness are kept as far as possible from the

body's entrance and from the sovereign and mostnoble part. The mytis occupies a place which corre-

sponds exactly with that of the heart in blooded

creatures : which shows that it is the counterpart of

it.** Another proof of this is that the fluid in it is

sweet—that is, it has undergone concoction and is of

the nature of blood.

In the Testacea the part which rules sensation

occupies the same place but is not so easy to pick out.

But this source of control should always be looked for

around some middle position in these creatures : in

stationary ones, in the midst between the part whichreceives the food and the part where the seed or the

residue is emitted ; and in those which move about,

always midway between the right side and the left.

In insects the part where this control is placed, as

was said in the first treatise,^ is situated between the

head and the cavity where the stomach is. In the

majority there is one such part, but in creatures like

the Centipede, that is, which are long in the body,there are more than one : so if the creatures are cut

up they go on living. Now Nature's desire is to makethis part a unity in all creatures, and when she can,

she makes it a unity, when she cannot, a pluraUty."

This is clearer in some cases than in others.

The parts connected vdih nutrition are by no meansalike in all insects ; indeed they exhibit great

differences. For instance : Some have what is

known as a sting inside the mouth—a sort of com-bination of tongue and lips,—which possesses the

* The heart of invertebrates escaped the notice of Aristotle.* At Ilist. An. 531 b 34. « Cf. 667 b 22 if.

339

ARISTOTLE682 a

a/xa SvvaixLV rols 8e (jlt^ exovuiv efXTrpooOev to

Kevrpov iorlv ivros rcov oSovrcov tolovtov alaOrj-

rrjpLOv. TOVTOV 8' ixofi^vov Trduiv evrepov evdv /cat

16 aTrXovv IJ-^XP^ '^V^ iôSov rod TTepLTTcvfiaTOS' evioLS

8e rovTo iXlKrjv ex^t. ra Se KoiXiav /xera to GTOfia,

OLTTO Se rrjs KOiXias to evTepov elXiyfjLevop, ottoj^

ocra ^pcoTLKcoTcpa /cat fxelôj tt^v cf)VGLv vnohox^v

kxxi TrXeiovos Tpocl}rjs. to Se tcov TeTTiycDV yivos

IS lav €X€i {JLaXiGTa tovtcov (J^vglv to yap avTO

20 fxoptov epêt OTOjjLa /cat yXojTTav ovfXTrecfiVKos, St*

ov KadaTrepel Slol pit,'r]S Sepêrat ttjv Tpo(f)r]u diro

TCOV vypojv. rrdvTa fxkv ovv IgtIv oXiyoTpocjya to,

evTopia Tojv ôjcov, ovx ovtco Slol fXLKp6Tr]Ta cos

Sid ipvxpoTr)Ta {to yap Oepixov /cat Setrat Tpocf)rjs

/cat Tr€TT€t TTjv TpocjiT^v TaxôJS , TO Sk ijjvxpov d-

25 Tpo(f>ov), jLtaAtcrra 8e to tcov TeTTiycov yevos' LKavrj

yap Tpo(f)r] tco ocopiaTi rj e/c tov irvevixaTog vtto-

jxevovaa vypoTiqs, KaOdirep TOt? icjirjfxepoLs ^cools

(ytvcTat Se TavTa irepl tov noi^TOv), ttAt^v e/cetva

/xev t,fj pads r^p.epas ;\;poj-'ov, TavTa Se TrXecovcov

pi€V r]p.€p(jjv, oXiycov Se tovtcov.

30 'ETTet 8e TTepl tcov ivTos VTrapxdvTCov pLoplcov tols

t,cx)OLS etprjTai, ndXiv nepl tcov Xolttcov tcov gktos

liraviTeov. dpKTeov 8' avro tcov vvv €Lprjf.L6vcoVf

dAA' ovK d(/>' Sv dTTeXiTTOjjLeVy ottcos dno tovtcov

SLaTpL^rjv iXdTTCO ixovTCOv eirl tcov TeXeicov /cat

ivaipicov ^cocov 6 Xoyos GxoXdl,r] fxdXXov.

35 VI. Td jLtev ovv evTOfia tcov t^cocov ov TToXvp-eprj

pkv TOV dpiOpiov ioTLv, djjicos 8' e;(et irpos d'AATÂa

3 to

PAHTS OF ANIMALS, IV. v.-vi.

character of both. Those that have no sting in front

have a sense-organ of that sort behind the teeth.

After the mouth, in all insects comes the intestine,

which is straight and simple right up to the residual

vent. (Sometimes, however, it has a spiral in it.)

And some there are which have the stomach nextafter the mouth, while from the stomach runs a

twisted intestine ; this gives the bigger and moregluttonous insects room for a larger amount of food.

Of all these creatures the grasshoppers are the mostpeculiar. In them the mouth and tongue are united

so as to make one single part, and through this theydraw up their nourishment from fluid substances as

through a root. All insects take but little nourish-

ment ; and this is not so much because they are

small as because they are cold. (Heat needs nourish-

ment and quickly concocts it ; cold needs none.)

This is most marked in the grasshoppers. They find

sufficient nourishment in the moisture which the air

deposits ; so do the one-day creatures which occur

around the Black Sea. Still, they live only for the

space of a day ; whereas the grasshoppers live for

several, though not many, days.

Now that we have spoken of the internal parts of

animals, wê must go back and deal with the remainderof the external parts. We had better begin with the

creatures of which wê have just been speaking, andnot go back to the point where we left the external

parts. This will mean that we take first those whichneed less discussion, and that will give more time for

speaking of the " perfect " animals, i.e. the bloodedones.

VI. Insects first, then. Though their parts are not external

numerous, insects differ from one another. They all

' 3U

PARTS OFBLOODLESSANIMALS.

ARISTOTLE682 a

8ta</>opas'. 77oAi;77oSa fiev yap eoTL Trdvra Sea to

682 b TTpog rrfv ^paSvTTJra Kal KaTai/jv^LV rrj? (f)VGeaJs ttjv

TToXvTTohlav avvriKcorepav avrols ttouIv rriv KivqaivKal jxaXiaTa TToXviroha ra pLaXiara Kareijjvyixeva Sta

TO [JirJKOs olov TO Twv lovXcxJv yevos . €tl 8e 8td to

6 dpxas ^x^LV TrXeiova^ at t ivTOfJLai etVt Kal ttoXv-

TToSa /caTct TavTo} ioTLV.

"Oaa 8* iXoLTTOvas e;^€t 77o8as", tttt^vcl TavT* ioTl

npos TTjv eXXenpLV ttjv tG)v ttoSojv. avTcov 8e tcDv

TTTTjVOJV (hv jJiiv ioTLV 6 ^LOS VOfiaSlKOS Kol SlOL TTjV

Tpo(f)7]v dvayKalov eKTOTrilêiv, TeTpaTTTepd t€ ioTi

Kal Tov Tov ucLpiaTos €^€1 Kov<f)ov oyKov, olov at Te

10 /xeAtTTat Kal Ta GV(jL(f)vXa (,cpa TavTais' hvo yap e^'

€KdT€pa TTTepd^ exovoLv. ooa 8e puKpd tG)V tolov-

Ta)Vy hiTTTepa, Kaddirep to tojv fivicov yevos. Ta 8e

âpea^ Kal TOt? ^tois iSpala TroXvTTTcpa jjiev o/xotco?

Tat? /xeAtTTai?* ioTLv, ex^L 8' eXvTpa TOt? TTTepols,

15 otov at T€ fJLTjXoXovdai Kal Ta ToiavTa tcov ivTOficov,

07T0JS 0(x>t,rj TTjV TWV TTTepojv SuvafiLV ihpaicov yapovTOJv evSidcfiOopa fidXXov ioTi tojv evKivrjTOjv,

SioTTep €X€L (fypaypLOV Trpo avTOJV. Kal daxt-c^TOV Se

TOVTOJV ioTL TO 7TT€p6v Kal aKavXov ov ydp iuTi

7TT€p6v dXX V/JLTjV SepfxaTLKos, OS Sid ^rjpoTTjTa ef20 dvdyKTjg dîoTaTai tov CTco/xaTo? avTOJV ipuxofievov

TOV oapKcoSovg.

"EvTOfia 8' eoTt 8ta Te Ta? elp-qjievas atVta?, /cat

OTTOJS u<x)tpr]TaL hi dirdd€iav ovyKafirrTOfxeva' avv-

cAtTTeTttt ydp Ta fxrJKos exovT avTCJV, tovto 8' ovkdv iyiveT avTols fXTj ovglv ivTOfJLOis. to, 8e firj

^ ravrd Peck : Tavra Y : ravT vulg. : ravras Ogle.^ 7TT€pa TOV acvfxaTos vulg. : tov a. delevi.

• âpda Ogle : ^paxda vulg. * /xeAtTrats {ovk) Piatt.

342

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.

have numerous feet ; this is in order to make their (a) insects,

motion quicker, and to counteract their natural slow-

ness and coldness. Those which are most subject to

coldness owing to their length (e.g. the Centipedes)

have the greatest number of feet. Furthermore,these creatures have several sources of control ; andon that account they have the " insections " in their

bodies, and the numerous feet which are placed in

precise correspondence.

Those that have fewer feet are winged by way of

compensation. Some of these flying insects live awandering life and have to go abroad in search of

food ; so they have a light body and four wings, twoon either side ; such are the bees and the kindredtribes. The small ones have only two \\'ings all told

—like the flies. Those that are heavy and sedentary

in their habits have the larger number of wings like

the bees, but they have shards round their wings(e.g. the Melolonthae'^ and similar insects) to preserve

them in their proper condition ; for, as these creatures

are sedentary, their wings are more liable to bedestroyed than those of the nimbler insects ; andthat is why there is this protection round them.An insect's wing is not divided, and it has no shaft.

In fact, it is not a wing at all, but a membrane of skin,

which being dry detaches itself of necessity from the

creature's body as the fleshy part cools off.

I have already stated some reasons why these

creatures have " insected " bodies : there is another,

viz. it is so that they may curl up and thus escape

injury and remain safe. It is the long ones that roll

themselves up, and this would be impossible for themif they were not insected. Those that do not roll up

* Perhaps cockchafers (Ogle).

S^3

ARISTOTLE682b ^

^ ^ ÎXiKTo. avrcjv (jKXrjpvverai fjidXXov avviovra els ras

25 rofxas. hr]Xov 8e rovro yiverai diyyavovTCov, olov

eVt Tcov KaXovf-Uvcov Kavddpcjv (f)0^rjdevTa yapdKLvr]TL^€L, Kal TO CTOJ/xa yiverai GKXiqpov avTcov.

dvayKOiov 8' evropLOis avrols elvai' rovro yap iv

rfj ovaia avrcjv vrrapx^L ro TToXXdg e)(€iv dpxdg, Kal

80 ravrrj TTpoaioiKe rols (j>vroZs. cooTrep yap rd (f)vrd,

Kal ravra Statpou/xeva Svyarai ^rjv, ttXtjv ravra [lev

yi'iXP'' "^^ôSt €K€Lva Se Kal reXeia yiverai ttjv (f)VOLV

Kal Svo e^ evos Kal TrXeto) rov dpLdfjLov.

"E;\;et S' eVta rojv ivrofiojv Kal Kevrpa Trpds

ôrjdeiav rcov ^XaTrrovrojv . to /xev ovv Kevrpov

85 rols jLtev epLTTpoodev ion rols S* OTTiaOev, rols fxev

epLTTpoodev Kara rrjv yXcorrav, rots S* ornodev Karard ovpalov. WGirep yap rols iXlâoi rd rcjv

d(T[X(jL)V alaOrjrrjpiov yeyevrjrai ;^p7^crtôv rrpds re

683 a rrjv dXKTjv Kal rr)V r7]s rpo(f)rjs xp-rjcrtv, ovrojs rdjv

ivrdjJLOJV ivLOis rd /caret rr]v yXcJorrav rerayfievov

aloddvovrai re ydp rovrco rrjs rpo(f)rjs Kal dvaXafi-

PdvovGL Kal TTpoodyovrai avrrjv. doa he fi-q ianvavrcbv efXTTpooOoKevrpa, dhdvras €;êt rd piev

6 ehcjohris X^P^^ "^^ ^^ '^^^ Xap^^dveiv Kal irpoodyeadai

rrjv rpo(f)'qv, otov ol re [xvpijLrjKes Kal rd rdov pieXur-

Tcov TTaacjv yevos- dua 8' oTnaddKevrpd eon, hid

rd dvpidv ex^^v ottXov ex^^ rd Kevrpov. exovat he

rd pLev ev eavrdls rd Kevrpa, Kaddnep at pbiXirrai

Kal ol G(f)rJKes, hid rd TTrrjvd elvai- Xejrrd piev ydp

10 dvra Kal e^co evcf)dapra (av)^ r]V el he naxâ rjv^

ajGTTep rols OKopTTtois, (^dpos dv Trapelx^v. rols he

^ (av) Ogle. * 8e naxâ ^v Piatt :8' direixev vulg.

3U


increase their hardness by closing up the insections.

This is obvious if you touch them

—

e.g. the insects

called Canthari (dung-beetles) are frightened whentouched and become motionless, and their bodies

become hard. But also it is necessarif for them to

be insected, for it is of their essential being to havenumerous sources of control ; and herein they re-

semble plants. Plants can live when they are cut

up ; so can insects. There is a difference, however,for whereas the period of survival of a divided insect

is limited, a plant can attain the perfection of its

nature when divided, and so two plants or more comeout of one.

Some of the insects have a sting as well, for defence

against attackers. In some the sting is in front, bythe tongue ; in others it is behind at the tail-end.

Consider the elephant's trunk : this is its organ of

smell ; but the elephant uses it as a means of exert-

ing force as well as for the purposes of nutrition.

Compare with this the sting of insects : when, as in

some of them, it is ranged alongside the tongue, not

only do they get their sensation of the food by meansof it, but they also pick up the food with it and conveyit to the mouth. Those which have no sting in front

have teeth ; which some of them use for eating,

others for picking up the food and conveying it to the

mouth, as do the ants and the whole tribe of bees.

Those that have a sting at the back are fierce crea-

tures and the sting serves them as a weapon. Some-times the sting is well inside the body, as in bees andwasps. This is because they are winged, and a deli-

cate sting on the outside of the body would be easily

destroyed ; on the other hand, a thick one such as

scorpions have would weigh them down. Scorpions

, 345

ARISTOTLE3 a

OKopTTLOL? TTelôZs ovui Kol KepKOv^ exovcTLV Givay-

KOiov em ravTTj^ ^X^^^ '^^ Kevrpov, r^ firjdev )(p-qoLpiov

€LVaL 77/30? TT^V OlXktJv . SiTTTepOV S' OvdeV ioTLV

OTTiodoKevrpov Sta to audevrj yap Kal puKpa clvai

15 SiTTTepd iuTLv iKava yap ra puKpa a'ipeodai vtto

tCov eXarrovcov top dpLdfjLov. 8ta ravro Se rovroKai epLTrpooOev e;êt to Kevrpov audevrj yap ovrapLoXis hvvarai rolg omadev^ rvTrreiv. rd Se

TTOAVTTrepa, Sia ro jLtct^co rrjv (f)VOLv elvai, irXeiovcov

r€TV)(y]K€ TTTepOJV Kal LG)(VeL TOtS" OTTiodev fJLOploLS.

20 êXnov S' ivSexofievov firj ravro opyavov eirl

avojjiOias ^xîv xPV^^'^^y diXXd ro fxev dfivvrLKov

o^vrarov, ro Se yXatrrcKov oop.(f)6v /cat OTraoriKov

Trjs rpo(f)r}g. ottov yap evhex^âi XPV^^^'' Svolv

inl 8u' epya Kal purj epi7Tohit,€LV rrpos erepov,

ovSev 7) (f)vuL<: e'tcode TTOielv wajrep r) ;)(aA/<:euTtACT7

25 77/309 evreXeiav oêXiGKoXvxvi-ov' dXX ottov (jltj

ivSex^rai, Karaxprjrai rw avrco iirl TrXeioj epya.

Tovs Se TToSas rovs rrpoodiovs /Ltetôu? eVta rov-

rojv ex^-iy OTTCos eTreihy] 8ta ro GKXrjp6(f)daXfxa etvau

OVK aKpi^rj rrjv oipLV exovcri, rd rrpooTTLTTrovra rols

rrpoodcoLs diroKadaipwoi OKeXeoiv drrep Kal (jâi-

80 vovrai -noiovGai at re /xutat Kal rd (JLeXirrcoSr] rcjv

^wcDV del ydp xo-po-K^ôvcn rols TrpooBiois UKeXeuiv.

rd S* dTTLoOia pLei^co rcov fieGCJV Sta re rr]v ^dhiGLV

Kal rrpds to atpeodai paov and rrj? yrjg dvairer-

* KcpKov Z (coniecerat Ogle) : Kevrpov vulg.^ TavTT] Ogle : TavT Vulg.

^ omodev Ogle, Thurot : efx-rrpoadev vulg.

" The principle of" division of labour " in a living organism,

not stated again until 1827 (by Milne Edwards). See Ogle's

note.

346


themselves, being land-creatures and having a tail,

are bound to have their sting on their tail ; otherwise

it would be no use for exerting force. No two-winged insect has a sting at the rear ; these are small

weak creatures, and can be supported by a smaller

number of wings : that is why they have only two.

The same reason explains why they have their sting

in the front : owing to their weakness they cannotwell deliver a blow with their hind parts. Many-winged creatures, on the other hand, owe their

greater number of wings to their own greater size,

and so too their hind parts are stronger and bear the

sting. It is better, when it is possible, that one and the

same organ should not be put to dissimilar uses ; that

is, there should be an organ of defence which is very

sharp, and another organ to act as a tongue, whichshould be spongy and able to draw up nourishment.

And thus, whenever it is possible to employ twoorgans for two pieces of work without their getting in

each other's way. Nature provides and employs two."

Her habits are not those of the coppersmith who for

cheapness' sake makes you a spit-and-lampstand

combination. Still, where two are impossible, Natureemploys the same organ to perform several pieces

of work.

Some insects, whose eyesight is not distinct owingto their eyes being made of some hard substance, havespecially long forefeet, which enable them to clear

away anything that comes down on to the eyes.

Flies and bees and the like are obvious examples :

they are always crossing their front legs. Thesecreatures' hind legs are longer than their middle onesfor two reasons : (1) to assist them in walking, and

(2) to lift them more easily off the ground when they

M , 3-i7

ARISTOTLE683 a ^

ofMeva. oaa Se TT-qSi-jTiKa avrcov en [xaXkov rovro

<f)av€p6v, olov at t' aKplSeg /cat to roJv ipvXXcov

35 yivos' orav yap Kaixijjavr eKreLvrj ttolXlv, dvayKalov

dno rrj? yrjg rjpQai. ovk ejXTrpoodev 8* aAA'

683 b OTTtcrêv fJLovov exovGL rd TT-qSaXLcohrj at a/cptSe?*

rrjv yap KafJLirrjv dvayKalov etaoj KeKXdodai, rGiV

8e TTpoaOiojv kcoXojv ovSev eon tolovtov. e^diroZa

Se rd roiavra Trdvr iarl ovv rots dXTLKols j-Lopiois.

VII. TcJov 8' ooTpaKohepixojv ovk ean to oajfia

6 TToXvpiepe?. rovTOV 8' atrtov to fiovifiov avru)V

elvai TTjv (f)Voiv TToXvixepearepa ydp dvayKalov

€LvaL TOJV ^cpCDV rd KLvrjTLKd Old TO (TrXelovsy^ ctvai

avTtov 7Tpd^€is' opydvojv ydp Selrai TrXeiovcov rd

TrXeiovajv pLerexovTa KLvrjaecov. tovtojv he rd fiev

aKLvqra Trd/jLTrav iarl, rd 8e pîKpas fierexî' Ki-

lo VT]G€cos' dAA' 7] (J)V<JL5 TTpos GCjjrTjpiav avrols rrjV

rujv oarpaKCOV OKXr]p6rr)ra TTepidOrjKev. eon 8e

TO, ixev [JLOvoOvpa rd 8e btdvpa avrojv, rd he orpofJL-

pcoSr], KadaTTep eLprjrat Trporepov /cat toutcuv TCt

fi€V iXiKTjv eôvra, olov K-qpvKe?, rd 8e a(j)aLpoeihr\

fjiovov, KadaTTep rd rcov ex^vcov yivos . /cat rwv15 hidvpojv rd fiev ianv dvanrvKra, olov Krives /cat

pives (e77t ddrepa ydp ovyKeKXeiurai, wore av-

oiyeaOai irrl ddrepa /cat (jvyKXeUadai), rd 8' iir

dfJL(f)a) ovp,7Te(f)VK€V, olov rd rcov gojXtJvcjov yevos.

diravra 8e rd oarpaKoheppâ, Kaddirep rd (f)vrd,

20 Kara) rrjv K€(f)aXr]v 'e-)(î. rovrov 8' atVtoy oTt

Karajdev Xapi^dvei rrjv rpo(f)rjv, ajGirep rd (j>vrd

rals pit,ais. GvjxâiveL ovv avrols rd p,kv Karoj

dvco €X€iV, rd 8' dva> Karco. iv vpivi 8' eCTTt, hC

1 (jtX^Lovs) Peck: {noWas) Piatt.

318

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vi.-vii.

rise in flight. This pecuHarity is even more notice-

able in the leaping insects, such as locusts and thevarious sorts of fleas, which first bend their hind legs

and then stretch them out again, and this forces themto rise up from the ground. The rudder-shaped legs

which locusts have are at the rear only and not in

front ; this is because the joint must bend inwards ,**

and no front limb satisfies this condition. All

these creatures have six feet, inclusive of the parts

used for leaping.

VII. In Testacea the body is not divided into (?>) Testacea.

several parts, owing to their being of stationary

habits, as opposed to creatures which move about :

the latter are bound to have more parts to their bodybecause their activities are more numerous, and the

more motions of which a species is capable, the moreorgans it requires. Now some of the Testacea are

altogether stationary : others move about but little ;

and so, to keep them safe. Nature has compassedthem about with hard shells. Some of them are (as I

said earlier ^) one-valved, some two-valved ; and someconical, either spiral like the Whelks, or spherical

like the Sea-urchins. The two-valved shells are

divided into (a) those M'hich open

—

i.e. which have ajoint on one side and can open and shut on the other ;

e.g. the scallops and mussels; (6) those which are

joined together on both sides, e.g. the group of razor-

fishes. In all Testacea, just as in plants, the head is

down below. The reason for this is that they take uptheir food from below, as plants take it up by their

roots ; so they have their nether parts above and their

upper parts below. These creatures are envelopedin a membrane, and through this they strain fresh-

« See note on 693 b 3, p. 433. » At 679 b 16.

ARISTOTLE683 b ^

ov SirjOel TO TTOTLjj-ov /cat Xaix^dvei ttjv Tpo(f)-^v.

exî' Se Ke(j)a\riv fxev Trdvra, rd 8e rod crdjjLtaro?

ixopia TTapd to rrjg TpO(f)i]s Scktikov dvcovvpa

rdXXa .

25 VIII. To, he fiaXaKOGrpaKa Trdvra Kal TTopevTLKd,

Sio TToScDV ex^t' ttXtjOos. €Gtl he yevr] jxev rerrapa

rd /xeytCTT* aurcDv ol re KaXovpevoi Kdpaôi /cat

acrra/cot /cat Kapihes /cat /cap/ctVot* toutojv S'

eKaarov TrXeioj e'lhf] earl hia(j>epovra ov fxovov Kara

zo TTjv fJLop(f)r]v dXXd /cat /cara ro jxeyeOos ttoXv' rd

fiev ydp [leydXa rd he puKpd TTdfjLrrav avrcov eoriv.

rd fxev ovv KapKwcohrj /cat Kapaj^whr] rrapopLoi

earl rw XV^^^ ^X^*-^ d[jL(f)6repa. ravras S' ov

TTopeias exovGL x^P''^> dXXd rrpos rd XajieZv /cat

Ko^raGX^Xv dvrl ;)(etpajv. Sto /cat KdpLTrrovGLv ivav-

35 rtajs ravra? rols ttogLv rovs p-^v ydp errl rd koZXov

rdg S' IttI rd Trepicfiepeg KapLnrovGL /cat eXiGGOVGiv

ovroj ydp ;!^pr^CTt/i.at rrpds rd Xafôvoai 7TpoG(f)epeGdai

684 a rrjv rpo(f)rjv.

AtacjiepovGL S'fj

ol pev /capa/3ot exovGLV ovpdv,

ol he KapKLVoi ovk exovGiv ovpdv rots pêv ydp hid

rd vevGriKols elvai ;)^p7Jo-iôs' r^ ovpd [veovGt ydpdiTepeihopevoL olov irXdrais avrals), rots he Kap-

5 kLvols ovhev xPV^Îôv hid rd irpoGyeiov etvai rdv

îov^ avrcnv Kal elvai rpcoyXohvras. ogol 8' avrojv

TTeXdyioi etVt, 8ta rovro rroXv dpyorepovs exovGi

rovs TTohas^ TTpds rrjv TTopelav, olov at re palai

Kal ol 'Hpa/cAea>Tt/cot KaXovpevoi KapKivoi, onoXlyr) KLVTjGei ^^pcoyrat, dAA' rj acorrjpLa avroXs

I'j Toj oGrpeiwheis elvai yiverai' hid at /zev p.alai

^ TO /3iov Bekker per typothctae errorem,^ avTwv post TTohas vulg. : om. Y.

350

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. vii.-viii.

water to drink, which is their way of taking nourish-

ment. All of them possess a head, but except for

the part which takes in the food none of the other

parts has a special name.VIII. All the Crustacea can walk on land as well as (c) Cru-

swim ; and hence they all have numerous feet. There ^*^^"

are four main groups of Crustacea, called (1) Carabi

;

(2) Astaci; (3) Carides; and (4) Carcini." Each of

these contains several species which differ not only

in shape, but also in size, and that considerably, for

some species are large, others extremely small. TheCarcinoid and the Caraboid Crustacea resemble each

other, in both having claws. These claws are not for

the sake of locomotion, but serve instead of hands,

for catching and holding ; and that is why they bendin an opposite direction to the feet, which bend andtwist toward the concave side, while the claws bendtoward the convex side. This makes the claws

ser\iceable for catching hold of the food and convey-ing it to the mouth.The two groups, Carabi and Carcini, differ in that

the former have a tail and the latter have not. TheCarabi find a tail useful because they are swimmers :

tliey propel themselves with it as though with oars.

A tail would be useless to the Carcini, which spendtheir lives near the land and creep into holes andcrannies. Those that live out at sea and move aboutbut little, and owe their safety to their shelly exterior,

have for these reasons feet which are considerably less

effective for locomotion : examples of this are the

<* Roughly, these four divisions may be represented by ourown groups, thus : (1) lobsters ; (2) crajrfish ; (3) prawns andshrimps ; (4) crabs,

- 351

ARISTOTLE

AeTrrocj/ceAetS', ol S' *H/3a/<:AeajTt/<:ot fiLKpoGKeXels

elaiv.

01 he TrdfjLTrav yuKpol KapKLVoi, ot aXiaKovrai Iv

ToXs fiLKpoLS lxOvSlol?, €xovgl tov? TeAeuTatou?

TrAaret? TroSa?, tva rrpos ro velv avrols XP^^-tjUOt

djGLV, ojGTrep 7TT€pvyta rj irXdras exovreg rous" TToSas.

At he Kaplhes tcjv fxev KapKivoeihwv hia(f)epovoL

15 ra> exîv KepKov, rchv he Kapaôeihajv hid to (jltj

ex^t^v p^TyAas" a? ovk exovau hid ro ttXelovs ^X^^^rrohaSy ivravOa ydp tj eKeWev dvrjXa)Tai av^rjGL?.

TrXelovs 8' exovui TTohag, on vevorLKcorepd eoriv

t) TTopevTLKcorepa.

To, 8' eV TOtS" V7TTLOIS pLOpia Kal TTepl T7]V Ke-

(f)aXr]v rd fxev els to heâaOai to vhcop Kal dcfielvau

20 exovGL ^payxoeihrj- TrXaKOjheGTepa he to, KaTOj at

d-qXeiai rcjv dppevauv Kapd^cxjv exovai, Kal to. eV

TO) eVtTTTuy/xart hauvTepa at drjXeiaL KapKLVOL

TOJV dppevojv, hid to eKTeiveiv to, (hd rrpos aura,

aAAa piT] aTToOev, ojo-nep ol Ixdveg Kal rdAAa ra

(^cpdy TLKTOVTa- evpvxoJpeoTepa ydp ovTa Kal pLel^co

25 ;!(djpay e;)(et rots' cools pidXXov. ol [lev ovv Kapaôi

Kal ol KapKLVOL Trdvres Trjv he^Ldv exovcrL XV^W[xellôj Kal LGX^poTepav toIs ydp he^Lols rravTa

7T€(f)VKe TO, ^cpa hpdv /xaAAov, rj he (^vgls aTroStdw-

GLV del ToZs XP^cr^ct' hwafievoLs eKaGTOV t) pLOVoos

r] pdXXoVy OLOV xûAtoSoyras- Kal ohovTas Kal

80 KepaTa Kal TrXrJKTpa Kal TrdvTa ra rotaura p,opLa,

OGa Trpos ô-qdeLav Kal dA/<:rjv eGTLv.^

Ot 8* acrra/cot pLovoL, orroTepav dv TVxoJcrf'V

exovGL p.eLôj tcjv xV^djv, Kal at ^rÂeiat /cat ot

^ <a»a) Peck : r-qKOvra S : KvtoKOvra PY : woTOKOvvra Ogle.2 ^(jTif, Peck : eiaiv vulg.

352

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. viii.

Maiae ^ (whose legs are thin) and the crabs called

Heracleotic (whose legs are short).

The little tiny crabs, which are found among the

catch with small fishes, have their hindmost feet flat,

like fins or oars, to make them useful for swimming.The Carides differ from the Carcinoids in having a

tail, and from the Caraboids just mentioned in not

having claws. Claws are absent because they havemore feet : the material for their growth has goneinto the feet. And they have more feet because theysvn.m about more or move about more.

As for the parts on the under ^ surface around the

head, in some animals these are formed like gills so as

to let in the water and to discharge it ; the lower

parts, however, of female crabs are flatter in formation

than those of male ones, and also the appendages onthe flap are hairier. This is because they deposit

their eggs there instead of getting rid of them, as the

fishes and the other oviparous animals do. Theseappendages are wider and larger and so can provide

more space for the eggs. In all the Carabi and in

all the Carcini the right claw is bigger and stronger

than the left. This is because all animals in their

activities naturally use the right side more ; andNature always assigns an instrument, either ex-

clusively or in a better form, to those that can use it.

This holds good for tusks, teeth, horns, spurs and all

such parts which serve animals for assistance andoffence.

In Lobsters only, whether male or female, it is

a matter of chance which claw is the bigger. The

* Probably the spiny spider-crab.^ That is, ventral.

353

ARISTOTLE684 a ^

dppeve?. a'iriov he rod fxev ^x^lv xV^^^ otl iv rco

35 yeVet etcrt tco exovri xV^^^' tovto 8* OLTOLKrcos

684 b exovuLV on TreTTrjpojvraL Kal ov ;)^pcDvTat e(/)* o

7T€(f)VKaGLV, qAAo, TTOpelag x^P^^-Ka^' eKaGTOV he tujv fiopicxjv, rig rj deuig avrcov

Kal riveg hLacf>opal irpos d'AA^Âa, rojv r d'AAcov /cat

TLVL SiacfyepeL to, dppeva rcov drjXeiwv, €K re ra)v

5 dvaropLCJV deojpeiaBuj /cat e/c rcov tcrroptcov rttjv

Trept Tct â)a.

IX. Tcov he jJLaXaKLOJv rrepl fiev roJv ivros

elpiqraL Trporepov, ojanep Kal nepl rcov ctAAcov

tîpiov eKTos S' e;!^ft to re rou crcujLtaros" KVTOSy

dhiopiGTov 6v, Kal rovrov vohag epLTrpoodev Trepl

Tr)v Ke(f)aXrjV, evros jJLev raJv 6(f)daXfia)Vy Trepl he

10 TO GTOjJLa Kal Tovg ohovras. rd fxev ovv dXXa t,cpa

rd exovra rrohag rd jjiev efXTrpoGdev e;êt /cat

oTTLGdev, rd 8' e/c rod irXayiov, ojorrep rd TToXvTroha

Kal dvaijia rcov ^cocov rovro he ro yevog Ihlojg

rovrcov rrdvras ydp exovGL rovs rrohas errl ro

KaXovpuevov ejiTrpoGOev. rovrov 8' atrtov on15 GVvrJKraL avrcov ro OTTLoOev rrpos ro efirrpoGdev,

wGTTep rdjv oGrpaKoheppicov rots GrpofMâjheoLV.

oAoJS" ydp rd oorpaKohepiîa ex^L rfj fiev opLOLOJS

rots' piaXaKOGrpaKois , rfj he roZs jLtaAa/ctot?.fj

fxev ydp eôjdev ro yecoheg evrog he ro oapKcbhe?,

rols jLtaAa/coCTTpd/cots", to Se gx'^P-ol rod o-aj/xaros"

20 ov rpoTTOV GvveGrrjKe, rolg âAa/ctots", rpoirov fiev

« See Hist. An. 525 a 30—527 b 34, 541 b 19 ff.

^ At 678 b 24 ff.

'^ The theory that the cuttle-fish is comparable to a verte-

brate bent double was put forward in a paper read before theAcademy of Sciences in 1830, and was the origin of the famous

354>

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. viii.-ix.

reason why they have claws is because they belongto a group which has claws ; and tliey have themin this irregular way because they themselves are

deformed and use the claws not for their natural

purpose but for locomotion.

For an account of every one of the parts, of

their position, and of the differences between them,including the differences between the male and the

female, consult the Anatomical treatises and the

Inquiries upon Animals.'^

IX. With regard to the Cephalopods, their internal (i) Cephs

parts have already been described, as have those ^°P°^^-

of the other animals.^ The external parts include

(1) the trunk of the body, which is undefined, and

(2) in front of this, the head, with the feet round it

:

the feet are not beyond the eyes, but are outside the

mouth and the teeth. Other footed animals either

have some of their feet in front and some at the

back ; or else arranged along the sides—as with the

bloodless animals that have numerous feet. TheCephalopods, however, have an arrangement of

their own. All their feet are on what may becalled the front. The reason for this is that their

back half is drawn up on to the front half,'^ just as

in the conical-shelled Testacea. And generally,

though in some respects the Testacea resemble the

Crustacea, in others they resemble the Cephalopods.In having their earthy material outside and their

fleshy material inside, they resemble the Crustacea ;

but as regarding the formation and construction of

their body they resemble the Cephalopods—-all of

controversy between G. St-Hilaire and Cuvier about unity of

type. This controversy excited Goethe more than the revolu-

tion of the same year. (Ogle.)

M 2 ' 355

ARISTOTLE684 b

TLva TTOLvray (jLaXiora he rcov oTpofx^coScov ra

eôvra rrfv iXiKrjv dfji(f)OT€pa)v yap tovtov €;(et

rov TpoTTov 7) <j)vaLs^' et propter hoc ambulant uni-

formiter {akX ovY KaOdnep avfjLê^rjKev eirl rcov

TcrpaTToScov t,cpa>v /cat rcov dvOpcjuTTCOv. homo vero

25 habet os in capite, scihcet in parte superiori corporis,

€7T€LTa rov arofiaxov, eVetra Se rrjv KOiXlav, oltto 8e

ravrr]? to evrepov p-ixP^ '^V^ SteôSou rov irepir-

rcofiaros. rovrov jxev ovv rov rpoTTOv e;êt roTs

€vaLfjLOL9 ^cpoi?, Koi (i€rd r-qv KecffaXijv ioriv 6 KaXov-

fxevo'^ Ocopa^, Kal rd nepl rovrov rd Se Xonrd jjiopia

30 rovrojv re X^P^^ ^^^ eveKa rrjs Kiv-qoeojg TrpooedrjKev

71 (f)VGis, olov rd re rrpoaOia KcJoXa /cat rd OTnadev.

ôvXerai Se /cat rots' fiaXaKoarpaKoig /cat rot?

ivrofioLS 'q y evOvajpca rcov evroodihicov rov avrdv

€X€LV rpoTTov, /caTct Be rds vir-qpeoias rds e^codev

KLvqrLKds hia(j)epeL rcov ivaipicjov. rd he /xaAct/cta

re /cat (jd^^ arpopL^cohrj rcov oarpaKohepp^cov exî

^ sequitur locus corniptus. quae corrigi possunt sec. vers,

arabicam corrcxi, suppositicia eieci, amissa e versione latina

Mich. Scot supplevi. text. vulg. habet tj <j)vais (Lc-rrep et tls

vorjaei€V eV evdeias, KadaTrep avfiê^rjKev eVi rcov TerpaTToBcov

l,(x)wv Kal rcov avdpoiTTwv, TrpcjTov p.kv inl aKpco ro) avoj ard/xaTi

rrfS €v9eias Kara to A, iTTura K^Kara. addunt PY> to B tov

OTOfxaxov, [to 8e om. PY] V rrjv KOiXiav oltto Sc tov ivripov

fl^Xpi' TTJS 8l€^680V tov TTepiTTCOjJLaTOS, 1^ TO A. TOVTOV fxkv OVV

TOV TpOTTOV eX^L TOls (.VaijXOlS t,a)OLS, KOI TT€pl TOVTO ioTlV lj

K€(f)aXrj KOL 6 dcopa^ Ka\ovp.evos {koX, dcopa^ SU)* to. 8e Xonrd,

etc. vide et quae p. 432 scripsi.2 <dAA' ov> Peck. 3 <Ta> Peck.

356

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ix.

them do so to some extent, but most markedlythose conical Testacea which have a spiral shell,

since both these classes have this natural struc-

ture *; and therefore they walk with an even gait,

and not as is the case with quadrupeds and man.^

Now man has his mouth placed in his head, viz. in the

upper pari of the body, and after that the gullet, then

the stomach, and after that the intestine which

reaches as far as the vent where the residue is dis-

charged. This is the arrangement in the blooded

animals, i.e., after the head comes what is known as

the trunk, and the parts adjoining. The remaining

parts {e.g. the hmbs at front and back) have been

added by Nature for the sake of those which I have

just mentioned and also to make movement possible.

Now in the Crustacea too and in the Insects the

internal parts tend to be in a straight alignment of

this kind ; though with regard to the external parts

which subserve locomotion their arrangement diifers

from that of the blooded animals. The Cephalopods

and the conical-shelled Testacea have the same

" The passage which follows has been badly corrupted byreferences to a diagram which have ousted the text. Thewords in itaHcs have been translated from the Arabic version,

of which Michael Scot's Latin translation is given opposite, in

default of the original Greek. See supplementary note on

p. 432.* This refers to their uneven progression by moving first

one side of the body and then the other. The Testacea, how-ever, " have no right and left" {De incessu an. 714 b 9), andtheir movement was evidently an awkward problem for

Aristotle. He reserves them until the very end of the Deincessu, and he has to admit that they move, although they

ought not to do so ! They move Trapa <^volv. The mechan-ism of their motion can be detected by the microscope, and is

known as ciliary. See also De incessu^ 706 a 13, 33, Hist.

An. 528 b 9.

' 357

ARISTOTLE

885 a avTols fj,€V TrapaTrX-qoiajg, tovtols 8' dvrearpa^'

/xeVojs" KeKafiTTrai yap rj reXevrrj Tvpos rrjv dp)(rjv,

a)07r€p dv et Tt? ttjv evOelav [icf)^ rjs to E]^ Kafiipas

TTpooaydyoL to A Trpog to A. ovtcos ydp Keifievajv

vvv Tcov ivrooOicov TrepiKeirai toIs /xev /xaAa/ciotS" to

.') KVTOSy o KaXetTai [jlovov irrl tcov rroXvrrohojv K€(f)aXy]-

TOLS 8' OOTpaKohepflOlS TO TOIOVTOV €GTLV 6 OTpOfX-

jSo?. Staêpet S* ovSev dXXo ttXtjv on roZs p-kv

pLoXaKov TO TTepi^, Tols Se GKX-qpov -rrepl ro aapKwhesTT€pieOr]K€V T] (f)VOLS, OTTOJS GOjt,iqTai hid TTjV SvGKLVT]-

Giav Kal Sid TOVTO to TrepLTTCjpia rots re paXaKiois

10 iêpx^Tat 7T€pl to GTopâ Kal tols GTpopftcLheGi,

ttXtjv roXg pikv piaXaKLOLS KarcodeVy toIs 8e GTpop-

jScoSeatv e/c tou irXayiov.

Ata TavTTjv pikv ovv ttjv alriav toIs piaXaKiois ot

TToSeS" TOWTOV eXOVGL TOV rpOTTOV, Kal V7T€VaVTL(JJ9

t} TOts" d'AAot?. exovGi 8' dvopoiws at Gr^Triai Kal

15 at revOiSes TOt? ttoXvttogl Sid to vevGTiKal povov

€tvat, Tous" 8e Kal TTopevTiKovg. at pikv ydp Toug

dvcvdev rd)V ohovTWV (e^ puKpovsY e;(ouo-t, /cat

TOUTO^V TOU? CGXaTOV? SvO /XetÔUS', TOUS" 8e XoLTTOVS

TCOV OKTOJ Svo Karwdev peyiGTOV? rrdvrojv.^ coGTrep

ydp TOt? TeTpaTTOGi to. ottlgOia iGxvpoTepa /ctoAa,

Kal ravTais piiyiGTOi ol Karcodev (77-o8es')'** to ydp

20 (f)OpTiOV OVTOi eXOVGi Kal KiVOVGL pidXiGTa. Kal Oi

€GX0iTOi hvO pi€il,OVS TCOV pieGCOV, OTL TOVTOLS GVV-

^ seclusi ; post ^s add. Z to o\ov (f>r)aL. vid. p. 432.^ Schneider ex Gazae vers, {senos exiguos) ; sex S ; fxiKpovs

Z (sed noBa)v pro oSovtcov), idem E teste Buss.^ TT-avTcov Ogle : TovTcvv vulg. * <7ro8es'> Rackhani.

358


arrangement as one another, but it differs completely

from that of the others, as the tail-end of these

creatures is bent right over to meet the front,

just as if I were to bend the straight hne over

until the point D met the point A. Such

A B C D

then, is the disposition of their internal parts.

Round them, in Cephalopods, is situated the sac (in

the Octopuses and in them only it is called the head)

:

in the Testacea the corresponding thing is the conical

shell. The only difference is that in the one case

the surrounding substance is soft, and in the other

Nature has surrounded the flesh with something

hard, to give them the preservation they need owingto their bad locomotion. As a result of the above-

mentioned arrangement, in both sets the residue

leaves at a point near the mouth : in the Cephalopods

under the mouth, in the conical Testacea at the side

of it.

So what we have said explains why the feet of

Cephalopods are w^here they are, quite differently

placed from all other animals' feet. Sepias andCalamaries, however, being swimmers merely, differ

from the Octopuses, which are walkers as well ; they

have six small feet above the teeth, and of these the

ones at each end are larger ; the remaining two out

of the total eight are down below and largest of

all. These creatures have their strongest feet do^v^l

below, just as quadrupeds have their strongest limbs

at the back ; and the reason is that they carry the

weight of the body and they chiefly are responsible

for locomotion. The two outer feet are larger than

the inner ones because they have to help the others

' 359

ARISTOTLE685 a

VTTrjperovorLV. 6 8e ttoXvttov? tous iv fieuo) rerrapas

jieycGTOvs-

IloSa? fi€V ovv TTOLvra exovat ravra oktw, dAA'

at /xey o-qTriai koL at revOcSes ^pax^ls, ra he

TToXvTToScoSr] /xeyaAous". to yap kvtos rod crajjuaro?

25 at pL€v fieya exovauv ra} he puKpov, cuare rots' ftey

aêtAev aTro rod Gcofxaros, Trpos he to jjltjkos tcov

7Toha)V TTpoaeOr^Kev rj (f)VGi?y rat? 8' oltto tcov

TTohcov Xaôvaa to oajfia -qv^-qaev. hionep TOt?

fiev OX) pLovov TTpos TO veZv xPV^^lôt, OL vohes dXXaKal TTpos TO âhiêiv, Tat? S' dxpr](JTOL' puKpol yap,

80 TO he KVTOS /xeya exovacv. eVet Se jSpa^êt? exovoL

Tovs TTohas /cat d;^p')70'T0us" Trpos to dvTiXapi^dveodaL

Kal fir) dirooTTaodai^ diro tojv TreTpojv, OTav KXvhojv

fjKal ;!^6tjLtcuv, Kal rrpos to to. aTToOev ttpoodyeodai,

hid TavTa rrpoôoKihas exovai hvo paKpds, at?

35 oppiovoi Te Kal dTTooaXevovoiv wGrrep rrXolov orav

685 b x^^^dov fjyKal Td aTToBev OrjpevovGi Kal TrpoudyovTai

TavTais at Te arjTTiai Kal at revdlhes- ol he ttoXv-

TTohes ovK exovGi to,? TrpoôoKihas hid to tovs

rrohas avTols elvai irpos TavTa XPV^Î^^^^' ^vlols^

he KOTvXrjhoves Trpos TOt? Troat /cat TxAe/CTavat

6 TTpooeioLy hvvapLiv exovGai* Kal ovvdeuiv TOLavTr]v

otavTrep rd TrXeypLaTia ols ol larpol ol dpxouoi tovs

haKTvXovs eveâXXov ovtoj Kal e/c tcov Ivcjv

^ Ttt Peck : ol vulg.* dnoaTTdadai Bckker : avriaTrdadai codd.

^ ivlois Peck : oools vulg.* ^Xovaai P : exovai vulg.

" The use of these aavpai or aeipat is described by Hippo-crates, Ucpl dpdpcov (Littre iv. 318-330 ; L.C.L. iii. 390 :

" Thetubes woven out of palm-tissue are satisfactory means of

3G0


in performing their duty. In the Octopuses, however,the four middle feet are the biggest.

And although all these creatures have eight feet,

the Sepia's and the Calamary's are short ones, since

their bodies are large in the trunk, and the Octopus's

feet are long, because his body is small. Thus in

one case the substance which she took from the bodyNature has given towards lengthening the feet, andin the other she has taken away from the feet andmade the body itself bigger. Hence it results that

the Octopuses have feet which will serve them for

walking as well as for swimming, whereas the othercreatures' feet will not do so, being small, while thebody itself is big. And inasmuch as these creatures'

feet are short, and useless for holding on tightly to

the rock in a storm when there is a strong sea running,

or for bringing to the mouth objects that are at adistance, by way of compensation they have two long

probosces, with which during a storm they moorthemselves up and ride at anchor like a ship ; there-

with also they hunt distant prey and bring it to their

mouths. These things the Sepias and Calamariesdo. The Octopuses have no probosces because their

feet serve these purposes. Some creatures havesuckers and twining tentacles as well as feet : these

have the same character and function as well as thesame structure as those plaited tubes which the early

physicians used for reducing dislocated fingers." Theyare similarly made out of plaited fibres, and their

reduction, if you make extension of the finger both ways,graspins: the tube at one end and the wrist at the other."The aavpa was thus a tube open at both ends. A similar

passage in Diodes ap. Apollonius of Kitium, no doubt takenfrom Hippocrates, refers to " the aetpai which children plait

"

(L.C.L. iii. 453).

. 361

ARISTOTLE685 b

TreTrAey/xeVat elalv^ Kal^ eXKOvai ra aapKca /cat

TO, ivSiSovTa. 7TeptAa/x/3avet /xev yap ^(âXapa ovra*

orav 8e ovvrelvr), Tiieêt Kal €-)(€TaL rod eyros"

diyydvovros Travros.

10 "ncrr' eVet d'AAo ovk eoTLV cL TTpoadôvraL, aAA*

7] rd fX€v ToZs TToal rd 8e rat? TTpoôuKiGi, rauras

exovGi TTpds d\K7]V Kal ttjv dXXrjv ôrjOeiav^ dvrl

Xî'POJV.

To, fxev ovv dXXa SiKorvXd ion, ylvos he rt ttoXv-

rrohcov piovoKorvXov. alnov Se to firJKOS Kal rj Actt-

roTTjs Tr]g (/jvaeajs avrdjv {jlovokotvXov ydp dvay-15 Kalov elvai rd orevov. ovk ovv ojs êXriarov exovauv,

dXX (Ls dvayKalov Std rdv lSlov Xoyov r7]s ovolas.

Urepvyiov 8' exovoL ravra rrdvra kvkXo) Trepi to

KVTOS. rovro 8' irrl fjiev rdjv dXXcov uvvaTrropLevov

/cat Gvvex^9 eon, Kal IttI tojv pLeydXwv revOcov

at 8' iXdrrovs Kal KaXovfievat revOlSeg TrXarvrepov

20 re rovro exovGL Kal ov orevov, a)07T€p at ar^TTiai

Kal ol TToXvTToSes, Kal rovr dird piioov -qpyp.evov,

Kal ov kvkXo) 8ta iravros. rovro 8' exovaiv

O7TC0S vecooL Kal TTpds TO Siopdovv, (x)a7T€p roLS fJLev

TTTqvots TO oppoTTvyiov, rots 8' IxOvcn to ovpalov.

iXaxiorov 8e rovro Kal TJKLora eTrihiqXov rols

25 TToXvTTOOLV ioTL Sid TO flLKpOV €X€IV TO KVTOS Kal

hiopdovodai rots ttooIv t/cavcos".

Hepi fjL€V ovv TOJV ivTOfxcov Kal fiaXaKoarpaKOJV

Kal OGTpaKoBepfjiOJV Kal [jiaXaKLOJV eiprjrai, Kal

7T€pl Twv ivrds fiopiajv Kal rcov cktos.

80 X. HaAtv 8' e^ VTTapxrjs vepl raJv ivaipaxiv /cat

^ Kal Ogle : aU vulg.^ aXKriv xPîo-v Kal ôi]deiav Y, Ogle.

S62

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. ix.-x.

action is to draw flesh and yielding substances, as

follows. First they encircle the object while theyare still relaxed ; then they contract, and by so doingcompress and hold fast the whole of whatever is in

contact with their inner surface.

So, as these creatures have nothing else with whichto convey objects to the mouth except the feet (in

some species) and the probosces (in others), they

possess these organs in lieu of hands to serve themas weapons and generally to assist them otherwise.

All these creatures have two rows of suckers, except

a certain kind of Octopus, and these have only one,

because owdng to their length and slimness they are

so narrow that they cannot possibly have another.

Thus they have the one row only, not because this

arrangement is the best, but because it is necessitated

by the particular and specific character of their being.

All these animals have a fin which forms a circle

round the sac. In most of them it is a closed and con-

tinuous circle, as it is in the large Calamaries (teuthi),

while in the smaller ones called teuthides it is quite

wide (not narrow as in the Sepias and Octopuses),

and furthermore it begins at the middle and does not

go round the whole way. They have this fin to

enable them to swim and to steer their course, andit answers to a bird's tail-feathers and a fish's tail-

fm. In the Octopuses this fin is extremely small andinsignificant because their body is small and canbe steered well enough by means of the feet.

, This brings to an end our description of the internal

and external parts of the Insects, the Crustacea, the

Testacea, and the Cephalopods.

X. Now we must go back and begin again ^vith

. 363

ARISTOTLE685 b

, , , , > , , ^ ^ f

i,ci)OTOKOJV eTTiGKeTTTeov, apâixevoLS aire rcov vtto-

Xolttcjov Kal TTporepov €lpr)[jLevojv pLopicjv tovtcov 8e

SiopLoOevrcov Trepl rCov ivaLficov Kal cootokojv tov

avTov rpoTTOV epovpiev.

Ta pLev ovv pLopia ra Trepl rrjv Ke(f)aXrjV rwv ^wcjov

35 eiprjrai rrporepov, Kal ra Trepl tov KaXovpievov

avx^ôL Kal Tpdx^Xov. ex^t Se Ke(j)aXr]v Trdvra rd

686aeVat/xa ^cpa- rcov 8' dvaipiojv eviois dhLopiorov

TOVTO TO p.6pLOV, otoV ToXs KapKLVOLS. aVX^^CL OVV

TO. fiev t^cpoTOKa tto-vt 'ex^^> tojv S' cootokcov to,

pLev ex€L TO. o' ovk eêr oaa puev yap TTvevpLova

6 e'xet, Kal avx^vo. exî, tcl he purj dvaTTveovTa 6-6padev

OVK ex^t TOVTO TO pLOpiOV.

"EcTTt 8' Tj pLev Kecl)aXrj pLaXidTa tov eyKe(j)dXov

XdpLV dvayKT] yap tovto to pLoptov ex^^v Tolg iv-

aipiois, Kal iv avTiKeipLevco tottco ttjs KapSlag,

8td TOLS elprjpievas TrpoTepov atrta?. eêOeTO 8' t]

10 (f)VGis ev avTjj Kal tojv aLadrjaecuv evta? Sid to

GvpLpLeTpov etvai ttjv tov a'lpiaTOS Kpdoiv Kal evn-

rrjSeiav npos re ttjv tov iyKe(f)dXov dXeav Kal

TTpos TTJV TciJv oloQ'qoeojv rjavxôLV Kal dKpiêiav.

€TL 8e TpLTOV pLOpLOV VTTedrjKe TO T'r]V TTJS TpO(f>rJ9

CLGoSov hiqpiovpyovv evTavOa ydp VTreKeiTO ovpu-

pieTpcos pidXiGTa- ovTe ydp dvojdev KeloOai ttjs

15 KapSias Kal ttjs dpx^s evehex^ro ttjv KoiXiav, ovTe

KdTwdev ovo7]s ov TpoTTOV e^êt vvv iveSex^TO ttjv

etcro8ov ert /caroj etvau t-:^? KapSlas' ttoXv ydp dv^

TO pLTJKO? rjv TOV GWpLaTO^, Kal TTOppCO XiaV TTjS

Kivovoris dpxT]S Kal TreTTOvor^s . r) pev ovv Ke(f)aXrj

TOVTCOV xdpiv eGTLV, 6 8' avx'Tjv TTJs" dpTTipias ;âptv

^ av P, om. vulg.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.

the blooded viviparous animals. Some of the parts

Mhich we have already enumerated still remain to

be described, and we will take these first. This

done, we will describe similarly the blooded Ovipara.

We have already " spoken of the parts around the External

head, and what is called the neck, and the throat. I'.looded

All blooded animals have a head, but in some of the animals.

bloodless ones the head is indistinct {e.g. in crabs). " ^^^^^

All Vivipara have a neck, but not all Ovipara : to

be precise, only those which breathe in air from with-

out and have a lung.

The presence of the head is mainly for the sake of Sead and

the brain. Blooded creatures must have a brain,

which (for reasons aforeshown) ^ must be set in someplace opposite to the heart. But in addition, Naturehas put some of the senses up in the head, apart fromthe rest, because the blend of its blood is well pro-

portioned and suitable for securing not only warmthfor the brain but also quiet and accuracy for the senses.

There is yet a third part which Nature has disposed of

in the head, viz. the part which manages the intake

of food ; it was put here because this gave the best-

ordered arrangement. It would have been impossible

to put the stomach above the source and sovereign ^

part, the heart ; and it would have been impossible

to make the entrance for the food below the heart,

even with the stomach below the heart as it actually

is, because then the length of the body would bevery great, and the stomach would be too far awayfrom the source which provides motion and concoc-

tion. These then are the three parts for whose sake

the head exists. The neck exists for the sake of the

" At 655 b 27—665 a 25. ^ At 652 b 17 ff.

365

ARISTOTLE686 a ^

20 TTpo^X-qjxa yap ccttl, kol gcjoI,€L ravTqv kol rov olcro-

<f)dyov kvkXco nepLexcov. rols /xev ovv d'AAots" ecrrt

KapLTTTos KOL G(f)ovSvXovs €)(a>v , ol 8e XvKOL Kai

XiovTCs pLOVOGTovv Tov av^^va ex^vGiv. e^Xeifje

yap 7) (f)vaLg ottojs rrpos rrjv laxvv ;^p7]CTt/xoy avTOV

excoGi jLtaAAov ^ Trpos ras d'AAa? ôrjOelas.

'E;ô/xeva 8e rov avx^vos Kal rrjs K€(f)aXrjs rd re

25 7Tpoodla KcoXa rols ^cool? iorl Kal Owpa^. 6 p,€V

ovv di'dpcoTTo? dvTL oKeXojv Kal TToSiJjv Tcov TTpoadiajv

PpaxLovag Kal rds KaXovpievas exî ;\;6tpas'. opOov

fiev ydp ian piovov rojv t,a)Cx)v hid to ttjv (J)VGLv

avTOV Kal rrjv ovaiav elvai deiav epyov 8e rov

deiordrov to voelv Kal cfipovelv tovto 8' ov paScov

so TToXXov TOV dvcodev erriKeipiivov awp-aTOS' to ydp

^dpos hvGKivif]Tov rroiei ttjv Scdvoiav Kal rrjv

KOLVTjv aludr]GLV. hid irXeiovos yivopiivov tov

^dpovs Kal tov ocopLaTixihovs dvdyKT] peTreiv rd

GcopiaTa TTpos Triv yrjv, (Lgtc irpos ttjv docjidXîav

dvrt ^paxidva>v Kal x^^pdjv tov? TTpoGdtovs TToSas

35 vveOrjKev rj (jiVGis Tolg TeTpdrroGLV. tovs /Lcev

686 b ydp ottlgOlovs hvo rraGiv dvayKaZov toIs TTopev-

TiKoZs ^X^^^> Td he ToiavTa TeTpdiroha iyeveTO ov

hvvapiivrjs îpeiv to ^dpos ttjs i/jvxrjs- "rravTa ydp

€GTL Td Ja>a vavajh-q rdAAa Trapd tov dv6pa>7TOV

vavcbhes ydp Igtiv ov to /xev dvoj pLeya, to he

6 <f)epov TO pdpos Kal Treêvov puKpov dvoj 8' eVrtv

d KaXovpLevos dcnpa^, ajro ttJ? KecjyaXrjS i^^X/^t '^'^S'

" For the " general " or " common " sense see De mem.450 a 10, etc. ; and cf. Be part. an. 656 a 28, 665 a 12. The" general " sense is not another sense over and above the

ordinary five, but rather the common nature inherent in

S66


windpipe : it acts as a shield and keeps the windpipe

and the oesophagus safe by completely encircling

them. The neck is flexible and has a number of

vertebrae in all animals except the wolf and the lion

whose neck consists of one bone only, for Nature's ob-

ject was to provide these with a neck that should beuseful for its strength rather than for other purposes.

The anterior limbs and the trunk are continuous Limbs, and

with the head and neck. Man, instead of forelegs reia'tive

and forefeet, has arms and hands. Man is the only sizes,

animal that stands upright, and this is because his

nature and essence is di\ine. Now the business of

that which is most divine is to think and to be intelli-

gent ; and this would not be easy if there were a great

deal of the body at the top weighing it down, for

weight hampers the motion of the intellect and of the

general sense.'* Thus, when the bodily part and the

weight of it become excessive, the body itself mustlurch forward towards the ground ; and then, for

safety's sake, Nature provided forefeet instead of

arms and hands—as has happened in quadrupeds.

All animals which walk must have two hind feet, and

those I have just mentioned became quadrupeds be-

cause their soul could not sustain the weight bearing

it doAMi. Compared with man, all the other animals

are dwarf-like. By " dwarf-like " I mean to denote

that M'hich is big at the top (i.e. big in the " trunk,'*

or the portion from the head to the residual vent),

and small where the weight is supported and where

them all ; thus Aristotle {De somno) argues that their simul-

taneous inactivity during sleep is not a mere coincidence but

is due to the inactivity of the central perceptive faculty of

which they are differentiations. Among the functions of the" general " sense are : discrimination between the objects of

two senses, and the perceiving that we perceive.

' 367

ARISTOTLE686 b ^

iôSov rod TrepLrrcjofxarog. rot? fikv ovv avBpcjTTOi^

rovTO irpos to Karco ovpLi-ierpov, kol ttoXXco

eXarrov eon reXeiovpiivois' veois S' ovui rov-

vavTLOV ra fiev avoj fxeydXa, to 8e Karoj puKpov

10 (8to Kal epnovcri, âhil,eLV S' ov hvvavrai, to Se

7Tpa>Tov oz58' epTTovGiv, a\X aKLViqTit,ovuiv)' vdvoi

yap elcTL rd Traihia Trdvra. rrpoCovoi he roZs p-ev

dvdpojTTOis avêrai rd Kdrojdev rol? Se rerpdnoai

TovvavTLOV rd Kdrco pLeyiura rd rrpajrov, Trpo'Covra

S' avêrat errl rd dvoj, rovro 8* eorl rd and rrjg

eSpag errl rrjv KecjjaXr^v Kvros. hid Kal ro) vifjei ol

15 77-coAot TcDy LTTTTajv ovSev rj piLKpdv eXdrrovs elai,

Kal veoL p,ev dvres diyydvovGi red oTTiaBev GKeXei

rrjs K6(f)aX7Js, Trpeo^vrepoi 8' ovres ov hvvavrai.

rd (lev ovv pLcovvxoL Kal StîÂa rovrov ex^L rdv

rpoTTOVy rd Se 77oAu8a/<:Ti'Aa Kal aKepara vavajSrj

fjLev eoriv, rjrrov he rovrcov hid Kal rrjv av^rjatv

20 Trpos" rd dvoj rd Karco Kard Xoyov TTOielrai rijs

cAAeti/fecD?.

"Kan he Kal rd rwv opvldojv Kal rd rcov Ix^vojv

yevos Kal Trdv rd evaipLOv, wcnrep eiprjrai, vavcohes.

hid Kal d^poveorepa Trdvra rd t,ci)a rcov dvOpcoTTCOv

earLP. Kal ydp rcdv dvOpcvTrcov, olov rd re rraihia

rrpds rods dvhpas Kal avrajv rcov ev -qXiKia ol

25 vavcohei? rr]v ^vglv, edv Kal riv^ dXXrjv hvvap,LV

exwoL TTepurr-qv, dXXd rep rdv vovv e;^€t.v iX-

XeiTTOVGLv. atriov 8', WGnep etprjraL npdrepov, on7] rrjs ijjvx'TJS dpx'Tj ttoXXoXs hrj^ hvGKLvqros eonKal GCopLarcvh-qs. eVt 8' eXdrrovos yLvop,evr)s rrjs

^ TToXXols hi) Peck : -noXXo) Srj vi\]p. : add. Kal Y, Piatt, qui

et insuper addit (âpd aiofiaTi Karatepofiimj).

368


locomotion is effected. In man, the size of the trunkis proportionate to the lower portions, and as a man^rows up it becomes much smaller in proportion.

In infancy the reverse is found : the upper portion is

large and the lower is small (and that is why infants

cannot walk but crawl about, and at the very be-

ginning cannot even crawl, but remain where theyare). In other words, all children are dwarfs. Now,in man, as time proceeds, the lower portion grows :

Not so with the quadruped animals : their lower

portion is biggest at the beginning, and as time

proceeds the top portion grows (i.e. the trunk, the

portion between the head and the seat). Thus foals

are quite or almost as high as horses, and at that age a

foal can touch its head with its hind leg, but not whenit is older." \\Tiat has been said holds good of the

animals that have solid hoofs or cloven. The poly-

dactylous, hornless animals are indeed dwarf-like

too, but not so markedly, and so the growth of their

lower portions compared with the upper is propor-

tionate to the smaller deficiency.

The whole groups of birds and fishes are dwarf-like;

indeed, so is every animal vnth blood in it, as I havesaid. This is why all animals are less intelligent than

man. Even among human beings, children, whencompared with adults, and dwarf adults when com-pared with others, may have some characteristics in

which they are superior, but in intelligence, at anyrate, they are inferior. And the reason, as afore-

said, is that in verv many of them the principle of the

soul is sluggish and corporeal. And if the heat which

" These observations are entirely correct. Cf. Ogle's

quotation ad loc. from T. H. Huxley. See also Hist. an.

500 b 26 ff.

' 369

ARISTOTLE686b ^

^

alpovurjs OepiioTrjTOS koL rod yeojSovs TrXelovos, rd

80 T€ (jco/JLaTa eXdrrova rcov t,a)OJv earl Kal TToXvrroha,

Tf.Xos 8' ctTToSa yiverai Kal rerafiiva irpos rrjv yrjv.

jJLLKpov S' ovTCO TTpoâivovTa Kal rriv dpxV'^ exovGL

KOLTO), Kal TO Kara rrjv K€(f)aXrjv pLoptov reXog

OLKLvrjTov iari, Kal dvaLGdrjrov, Kal yiverai (fyvrov,

85 €xov rd fjLev dvco Kdrw, rd he Kdrco dvoj' at ydpplâL rots (f)VTol9 GTopiaTog Kal K€(f)aXrjg 'ixovai

SS7 a SvvapLLv , TO Se airippâ rovvavriov dvo) ydp Kal

€77* aKpoLs yiverai roZs Trropdoig.

At' rjv puev ovv alriav rd fiev StVoSa rd Se ttoXv-

TToSa rd 8' a77oSa rcov i,ci)a)v ecrrl, Kal 8ta rlv

alriav rd fxev <j)vrd rd he Joja yeyovev, eLprjraL,

6 Kal 8toTt pLovov opdov iarL rcov t,a)(jov 6 dvdpwiTos'

opdcp 8' ovrt rrjv cf)VGLV ovhepLia XP^^^ UKeXcov rcov

epLTTpoodicov, dXX dvrl rovrcov ^paxôvas Kal ;(etpa?

aTTohehcoKev rj (f)VGL£. Âvaâyopas piev ovv <f)y]oi

hid rd x^^poi? ^X^'-^ (j)povL[jLcorarov etvat rcov l^cocov

dvOpcoTTOV evXoyov he hid rd cfipovipLcorarov elvai

10 x^^P^^ XajjL^dveiv. at fxev ydp ;)(etpe? opyavov

eloiv, T) he <j)VGis del hiavepiei, Kaddirep dvdpcoiTOS

<j)p6vLpL09, eKaorov roj hvvajjievcp ;^p^(Tât [irpoa-

rjKeL ydp rep ovrt avXrjrfj hovvai pidXXov avXov?

rj ro) avXovs exovri Trpoadelvai avX-qriKi^v)- rep yap

pLelôvi Kal Kvpicorepcp npoaedriKe rovXarrov, dAA'

15 ov ro) iXdrrovL rd rupLLcorepov Kal /xetôv. el ovv

ovrco? lêXnoVy rj he (jyvais eK rcov evhexopevcov

<* With the terminology used in 11. 28-29 cf. Hippocrates,TlipX StatTTj?, i. 35.

^ That is, it answers to residue in animals ; cf. 655 b 35.

370


raises the organism up wanes still further while the

earthy matter waxes,*^ then the animals' bodies wane,and they will be many-footed ; and finally they lose

their feet altogether and lie full length on the ground.

Proceeding a little further in this way, they actually

have their principal part down below, and finally the

part which answers to a head comes to have neither

motion nor sensation ; at this stage the creature

becomes a plant, and has its upper parts below and its

nether parts aloft ; for in plants the roots have the

character and value of mouth and head, whereas the

seed counts as the opposite,^ being produced in the

upper part of the plant on the ends of the twigs.

We have now stated why it is that some animals

have two feet, some many, some none at all ; whysome creatures are plants and some animals ; andwhy man is the only one of the animals that stands

upright. And since man stands upright, he has noneed of legs in front ; instead of them Nature has

given him arms and hands. Anaxagoras indeed

asserts that it is his possession of hands that makesman the most intelligent of the animals ; but surely

the reasonable point of view is that it is because heis the most intelligent animal that he has got hands.

Hands are an instrument ; and Nature, like a sen-

sible human being, always assigns an organ to the

animal that can use it (as it is more in keeping to

give flutes to a man who is already a flute-player

than to provide a man who possesses flutes with the

skill to play them) ; thus Nature has provided that

which is less as an addition to that which is greater

and superior ; not vice versa. We may conclude, then,

that, if this is the better way, and if Nature always does

the best she can in the circumstances, it is not true

, 371

ARISTOTLE

TTOieL TO peAriGrov, ov oia ras ;êtpas' ecrrtv o

avdpojTTOS ^povLjJLOjraros, dAAa 8ta to (f)povLfX(x)-

rarov elvai rcov l,a)CDV e-)(êi -xêlpag. 6 yap cfypovL-

[jLcoTarog TrXeLGTOtg dv opydvois e-x^piqaaro KaXojs,

20 rj Se X^^P eoLK€v elvat ov)( ev opyavov aAAd TToXXd'

eon yap (hoTrepel opyavov npo 6pydva)V. tco ovv

TrXeLorag Swajxevcp SeâaOau re^vas to eVt

irXeloTov rcx)v opydvcov XPW^H-^^ "^W X^^P^ drro'

'AAA' ol Xeyovres (1)S GVvedTrjKev ov KaXws 6

avdpcorros dXXd )(eLpiura ra)V t,(h(xJV [dvviToSrjrov

25 re yap avrov elvai âoi /cat yvjJLvov /cat ovk

exovra onXov irpos rrfv dXK-qv) ovk opdujs XeyovGiv.

rd fjiev yap dAAa jLttW €;êt ôrjOeiav, /cat fiera-

^dXXeadat dvrl ravrr)? irepav ovk €gtlv, dAA'

dvayKalov ayorrep vrrohehepievov del Kadcvheiv /cat

irdvra TrpdrreLv, /cat ttjv irepl to CTdj/.ta dXecvpav

IXTjheTTore KaradeGOai, /xT^Se p.eraf^dXXeGdai o hi]

30 Irvyxo-vev^ ottXov exov^' ro) Se dvOpcoTTCp rd? t€

687 b jSo7]êtas" TToAAds" e;iêty /cat ravras del eêGri

pLera^dXXetv, eVt 8' ottAov olov dv ôvXrjraL /cat

OTTOU dv^ ôvXrjTai exîv. rj yap X^^P ^^tt ovv^ /cat

XV^'^ '^^^^ /cepas" yiverai /cat hopv /cat Îcjiog

/cat dAAo oTTOtoroui^ ottAov /cat opyavov rrdvra yap6 €GTai ravra Std to Trdvra hvvaGOai Xafi^dv€LV /cat

ex^tv auTT^v ei)* 8e ovfxiiepiiqxdvqTaL^ /cat to etSo?''

Ti^ cf)VG€L rrjs x^tpds", Staiperr) yap /cat 77oAuaxtS'>ys"

1 eTyy;âvev ev U^ : Tvyxdvci. €v Th. ; hic alia omnino 11

2 ex'ov Z, et corr. U : l^cuv viilg.

^ 07T0U av] OTTorai' Og'le.

* CX^'-^ avTrjv eu P : ex^Lv Tavrrj vulg.^ "irvfifi€fXTix<ii'r]rai Ogle : ovfifieixrjxo-vfjadai vulg.

« €?So9 /cat vulg. : elBos PSUYZ.372


to say that man is the most intelHgent animal becausehe possesses hands, but he has hands because he is themost intelligent animal. We should expect the mostintelligent to be able to employ the greatest numberof organs or instruments to good purpose ; now thehand would appear to be not one single instrumentbut many, as it were an instrument that represents

many instruments. Thus it is to that animal (viz.

man) which has the capability for acquiring thegreatest number of crafts that Nature has given that

instrument (viz. the hand) whose range of uses is themost extensive.

Now it must be wrong to say, as some do, that

the structure of man is not good, in fact, that it is

worse than that of any other animal. Their groundsare : that man is barefoot, unclothed, and void of

any weapon of force. Against this we may say

that all the other animals have just one method of

defence and cannot change it for another : they are

forced to sleep and perform all their actions withtheir shoes on the whole time, as one might say

;

they can never take off this defensive equipment of

theirs, nor can they change their weapon, whateverit may be. For man, on the other hand, manymeans of defence are available, and he can changethem at any time, and above all he can choose whatweapon he will have and where. Take the hand :

this is as good as a talon, or a claw, or a horn, or again,

a spear or a sword, or any other weapon or tool :

it can be all of these, because it can seize and hold

them all. And Nature has admirably contrived the

actual shape of the hand so as to fit in with this

arrangement. It is not all of one piece, but it

branches into several pieces ; which gives the possi-

373

ARISTOTLE687 b

^^ ^ ^ êVt yap iv ro) SiaLperrjv elvat /cat avvderrjv elvai,

iv TovTcp S' €K€LVO ovK eoTiv. KOI )(prjadaL ivl^

10 Kal Svolv Koi TToXXaxcog cGnv. /cat at Kafnral rcov

SaKTvXojv KaXco? exovau irpos ra? Xijipei^ /cat

TTieoeis. /cat e/c TrXayiov els, Kal ovros ^pa^vs/cat 7Ta)(vs dXX* ov fiaKpos' cooTrep yap et pjr] rjv

Xî-P oXoj£, OVK av Tjv XtîJjl?, ovto) Kav el fir] eK

TrXayiov ovros rjv. ovros yap KarcoOev dvo) TTteêt,

15 onep at erepoL dvcodev Karco' Set 8e rovro ovpLâi-

vetv, el jLteAAet laxvpcog cjOTrep cuva/x/xa laxvpov

GvvSetv, Iva lodt,rj els cuv ttoXXoIs. /cat ^pa^vsSta re rr^v lgxvv Kal Stort ovSev 6(f)eXos el jxaKpos.

(/cat o eaxoLTOS Se fiiKpos opOcos, Kal 6 fieaos

fxaKpos, woTiep KcoTrr] peoovecos^' pLoXiura yap to

20 XapLâvofxevov dvdyKrj TrepiXap^dveadaL kvkXco

Kara to fieuov rrpos Tas epyauias) Kal Sta tovto

/caAetrat p.eyas fxiKpos a)v, on dxp'^fyroi cLs

elnelv ol d'AAot dvev tovtov. ev Se Kal to tcov

ovvxo^v fjLep.rjxdvr]TaL' Ta pLev yap dXXa i^cpa ep^ct

/cat TTpos XPV^''^ avTovs, toIs S' dvOpcoTTOLS em-25 KaXvTTTrjpia- cr/ceVaajLta yap tcov dKp(X)Tr]pia}v elaiv.

At Se KapLTTal rcov ^paxi'Ovwv exovau rrpos re

Tr]V rrjs Tpo(f)rjs Trpooaycoyrjv Kal irpos Tas aAAa?

Xprjoeis evavTicos toZs TeTpdiroGiv. eKeivois fiev

yap dvayKalov e'lacx) KdpLTrreiv Ta epLTrpoodia KCjXa

{Xpa>vTai yap ojs^ ttouiv) tV 7^ xPl^^f^^ irpos Trjv

^ ivl] Hid Ogle.^ fxeaoyecos Schneider : fxeoov veojs vulg.

^ d)s r, om. vulg.

" That is, the pieces. Ogle's suggested emendationwould be translated " use the hands singly." The twotranspositions suggested for this passage by Ogle seem un-necessary.

374


bility of its coming together into one solid piece,

whereas the reverse order of events would be im-

possible. Also, it is possible to use them " singly, or

two at a time, or in various ways. Again, the joints

of the fingers are well constructed for taking hold

of things and for exerting pressure. One finger is

placed sideways : this is short and thick, not long

like the others. It would be as impossible to geta hold if this Mere not placed sideways as if no handwere there at all. It exerts its pressure upwardsfrom below, whereas the others act downwards fromabove ; and this is essential for a strong tight grip

(like that of a strong clamp), so that it may exert

a pressure equivalent to that of the other four. It

is short, then, first, for strength, but also because it

would be no good if it were long. (The end finger

also is small—this is as it should be—and the middleone is long like an oar amidships, because any object

which is being grasped for active use has to begrasped right around the middle.) And on this

account it is called " bi"; " althouo;h it is small, be-

cause the other fingers are practically useless withoutit. The nails, too, are a good piece of planning. In

man they serve as coverings : a guard, in fact, for the

tip of the fingers. In animals they serve for practical

use as M-ell.^

The joints of the arms in man bend in the opposite

direction to those of quadrupeds : this is to facilitate

the bringing of food to the mouth, and other uses to

which they are put. Quadrupeds must be able to

bend their fore Hmbs inwards '^ so that they may beserviceable in locomotion, since they use them as

'' That is, as tools.

« See note on 693 b 3, p. 433.

' 375

ARISTOTLE687 b

, , X / , , - \ ^ /\so TTopclav, inel OeXei ye KOLKelvcov rols TToXvoaKTvAoLs

ov JjLOVov TTpos TTjv TTopelav )(pr]GLfM etyat ra e/x-

TTpooOev OKeXr), aAAa koI avri ;)(etpajv, cjOTrep /cat

<f)aiv€TaL ;^pctjyneva' /cat yap Xaf-LpdvovGi /cat djLtu-

688 a vovrai Tols TTpoodioLs. Tct 8e pLajwâ rols oTnadtoLS'

ov yap exî avrols ret TrpoaOta gkIXt] avdXoyov rols

ay/ccocrt /cat rat? x^P^^^- '^^^ ^^ TroAi'Sa/CTuAajv

eVta /cat Sto. rovro /cat TrevraSa/cruAous' e;)(et Tot's"

5 TTpoodiovs TToSas, Tou? 8* oTTLodev T€TpahaKTvXovs,

olov Xeovres /cat Xvkol, ert 8e /ewe? /cat 77ap8aA€tc*

o yap TTepLTTTOS coGirep 6 rrjs X^^P^^ yiverai pidyas

[TTepLTTTOs']} rd 8e puKpd rcov TToXvhaKrvXojv /cat

Tovs ottlgOlovs exî TrevraSaKTvXovs 8ta to

ipTTvariKa elvai, orrcns rols ovvî TrXeiooLv ovglv

10 dvrcXapLpavopLeva paov dvepirrj irpos to pLerecopo-

repov /cat vnkp KecfâXrj?.

MeTa^-i) 8e rcov dyfcwvojv rols dvdpojTTOis, tols

8* aAAot? Tcov ipLTTpoodicov GKeXojv, TO KaXovpi€vov

GTTJdoS eGTly TOLS /XeV dvOpCOTTOLS ^xov nXdTOS €V-

Xoyojs {ov yap kojXvovglv ol dyKcbves e/c TrXayiov

TrpoGKelpevoL tovtov etyat tov tottov TrAaTuv), Tot?

15 8e TeTpdlTOGL 8td TT^V €77t TO TTpOGBLOV TOJV KCvXoJV

€KTaGLV iv TO) TTOpeveodaL /cat /xeTa^dAAetv tov

TOTTOV GTeVOV TOVT eGTL TO pLOpLOV. /Cat 8td TOVTO

TO, pL€V TETpdnoSa TCJV t,(I)(X)V OVK eX^L pLaGTOVS €V

TOJ TOTTO) TOVTO}' TOLS 8' dvOpCOTTOLS 8td TI^V evpV-

Xojplav /cat to CT/ceTTct^coât 8etv to, Trept ttjv

20 /capStav, 8td touto vndpxovTOS tov tottov oap-

KCvSoVS OL pLaGTOL SLTjpOpOJVTaL, GapKCoheLS 6vT€S

Tols p-ev dppeGL 8td TT^v elprjpLevTjv atTtav, e77t 8e

^ TTeixTTTos seclusi.

37G


feet ; though even among quadrupeds the poly-

dactylous ones tend to use the fore hmbs not only for

locomotion but also instead of hands ; and this can

actually be seen happening : they take hold of things

and defend themselves with their fore limbs. (Solid-

hoofed animals, on the other hand, do this with their

hind limbs, as their forelegs have nothing that corre-

sponds to elbows and hands.) This explains whysome polydactylous quadrupeds actually have five

toes on their forefeet (lions, wolves, dogs and leo-

pards, for instance), although there are only four ontheir hind feet : the fifth one, like the fifth ^ digit

on the hand, is a " big " one.^ However, the small

polydactylous quadrupeds have five toes on their

hind feet too, because they are creepers ; and this

gives them more nails, and so enables them to get a

better hold and creep up more easily to greater

heights and above your head.

Between the arms in man (in other animals be- Breast.

tween the forelegs) is what is known as the breast. In

man the breast is broad, and reasonably so, for the

arms are placed at the side and so do not in any wayprevent this part from being wide. In the quadru-

peds, however, it is narrow, because as they walkabout and change their position the limbs have to beextended forwards. And on this account, in quadru-

peds, the mammae are not on the breast. In man,on the other hand, as the space here is wide, and the

parts around the heart need some covering, the

breast is fleshy in substance and the mammaeare placed on it and are distinct. In the male they

are themselves fleshy for the reason just given. In

" Now generally called the " first."

And needed when the foot is used as a hand.

77

ARISTOTLE688 a

Tojv Or^Xeicbv 7TapaK<EXpf]Tai /cat Trpos erepov epyov

Tj (jyVGLS, 07T€p âfiev aVT7]V TToXXoLKLS TTOLelv 0.770-

25 TLuerai yap ivravOa rols yevvajpiivois Tpo(f)rjv. Svo

o eiGLv OL {jLauTol 8ta to Svo ra pLopia elvac, to t

apLOT€p6v /cat TO heîov. /cat oKXrjpoTepoi /xeV,

oicopLGiJievoi he Sia to /cat Ta? rrXevpas ovvdiTTeadaL

fxev dAAyÂats"^ /caTcx tov tottov tovtov, jxr] eTTiTrovov

8' etiât TTjv (jyvGLV avToJv. tols S' d'AAot? tôjois eV

so jLtev TO) GTiqdei /.leTaî) tcov GKeXcbv ahiJvaTov cgtiv

cpêtv ri ^âXcTTov^ tovs fiaoTovs (ifXTTohlôLev (jlcv

yap av Trpos ttjv TTopelav), €)(Ovgl S' rjSrj ttoXXovs

TpOTTOVs.^ TO. [xev yap oAtyoTO/ca /cat fJLCJVVXCi Kal

K€paTocf)6pa eV Tots' piripois exovGC tovs jxaoTovs,

/cat TOUTOVS" hvo, Ta Se TToXvTOKa r^ TToXvoxt-hrj to.

35 jLtev Trepl ttjv yaoTepa nXayiovs Kal ttoXXovs, olov

688 b yg Kal KViOV, TCt Se hvo IXOVOVS, TT€pl fxeGTiv flivTOL

yaoTcpa, otov Xeojv. tovtov 8* atVtov ovx otl

oXiyoTOKOv, inel Tt/CTet ttotc TrAetoj 8uotv, dAA' otl

ov TToXvydXaKTOV dvaXiGKei yap els to GCJjJia T7)r

XapLâvofJievrjv Tpo(^rjV, Xafi^dvet Se GTrdviov hid to

5 GapKO(f)dyov elvai.

*0 8* eXe(j)as hvo piovov e;)^€t, tovtovs 8* vtto Tat?

piaGxdXais rcov epLTrpoGdiajv GKeXojv. aiTiov he tov

fXeV hvo €X€LV OTL pLOVOTOKOV CGTU, TOV he pLTj eV TOts

pLTjpoLS OTL TToXvGXf'hes {ovhev yap ex€L TToXvGxi'hes

eV TOts piripols), dvoj he Trpos rat? pâGxdXais,

^ dAA'Âas Bekker per typothetae errorem.- r) xaAeTTOv P : vulg. non habet.

^ fort. Tovovs Rackham (sic etiam E teste Buss, et Z),

378


the female, Nature employs them for an additional

function (a regular practice of hers, as I maintain),

by storing away in them nourishment for the off-

spring. There are two mammae because the bodyhas two parts, the right and the left. The fact that

they are somewhat hard and at the same time two in

number is accounted for by the ribs being joined to-

gether at this place and by the nature of the mammaenot being at all burdensome. In other animals it is

either impossible or difficult for the mammae to be

situated upon the breast, i.e. in between the legs,

since they would be a hindrance to walking ; but, ex-

cluding that particular position, there are numerousways in which they are placed. Animals which have

small litters, both those that have solid hoofs and those

that carry horns, have their mammae by the thighs ;

and there are two of them. Animals that have large

litters or are polydactylous, either have numerousmammae placed at the sides upon the abdomen

—

e.g. s\\ine and dogs ; or have only two, set in the middle

of the abdomen

—

e.g. the lion.« The reason for this is

not that the lion has few cubs at a birth, because

sometimes the number exceeds two, but that it is

deficient in milk. It uses up all the food it gets uponthe upkeep of the body, and as it is a flesh-eater it

gets food but rarely.

The elephant has only two mammae (this is because

it has its young one at a time), and they are under the

axillae of the forelegs and not by the thighs because

the elephant is polydactylous and no polydactylous

animal has them there. They are high up, near the

axillae, because that is the place of the foremost

** This, like many of Aristotle's statements about the lion,

is incorrect.

N 379

ARISTOTLE688 b

^10 OTt TTpoJTOL OVTOL TOJU fJLaaTOJV TOt? TroAAoLiS" eXOVGL

jiaGTovg, Kal tjLttuvrat ydXa ttXclgtov. arjiielov

Se TO Irrl roJv vcov GVjjLâLVOv rots yap TrpcoroL?

yevofJiivoLS tojv ÔLpcov rovs rrpcorovs Trapexovui

/xacrrous" 4^ ovv to npcoTov ywofievov ev fiovov

ioTL, TOVTCp TOVg fXaGTOVS dvayKOLOV e)(€LV TOU?

rrpJjTOVS' TTpcoTOi 8' €LGLV ol VTTO Tat? pLaGX^Xais

.

15 o p-kv OVV eXiâs hid TavTiqv ttjv atrtav Svo e^î

Kal ev TOVTO) tco tottco, Ta 8e TToXvTOKa Trepl ttjv

yaGTepa. tovtov S' atrtov ort TrXeiovwv Sel jLta-

GTCJV Tols TrXeioj peXXovGiv e/crpeêtv eirei ovv eVt

TrXdTOs ovx oTov re aAA' tj Svo pôvovg ^xî'V Sid to

Svo efvat TO t' dpiGTepov Kal to he^Lov, lirl p.r\KOs

20 dvayKalov exîv 6 Se /xeTaû tottos tcov ep^rrpoGdev

GKeXdjv Kal TCOV OTTLGOev €X€L p.rJKO? p.6vov. TO,

8e jJLT) TToXvGxt'hr] aAA' oXtyoTOKa rj KepaTOôpa iv^

TOtS" p.r]pOL? eX^L TOV? /XaCTTOU?, olov 177770?, OVO?

,

Kdp.'qXos (TauTa ydp pLOVOTOKa, Kal to, pL€V pLCJvvxa,

25 TO Se Slxi^Xov), €tl S' eXacf)o? Kal jSou? Kal at^ Kal

TciAAa TTavTa to. TOiavTa. a'lTiov 8' otl tovtois

7) av^r]Gi£ errl to aVo) tou GcopLaTos €.gtlv. wgBÔTTOV GvXXoyrj Kal TrepLovGia yiveTai tov irepiT-

TcopiaTos Kal alpaTOs [ovtos 8' o tottos €gtIv 6

KdTCJ Kal 7T€pl TCt? €Kpods), ivTavOa iTTOiTJGeV rj

<j)VGLS TOVS pLaGTOVS' OTTOV ydp KLVrjGLS yiVETai TTjS

80 Tpo(f)rjs, evT€vBev Kal XaêZv Igtlv avTols hvvaTov.

dvdptOTTOS piev ovv Kal 6 d-qXv? Kal 6 dpprjv e;êt

pLaGTOvg, iv Se Tot? d'AAot? eVia tcov dppevojv ovk

e;êt, ofoy 1777701 ol puev ovk exovGcv ol 8' exovGLV,

OGOL eOLKaOL TJI pTjTpi.

^ Kal €v vulg. : Kal del. Ogle.

380


mammae in those that have many, and these are the

ones that yield the most milk. An illustration of

this is the case of the sow : a sow will offer the

first of its mammae to the first ones of the litter.

Thus, where the first of an animal's litter amountsto one and no more, such an animal must possess

these first mammae, and " the first mammae " meansthose under the axillae. This explains, then, the

number and position of the elephant's mammae.The animals that have large litters have theirmammaeupon the abdomen. Why is this ? They have

numerous young to feed, and so they need numerousmammae. Now as the body has two sides, right andleft, the mammae cannot be more than two deep

across the body, and so they have to be disposed

lengthwise, and the only place where there is suffi-

cient length for this is between the front and hind

legs. Non-polydactylous animals which yet produce

few at a birth, or carry horns, have their mammae bythe thighs, as the horse and the ass (both solid-

hoofed) and the camel (cloven-hoofed), all of which

bear their young singly ; also the deer, the ox, the

goat, and all such animals. The reason for which is,

that in them the growth of the body proceeds in an

upward direction ; so the place where the superfluous

residue and blood collects is down below, near the

places of efflux, and there Nature has made the

mammae ; for where the food is set in motion, there

is the very place where they can get it. In man, both

male and female have mammae, but some males of

other animals have none, as e.g. stallions, some of

which have none, while others, which resemble their

dams, have them.

381

ARISTOTLE688 b

^ ^ ^ „ ^ S ^ > -/3Kat 776/31 fjLev jjLaarojv eip-qrai, /xera be ro (Tr7]Uos

35 o Trept TT^v KoiXlav iari tottos, aavyKXeioros rals

689 a TrXevpals 8ta t')]^ €Lp'qfi€i'r]v efiTTpoaOev alriav,

OTTOjg fJLT] eix7Tohit,cx)oi fx-qre rr]v olvolStjglv rrj?

Tpo(f)r]?, rjv dvayKOiov GVfilâtveiv Oepp.aivoiilv'r]'^

avrrjs, P-rjê ra? varepag to,? Trepl rrjv Kv-qoiv.

TeAo? Se rod KoXovpulvov dcopaKos euri ret pLopua

6 TO, Trepl Tr]V rrj? TrepiTTOJuecos eôSov, rrj? re ^r^pas

/cat TT^S" vypds- KaTa)(prjTaL o tj (f)VGLS rep a'urcp

piopicp e-ni re rrjv rrjs vypdg eôSov TTepirrojaeo)^

Koi Trepl rrjv 6-)(eiaVy opioiojs ev re rots' drjXeciL kol

rot? appeoiv,^ eôj tlvojv oXiyojv Tracrt rots' eVatjLtots",

iv 8e rot? t^cporoKois TrduLV. a'iriov 8' ort r^ yovrj

10 vypov eoTL rt Kal TTepirrcnpia. {tovto Se vvv pLev

VTTOKeiadoj, varepov Se hei\dr]GeTai rrepl avrov.)

Tov avTOV Se rpoTTov kol ev rots Q-qXeoi rd re

Karafirivia, Kalfj

ttpotevrai rr^v yovijv^' SioptoOij-

oeraL he Kal nepl tovtojv varepov, vvv 8' vrroKei-

gOco povov on rrepLrrajpLa Kal rd Karapti^via rolg

I'j driXeoLV vypd Se rrjV (J)Vglv rd Karafi-qvia Kal tj

yovi], a)Gre^ rwv opolojv els rd aura* /xopta r7]v

eKKpiGiv etvai Kard Aoyov eGriv. evrds 8e ttcjs

exî, Kal TTTJ hia(f)epovGL rd re Trepl rd Grreppia Kal

rd Trepl rrjv kvt^glv, e/c re ri^g iGropias rrjs Trepl

rd ^cpa (f)avep6v Kal rcJov dvaroptajv, Kal vorepov

20 XexOrJGerai ev rols Trepl yeveGecog. on 8' e;Y^t Kal

- Kal €L TTpotevrai nva yomî' Plait.' post (Lore vulfz;. habrt tcDv avTa>v Kal : Ogle del.

* TO. avTO. Peck : Tavra to. Vlllg.

382


This concludes our remarks on the mammae.After the breast comes the region around the

stomach, which is not enclosed by the ribs for

the reason stated earlier,** viz. to avoid interference

(a) with the food when it swells, as it must do whenit is heated, and (6) with the womb during pregnancy.

At the end of what is called the trunk are the parts Excretory

that have to do with the discharge of the residue,°^^^^^-

both solid and fluid. Nature employs one and the

same part for the discharge of the fluid residue andfor copulation in all blooded animals (v/ith a fewexceptions), male and female alike, and in all Vivipara

without exception. The reason is that the semen is a

fluid, and a residue. (This statement may stand for

the present : the proof of it will be given later on.^)

The same applies to the catamenia in females, andthe part where they emit the semen.'' This also will bedealt with particularly later on. For the present, let

the statement stand simply that the catamenia in

females (like the semen in males) are a residue. Nowboth semen and catamenia are fluids, so it is reason-

able that things which are alike should be discharged

through the same parts. A clear account of the

internal structure of these parts, showing the differ-

ences between the parts connected with semen andthose connected with conception, is given in the

Researches upon Animals ^ and the Dissections, andthere will be a discussion of them in the book on

* In De gen. an. 724 b 21 ff.

" This seems to agree with what Aristotle says on the

subject in the Hist. An., but contradicts what he says in Degen. an. Piatt's suggested emendation would make the

translation read :" and to the semen, if so be they emit any."

" At 493 a 24-b 6, 497 a 24 ff., book iii, ch. 1.

383

ARISTOTLE689a

^ , ^ , / , ^ , /

TO, oxîiara rcbv yLopicav tovtojv rrpos rrjv epyaoiav

avayKaiojs, ovk dSr^Xov. €;;êt Se Stac/iopa? to rcov

dppevcov opyavov Kara ras rod Gcofjuarog Staôpa?.

ov yap oixoiojs ajTavra vevpcoSr] ttjv (f)VOLV eoriv,

€Tt 8e fiovov rovro rcuv [jLoplcov avev vooepds /xera-

26 ôXrjs av^TjGLv e;êt /cat TaTreivcooiv rovrcov yap to

jLtev -^piqoLpiOV Trpos tov Gvvhvaopiov, to Se Trpo? tt^v

Tou aAAou Ga>ixaros ;\;/3etav aet yap opLoicos ^'x°^

TttAAa^ eVeTToStJev dV. GVvearrjKe 8e t')7v (j)voiv

€.K roiovrcov ro fiopLov rovro ware Suvaoât ravr

dfKJjorepa GVixâlvetv ro /xev yap €X€L vevpcohes

30 TO 8e ;!ôt'SpaiSes', hcorrep ovvUvai re hvvarat /cat

eKraoLV e;êtv /cat TTvevfxaros ian heKriKov. rd

/xev ovv d-qXea rcov rerpaTTohojv Trdvr^ eunv oiri-

aOovprjrLKd Std ro rrpos rrjv 6-)êiav ovrcos etrat

auTOt? ^(prjGifir^v rrjv deoLV, rcov 8* dppevojv oXtya

eGrlv oTTLGdovpTjrLKa, olov Xvy^, Xecov, /ca/xrÂo?,

689 b 8ao-u770u?' iX(x)VV)(OV 8' ouScV €Griv oTTiGSovpririKov.

To. 8' oTTLGOev /cat TO, 77€pt TO, gkIXtj rols dvdpco-

7T0LS lSlojs e;êt Trpos" rd rerpdiToSa. KepKov 8' e;)êt

iravra a^êhov, ov fxovov rd i^woroKa dXXd /cat to.

woTOKa- /cat ydp dv fir] fxeyeOos avrols €xov Tvxif6 rovro rd fiopiov, dXXd Grjixelov^ y eVe/cev e^pvGi

riva GroXov. 6 8' dvOpcoTTO? aKepKov fxev eGriv,

lG)(La 8' e;(et, rdJv 8e rerparroScov ovhlv. en he /cat

TO GKeXr] 6 fJiev dvOpcxJiros GapKcoSi] /cat p.rjpov'^ /cat

KV'qixaSy*' rd 8' d'AAa iravr dWp/ca €;)êt, ou jjlovov rd

^cporoKa dXX* oXojg ooa GKeXrj e\'et ra>v t^wwv

10 vevpcoSr] ydp e;)(et K'at OGrwSrj /cat dKavdojSrj.

Tovrojv 8' atVta /xta Tt? eoTtv co? elTreZv diravrajv,

^ exov TciXXa Peck : exovra vulg.2 Tuxs Kackhaiii : ^ vulg.

384


Generation.'^ Still, it is clear that the actual forms ofthese parts is determined of necessity by the function

they have to perform. The male organ, however,exhibits differences corresponding to those of thebody as a whole, for some animals are more sinewy,some less. Further, this organ is the only one whichincreases and subsides apart from any change dueto disease. Its increasing in size is useful for copula-

tion, its contraction for the employment of the rest

of the body, since it would be a nuisance to theother parts if it were always extended. And so it

is composed of substances which make both con-ditions possible : it contains both sinew and cartilage

;

and so it can contract and expand and admits air

into itself. All female quadrupeds discharge theurine backwards, as this arrangement is useful to

them for copulation. A few males do this (amongthem are the lynx, the lion, the camel, and thehare), but no solid-hoofed animal does so.

The rear parts and the parts around the legs are Rear parta.

peculiar in man compared with the quadrupeds, nearlyall of which (Ovipara as well as Vivipara) have a tail,

which even if it is not of any great size, still is presentfor a token as a sort of stump. Man has no tail, buthe has buttocks, which no quadruped possesses.^ Inman, the legs, both in thighs and calves, are fleshy :

in all other animals that have them (not only Vivi-

para) the legs are fleshless, being sinewy, bony andspinous. One might say that there is a single ex-

planation which covers them all, which is, that man is

« At 716 a 2—721 a 29.'' There seems to be something wrong with this statement,

but perhaps when taken in conjunction with the whole of theargument which follows, it may appear less unjustifiable.

ofiiKpov vulg. * KVT^fias] TTobas Y.

385

ARISTOTLE689 b

Slotl fjiovov iuTLv opdov rtxiv t,a)(jjv dvOpcoiTos. tv*

ovv<f>^P'[}

paSicos rdvco Kov(f)a ovra, dêXovaa to

GOJfiaTOjSeg dno rcov dvoj rrpos ra Kara) to ^dpog

rj (j)VULS TrpooedriKev' S Loirep rd LGXiOL aapKwh'q

15 iTTOLTjae Kal fjLr]pou? kclI yaGTpoKvrjfilag. a/xa he

T-qv re rcov Ig-x^lojv (f)VGLV Kal irpos ra? dvairavGeLs

direScjJKe xp^jf^^fôv rols picv ydp rerpdiroGiv dKOirov

TO eGrdvai, kol ov KajJivovGi rovro TToiovvra gvv-

€xdJ9 {a)G7T6p ydp KaraKeipieva hiareXeZ vtto-

Keipievcov Terrdpcxjv epeiGpaTcov), toI? 8' dvOpcjirois

20 ov pdhiov opdojs eGr(x)GL hiapLeveiv y aAAa heZrai to

crcajLta dvaTra-UGecDS kol KadeSpag. 6 /xev ovv dv-

dpojTTOS LGxicL T ex^t Kal rd GKeXr) GapKCx)Sr} Sta

TTjV elprjp.ev'qv alriav, Kal hid ravra dKepKov [tj

re ydp eKecGe^ rpocjir] TTopevofievrj et? ravra dva-

XiGKerai, Kal Sid ro e;>êtv to-;^ta d(f>'^pr]rai rj rrjs

25 ovpds dvayKaia XPV^^^)> '''^ ^^ rerpdnoha Kal

TaAAa ôja e^ evavrlag- vavcoSeGL ydp ovgl TTpos ro

dvoj ro pdpog Kal ro Gojjiarcbhes eVt/cetTat Trdv,

d(j)r]prjp.evov drro rojv Kdrcodev SioTrep dvLGXô^ f<al

GKXrjpd rd GKeXrj exovGiv. OTrajg S' iv (f)vXaK7J Kal

GKeTTTjfj

ro Xeirovpyovv pLopiov rrjv eôhov rod

30 TrepLrrdjjJLaros, rrjv KaXovpevr^v ovpdv Kal KepKov

avrolg aTrehcoKev rj <J)Vgls, dcfêXojJLevrj rrjg els rd

GKeXrj yiyvopievrjs rpocf)rjg.

('0 Se TTiOrjKos hid ro rrjv popcfyrjv inajJicfyorepLêLV

Kal jxrjherepcov r elvai Kal dpL(f)orepojv , Sta tout'

out' ovpdv e;\;et ovr lgxôl, (Lg fiev Slttovs d)V ovpdv,

CO? 8e rerpaTTOVs lgx^cl.)

690 a Td)v 8e KaXovjievcov KepKcov hiaôpai r et'at

^ eVeiae Peck : eVei vulg.

386


the only animal that stands upright. Hence, Nature,

so as to make the upper parts light and easy to carry,

took off the corporeal matter from the top and trans-

ferred the weight down below ; and that is how she

came to make the buttocks and the thighs and the

calves of the legs fleshy. At the same time, in

making the buttocks fleshy, Nature made them useful

for resting the body. Quadrupeds find it no trouble

to remain standing, and do not get tired if theyremain continually on their feet—the time is as goodas spent lying down, because they have four supports

underneath them. But human beings cannot remainstanding upright continually with ease ; the bodyneeds rest ; it must be seated. That, then, is whyman has buttocks and fleshy legs, and for the samereason he has no tail : the nourishment gets used upfor the benefit of the buttocks and legs before it canget as far as the place for the tail. Besides, the

possession of buttocks takes away the need andnecessity of a tail. But in quadrupeds and other

animals it is the opposite : they are dwarf-like, whichmeans that their heavy corporeal substance is in the

upper part of them and does not come into the lower

parts ; and as a result they have no buttocks and their

legs are hard. Yet to ensure that the part whichserves them for the discharge of the residue shall beguarded and covered over, Nature has assigned to

them tails or scuts by taking off somewhat of the

nourishment which would otherwise go into the legs.

(The Ape is, in form, intermediate between the

two, man and quadruped, and belongs to neither, or

to both, and consequently he has no tail, qua biped,

and no buttocks, qua quadruped.)

There are numerous differences in the various tails,

n2 387

ARISTOTLE690 a

^

TrXeiovs kol r) <j)VOi£ TrapaKaTa)(prJTaL Kal inl rov-

Tixiv, ov fiovov TTpos cf>vXaKr]v Kal GKeTrrjv ttjs eSpas,

dXXa Kal TTpos dj(j)e\eLav Kal )(prioiv rols exovcrtv.

5 Ot Se TToSe? rots' jJ-€V rerparrooi StacfiepovoLV' ra

fxev yap p.a)VV)(a avrcov iaru ra 8e St^TÂa to, 8e

TToXvaxi'^'^ , picovvxcL /xev oool<; Sta fJLeyedos Kal to

TToXv yettjSes" epêtv dvrl Kepdrajv Kal oSovtcdv et?

Trjv rod ovvôs cf)VGLV to tolovtov pLopiov eXaêv

aTTOKpiGiv , Kal hid TrXrjdog dvrt TrXeiovojv ovvx^j^^

10 6LS ovv^ Tj ottXtj eoTiv. Kal doTpdyaXov Se Sta

TOVTO OVK eXOVGLV COS ^TtI TO TToXv eLTTelv, Kal Sid^

TO SvGKLVrjTOTepaV etvai TT^V KafJLTTTjV TOV OTTLGdeV

GKeXovs dGTpaydXov evovTOS' BaTTOV ydp dvotyeTau

Kal AcAeterat ra piiav exovTa yajvlav tj TrXeiovs, 6

8' doTpdyaXos yopicfios cciv ojoTi^p dAAorptov kGjXov

15 ipLpe^XrjTai tols bvGL, ^dpos /xev Trapexov, ttoiovv

8' dG(j)aXeGT€pav ttjv âGLV. Sid ydp tovto Kal iv

ToZs epiTTpoGdiois OVK ^xovGLV aGTpdyaXov Td exovTa

aGTpdyaXov, dXX ev rot? oTTiGdev, otl hel iXacf)pd

elvai Td -qyovfjieva Kal evKafXTTTa, to 8' dcrâAes' Kal

TTjv TaGiv iv rots' oiriGOev. €tl Se irpos to d/ivve-

20 Gdai ijjL^pLOeGTepav 7tol€l ttjv nX'qyrjV' Td 8e rotaura

rots' OTTiodev ;^p7'5rat K'tuAots", Aa^rtôyra to Xvttovv.

Td 8e Slx'^Xa eêt dar/odyaAov {KovôTepa ydp

Td OTTLGdev), Kal hid to ^xî'V doTpdyaXov Kal ov

jJLCOVVxd IgTIV, COS' TO eKXelTTOV OGTCJheS eK tov

^ Kal 8td S\JZ Ogle : Slol vulg.

" The word used in the Greek is " part." See Introd. p. 28.* See Introduction, pp. 38-39.

388


which provide another example of Nature's habit of

using an organ for secondary purposes, for she

employs the tail not only as a guard and covering for

the fundament but also in other serviceable ways.

There are differences too in the feet of quadrupeds. Hoofs, etc

Some have a solid hoof, some a cloven hoof ; others

have a foot that is divided into several parts. Solid

hoofs are present in those animals which are large

and contain much earthy substance,*^ which instead of

making horns and teeth forms an abscession^ so as

to produce nail, and owing to the abundance of it, it

produces not several separate nails but a single one,

in other words, a hoof. Because of this, these

animals in general have no hucklebone ; and also

because the presence of a hucklebone makes it

rather difficult to bend the hind leg freely, since a

limb that has one angle can be bent to and fro morequickly than one that has several. It is a sort of

connecting-rod, and therefore practically interpolates

another bit of a limb between the two, thereby in-

creasing the weight ; but it makes the animal's footing

more reliable. This explains why, when hucklebonesare present, they are present in the hind limbs

only, never in the front : the front limbs have to belight and flexible because they go first, while the

hind limbs must be reliable and able to stretch.

Further, a hucklebone puts more force into a blow—

a

useful point in self-defence—and animals which haveone use their hind limbs in this way : if anything

hurts them they kick out at it.

Cloven-hoofed animals have a hucklebone, as their

hind limbs are on the light side ; and that is the very

reason why they are cloven-hoofed : the bony sub-

stance stays in the joint and therefore is deficient in

389

ARISTOTLE690 a

77080? iv rfj KajjufjeL fievov. ra Se TToXvSaKTvXa25 ovK €-)(€i aorpdyaXov ov yap av rjv TroXuSaKrvXa,

dXXa TOGOVTOV i(j-)(Ll,€TO TO TrXoLTOS 600V iTTeyei

6 doTpdyaXos. Sio koX tG)v lyovTOJV avrov raTrXeiuj Slx'^Xa.

*0 8' di'OpcoTTog 77oSa? pieyiarovs e;êt tojv t^cpojv

cog Kara pLeyeOos, evXoyojs' pLovov yap €GTr]K€v

opdov, ix)GT€ Tov? jLteAAovTas" Su' ovrag eêiv rrdv to

30 Tov ocofiaros ^dpos Set pLrJKO? exîv /cat rrXdros.

Kal TO rcov SaKTvXojv Srj pLeyedog ivavrloj? e;êt e77t

T€ ToJv TToSojv Kal T(x)v x^Lpcov Kara Xoyov rojv

piev yap to Xapu^dveiv epyov Kal Trtefetv, cooTe Set

690 b puaKpovs exî'V {ro) yap KapLTrropLevco jLtcpet nepL-

XapL^dv€L rj X^^P)y '^^^ ^^ '^^ ê^r^Kevai dacf)aX(jo?,

Trpos 8e^ rovTO 8et to pLopiov elvau pL€lt,ov^ to

d.Gxi'CrTOv TOV TToSos TcDv SaKTvXojv. eox^^^^^ ^^

^cXtlov 7) daxiCFTov elvai to eoxcLTOV aTrav yap av

5 GVpLTTadeg rjv evos pLopLOV rrovqaavTOS , eCT;YiCTjLteVa>^

8' els SaKTvXovg tovt ov uviiâivei opioicxjs- €tl

8e Kal ^pax€LS 6vt€s yJttov {av) ^XdrrToiVTO .^ 8to

77oAuo';^t8ets" ol Trohes tojv dvdpcoTTOJV, ov pLaKpo-

SdKTvXoL 8' eiGLv. TO Se TOJV ovvxcov yivos Sta

T9]v avTTjv alriav Kal €ttI twv jjêtpcDy exovaiv 8et

10 yap GKeTTeaOaL tol dKpwrrjpLa pidXcGra Sid ttjv

aGdeveiav.

Yiepl pL€V OVV TOJV ivaipiOJV t,OJOJV Kal ^CpOTOKOJV

Kal 7T€^djv e'iprjTaL gx^Sov vepl rrdvTOJV XI. tojv

8* ivalpLOJV ^cpojv OJOTOKOJV 8e to. piev Igtl TeTpd-

^ TTpos hk Og-le : coCTTC vulg.* /xetôv Piatt, Th. : vo/xllêiv vulg.

' caxiofj-cuu) Peek : -ov PY : -cov vulg. : -ov Ogle.* <ai> Piatt, Th. : ^Xoltttolvto Y : au/ijSAaTrroiVTO vulg.

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. x.-xi.

the foot. The polydactylous animals have no huckle-

bone, otherwise they would not be polydactylous,

and the divisions of the foot would cover only so

much width as the hucklebone itself. So most of

the animals which have a hucklebone are cloven-

hoofed.

Man of all the animals has the largest feet for his

size, and reasonably so, since he is the only one of

them that stands upright, and as the feet have to bear

the whole weight of the body and there are only

two of them, they must be both long and broad.

Also the toes are short compared with the fingers,

and this too is reasonable. The business of the hands

is to take hold and to keep hold of things, and this is

done by means of that part of the hands which bends ;

therefore the fingers must be long. The business of

the feet is to get a firm and reliable footing ; and to

secure this the undivided part of the foot must be

greater than the toes. And it is better to have the

tip of the foot divided than not, for otherwise, if one

part were affected the whole foot would suffer as well,

whereas this is to some degree avoided by the divi-

sion of the tip of the foot into toes. Again, short

toes are less liable to injury than long ones would be.

All this indicates why the human foot has toes and

why they are short. There are nails on the toes for

the same reason that there are nails on the fingers :

the extremities have but little strength and there-

fore specially need to be protected.

We have now dealt with practically all the blooded

animals that are viviparous and live on the land.

XI. We now pass on to another class of blooded co Ovipara

:

animals, the oviparous, some of which have four feet,OO^êrpents

QQj quadrupeds.

ARISTOTLE690 b

TToSa ra S' aTroSa. roiovrov 8' ev [xovov yivos

15 €gtIv aTTovv, TO Tcov 6^€cov Tj 8' tttTta tt)? aTTohias

avTcov eip-qrai iv rols nepl rrjg TTopelag tcov t,(jjcx)v

SLcopLGfxevoLg. TO. 8' d'AAa TrapaTrXrjGLav e;(et Tr]v

[J.Op(f)rjV Tols T€TpdlTOGl KOI (hoTOKOlS .^

*'E;(£t 8e TO. â>a raura K€(f)aXrjV pLev /cat ra ev

auTT^ pLopua Sea ra? ai^ras" atrta? rots' aAAot? rots'

20 ivaipiOLS t,(I)OLs, koI yXtoTTav iv tco GTop-aTL ttXtjv

TOV TTOTapLLOV KpOKoSeiXoV OVTOS 8' OVK dv h6^€L€V

e;\;eiv, aAAa ttjv x<^p(^^ pLovov. atrtov 8' ort TpoTTOv

pL€v TLva dpia -xêpuaZos kol evvhpos ioTLV 8ta pL€V

ovv TO xêpoalos elvai ex€L ;\;a>pay yXcoTTt]?, 8ta 8e

TO evvSpos dyXcoTTOs . ol yap IxOve?, Kaddnep €Lpr]-

25 rat TTpoTepov, ol puev ov Sokovglv e;êtv, a;^ piTj o(j)6-

hpa dvaKXivrj rt?, ot 8' dSidpOpcoTov exovaiv. aiTiov8' ort oXiyq tovtols XP^^^^ "^V^ yXwTTTjs 8ta to pLT)

ivSex^dOat pLaodudai pLrjhe Trpoyeveodai, dXX iv ttj

KaTaTToaei yiveodai ttjv atad'qaLV Kal ttjv tjSovtjv

TTauL tovtols TTJs Tpo(f)rjg. 7} piiv yap yXcoTTa tCjv

80 x^H'd)v 7TOL€L TTjv aiodiqoiv , Twv he iSeGTcijv iv Tjj

Kadohcp Tj TjSovq' KaTaTnvopLevcov yap atVâvovrat

Tojv XiTrapdjv /cat deppLCJov /cat tojv dXXojv tojv

TOLOVTOJV. exî pL€v OVV Kal ra ^cooro/ca TavTrjv

TTJV aLGdrjGLv (/cat Gx^hdv tcov ttXclgtcov oipcov /cat

691 a e8eCTrajv iv ttj /caraTroaet ttj raaet tov OLGO(f)dyov

ytverat 7] ;)âpts" 8t6 ovx ot avTol rrepl ra nopiaTa

/cat Tovs x^P-ovg aKpaTels €lgi /cat ra oipa /cat Trjv

^ <1)Ot6kOLS PUYZ : ^WOTOKOIS vulg.2 ^v Totirois XPf'a S : -^v XP^'c tovtois vulg. : ^v delevi.

* At De inc. an. 708 a 9 ff ; see also infra, 696 a 10.^ At 660 b 13-25.

392

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xi.

and some no feet at all. Actually there is only onegroup that has no feet, the Serpents ; and the reason

why they have none has been stated in my treatise onthe Locomotion of Animals.'^ In other respects their

conformation is similar to that of the oviparous

quadrupeds.These animals have a head, and the parts that com-

pose it, for the same reasons that other bloodedcreatures have one, and they have a tongue inside the

mouth—all except the river crocodile, which appar-

ently has none, but only a space for it ; and the reason

is that in a way he is both a land-animal and a water-

animal. In virtue of being a land-animal, he has a

space for a tongue ; as a water-animal, he is tongue-

less. This agrees with our previous statement,^ that

some fishes appear to have no tongue unless you pull

the mouth very well open, others have one which is

not distinctly articulated. The reason for this is that

these creatures have not much need for a tonguebecause they cannot chew their food or even taste

it before they eat it : they can perceive the pleasant-

ness of it only while they are swallowing it. This

is because the perception of juices is effected by the

tongue ; whereas the pleasantness of solid food is

perceived while it is passing down the gullet, andthus oily food and hot food and the like are per-

ceived while they are being swallowed. Of course

the Vivipara as well as these creatures have this

power of perception (indeed, the enjoyment derived

from practically all edible dainties takes place while

they are being swallowed and is due to the distension

of the oesophagus—which is why intemperate ap-

petite for edible dainties is not found in the sameanimals as intemperate appetite for drink and juices) ;

ARISTOTLE691 a

iScoSrjv), aAAa rot? /tev d'AAot? fcoot? Kal rj Kara

5 TTjv yevGiv V7Tdpx€L aLad-qai?, €K€lvol5 8' dvev

ravrris jjiovyf 7) irepa. rchv he rerpaTToSajv /cat

cpOTOKCDv ol oavpoi, iiiOTTep Koi oi^ 6(f)€L£, SiKpoav

cxovGL rrjv yXdjTrav Kal err* aKpov rpixojhr] TrdfXTraVf

Kaddnep e'ip'qrat rrporepov. exovai 8e /cat at </)tD/cat

SiKpoav Tr]v yXcorrav 8to /cat Xlxvcl^ irdvra rd ôia

ecrrt ravra.

10 "Ectti he /cat Kapô-pohovTa rd rerpdrroha rcov

tpOTOKOjv, coGTTep ol Ixdves . rd 8' aloQiqr'qpia

Trdvra opolcos exovai rots' dXXoig ôjot?, olov rrjg

6a(f)prjG€ajs fJLVKrrjpas /cat oiJjecDS 6(f)6aXp.ovs /cat

aKorj? wra, ttXt^v ovk eTraveGTTjKora, KaOdnep ovh*

ol dpvides, dXXd rov TTopov piovov airiov 8' dp<j)o-

15 repois rj rov SeppLaros gkXt]p6t7]s' rd pev ydp

TTTepojrd avrdjv eGn, ravra he rrdvra (j)oXihojrdy

ecjTt 8*7] (j)oXls opioiov X^P^ XeTTiSog, cf)VGeL 8e

aKXrjporepov, SrjXol 8' eirl rwv ;êAajva;v rovro

Kal inl rcjv peydXcov 6(f)eojv Kal rcjv TTorapLiOJV

KpoKoheiXcov LGxvporepai ydp yivovrai rwv ocrraJv

CO? oucrat roiavrai rrjv (f)VGLV.

20 Ovk exovGL 8e rd ^cpa ravra rrjv dvco j8Ae</)apt8a,

WGTTep ovh^ ol opvideSy dXXd rfj Kara) pivovGi 8ta

rrjv airlav rr]v elpr]pevr]v eV eKelva>v. rcov pLev ovv

opvldcov evioi Kal GKaphapLvrrovGiv vpievi €/c rayv

Kavddjv, ravra he rd â)a ov GKaphapLvrrec gkXtjp-

25 ocfydaXpLorepa ydp eGn rcov opvldcov. airiov 8' oneKelvoLS XPV^'-I^^'^^P'^ V o^vojjrla*^ TrrrjvoLS ovgl rrpog

^ 8' av€u TavTTjS fiovT) Peck : S' av ij warrep ôvtj Y : 8'

wavcpavcl viilg. ; plurima hie transposuit Ogle.2 Kal ol Y : ol vulg.

391


but whereas the rest of the animals have the power ofperception b}^ taste as well, these are without it

and possess the other one only. Among oviparousquadrupeds, lizards (and serpents too) have a two-forked tongue, the tips of which are as fine as hairs.

(This has been stated earher.") Seals also have aforked tongue. This forked tongue explains why all

these animals are so dainty in their food.The four-footed Ovipara also have sharp interfitting

teeth, as Fishes have. Their sense-organs are all

similar to those of other animals : nostrils for smell,eyes for sight, and ears for hearing—though their ears

do not stand out : they are merely a duct, as in

birds ; and in both groups the cause is the same, viz.

the hardness of their integument. Birds are coveredwith feathers, and these creatures are all coveredwith horny scales which correspond in position to thescales of fishes, but are harder in substance. This

is clearly illustrated by the tortoises, the great snakes,

and the river crocodiles, where the scales are made ofthe same material as the bones and actually growstronger than the bones.

These animals, like birds, have no upper eyelid ;

they close their eyes with the lower lid. The reasonwhich was given ^ for birds applies to them too. Somebirds can also blink by means of a membrane whichcomes out of the corner of the eye ; but theseanimals do not do this, since their eyes are harderthan birds' eyes. The reason for this is that keensight is of considerable use to birds in their daily

«• At 660 b 9. ^ At 657 b 6 ff.

^ At'xva Karsch : laxva vulg.* O^VCOTTLa Kal TO TTOppOJ TTpo'CBe'iv UY.

395

ARISTOTLE691 a ^

^ ^ ^rov ^lov, TOVTOig S' rJTrov rpajyXoSvra yap iravra

ra roiavTo. ioriv.

Et? hvo hk Sirjprjfjievrjs rrjg KecfyaXris, rod re avcxi

fjLopLov Kal rrjg aiayovos rrjg Karoj, dvdpcxJTTOs jLtev^

/cat ra t^cporoKa rcov rerpaTToSajv /cat dvo) /cat Karoj

80 KLvovGL TO,? oiayovas /cat els to TrXdyiov, ol 8*

lxdv€s /cat opvideg /cat ra woro/ca rtov rerpaTToSojv

ets" TO aVoj /cat /caroj fiovov. atrLov S' ort 77 jLtev

691 b TOiavTT] KLV7]aLs ^^p-quipLOS €L£ TO Sa/cetv /cat SteAetv,

7^ S' els TO TrActytov eVt to Xealveiv. roTs p-kv ovv

exovGi yop,(f)LOVS XP'^^^H'OS r) els to irXdyiov Kivqais,

rols Se pLi] exovGLv ovSev XP'^^^^-OS, hioTvep d(j)r]priTai

TTavrcov rwv tolovtcov ouSev yap ttolel Trepiepyov rj

6 (f)VGLS. rd jLtev ovv dXXa Travra KiveZ rrjv Giayova

TTjv /caret), o 8e TTordpiios KpoKoheiXos fiovos ttjv dvoj.

TOVTov S' atrtov ort Trpos ro Xaêlv /cat KaraGxelv

dxp'^fJTOvs exî' Tovs TToSas' puKpol yap etVt Trdpurav.

TTpos ovv ravras rds XP^^^^ ^^^^^ ttoScjv to cxro/xa

7) (f)VGLS ;\;/37]o-t/xov auroi erroirjGev. Trpos Se to

10 KaraGxîV rj XaêZvy onorepajdev dvfj

rj TrXrjyrj

iGXvporepa, ravrrj ;)^p7^CTtâjTepa Kivovpevrj eGriv

Tj he TrXrjyrj loxvporepa del dvcoOev 7) Kdrcodev eVet

ovv dp.(j)OTepcov pLev Sia rod oroparos rj XP^^^^>^^^^

Tov Xaêlv /cat rod Sa/cetv, dvayKaiorepa 8' rj rov

15 KaraGX^Zv pufjre ;êtpas" exovri purjre TTohas ev(j)veZs,

XP'^GLpidyrepov rrjv dvcoOev Kivelv Giayova rj ttjv

Karojdev avroZs. 8ta to avTo he /cat ot KapKivoi

TO dvcoOev rrjs XV^V^ klvovgl popiov, dAA* ov to

KaTcoOev dvTL xî-pos yap exovoi rds ^Âas", coare

rrpos TO Xaêlv dAA' ov rrpos to hieXelv p^/oi^ct/xov

* fikv ovv vulg. : yikv YZ.

396


life, because they fly about ; but it would be verylittle good to these creatures, because they all spendtheir time in holes and corners.

Their head has two divisions : the upper part, andthe lower jaw. In man and in the viviparous

quadrupeds the lower jaw moves from side to side as

well as up and down ; in fishes, however, and birds

and these oviparous quadrupeds it moves up anddown only. The reason is that this vertical motion is

useful for biting and cutting up food, while thesideways motion is useful for grinding the food down.Of course this sideways motion is useful to animalswhich possess grinder-teeth ; but it is of no use to

those which lack grinders, and so not one of themhas it. Nature never makes or does anything that is

superfluous. All these animals, then, move the lowerjaw—with one exception, the river crocodile, whichmoves the upper jaw, and the reason for this is that

his feet are no use for seizing and holding things :

they are too small altogether. So Nature has givenhim a mouth which he can use for these purposesinstead of his feet. And when it comes to seizing

things and holding them, the most useful direction

for a blow to take is that which gives it the greatest

strength. Now a blow from above is always stronger

than one from below. And to an animal who has nohands and no proper feet, who has to use his mouthfor seizing his food as well as for biting it, the powerto seize it is the more necessary ; and therefore it is

more useful to him to be able to move his upper jawthan his lower one. For the same reason crabs movethe upper part of their claws and not the lower :

claws are their substitute for hands, so the claws haveto be useful for seizing things (not for cutting them

. 397

ARISTOTLE691 b ^ ^

liu Set etvai rr]v XV^W' '^^ ^^ hieXeZv /cat Sa/cetv ohov-

TCDV epyov ioriv. roig fxev ouv KapKivois Kal toIs

aXXoLg oGOig ivSex^rai axoXaiajg rroieZoBai ttjv

XrjifjLV Slol to fii) eV vypco etvat t7]v ;Yp^crtv rou

aTOjjLaros, SLrjp-qraL, Kal Xapi^dvovGi {xev ;êpCTtv 7}

TTOoi, hiaLpovoi Se roi CTTo/xart /cai SctKyofcrtv rots'

25 Se KpoKoheiXois eir* a/xôrepa xRV^^H-^v ro arofxa

7T€7TOLrjK€V 7) (fiVGL?, KLVOVpLeVCxJV OVTCl) TCJOV OiayOVCOV

.

"E;ôuCTt he Kal au;)êVa Travra to, roiavra Sta to

TrXevpLova e;êtv 8e;YovTat yap to TTvevpia Sta t-^?

apr-qpias fJLrJKog ixovarjg.

^'ETTet Se TO fxeTa^v K€(f)aXfjs Kal c^fjLOJV KeKXr^Tat

avx'ij^, TjKiuTa TCx)v TOLOVTCov 6 6(f)Ls So^ctcv dv

30 exîv avx^va, dXXa to dvdXoyov tco avx^vi, et ye

Set rot? eipry/xeVot? ioxdTois Stoptêtv to fiopiov

TOVTO. tStov Se 77/309 TCt ovyyevrj tcov t,a)Cx)v

692 a VTrdpX^l TOt? 6(f)€GL TO OTp€(f>€LV TrjV K€(f)aXrjV et?

TOVTTLoBeV TjpepLOVVTOS TOV XoLTTOV CTOJ/XaTOS". atVtov

8* OTt Kaddirep to, eVroju-a eAtKTOV' eoTiv, wot€evKdfJLTTTOVs ^X^^^ ^'^^ ;\;ovSp668ets" tou? ctttovSuAous".

e^ ayay/c'/y? jLtev ouv 8ta TavTr]v ttjv atTtav tovto

5 GVfji^€^rjK€v avTolg, TOV Se êXTiovos eVe/cev tt/jo?

(f)vXaK7]v tcl)v oTnodev f^XaTTTovTWV fiaKpov yap ov

Kal aTTovv dcf)ves eVrt 77^0? re tt^v GTpo(l)rjv Kal irpos

Trjv TCOV oTTiGBev T-qpriGiv' ovhev yap oêXos atpeiv

pL€v, GTpeêiv 8e fxr] SvvaGdai Tr)v K€<âXrjV. cxovGi

8e TO, ToiavTa Kal to) GTrjdei avaAoyov pLopiov.

10 fiaGTovs 8' ovK exovGLV ovT ivTavda ovt iv tco

dXXo) GcofJiaTi, oixoLOjg 8' oOS' opvLs, ovh^ Ix^vs

ovheis. atVtov Se to fJtrjSe ydXa ex^cv to-utcjv

^ hinc usque ad 695 a 22 varia codd. ; text. vulg. exhibui.

398


up : this, and biting, is the business of the teeth).

In crabs, then, and in other creatures which, becausetheir mouth does not come into action while underwater, can take their time about seizing their food,

the labour is divided : they seize their food with

their hands or feet, and cut it up and bite it with

the mouth. For the crocodile, however, by makingthe jaws move as I have described, Nature has

constructed a mouth which can be used for boththese purposes.

All these animals have also a neck ; this is becausethey have a lung and there is a long windpipe throughVvhich they admit the breath to it.

Since the neck is the name given to the part of

the body between the head and the shoulders, the

serpent would appear to be the very last of these

creatures to possess one : at any rate, if the neck is

to be defined by the limits mentioned above, he has

merely something analogous to a neck. Comparedwith kindred animals, serpents have this peculiarity :

they can turn their heads backwards while the rest of

the body remains still. The reason is that their body(like an insect's) can roll up ; the vertebrae are cartila-

ginous and flexible. This, then, is the necessary cause

why they have this ability; but it serves a gooc? purposetoo, for it enables them to guard against attacks fromthe rear, and with their long bodies devoid of feet

they are ill adapted for turning themselves round to

keep watch over the rear. To be able to raise the

head and yet unable to turn it round would be useless.

These animals have also a part which is a counter-

part to the breast. But they have no mammae either

here or elsewhere ; nor have any of the birds or fishes.

This is because the mammae are receptacles, vessels,

399

ARISTOTLE692 a

fjir]d€V' 6 Be fiauTO? vttoSox'T] Kal woirep ayyeZov

icTTL ydXaKTO?. ydXa 8' ovk ex^t ovre ravra ovr*

dXXo ovSev TOJV fjLrj Iôjotokovvtcov iv avrots, Slotl

(hoTOKOVGLV, €V §€ Tcp (hcj 7] rpo(l)rj iyyiverai iv

rot? tîporoKOis yaXaKTcoSrj? vrrdpxovoa. craê-

15 orrepov 8e Trepl avrojv XexO'qo-erai iv rot? nepl

yeveaeojs. Trepl he rrj? tcov OKeXcjv^ Kdpujjecos iv

rols rrepl rropeias Trporepov iTTeaKeTTrai Koivfj Trepl

TrdvTwv.^

"Kxovai Se Kal KepKov rd roLavra, ra fxev /xet^co

rd S' iXdrrco, VTrep ov rrfv alriav KaOoXov Trporepov

elpi^Kafiev.

20 ^luxvoTaros S' o x^H'^^^^^'^ "^^^ cootokojv Kal

TTeôjv icTTLV oXiyaipLOTaTov ydp ian Trdvrojv. ravro8' atnov rod rrj? ipvx'^s yjdovg iorl rod t,a)ov^ ttoXv-

{xop(f)ov ydp yiverai hid rov (f)6ôv, 6 he cf)6ôg

Kardifjv^LS St' oXiyaifjiorrjrd ion Kal evheiav depfio-

rrjros.

692 b Hepi pev ovv rdjv ivaipcov t,a)ajv rcov re dTTohojv

Kal rerpaTTohojv, daa popia rd iKros exî Kal hid

rivas airlag, elp-qrai ox^hov.

XII. 'Ev 8c rolg dpviGiv T) TTpo? dXXrjXa Staôpa

iv rfj rcov popla>v iorlv vTrepoxfj Kal iXXelipet Kal

5 Kard rd pidXXov Kal rjrrov. elal ydp avrojv ol p,ev

fxaKpoGKeXels ol he ^paxvoKeXelg, Kal rrjv yXcbrrav

ol jjiev TrXareZav exovaiv ol he arev^v o/xotcas" he

Kal eTTt TCOV dXXwv pLopiiov. Ihia he fiopca oXiya

^ OKeXwv PZ, Ogle : KaiiTTvXojv okcXcou Y : KafjLTTvXcov vulg.2 Trepl Se . . . ttolvtcdv fortasse secludenda.' correxit Peck, cf. 667 all seqq. ; tovtov S' aiTLou to ^dos

Tov Ccoov TO T7y? ^vx^js vulg. : axTiov 8e to t^? 4'^XV^ -Ôos €cttiv

auTou PSUZ : sed fortasse haec verba secludenda.

400

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xi.-xii.

as it were, for the milk, and none of these creatures

has any milk. Neither has any of the other animalsthat are not internally viviparous ; the reason is that

as they produce eggs the milky nutriment which theycontain goes into these eggs. A more detailed

account of these matters \W11 be given in the treatise

on Generatio7i.^ With regard to the way in which theybend their legs, a general account, including all

animals, has already been given in the treatise onthe Locomotion of Ariimals.^

These creatures have a tail, some a large one, somea small one. We have already given the reason for

this as generally applicable.^

Among the oviparous land-animals, the chameleonhas the least flesh on him ; this is because he hasleast blood, and the same reason is at the root of the

animal's habit of soul—he is subject to fear (to whichhis many changes in appearance are due), and fear is

a process of cooling produced through scantiness of

blood and insufficiency of heat.'^

This fairly concludes our account of the external

parts of the blooded animals both footless and four-

footed, and of the reasons thereof.

XII. We now pass on to Birds. As among them- (ii.) Birds.

selves, they differ in their parts in respect of the

more and less, and excess and defect^—e.g., some of

them have loner leo-s, some short ones ; some havea broad tongue, some a narrow one ; and similarly

with the other parts. Thus, as among themselves

" At 752 b 16 fF.

" At 712 a 1 ff. See also below, 693 b 3, and additional

note on that passage, p. 433.<= At 689 b 1 ff.

^ Compare the passages at 650 b 27 and 667 a 1 1 fF.

* See 644 a 19, and introductory note on p. 19.

401

ARISTOTLE692 b

Staê/Dovra exovacv dXXrjXcjov irpos he to. ctAAa t,<2)a

Koi rfj ijLop(f)fj Tcov fjiopiojv Staêpouatv. Trrepcorol

10 [jL€v ovv airavTes eloLV, /cat rovr^ Ihiov cxovai rcov

dXXcxJV. rd yap /xopta rwv ^cpojv rd fiev T/3t;)(ajTa

ioTL rd Se ôAtScora to, 8e XemScord, ol 8' dpvides

TTrepojTOL. /cat to irrepov a)(iGTdv /cat ovx o/jlolov

rep etSet rot? oXorrrepois' rcov puev ydp du-x^LOTOv

TCOV 8e (Jxi'CrTov icm, /cat to /xey a/cauAoy, to 8'

15 e^êt /cauAov. exovac Se /cat ev Try KecfiaXfj TrepLrrrjv

/cat tStov TT^v Tov pvyxovs (f)V(JLV TTpo? rdXXa' roXs

fjuev ydp eXecfyaaiv o jjlvkttjp dvrl x^^pd^^> '^^^ ^'

ivTopLCov evLOLS Tj yXiorra dvrl arofJLarog, ro'urois

8' dvTt ohovrojv /cat ;!^€tAcur ro p-uyxos oonvov 6v.^

7T€pl 8e rdjv aloOiqr'iqpiOJv etprjraL Tvporepov.

20 Avx^voL 8' e;\;et rerafievov rfj </)i;CTet, /cat 8ta rr^v

avTTjv airlav rjvTrep /cat TaAAa* /cat rovrov rd fxev

^paxvv rd 8e piaKpov, /cat o-;^^^^^ d/coAovôv TOt?

GKcXeGL rd TrAetCTTa. to, /xev ydp pLaKpoGKeXrj

IxaKpov Ta 8e ^paxvGKeXrj ^paxvv e;\;et rov avx^va,

XiJ^pl? TCOV oreyavoTTohcxyv rd piev ydp et etx^ ^P^~693 a x^'^ ^77^ (JKeXeai piaKpols, ovk dv VTrrjperei avroZs 6

avx'TjV rrpog r7]v ajro rrj? yrjg vopLrjv, roZs 8' el

jxaKpo? rjv eVt ^paxeoLV. en 8e^ Tot? Kpeco^dyoLS

avrojv vrrevavriov dv -^v^ ro pcrJKo? TTpos rov ^lov

5 6 ydp /xa/c/)o? avx^v daOeviqs, rols 8' d ^to? e/c

Tou Kparelv eariv. hioirep ovhev rcov yapii/jcovvxcov

IxaKpov exî rov aupêVa. Ta 8e o-Teyai'd77o8a /cat

^Ta)* hirjpripievovs piev exovra rovs rroSas GecnpLCo-

^ 6v Y, Ogle : cm. vulg.

402

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xii.

they have few parts which differ from one to another.

But as compared with other animals, they differ in

respect of the form of their parts. One pecuHarity

of the birds is that they all have feathers, whereasin other animals the parts are covered with hair, or

scales, or horny plates. A bird's feather is split, andtherefore different in form from the wing of certain

insects, which is undivided ; as well as having a shaft,

whereas the insects have none. Another peculiarity

of birds is the beak, an extraordinary appendage to

the head. It is made of bone, and serves theminstead of teeth and lips, just as the elephant's trunktakes the place of hands, and the tongue of certain

insects replaces a mouth. We have spoken already

of the sense-organs.^

Birds have a neck which sticks up, and for the samereason that other creatures have one. Some have a

long neck, some a short one : in most of them it corre-

sponds in length fairly closely to the legs, so that the

long-legged birds have a long neck and the short-

legged birds a short neck (web-footed birds excepted.)

WTiat assistance in getting food out of the groundwould a short neck be to a bird on long legs, or a long

neck to a bird on short legs ? Furthermore, the

carnivorous birds would find a long neck a real dis-

advantage in their daily life. These birds dependfor their livelihood on superior strength, and length

of neck means lack of strength ; so no crook-taloned

bird has a long neck. Web-footed birds, how-ever, together with others in the same class whose

° In Book II. chh. 12 fF.

2 Se Langkavel : ye Y6 : om. vu\g.^ av ^v PY6, Ogle : om. vulg.

* <Ta> Ogle.

403

ARISTOTLE693 a

fji€Vovs Se Kal^ ev tco avraj yevei ovra rot? areyavo-

TTOGL, rov fikv avx^vo. fjLaKpov €)(ovglv {xpijoifjio?

ycip TOLOVTO£ a)v TTpos TTjv rpocpT^v rrjv €K rod10 vypov), TO, Se GKeXrj rrpog ttjv v€vglv j^paxâ.

Aia</)opdv S' €X€L Kal ra pvyx'f] Kara rovs îovs.

ra [lev yap evOv eêt ra 8e yapupov, evdv fiev OGa

rpo(f)rj? €V€K€V, yapupov Se ra chpio^dya- xPV^f-fôv

yap npog ro Kparelv ro roLovrov, rrjv Se rpocfir^v

avayKalov arro ^ctjcov 7Topil,€Gdai, Kal ra ttoXXol

\'> jSuaôfxevoL?. ogcxjv 8' eXeuos 6 ^los Kal rroo(jidyos,

irXarv ro pvyxos exovGiv irpog re yap rrjv opv^tv

XpriGipiov ro roiovrov Kal irpos rr^v rrjs rpO(f>r\s

GTTaGLV Kal Kovpdv, eVia Se /cat p.aKpov e;êt to

pvyxos rojv roLovrwv, wGjrep Kal rov au;êVa, Slol

ro XafJL^dveLV rrjv rpo(f)r]v €K rov ^dOovs. Kal raTToXXd rcov roiovrcov Kal raJv Gr€yavoTr6Sa>v rj

20 cxTrAajS" rj Kard^ pLopuov^ drjpevovra l^fj rcjv iv rep

vypcp cVta ^cpSaplcov Kal yiverat roXg roiovroLS 6

jxev avx'Tjv Kaddrrep dAteurat? d^ /cdAaôs", ro he

pvyxos olov rf oppid Kal ro dyKLGrpov.

Yd Se TTpavrj rod Gcofiaros Kal ra VTrria, Kal rarod KaXovjxevov daypaKos eVt rcov rerpanoScov,

25 6Xo(f)vrjs 6 rOTTOS errl rcov opvldcov eGriv Kal exovGLV

aTT'qprrjpLevas dvrl rcov ^paxidvcov Kal rwv GKeXwv693 b TcDv TTpoGdicDV^ TO.? TTrepvyas, 'Ihiov n fiopiov,

hiorrep dvrl cofjLOTrXdrrjs ra reXevrala errl rod vcorov

rcov nrepvycov exovGLV.

^KeXt] be Kaddrrep dvOpojiros hvo, KeKafjijieva

^ Kal Y6, Oprle : (Ls vulg.2 Kara Y, Ogle : Kara to vulg.^ post fxopiov habct ravTO vulg. : ravTO. S : ravra P : tovtois

coni. Ogle.

404


feet though divided into toes yet are fashioned hkea snub-nose"—these have long necks, because a longneck is useful to them for getting food out of thewater. Their feet, on the contrary, are short so thatthey can swim.

Birds' beaks also differ according to their different

habits of life. Some beaks are straight, some curved ;

straight if they are used simply for feeding, curved if

the bird eats raw meat, because a curved beak is

useful for overpowering their prey, and such birds

have to get their food from animals, most often byforce. Those whose life is spent in swamps and are

herbivorous have broad beaks, which are useful for

digging and pulling up their food and for croppingplants. Some of them, however, have a long beak anda long neck as well, because they get their food fromsome depth. Practically all these birds and the com-pletely or partially web-footed ones live by preyingupon certain of the tiny water-animals, and their

neck is to these birds what his fishing-rod is to anangler, while their beak is like a line and hook.The under and the upper sides of the body (i.e. of

what is called the trunk in quadrupeds) are in birds

one uninterrupted whole. Instead of arms and fore-

legs they have wings attached to this part (wings are

another peculiarity), and hence, instead of having theshoulder-blade on their back they have the ends of

the wings there.

Birds, like men, have two legs, which are bent in-

" According to Ogle, this means that the main stem of thetoe corresponds to the ridge of the nose, and the lobes oneither side of it to the flattened nostrils.

* dAteuTat? o PQSU : aXievriKos 6 Y6 : clXuvtikos Z, vulg.^

7) Yb : om. vulg.* sic Y6, Ogle : aTrqpr. yap avrl et mox exovai post vpoadLcov

vulg.

405

ARISTOTLE693 b

Kaddnep rd TerpdrroSa etaco, /cat ovx cjOTrep dvdpco-

5 TTos" îco' rag Se Trrepvyas, cus" rd TrpoaOia OKeXr]

rojv rerparrohcjVy irti rd nepLcfiepes. Slttovv S' ef

dvdyKTjs iariv rwv ydp ivalficov r) rod opvidos

ovoiay d'/xa Se kol rrrepvycoros, rd S' eyatjua oi)

Kivelrai TrXetoatv rj rerrapcrt orjixeLOL?. rd p,ev ovv

d7Tr]pTrjjJL€va jxopia . rlrrapa, (jjarrep rols d'AAot?

rots' 776 ôt? KOI rols TTopevrLKoZs, eon kol rots

10 opviOLV dAAd rot? pikv ^paxioveg /cat gkcXtj, rols 8e

rerpdrrooL^ GKeXrj rerrapa V7rdp)(êi, rols S' dpviOLV

dvrl roL)v TTpoodiojv GKeXcov rj ^paxidvcov Trrepvyes

TO lBlov earIV /card ravros ydp rovLKoi^ eloi, rep

8' opvidi €v rfj ovGia rd TTrrjTLKov eGriv. ojGre

AetVerat azJrot? e|- dvdyKr\s Slttoglv etvat* ovrco ydp15 rerrapGL Gruxeiois KivrjGovrai pêrd rcov nrepvyajv.

ILrrjOos S' €XovGLV drravres o^v /cat GapKcoSes,

o^v p,€v rrpds rrjv TTTrJGLV {rd ydp rrXarea ttoXvv

dipa (hdovvra BvGKLvrjrd eGri), o-ap/ctoSe? 8e, Stdrt

rd o^v doOeves jjirj ttoXXtjv exov GKerrrjv.

'IVd Se rd GrijOos KoiXia /xe;^pt Trpdg rrjv eôSov

20 rov Trepirrcoparos /cat rrjv roJv GKeXojv KapurriVy

KadaTTep rols rerpdrroGL /cat rot? dvdpwTTois. jLte-

raû p.ev ovv rcov Trrepvycov /cat rcov GKeXcbv ravra

rd popid eartr.

'0/xâAdv 8' iv jjLev rfj yeveoei dnavra eêt

^ sic PY6, Ogle : okcXt], toIs hk TCTp. om. vulp;.

^ TTTTjTiKOL coiiieci ; idem Th. {volatiles Gaza).

" For an explanation of Aristotle's terminology on this

subject see additional note on p. 433.^ The chief difficulty in translating this passage is due to

the word tovlkoi, a jargon-adjective in -lkos, which seems to

have been suggested to Aristotle's mind by the similar adjec-

406


wards as in the quadrupeds, not outwards as in man."The win_<TS are bent with the convex side outwards,

like the forelegs of quadrupeds. It is inevitable that

a bird should have two feet, for (a) it belongs essenti-

ally to the blooded creatures and (b) it is winged,

and (c) four is the greatest number of motion-

points which a blooded creature can have. So there

are four parts (or limbs) attached to a bird's body,

and this corresponds exactly with the other blooded

creatures, viz. those that live and move upon the

ground. The only difference is that whereas the

latter have two arms and two legs (or, if they are

quadrupeds, four legs), the peculiarity of birds is

that they have wings instead of arms (or forelegs).

As its very essence includes the power to fly, a

bird must have something which it can stretch out,

and wings provide this.^ So it remains that of ne-

cessity a bird shall have two feet : these with the twowings bring up the number of its motion-points

to four.

All birds have a sharp-edged, fleshy breast :

sharp-edged, for flying (a wide surface displaces so

much air that it impedes its own motion) ; fleshy,

because a sharp-edged thing is weak unless it has

a good covering.

Below the breast is the stomach, which extends (as

in the quadrupeds and in man) as far as the residual

vent and the point where the legs join the body.

Those are the parts, then,w^hich have their situation

between the wings and the legs.

Birds, in common with all animals which are pro-

tive 7tt7)tlk6v in the next line. Literally, the passage reads :

" for it is at these [viz. the wings] that birds are stretchable ;

and flight-ability is included in the essence of a bird."

407

ARISTOTLE693 b

oaaTTep t^cooTOKelrai rj cooro/cetrat, raJv 8' opviBojv

av^rjOevTCOv dSrjXo?. r) 8* airla StJXtj iv roT? nepl

25 yeveaLV etV yap to evrepov r) (TVfJL(f)vaLS ylverai, Kal

ovx cjoTTcp ToZs t^cporoKOLS Tcov </>Ae^cDv Tt fiopLov

iuTLV.

"Ert Tcov opvlOajv ol piev tttt^tlkol Kal rag irrepvyas

694 a peydXas exovGL Kal laxvpds, olov ol yapn/jcjvvx^S

Kal d)pLO(f)dyoL- dvdyKrj yap tttt^tlkov?^ etvat Sid rov

^loVy u)a6^ eVe/ca tovtov Kal TrXrjOog exovoL nrepajv

Kal rds TTTepvyas pLeydXag. eon 8' ov piovov rd5 yapipcuvvxoL dXXd Kal dXXa yevq opviOtov TTTTjTiKd,

OGOLS r] GixiTi^pia iv rfj raxvrrJTL rrjs 'rmqaeajs r^

iKTOTTLGTLKOg 6 ^LOS

.

€VLa 8' OV TTTrjTLKd TCOV

opviOojv iarlv dXXd papea, oh 6 ^log eVtyeto? Kal

euTL Kap7TO(f)dya rj rrXcord Kal nepl vhojp ^lorevov-

OLV. eari 8e rd piev tcov yapufjojvvxojv awpiaTa

pLLKpd dvev^ TCOV 7TT€pvya)v Sid to els raura?^ dva-

XioKeudai TTjv Tpocfirjv {/cat)'* etV ra oVAa Kal ttjv

10 ô'TjOetav TOLS Se pLrj 7TTr]TiKoZs TovvavTiov ra oco-

pLaTa oyKcoSr], Sto âpea iarlv. exovgl 8' cvlol

rcjv âpecov ÔTÔetav dvrl rcov Trrepvycov rd KaXov-

pL€va^ TrXrJKrpa inl rot? OKiXecnv. a/xa 8' ol avrol

01) ylvovrat TrXrJKrpa exovres Kal yapuipcovvx^S

'

15 alnov 8' on ovSev rj (/)vaLS rroieZ rrepUpyov. eon8e roZs piiv yajxifjajvuxois Kal TTrrjriKoZs dxprjcrra rd

^ TTTTjTLKovs P, Rackham : ttttjtlko. Y6 : vttjtlkoIs Z, vulg.^ post dvev habent tcov Trrepcov Kal Y6.

^ €ts ravras QSUZ : ivravda Vulg:.

* <Kal> Ogle. 5 desinit Z.

° This passage must lie supplemented by reference to others

(such as Degen. an. 758 b iiO ff., and Hist. An. 561 b), in whichAristotle speaks of txco umbilici or umbilical cords— j..?. herecognized the allantois as well as the umbilical vesicle. He408^


duced alive or out of eggs, have an umbilicus while

they are developing, but when they are more fully

grown it ceases to be visible. The reason for this is

clear from what happens during their development :

the umbilical cord grows on to the intestine andunites with it, and does not form a part of the systemof blood-vessels, as it does in the Vivipara."

The good fliers have big strong wings, e.g. the

birds which have crooked talons and feed on rawmeat : these must be good fliers owing to their habits

of life, and so they have an abundance of feathers andbig wings. But there are other sorts of birds which are

good fliers beside these : birds whose safety lies in

their speed of flight ; and migrants. Some birds are

poor fliers : heavy birds, which spend their time onthe ground and feed on fruits ; or birds that live onand around the water. The crook-taloned birds, leav-

ing out of account their wings, have small bodies, be-

cause the nutriment is used up to produce the wingsand weapons of offence and defensive armour. Thepoor fliers, on the contrary, have bulky, and therefore

heavy, bodies. Some of these instead of wings haveas a means of defence " spurs " on their legs. Thesame bird never possesses both spurs and talons, andthe reason is that Nature never makes anything that

is superfluous or needless. Spurs are of no use to a

.states that in the bird's egg, as the embryo grows, the allantois

(the " second umbilicus ") collapses first and then the " first

umbilicus " {De gen. an. 754 a 9). Actually the reverse

order is the correct one, but the interval is comparativelyshort. The umbilical vesicle in mammals, which shrivels

very early in the process of development, escaped the notice

of Aristotle, who supposed their allantois to be comparable to

the umbilical vesicle of reptiles and birds. The umbilical

vesicle of mammals was discovered by Needham in 1667.

(See Ogle's note ad loc.)

409

ARISTOTLE694 a

nXrJKTpa- xp"^^^!^^ Y^P ecrrtv iv rat? TT-efat? fxdxcLf'?,

8to vnapx^L evLois rcov âpecov tovtols 8' ov

fjLOVOv dxpT^crroL dXXa Kal jSAaêpot ol yafiipol ovvx^S

to) ejjLTnjyvvadaL VTrevavrloi Trpo? rrjv Tropetav ovres.

20 hio Kal rd yapujjcovvxo. Trdvra <j>avX(x><s TTopeverai

Kal €771 TTerpais ov KaOit^dvovdiv VTrevavria yap

avrols TTpos diJL(J)6r€pa rj tcjv ovvxîv ^vois.

'Ef dvdyK7]<^ 8e tovto irepl rr^v yeveaiv av/jiê^rj-

K€V. TO yap yccuSe? iv rco crcojaart iôp/JLcopLe-

vov^ XprjcTLiJia /JLopta yiverat irpo? rrjv dXKijv dvo)

fiev pvev pvyxovs erroi7]0€ aKX-qpoTT^ra t) fjLeyedo?,

25 dv 8e Karoj pvfj, TrXrJKTpa iv rot? OKeXeoiv t) eVt

Tojv TToScov ovvxcov [xiyeOos Kal lax^v. a/xa 8'

dXXoOi Kal dXXoBi eAcacrra tovtojv ov Trotet' 8ta-

aTTOJixevr] yap dodevrjs ytVerat 7] (jivais rovrov tov

TrepLTTCofjiaTOS. tol? 8e GKeXojv KaraoK^vdlêi firj-

694 b KOS". ivLois 8' dvrl tovtojv GVfJLirX'qpoZ to /xeraû

Tcbv 7Toho)V' Kal 8ia tovto dvayKaioj? ol 7rXa>Tol

T(2)v opvlOcov OL fiev drrXajg elal GTeyavoTToSeg , ol 8e

SLfip'qfJLevrjv fiev exovGL ttjv Kad^ e/cacrra TCJbv SaKTV-

5 Xa)V (f)VGLV, TTpos eKdoTCp 8' aVTWV TTpOGTT€(f)VKeV

olov TrXdTiq Kad^ dXov ovvex'r]S.

'Ef dvdyKYjs fiev ovv TavTa cru/x/SatVet 8ta raura?

ras" aWias' a>? 8e 8ta to ^cXtiov ixovoL tolovtovs

Tovs TToSag tov ^lov x^P^^> ^^^ t,o)VT€s iv vypo) Kal

tCl)v TTTepvyoiv^ dxpeLa>v ovtojv tovs TTohas XPV^^'

fjLOVS exojcrt' Trpds ttjv vevaLV. yivovTai yap ojoTrep

^ iôpixcoixevov Peck : Kal eôpfMOV eV tovtov to. Y6 : eÔ) pvev

Langkavel ; fortasse iôpfi.dTai Kal eV tovtov to..

^ TTTcpvycov Y6, Ogle : TiTcpwv vulg.

410


bird that has talons and can fly well : spurs are useful

for fights on the ground, and that is why certain of

the heavy birds possess them, while talons would notbe merely useless to them but a real disadvantage ° :

they would stick in the ground and impede the birds

when walking. And in fact all crook-taloned birds

do walk badly, and they never perch upon rocks ;

in both instances the nature of their claws is the

impediment."This state of affairs is the necessary result of the

process of their development. There is earthy sub-

stance in the bird's body which courses along andissues out and turns into parts that are useful for

weapons of offence. When it courses upwards it

produces a good hard beak, or a large one ; if it

courses downwards it produces spurs on the legs or

makes the claws on the feet large and strong. Butit does not produce spurs and large claws simul-

taneously, for this residual substance would beweakened if it were scattered about. Again, some-times this substance makes the legs long ; and in

some birds, instead of that, it fills in the spaces be-tween the toes. Thus it is of necessity that water-birds either are web-footed, simply, or (if they haveseparate toes) they have a continuous fan or blade,

as it were, running the whole length of each toe andof a piece with it.

From the reasons just stated it is clear that feet

of this sort are the result of necessity, it is true ; butthey conduce to a good end and are meant to assist

the birds in their daily life, for these birds live in thewater, and while their wings are useless to them,these feet are useful and help them to swim. They

" See above, note on 648 a 16.

o 411

ARISTOTLE694 b

10 at KcoTTaL rots TrXeovai KaV to. Trrepvyia roZs IxOv-

GLV Sto KOI iav rajv yikv to. Tnepvyia u<f)aXfi, rcjv

8e TO fiera^v tojv ttoScov, ovKeri viovcnv.

"EiViOL Se /jLaKpoGKeXels tojv opvidcxjv elaiv. atriov8* on 6 ^los rojv tolovtojv e'Aeios" ra 8* opyavaTTpos TO epyov r) ^vois TToieZ, aXX ov ro epyov npos

lo ra opyava. 8ia fiev ovv ro fJLrj TrXcora etvat ov

crreyavoTToSa ian, Slol 8e ro ev VTvetKovrL etvat rov

^Lov fiaKpouKeXrj kol fiaKpoSaKrvXa, /cat ras" KafjL-

TTOis exovGi ttXclov? iv roL£ SaKTvXoL? ol TToXXol

avrcjv. €77et 8' ov TTrrjruKa fiev, ck ttJs" 8' avrrjs

vX7]s iarl rrdvra, rj et? ro ovponvyiov avroZs rpo<fyr]

20 els ra GKeXrj KaravaXLOKOfxevr] ravra rfvîqaev. 8t6

/cat ev rfj Trr-qoei dvr* ovpoTTvyiov xP^Jv'ôll aurots"

TTerovrai yap OLTTorcLvovres et? to OTnodev ovro) yapavroL? ;^p?]crt/xa ra OKeXr], dXXcj? 8' ep^rrohitÔLev dv.

Ta 8e ^paxvGKeXrj {ra) UKeXrf rrpos rfj yaorpl

€XOvra TTerovrai' rois fJLev yap avrcJov ovk epTroSt-

25 ôvGLV ol TToSes ovroj , rols he yapipd)vv^L rial npoepyov elol npog rrjv dpTrayqv.

Tojv 8' exovrcov opvlBojv rov au;êVa paKpov ol

pev TTaxvrepov exovres TTerovrai eKrerapevco rep

avx^vi', ol he XeTrrorepov^ ovyKeKappevcp- CTTiTrero-

pevois yap hid rr]v OKeTTiqv -^rrov evdpvTrrov eariv.

695 a laxlov 8' exovoi pev ol opvides Trdvresfj

ovk dv

hoâiev exîv, dXXd hvo prjpovg hid ro rov laxôv

prJKos' VTTorerarai yap pexpi pear]? rrj? yacrrpos.

atriov 8' on hirrovv eori rovro ro l,a)ov ovk opOov

^ KOL \l>. Ogle : oin. vulg.^ ra 8e ^paxvoK^Xi) PY6 ; correxi : Ivia hk jSpaxea <Td Lang-

kavel> oK€\-q vulg.^ AeTTTOTepov Peck : Actttov koL fiaKpov vulg. : [kol fiaKpov]

seel. Rackham.

412


are like oars to a sailor or fins to a fish. A fish thathas lost its fins can no longer swim ; nor can a bird

whose webs have been destroyed.

Some birds have long legs, owing to their living in

marshes ; for Nature makes the organs to suit thework they have to do, not the work to suit the organ.

And these birds have no webs in their feet becausethey are not water birds, but because they live onground that gives under them they have long legs

and long toes, and most of them have additional joints

in their toes. Furthermore, though these birds are

not great fliers, they are composed of the same ma-terials as the rest, and thus the nutriment which in the

others goes to produce the tail feathers, in these is

used up on the legs and makes them grow longer, andwhen in flight these birds stretch them out behindand use them in place of the missing tail feathers :

placed thus, the legs are useful to them ; otherwise

they would get in the way.

Short-legged birds keep their legs up against the

belly while they are flying, because if the feet are

there they are out of the way ; the crook-taloned

birds do it for an additional reason : the feet are

convenient for seizing prey.

When a bird has a long neck, this is either thick andis held stretched out during flight ; or it is slender

and is bent up during flight, because being protected

in this way it is less easily broken if the bird flies into

anything. All birds have an ischium, but in such

a way that they would not appear to have one ; it is

so long that it reaches to the middle of the belly andlooks more like a second thigh-bone. The reason for

this is that a bird, although a biped, does not stand

413

ARISTOTLE695 a

{6V)/ COS et ye ersê, KadaTrep iv rotg dvOpcoTTots ^5 TOL9 rerpaTTooLv, oltto rrjs eSpas f^po-x^ 'T'o lgxôv

Kal TO a/ceAos" €v9vs ixopLevov, rjSvvdreL dv oXcos^

iordvai. 6 fiev yap dvOpcoTTog opdov, tol9 Se t€-

TpdnooL TTpos TO ^dpos CKeXr] efXTrpoadia VTTeprjpî-

orai. OL S' opviOes ovk opOol fikv 8id ro vavcjheis

etvau rrjv cf)vaiv, GKeXrj 8' ifiTrpoodta ovk eôu-

10 GLV Std TO TTTepuya? ^X^^^^^^'^^ avrcjv. dvrl he

rovTov [xaKpov rj <f)vuLS ro laxôv rroLiqaaaa ctV

fieaov TTpoarjpeLoev evrevSev 8' V7Ti9r]K€ rd OKeXr],

OTTOJs looppoTTov ovTOS Tov ^dpovs evOcv Kal evOev

7rop€V€o9aL SvvrjraL Kal pLevetv* hi tjv fiev ovv

airLav hiTTovv eorlv ovk opddv 6v, etprjrat' rod S*

doapKa rd GKeXr) elvau rj avrrj alria Kal inl rdjv

rerparrohajv, VTrep Tys" Kal irpoodev eLprjTat.

15 TerpahaKrvXoi 8' etcrt rravreg ol opvideg 6pLoicx)s ol

oreyavoTTohes tol? GX^'^dTTOGLV [rrcpl ydp rod arpov-

6ov rod Al^vkov vorepov hiopiovpiev, on htxp^Xos,

dfjba rot? XoLTTolg ivavrLOjjJiaGLV ols e;êt rrpds rd rdJv

opvidojv yevos). rovrcov 8' ol fiev rpelg epLTTpo-

adev, 6 8' els oTTiodev npos dcr^dActav dvrl Trrepvrjs'

20 /cat rojv puaKpoaKeXajv AetVet rovro /card fxeyedos,

olov ovfJif3€^7]K€v ivl rTjS KpeKOS' rrXeiovs 8' ovk

kxovGi haKTvXovs .^ irrl fxev ovv rdJv dXXojv ovrojs

7) rdJv haKrvXcov exî deois, rj 8' 'Ivy^ hvo jxovov

ex^t, rovs ejXTTpooOev Kal hvo rovs oTnaOev^' a'iriov

^ <ov> Rackham, cf. 1. 14 infra.^ oXws PQU, Og-Ie : ofyQov vulj^.

^ correxi ; exovaiv Sia rovro rrrepvyas exovoiv vulg. {mipu-ya?, 8e altero ix°^^^^ omisso, Y, Ogle, qui post 8ia toutointerpungit).

414


upright ; and if it had an ischium which extendedonly a short way from the fundament and was fol-

lowed immediately by the leg (as in man and the

quadrupeds), it would be unable to stand up at all.

Man can stand upright, and quadrupeds have fore-

legs to support their forward weight ; birds, how-ever, neither stand upright (because they are dwarf-

like), nor have forelegs (because they have wings in-

stead). ** By way of compensation, Nature has madethe ischium long, reaching to the middle of the

body, and has fixed it fast, while beneath it she has

placed the legs, so that the weight may be equally

distributed on either side and the bird enabled to

walk and to stand still. This shows why birds are bi-

peds although they are unable to stand upright. Thereason why their legs are lacking in flesh is the sameas for all quadrupeds and has been stated already.^

All birds, web-footed or not, have four toes on each

foot. (The Libyan ostrich will be dealt with later,

^

and its cloven hoof and other inconsistencies with the

tribe of birds will be discussed.) Of these four toes,

three are in front, and the fourth is at the back in-

stead of a heel, for stability. In the long-legged

birds this toe is deficient in length, as for instance in

the Crex. Still, the number of toes does not exceed

four. This arrangement of the toes holds good gener-

ally, but the A\Tyneck is an exception, for it has only

two toes in front and two at the back. This is because

" See above, 693 b 3 ff

.

* See 689 b 10 ff.

<= At the end of the book.

* ixevetv Y6 : fievrj vulg.' Sia TTjv orevoTT^ra rod (jkcXovs add. PY6.

' efjLTTpoadev . . . oniadev Karsch : OTnadev . . . efXTrpoodev vulg.

415

ARISTOTLE

25 O OTt TjTTOV €GTLV aVTrjS TO OOJfXa 7Tp07T€Te£ €771 TO

rrpoodev rj to tcov d'AAcov.

"Opx^'-S" ^' exovGL jjLev Trdvres ol opvides, ivros

8* eôvGiv 7]8' alria iv roXg Trepl ras yeviueis

Xe-)(B'qG€Tai rcov l,cocjv.

695 b Td fiev ovv Tcbv opviOojv fjLopia rov rpo-nov exei

TOVTOV.

XIII. Td 8e Tcov IxOvojv yevos eVt piaXXov k€koX6-

jScoTat TCOV e/cTo? popicuv. ovtc yap GKeXrj ovTe

X^lpas OVT6 TTTepvyas exovGLV {e'lprjTaL 8e Trepl tov-

bTOJV 7] atVta TTpoTepov), dAA' d'Aov airo ttj? K€(f)aXrj?

TO KVTog Gvvex^s Igtl P-^xp^ Trjs ovpas- TavTrjv 8'

ovx opolav exovGL TrdvTes, dXXd tol pcev TTapa-nXrj-

CTtW/ Tcjv 8e TrXaTeajv eVta aKavdcJoSrj /cat p,aKpdv

Tj eKeWev yap av^rjGLS yiveTai els to ttAcitos", olov

€GTL vdpKais Kal rpvyoGL /cat et Tt toiovtov d'AAo

10 creAa^^^ds" eGTiv. tcov pLev ovv tolovtojv aKavOojhes

Kal p.aKp6v TO ovpalov eGTLv, eviojv he GapKchhes pev

^paxv he hid Trjv avTrjv acTLav 8t' jjvTrep Tat?

vdpKais- hiaêpei yap ovhev, iq ^P^'Xp H-^^ GapKOJ-

heGTepov he, rj pLaKpov p,ev aGapKOTepov 8' etvat.

'E77t he T(x)v âTpdxcov to evavTLOv Gvpiê^-qKev

16 8td yap TO pLTj GapKOjhes etvat to TiAaTOS" avTcov

TO epLTTpoGOiov, oGov d(j)fipy]Tai GapKOjhes, irpos to

OTTLGdev avTOJV^ edrjKev rj <f)VGLS Kal ttjv ovpav.

OvK exovGL 8' aTTTjpTripLeva KCJoXa ol Ixdveg hid to

vevGTLKYjv etvat ttjv <ûCTtv avTwv KaTa tov ttjs

ovGtas Adyov, evret ol;t£ irepiepyov ovhev ovTe pidTr]v

^ fjL€v aAAa TT. P : fiev afir) it. Piatt : fiev TTapanX-ôia <.toIs

irrepvylois) Ogle, similia voluit Thurot.* avTwv U : avTo vulg.

« See Degen. an. 714 b 4 fF., 719 b 11.

416

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xii.-xiii.

the weight of its body tends forward less than that ofother birds.

All birds have testicles, but they are inside thebody. The reason for this will be stated in thetreatise on the different methods of generationamong animals.^

This concludes our description of the parts of Birds, (iii.) Fishes

;

XIII. In the tribe of Fishes the external parts

are still further stunted. Fishes have neither legs,

hands, nor wings (the reason has been stated earlier),

but the whole trunk has an uninterrupted line fromhead to tail. Not all fishes' tails are alike ; but the Tail,

general run of them have similar tails, though someof the flat-fish have a long, spiny one, because thematerial for the tail's growth goes into the widthof the fiat body : this happens in the torpedo-fishes,

in the Trygons, and any other Selachians of the samesort. These have long, spiny tails. Others haveshort, fleshy ones, and for the selfsame reason : it

comes to the same thing whether the tail is short

and has a good deal of flesh or long with little flesh.

In the fishing-frog ^ the opposite has taken place.

Here, the wide, flat part of the body in front is notfleshy ; Nature has taken the fleshy material awayfrom the front and added an equivalent amount at

the back—in the tail.

Fishes have no separate limbs attached to the body.(a) This is because Nature never makes anything that

is superfluous or needless, and by their essence andconstitution^ fishes are naturally swimmers and so

^ Lophius piscatorius, known as the " goosefish " in

U.S.A., erroneously inchided by Aristotle {De gen. an.754 a 25) with the Selachia, though he observed that it

diflFered in many important points." Logos : see Introduction, pp. 2Q f.

417

ARISTOTLE695 b ^

20 Tj (jyvois TTOiet. inel 8* evai/xa eart Kraro, rrjv

ovoiav, hia iiev to vevoTiKo. elvai m^pvyia ex^L, Sta

Se TO firj neêveiv ovk e;êt TroSa?* t^ ycip rcov ttoScov

TTpOodeULg 77/30? TT^V €7TL TO) TTehicp KLVqOLV ;)^pTâtjLto?

ianv. dfia Se Trrepvyla rerrapa kol irohas ovxOLOV r e;)(etv, ovh^ aAAo /ccoAov roiovrov ou3ev

25 evaifia yap. ol 8e KopSuAot Ppdyxio, exovreg TToSa?

exovGiv TTrepvyla yap ovk e;)(;oi;CTtv, aAAo, tt^v oupav

[lavcnSr] Kal irXaTelav.

''E;)(0UCTt Se Tcov IxOvojv ogol jjltj TrXarelg, KaOdnep^dro? Kal rpvycov, rerrapa Trrepvyca, Svo ptev ev

696 a Tot? TTpaveai, Bvo S* iv TOts" VTTTLOLS' ttXelcx) Se

rovTCov ouSetS", dvaipLoi yap dv rjoav. rovra)v 8e tcx

jLtev eV to) Trpavel gx^ôv Trdvres exovon, rd 8* eV

Tot? VTTTLOLS €i'LOi Tcov jjLaKpwv Kal vdxog eXOVTOJV

I OVK exovGLV, OLOV iyx^Xvg Kal yoyypos Kal Keorpeojv

Tt yevos TO ev rfj Xipvrj rfj iv Stoats', ocra 8' iarl

pLaKpo(f)V€aT€pa Kal 6<f)Ld>hri pâXXov, olov op.vpaiva,

ovhkv exovGL 7TT€pvyLov aTrAcus', aAAo, rals /ca/XTrat?

KLVOVvrai, p^pdS/xevat ro) vypqj ajGirep ol 6(jieis rfj

yfj' Tov avTov^ yap ol 6<^€L£ rpoirov^ viovGiv ovirep

10 cttI TTJs yrjs epTTovGiv. alria 8e rod [xr] ^x^lv tovs

6(f)icoSeLs TCOV lxOvcx)v TTTepvyia, TJnep Kal tojv

6(f)€a>v rod diroSa? elvai. to 8' acTiov ev TOtg irepl

rropeias Kal Kivrjoeois tojv ^coojv e'iprjTai. t) ydpKaKcog dv eKivovvTO, TeTTapot Gr]p,eLOL? KLvovpceva

^ TOV avTov Peck : tovtov vulg.2 Ol o<f)€is TOV rpoTTOv Y6: TOV delevi: tov Tpoirov ol o</)eis

vulg»

<» The Cordylus was probably the larval form of sometriton or ne%vt, such as Triton alpestris or Salamandra atra,

which retains its gills till it is well grown (D'Arcy Thompson)." i.e. pectoral. • i.e. ventral,

418

PARTS OF ANIMALS, IV. xiii.

need no such limbs. But also (6) they are essentially-

blooded creatures, which means that if they have four

fins they cannot have any legs or any other limbs of

the sort ; so they have the fins because they are

swimmers and do not have the feet because they are

not walkers (when an animal has feet it has thembecause they are useful for moving about on land).

The Cordylus,^ however, has feet in addition to its

gills, since it has no fins, but only a scraggy flattened-

out tail.

Excluding flat-fish (like the Batos and Trygon), fish Fins,

have four fins : two on their under and twô on their

upper surface, never more, for then they would bebloodless animals. Almost all fishes have the twoupper ^ fins, but some of the large, thick-bodied fishes

lack the under ^ two—as for instance the eel and the

conger, and a sort of Cestreus that is found in the lake

at Siphae.'^ Fishes that have even longer bodies thanthese, and are really more like serpents (as the

Smyraena^), have no fins at all, and move along bybending themselves about : that is, they use the

water just as serpents use the ground. And in fact

serpents swim in exactly the same way as they creep

on the ground. The reason why these serpent-like

fishes have no fins and the reason why serpents

have no feet are the same, and this has been stated

in the treatises on the Locomotion and Movement ofAnimals.f {a) If they had four motion-points, their

movement would be poor, because the fins would

<* In Boeotia, on the south coast near Thespiae ; nowTipha. Aristotle refers to this Cestreus of Siphae again,De incessu an. 708 a 5. Cf. also Hist. An. 504 b 33.

* Probably Muraena Helena.' See Be incessu an. 709 b 7 ; perhaps the other passage

which Aristotle has in mind is 690 b 16, in this book.

0-1 419

ARISTOTLE696 a ^^

^ ^ T(etVe yap crvveyyvs etxov ra Tnepvyia, /xoyt? o-v

15 eKivovvTO, eire TToppco, 8ta ro rroXv pLera^v)' el

8e TxAeto) TO. KLVTjTLKCi CTT^jLteta erjôi^, ciVat/xa av t^v.

7^ S* aiJTT) alria /cat eVt rcov Suo piovov iôv-

rojv TTTepvyia l)(^9v(jov ocjyiojh'q yap eon Kal eu-

pLrjKearepa, Kal )(prjTai rfj Kapupei dvrl rcov hvo

TTTepvyicov. Sto Kal ev rep ir^po) epTTOvai Kal t^coat

20 TToXvV XPOVOV, Kal TO, pL€V OVK €1)6V , TO. S' OLKela

TTJs Tre^r]? ovra (j)VO€a)s tjttov aorrapitêi.

AvTOJV Se Tcov TTrepvyicov ra ev rols Trpaveaiv exî

ra Svo eôvra TrrepvyLa ptovov, ocra pirj KOjXverai

Sta TO TiXdros' ra S' eôvra irpos rfj Ke(f)aXfj ex^t

Sta ro pLT) ex^^y pLjJKOs ev rep roircp, a> dvrl rovra>v

25 KLVTjGeraL' errl yap rrjv ovpdv TrpopLrjKes ro rcov

roiovrcjv eorlv IxOva^v ocbpLa. ol he ^droi Kal ra

roiavra dvrl rojv Trrepvyiojv rep eoxdrcp irXdrei

veovoLv. rd 8* rjrrov exovra TrXdros nrepvyta

exovGLV, otov 7)^ vdpKTj Kal 6 ^drpaxos, ra (^pi^vY ev

rep TTpavel Kdrco hid rd nXdros rcov dvoj, rd S* ev

rots virrioig Trpds rfj KeâXfj [ov ydp KOjXveL KiveZ-

80 crât rd TrXdros) ' aAA' dvrl rod dvco eXdrro) ravra

rdv kv rep npaveX ^x^'" V ^^ vdpKrj irpos rfj ovpa

ex^t. rd hvo Trrepvyua- dvrl he rcov hvo rep nXdrei

XP'TJrat ex)? hval nrepvyioLS eKarepep rep rjpLLKVKXiep.

Hepi he rcov ev rfj KeefyaXfj pLopleov Kal alcjdr]r7]-

piejjv etprfrai Trporepov.

^ TO. S' -^TTov . . . olov rj V : tj be tantum vulg.2 <[x(v> Langkavel.

420


either be very close together, or else a long way apart,

and in either case would not move easily. (6) On the

other hand, if they had more than four motion-points

they would be bloodless creatures. The same reason

holds good for those fishes that have only two fins.

These also are serpent-like and fairly long, and theyuse their power of bending instead of the two missing

fins. And this enables them besides to crawl aboutand to live a good length of time on dry land ; andit is some while before they begin to gasp ; indeed,

those which are akin to the land-animals are affected

even less than the others.

Except for those whose width and flatness prevents

it, all fishes that have only two fins have the upper *

ones ; and these fins are by the head, because there

is no length of body just there which they could use

instead of fins for propulsion—length such as fish

of this sort have towards their tail-end. The Batoi

and such fishes swim by means of the edge of their

flat surface Mhich they use instead of fins. Fish

which are not so flat, such as the torpedo-fish and the

fishing-frog, possess fins, but they have their upperfins toward their tail-end owing to the flatness of

the forepart, and their under fins near the head (since

the flatness of the fish does not prevent its motion) ;

but the under ones are smaller than the upper ones,

to make up for being placed forward. The torpedo-

fish has two of his fins by his tail ; and instead of

these two he uses the wide piece on each of his semi-

circles ^ as though it were a fin.

We have already spoken of the parts in the headand of the sense-organs.

" i.e. pectoral.* Cf. De incessu an. 709 b 17,

421

ARISTOTLE696 a ^

"IStor 8* exî^ TO Tcov IxOvojv ylvog TTpos raAAa ra

696 b eVat/xa t,o}a ttjv rcov ^payxiojv cf)V(JLV 8t* t^v 8'

alriav, eipr^rai Iv roXs irepl dvaTTVoi^s . /cat lêt 8e

TO. eôvTa ^pdyxi'<^ to, juey e77t/<:aAi;/.tjLtaTa rots'

^payxiOL?, rd 8e aeXax^] rrdvra} dKdXvnra. airiov

5 8' ort ot jLtev d/cavôjSets' etcrt, to 8' eTrt/caAujLt/xa

d/cavâ>8es", rd 8e aeAd;)^!^ Trdvra x^v^pdKavBa. ert

8'9^ KLV7]GLg Tojv fjL€V vcoOpd" 8td TO jLtT^ aKavBajhr]

elvai pLrjSe vevpajSr], rcov 8' aKavOcoScov rax^tCL' tov8* eTTt/caAJ/u/xaros" Ta;)(etav 8et yiveoOai rrjv Kivqaiv

wGTTep ydp TTpos eKTrvo-qv rj rcov Ppayx^(J^v iorl

10 (j)VOis. 8td TOVTO ToZs o-eAa;^tu8eo-t /cat avrcDv rcDy

TTOpojv 7) Gvvaycoyr] yiverai rwv ^payxâjv, /cat ov

Set eVt/caAujLtjLtaros', ottojs" yivrjTai rax^la.

Ot jLtev ouv auTo);^ exovoi ttoAAo, ^pdyx^cL ol 8'

oAtya, /cat ot /xev 8i77Aa ot 8' ctTrAa* to 8' eoxoLTOv

drrXovv ol TrAetorot. (t'57v 8' d/cptj8etav €/c tcDv

15 dvaropLUJV irepl rovrcov /cat eV Tat? loropiais Tats"

Trept TO, â>a Set Oecopelv.) alriov 8e tou ttXtjOovs

/cat TTys" oAtyoTT^TO? TO Tou ev T7y /capSta depfjLov

ttXtjOos /cat oAiyoTT^s" Odrroj ydp /cat loxvpoTepav

Trjv KLVTjoiv 8et etvat TOts" TrXeioj 'ixovoi depiJLorrjra.

TCt 8e TrAeio) /cat StTrAa ^pdy;^ta roLavrrjv ex^L Tr)v

20 (f)vaLV pidXXov rcx)v aTrXcov /cat cAaTTOvojv. 8t6 /cat

eVta auTtoi/ eô) ^T^y Suyarat ttoAliv ;!^povov, rcDv

ixdvTOJV iXdrroj /cat '^ttov iyKparrj rd ^pdyxt'O-,

olov iyx^Xvs /cat ooa ScfiLcoSrj- ov ydp ttoXXtj?

Seovrai Karaipvêcns.

"EiX^t, 8e /cat Trept to oropia hiaôpds. rd [xev

25 yd/) /car' dvTLKpv e;)êt to aTo/xa /cat ets" to irpoadev,

^ (xoiSpoLKaiOa yap) post Travra vulg., om. P.^

17 KivTjQis . . . vcodpa Y : ai KivTâcts . . . vwOpal Vulg.

422


The peculiarity whicli marks oft' fishes from the GiUiu

other blooded animals is the possession of gills. It

has been explained in the treatise on Respiration ° whythey have them. All fishes have coverings over their

gills, except the Selachia, none of which have them.

This is because their bones are cartilaginous, whereas

other fishes' bones are of fish-spine, and this is the

substance out of which the coverings are made. Andagain, the Selachia move sluggishly owing to their

lack of fish-spine—and of sinews—while the spinous

fishes move quickly, and the movement of the cover-

ing must be a quick one, for gills are a medium for

expiration of a sort. On this account in the selachian

group of fishes the passages of the gills can close upby themselves, and no covering is needed to make sure

they close quickly.

Now some fish have many gills, some have few ;

some have double ones, some single. The last one

is nearly always a single one. (For precise details

consult the Anatomical treatises and the Researches

upon Animals.^) The number of gills depends uponthe amount of heat in the heart. The more heat an

animal has, the quicker and stronger must be the

movement of its gills ; and if the gills are numerousand double they are better adapted for this than if

they are few^ and single. And on this account, somefishes (e.g. the eels and the serpentine fishes) which

need but little cooling, as is shown by their having

only a few weakish gills, can live a long time out of

water.

Fish differ also with regard to the mouth. Some Mouth,

have their mouth right at the tip, straight in front

;

• At 476 a 1 ff., 480 b 13 flf.

^ At 504 b 28 ff.

423

ARISTOTLE696 b ^

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

ra S* ev roZs vtttlols, olov ot re SeXcfylves^ koI tol

aeXaxcoBr]' Sto /cat virria gtpec/tofxeva Aa/xjSavet rr^v

rpocjy-qv. (âtVerat 8' rj (jyvais ov (jlovov oojTqpias

€V€K€V TTOLTJuaL TOVTO TCOV (xAAcuy ÔJCOV {iv yOLp TTJ

aTp€i/j€L Gwêrai rdAAa ^pahwovrtov Trdvra yap

80 ra roiavra â)ocf)dya eoriv), dWd /cat Trpos ro fir]

OLKoXovOetv rfj Xaifiapyla rfj nepl Tr]V Tpo(f)TJv' paov

yap Xajx^dvovra hi€(j>d€ip€T* av Sta rr^v rrX'^paxjiv

rax€a>s. Trpos Se tovtols TreptêpTj /cat XeTTrrjv

exovra ttjv rov pvyxovs (j>VGiv ovx olov t €V-

hiaiperov €X€LV.

"Ert Se /cat rcov dva> to arojita Ixovtojv ra fiev

697 a dveppcoyos e;)(et to GTOfia ra Se fivovpov, OGa fiev

GapKO(f)dya, dv€pp(x)y6s, oiGirep rd KapxapdSovra

,

Sid TO iv Toj GTopiari elvat roXg tolovtols ttjv Igxvv,

OGa 8e fjLT] GapKO(f)dya, pLvovpov.

To Se SepfjLa ol fxkv Xemhajrov exovGiv avrojv {r}

6 Sc AeTTts" Std XafjL7Tp6r7)Ta /cat XeTrronqra rov gcL-

[laros d^tWarat) , ot 8e rpaxv, olov pivt] /cat jSaro?

/cat Tct roiavra' iXdxtorra Se rd Aeta. rd 8e oreAd;;^T7

dAe7rtSa>Ta /xev rpaxâ 8' eart 8td ro x^^^pdKavda

clvac ro ydp yecohes eKeWev rj (f)VGis els ro Sepfia

KaraviqXojKev

.

10 "Opx^^s 8* ouSet? e;)(et Ix^^^ ovr c/crd? ovr* ivros

^ SeA<^tve? non probant Frantzius, Ogle; similia Hist. An.591 b 26 secludunt Aubert et Wimmer.

" This statement about dolphins, though repeated at Hist,

an. 591 b 26, is incorrect, and as Aristotle was familiar with

424


others have it underneath {e.g. the dolphin '^ and the

selachians) and that is why they turn on to their backsto get their food. It looks as if Nature made themdo this partly to preserve other animals from them,for they all prey on living things, and while they are

losing time turning on to their backs the other things

get away safely ; but she did it also to prevent themfrom giving way too much to their gluttonous craving

for food, since if they could get it more easily theywould presently be destroyed through repletion.

Another reason is that their snout is round and small

and therefore cannot have much of an opening in it.

There are differences too among those that havetheir mouth above. With some it is a great wideopening (these are the flesh-eaters, as e.g. those mthsharp interfitting teeth, whose strength is in their

mouth) ; with others (the non-flesh-eaters) it is ona tapering snout.

As for the skin : some have a scaly skin (these Skin,

scales are shiny and thin and therefore easily comeloose from the body) ; others have a rough skin, e.g.

the Rhine and the Batos and such. Those withsmooth skins are the fewest. Selachia have skins

which are scaleless but rough, owing to their bonesbeing cartilaginous ; instead of using the earthy

matter on the bones Nature has used it for the skin.

No fish has testicles ^ either without or within. Nor Testicles.

the creature, some editors consider this reference to be aninterpolation.

^ By this Aristotle does not mean that fish have no organfor the secretion of sperm, but that they have no organ similar

in shape and consistency to those of mammaha, etc. He calls

the corresponding organs in fish not testes, but tubes, or roe.

Aristotle's statement does not, of course, include the Selachia,which have compact, oval testes.

425

ARISTOTLE697 a

(ouS* aXXo Tt Tcov OLTToScxJV ovSev, 8to ot)S' ol 6(j)€is),

TTopov he rod TrepiTTcofiaTog Kal rcov Trepl rrjv

yiveoiv rov avTOV, KaOaTvep /cat raAAa cootoko}

TTOLvra Kai^ rerpoLTroSa, 8ta ro (jltj €)(€lv kvotlv

firjhe ylveaOat Treptrrco^' aurot? vypov.

16 To pev ovv rcov 1-)(6vcl>v ylvos Trpos raAAa ôia

raura? e;)êt ras" Staôpa?, ot Se heXcjuves Kal at

(fioXaivai Kal iravra ra roiavra rcov ktjtcjv ^pdy)(La

fjL€V ovK exovaiv, avXov he hia to TTvevpiova e-xêiv

he-)(opieva yap Kara to oro/xa rrjv ddXarrav d(f)idaL

Kara rov avXoi^. dvdyKrj puev yap heâadai to

20 vypov hid TO Xap^dveiv rrjV rpocfirjv ev ro) vypcp'

he^dpieva 8' d<^teVat dvayKalov. ra piev ovv ^pdy-

Xi'd eoTL xPV^f-f^^ 'ÔLS pLTj dvaTTveovoiv hi tjv S*

airlav, eiprjrai ev Tots" Trepl dvaTTVorjs' dhvvarov yapdpia TO avro dvarrvelv Kal ^pdyxi'OL €;êtv aAAa nposrrjv d(f)eaiv rod vharos exovai rov avXov. Keirai 3'

25 avroZs ovrog rrpo rov eyKe(/)dXov' hieXdpâve yapdv aTTO rrjs pdx^cos avrov. atriov he rod nvevpLova

ravr eêtv Acat dvairvelv, on ra pieydXa rcjjv t^wcxjv

rrXeiovos heZrai Oeppôrrjros Iva Kivrjrai- hio 6

TTvevpiojv eyKeirai avrols Oeppôrr^ros a)V rrXrip'qg

aifiariKrjg . eon he ravra rponov rivd (^Kai)^ Tre^d

80 Kal evvhpa- rov pev yap depa hex^rai cos" Treâ,

drroha 8' ecTt Kal Xapi^dvei eK rov vypov rr)v

%^ h Tpo(f)rjv WGTTep ra evvhpa. Kal at ^to/cat he Kal

at vvKrepihes hid ro e-napKJiorepit.eiv at piev rois

ivvhpois Kal Treôt?, at he rois Trrrjvois Kal Trefots",

Std Tovro dpi(j)orepcov re pierexovai Kal ovherepojv,

1 CoôTO/ca PSUY.* KOI (StTToSa Kai) Ogle.

^ (/cai) Rackham.

426


have any other footless animals, and this includes the

serpents. In fish the passage for the residue and for

the generative secretion is one and the same ; andthis is so in all other oviparous animals, four-footed

ones included. This is because they have no bladder

and produce no liquid residue.

Thus we have seen what are the differences to be inter-

noticed in fish as a group as compared wdth other "Ltures

:

animals. Dolphins and whales and all such Cetacea, ^'•) Cetacea.

however, have no gills, but they have a blowhole

because they have a lung. They cannot help letting

the sea-water enter the mouth because they feed in

the water, and once it has got in they must get it out

again, and they do so through the blowhole. Gills,

of course, are of service herein to those creatures that

do not breathe. The reason for this has been givenin my book on Respiration'^ '. no creature can breatheand at the same time have gills ; instead, these

Cetacea have a blowhole for getting rid of the water.It is placed in front of the brain, otherwise it wouldseparate the brain from the spine. The reason whythese creatures have a lung and breathe is that large

animals need more heat than others to enable them tomove ; consequently they have a lung inside them ^

full of heat derived from the blood. They are, in away, land-animals as well as water-animals : theyinhale the air, hke land-animals, but they have nofeet and they get their food from the water as water-animals do. Similarly, seals and bats are in an inter- (ii.) Seaia

mediate position. Seals are between land-animals ^""^ ^****

and water-animals, bats between land-animals andfliers : thus they belong to both classes or to neither.

" References given above, see on 696 b 2,

427

ARISTOTLE697 b ^

5 at re yap (fiajKai cos /xev evvSpoc 7708a? exovcnv, (Ls

he Trejat nrepvyia^ [rovs yap oiriaQev TTohas l^Bv-

coSet? exovGL 7ra/x7ray, ert 8e rou? oSovras" Trdvras

Kapxapohovras Kal oêls)' /cat at vvKrepihes OJS fJiev

TTTTjva exovcTL TToSag, wg Se rerpoLTToSa ovk exovai,

Kal ovT€ KepKov exovcriv ovr^ ovpoTTvyiov, 8ta jJLev

10 TO TTTiqva elvai KepKOV, Sta he ro rret,a ovponvyLOV.

uvfxê^rjKe 8' avrals rovr e^ dvdyKrjs' etVt yap

hepjJLOTTTepoL, ovhev 8' e;\;et ovporrvyiov fxr] o-;)(tJo-

TTTepov eK TOLOvrov yap irrepov yiverai to ovpo-

TTvyiov. Tj he KepKos Kal efjiTTohiog dv rjv virdpxovaa

iv rols TTTepoZg.

Tov auTov he rpoTTOV Kal 6 arpovdos 6 Al^vkos'

15 rd ixev yap opviOos ^x^c, rd he ^cpov Terpdnohog.

<Ls fiev ydp ovk u)v rerpdirovs Trrepd €X€i, d)s 8'

OVK a)V dpvLS ovre Trirarai fJuerecopLôixevos , Kal rd

Trrepd ov XPV^Î^^ irpos TrrrjaLv dXXd rpix^hr]' ere

8e CO? fJiev rerpdnovs cjv pXecfiaplhag ex^L rds

dvojOev Kal xjjiXos eon rd irepl rrjv Ke(f)aXr)v Kal rd

20 dvo) rod avx^voSy wore rpixôheorepas ^xî'V rdg

jSAeâptSas, cos" 8' opvLs cov rd Kdrcodev eirrepoiraL'

Kal huTTOVS fiev eoriv d>s dpvis, hixciXos 8* (hs

rerpdirovs ' ov ydp haKrvXovs e;êt aAAa XV^^^'Tovrov 8' atrtov ort to {jueyedos ovk opvidos e;;êt

dAAa rerpdiTohos' eAa;^toTov ydp dvayKalov elvau ro

25 jJLeyeOos cos" KadoXov etVetv ro rojv opvidajv ov ydp

pdhiov TToXvv oyKOV Kivelodai oaj/xaro? jxereajpov,

^ TTTcpvyia Ogle : TTTcpuyas vulg.

428


Seals, if regarded as water-animals, are anomalous in

having feet ; if regarded as land-animals, in havingfins (their hind feet are altogether Hke those of

fishes

—

i.e. fins ; and all their teeth too are sharp andinterlocking). Bats, too, if regarded as birds, are

anomalous in having feet*^ ; ifregarded as quadrupeds,in not having feet ^ ; furthermore, they have neither a

quadruped's tail (because they are fliers) nor a bird's

tail (because they are land-animals). This their lack

of a tail like a bird's is a necessary consequence,since they have membranous wings, and no creature

has a tail of this sort unless it has barbed feathers :

such tails are always made out of barbed feathers

And a tail of the other sort grovving among feathers

would be a definite impediment.After the same style is the Libyan ostrich: in (iiiO.The

some points it resembles a bird, in others a quadruped. ^ "° *

As not being a quadruped, it has feathers ; as not

being a bird, it cannot rise up and fly, and it has

feathers that are like hairs and useless for flight.

Again, as being a quadruped, it has upper eye-

lashes, and it is bald in the head and the upper part

of the neck, as a result of which its eyelashes are

hairier than they would otherwise be ; as being a

bird, it is feathered on its lower parts. Also, as

a bird, it has two feet ; but, as a quadruped, it has

cloven hoofs (it has hoofs and not toes). The reason

is that it has the size not of a bird but of a

quadruped. Speaking generally, a bird has to bevery small in size, because it is difficult for a body of

large bulk to move off the ground.

« That is, of the sort that birds ought not to have, viz. ontheir winofs.

* That is, of the sort that quadrupeds ought to have.

429

ARISTOTLE

Yiepl jikv ovv Tcbv fiopicDVy Sid riv atrtav eKaarov

ioTLV iv roZs t,woi<s, elpiqTai Trepl ttolvtojv raJv ôjcov

Kad^ eKaarov tovtcjv 8e hiojpi(jp,iv(jJv i(f)e^rjs eori,

30 ra 7T€pl ras yevioeis avrcjv SieXOelv}

^ TovTcov . . . SicAêtv om. Yft, et statim incipiunt librumds incessu.

430


We have now spoken severally of all the animals : Conclusion.

we have described their parts, and stated the reason

why each is present in them. Now that this is

concluded, the next thing is to describe the various

ways in which animals are generated.

431

ARISTOTLE

Additional Note on 684 b 21-29

Commentators agree that no satisfactory sense can beobtained from the first three Hnes of this passage as it standsin Bekker's edition. None has so far produced a remedy ;

but an examination of the Arabic translation (or of MichaelScot's Latin translation made from the Arabic) shows plainlywhat has happened. In neither of these two translations is

there any reference whatever to a diagram until 685 a 2.

Thus the ms. from which our present Greek text is derivedhad been corrupted through the efforts of someone who tried

to improve the text of 684 b 2-2-21 by inserting references to

a diagram here also ; and the result is that these references

have caused the complete loss of one important phrase (b 22)and serious corruption of another (b 24-25). Some disloca-

tion has also been caused in the lines following, up to line 29.

The two diagrams given in the ms. Z are obviously con-structed to suit the interpolated text. One of the mss. (Mer-ton 278) of Michael Scot's version has an entirely different

diagram ; the three mss. of Scot at Cambridge have nodiagram at all, nor has the Arabic ms. B.M. Add. 7511.

I give below the passage as it appears in Michael Scot'sversion.

Natura ergo istorum dvorum modorum est sicut diximus ;

et propter hoc ambulant nniformiter'^ sicut accidit animalibusquadrupedihus et hominibus etiam. homo vero habet os incapite, scilicet in parte superiori corporis ; deinde habetstomachtcm, deinde ventrem, et post ventrem intestinum per-veniens ad locum exitus superjluitatis. iste ergo res in

animalibus habentibus sanguinem sunt secundum hanc dis-

positionem^ et post caput est clibanus, scilicet pectus^ et quodvicinatur ei. alia vero membra sunt propter ista, etc.

I am much indebted to Dr. R. Levy for his kindness in

reading this passage for me in the Arabic in Brit. Mus. ms.Add. 7511.

* inuniformiter Caius 109 & Camb. U.L. II. 3. 16; fortasse igiturBcribendum uniformiter et non inuniformiter.

432

PARTS OF ANIMALS

Additional Note on 693 b 3

Explanation of Aristotle's terminology for describing thebending of limbs.

When Aristotle is speaking about the bending of limbs,

hackicards and foricards are relative to the direction in

which the whole animal moves ;

inwards and outwards are relative to the bulk of the bodyitself.

Thus, backwards means that the angle of the bent joint

points backwards ; inwards means that the extremity of the

limb is brought inv.-ards towards the body, that is, the angleof the bentjomi points away from the main bulk of the body.(" Inward " and "outward " bending thus have no connotationof " bandy-legs " and " knock-knees.")

All four legs bend imcards ;

Example (1) y^ 'K^\ The forelegs hen^ forwards :

The hindlegs bend backwards.

r, 1 /r^\ r v/ The leg bends inwards, andExample (2) f 3/

backwards.

(See Be incess. an. 711 a 8 ff., Hist. An. 498 a 3 ff.)

433

ARISTOTLE

Additional Note on the ms. Z

The following portions of the text of De partibus are con-tained in the Oxford ms. Z (see p. 50) :

fol. 60^, 60^. I. 639 b 29 to 640 b 24. /xe'xpi to fiaXXov av

inclusive.

fol. 61', 6P. I. 644 a 25 to 645 a 17. KadoXov to rot? (^y in-

clusive.

Between these two folios it has apparently lost four folios,

as well as one at the beginning of Book I and another at the

end.

fol. lf-19'. Book II.

fol. 19^-36'. Book III, but the words ou ttoXv to cvpvxdipovs

inclusive (675 a 30-b 27) are omitted,with no indication by the original scribe

that anything has been omitted : this

passage has been supplied by a later handin the margins of fol. 35'^ and 36' andon 36^.

Book IV is written by yet another (later) hand, and this

Book occupies fol. 37'"-59v, at the end of which folio it breaksoff at the words ra KoXovixiva (694 a 13). The rest of BookIV is lost.

In the apparatus I have used the following abbreviationsin quoting this ms. :

Z Books I, II and most of III (first hand, c. a.d. 1000).

Z^ indicates the reading of the first hand where this hasbeen altered by another.

Z^ indicates later correctors of Z^.

Z indicates the readings of the ms. in Book IV.

I have collated from photostats the whole of the portionwritten by the first hand, and the readings of Z quoted havebeen confirmed by reference to the photostats.

I have used the symbol E when quoting the readings ofE from 680 b 36 onwards, as this part of the ms. is writtenin a later hand.

434

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS

INTRODUCTION

That the De incessu animalium is a genuine work of

Aristotle himself has never been disputed. The Demotu animalium has been regarded by many critics as

a spurious work, though recent opinion has favoured

its genuineness. Brandis, Rose and Zeller all con-

demn it, but its Aristotelian authorship has been up-

held by Werner Jaeger {Hermes, xlviii. pp. 31 ff.), whomakes out a very strong case in its favour, and by the

Oxford translator, Mr. A. S. L. Farquharson. Thosewho deny its authenticity rely mainly on the supposi-

tion that there is a reference in 703 a 10-1 1 to the Despiritu. This treatise is generally admitted to be un-

Aristotelian, but the reference, as Mr. Farquharsonhas pointed out, might relate equally well to numerousother passages in the Aristotelian corpus ; MichaelEphesius refers it to a treatise Tlepl Tpo(f>yj<i, not

otherwise known. In style, vocabulary and syntax

the De motu animalium is entirely Aristotelian, and its

doctrine corresponds with that set forth in Aristotle's

genuine works.

Each treatise has its proper place in the scheme of

Aristotle's biological works. Both are theoretical,

the De incessu animalium, like the De partihus ani-

malium, dealing with the material side of living things,

and the De motu animalium, like the De generatione

animalium, dealing with their consequential pro-

perties.

436

MOVEMENT & PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

The chief mss. of the De motu animalium are E, Y,P and S." Of these E, one of the most famous of

AristoteUan mss., is the oldest ; Y is closely related

to E. P and S are similarly related and form a secondgroup.

Of the De incessu animalium the principal mss. are

Z, Y, U, S and P.« Of these Z is the oldest, and Y is

closely related to it, while the other three mss. formanother group.

A full account of these mss. and their relations to

one another will be found in the Introduction (pp.iv. ff.) of W. W. Jaeger's text (Teubner, 1913).

The text used for the present translation is basedon that of I. Bekker, all divergences from which are

noted and the authority given for the reading adopted.Jaeger's text and apparatus criticus have been con-sulted throughout.

The Commentary of Michael Ephesius (Com-mentaria in Aristotelem Graeca, xxii. 2, Hayduck, 1904?)

has been of some assistance both for the text and for

the interpretation, and the Latin version of NicholausLeonicus (died 1599)> printed in the Berlin Aristotle,

Vol. Ill, has been constantly consulted.

The two treatises have been translated into Frenchby J. Barthelemy-Saint-Hilaire, and into English byMr. A. S. L. Farquharson in the Oxford translation

(1912). This translation with its ample explanatorynotes constitutes much the most serious attempt thathas been made to interpret these two treatises, andanyone who follows in Mr. Farquharson 's footsteps

must necessarily be heavily indebted to him.

E. S. F.

*• For the meanings of these symbols see pp. 439 and 483.

437

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

Chap. I. The origin of all movement must itself be un-moved. So if there is to be animal movement, somethingin the animal must be at rest. Hence joints are necessary.

II. There must also be a resisting medium external to themoving animal. Illustration from the rowing of a boat.

III. The nature of the " prime mover." The fable ofAtlas.

IV. The " prime mover " is of necessity outside theuniverse. The movement of inanimate things mustoriginate from animate things.

V. Alteration, growth, generation and corruption asforms of motion.

VI. How does the soul move the body ? Animal move-ment lies in the sphere of action. Its limitation in com-parison with eternal movement.

VII. Animal movement the result of the syllogism ofaction, not of the speculative syllogism. Animal move-ment compared with that of automatic toys.

VIII. ITie psychology of animal movement and theorganic changes which accompany it. The cause ofmove-ment must be situated in a definite origin.

IX. The two sides of the body are similar and can movesimultaneously : both are moved by the soul.

X. The motive power is " innate spirit." Comparisonbetween the animal organism and a well-ordered civic

community.XI. Involuntary and non-voluntary movements. Con-

clusion.

438

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE APPARATUSCRITICUS

E= Codex Parisinus Regius 1853.

Y= Codex Vaticanus 261.

P= Codex Vaticanus 1339.

S= Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.

Leon.= Latin translation of Nicolaus Leonicus.

Mich.= Greek commentary of Michael Ephesiug.

439

nEPI Zi2U2N KINHSEQS

3a I. Uepl Se KLVi^creojs rrjg rcov t,(Lcx)v, ocra filv

avTcov TTepl eKaarov vnapx^L yivos» kol rives

SiacfiopaL, /cat rtVes" alriai tojv KaO^ eKaarov cru/x-

ê^-qKOTWv avTOLs, irreuK€TTTai rrepl airavrtov iv

irepoLS- oAcos" §€ Trepl rrjs Koivrjs alrias rod kl-

5 velaOai KLvrjaLV oTTOuavovv (ra puev yap Trrrjciei kl-

veiraL ra 8e vevorei ra Se iropeia rcov ^cpcov, ra 8e

/car' dXXovs rponovg roLovrovs) imaKeTrreov vvv.

"On fiev ovv dpx'^ "^^jv dXXcov Kivquecov ro

avro iavro klvovv, rovrov^ 8e to oLKLvrjrov,

/cat on ro irpajrov klvovv dvayKolov aKLvqrov

10 elvai, hicxipiorai nporepoVy orerrep /cat Trepl kl-

vqcreojs dtStou, TTorepov eanv tj ovk eon, /cat el

ean, ris eGnv. Set he rovro firj jjlovov ro) Xoycp

KadoXov Xaêlvy dXXd /cat eirl rcbv /ca^' e/caara

/cat rcLiV alad-qrcov, 8t* dnep /cat rovs KadoXov

^rjrovfiev Xoyovs, /cat e^' wv e(l)apjji6rreiv olopêOa

15 Seti^ avrovs. cjyavepov yap /cat eVt rovrojv ondSvvarov Kivelddai pLTjSevos rjpefxovvros, Trpcorov

fjiev iv avroLS roZs Jcoot?. 8et yap, dv KLvrjrai nrd)V jJLOpLCOV, ripepLelv rr /cat 8td rovro at KajXTral

^ TOVTOV EPY : TOVTO S.

440

ON THE MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS

I. We have inquired elsewhere ° into the details of

the movement of the various kinds of animals, the

differences between these movements, and the causes

of the characteristics which each exhibit ; we mustnow inquire generally into the common cause of

animal movement ofwhatever kind—for some animals

move by flight, some by swimming, some by walking,

and others by other such methods.Now that the origin of all the other movements is

that which moves itself, and that the origin of this is

the immovable, and that the prime mover must neces-

sarily be immovable, has already been determinedwhen we were investigating ^ whether or not eternal

movement exists, and if it does exist what it is. Andthis we must apprehend not merely in theory as a

general principle but also in its individual manifesta-

tions and in the objects of sense-perception, on the

basis of which we search for general theories andwith which we hold that these theories ought to

agree. For it is clear also in the objects of sense-

perception that movement is impossible if there

is nothing in a state of rest, and above all in the

animals themselves. For if any one of their parts

moves, another part must necessarily be at rest ; and

* In the De partibus animalium.^ Physics viii. 258 b 4-9.

441

ARISTOTLE8a

rot? ^coots' eloiv. wGirep yap Kevrpco ;^/3ajvTat

rat? KafiTTalg, /cat yiverai to oXov fiipos, iv cL r)

20 KaiXTTTj, Kal €V Kal SvO, Kal €v6v Kal K€KaiJLjJL€VOV,

Ixera^dXXoi' hvvdfxei Kal ivepyeia Sid ttjv KapLTT-qv.

KapLTTTopievov 8e /cat KLVovpiivov to /xev /ctvetrai

(jr}pL€Lov TO 8e piivei rcbv iv Tat? KapLiraZs, ojairep

av €L rrjs hiapbirpov rj puev A /cat t^ A pLevoi, rj 8e

B KLVotro, /cat yivoiro rj AT. aAA' ivravda puev

25 8o/cet navra rporrov dStatpeTov etiât to Kevrpov

(/cat yd/) TO Kiveladai, cog (jyaai, rrXdrrovaiv iir

avrcov ov yap Kivelodai} rwv pLaOrjpariKcov

ovSdv), rd 8' iv rats KapiTratg hvvdpiei /cat ivepyeia

8 b ylverai ore piev ev ore he hiaiperd. dAA' ovv

del Tj dpxr] r) TTpds o, ff dpx'ij, ripepieZ Kivovpievov

rod pLopLOV rod Kdrcudev, olov rov piev ^paîovos

Kivovpievov TO wXeKpavov, oXov he tov kwXov 6

(LpLOSi Kal Trjs pêv Kv^pLTjs TO yovv, oXov he tov

8 GKeXovs TO loxtov. OTL pLev ovv Kal ev avTO)

eKaGTov TL heX €;\;etv 'qpepiovv, o9ev rj dpx^)

TOV Kivovpievov ecTTai, Kal rrpog o aTrepeiSopievov

* KivetaOai ESY : /cu'etrat P.* T) Trph$ 6, 5 Jaeger : t? irpos 8 rj EY : ij irpd^TT] ^ S: i] irpbaw

(om. altero apxri) P.

• e.g. the arm as an arm is one, but is divided into two at

the elbow." The term apxrj', which occurs frequently in this treatise,

is difficult to render in English by a single word. It is some-times used generally of the " origin " of movement {e.g.

701 b33), but more often of a localized "origin" of movement,

442

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, i.

it is on this account that animals have joints. For

they use their joints as a centre, and the whole part

in which the joint is situated is both one and two,"

both straight and bent, changing potentially andactually because of the joint. And when the part

is being bent and moved, one of the points in the

joint moves and one remains at rest, just as wouldhappen if A and D in the diameter of a circle wereto remain still while B moved, and the radius ACwere formed. (In geometrical figures, however, the

centre is considered to bein every respect indivisible

—

for movement, too, in suchfigures is a figment, so theysay, since in mathematicsnothing actually moves,

—

whereas the centres in the

joints are, potentially andactually, sometimes one andsometimes divided.) Be that as it may, the origin ^

to which the movement can be traced, qua origin,

is always at rest while the part below it is in motion—the elbow-joint, for instance, when the forearmis in motion, the shoulder when the whole arm is

moved, the knee when the shin is moved, and thehip when the whole leg is moved. It is obvious, then,

that every animal too must have in itself somethingthat is at rest, in order to provide that which is

moved with the origin of its movement, supported

whether, as here, in a single member, or at the centre of thebody, viz. the heart (701 b 25, 29), where a further idea of" ruling " seems to be implied {e.g. 703 a 37). It is also usedsometimes in the literal sense of " beginning," and this andthe meaning of " origin " of motion may occur in the samepassage and cause confusion {e.g. 702 a 36-b 2).

P 443

ARISTOTLE698b

. .. ,n r n. > ^ .

Kat oAov aopoov KLvrjorjaerai /<at Kara fjuepog,

(jyavepov.

II. 'AAAa ndaa tj iv avrw rjpejjLLa ojjlcos aicvpos,

av pLTj TL e^coOevfj

0,77X0)9 rjpepiovv /cat oLKLvrjrov.

10 a^Lov 8' iTTLGrrjCjavTas iTncjKeipaaOai Trepl rod

Aep^êVros" €X€i yap ri^v deojpiav ov fxovov ooov

C77t ra 1,0)0 avvreivovaav , aAAa /cat 77pos" rr]v rod

iravros KLvrjGLv /cat (f)opdv. cjoirep yap /cat iv

avrcp 8et n aKiviqrov etvai, el fxeXXec KLveladat,

ovrcos ert [xdXXov efco Set rt etvat rov t,a)OV

15 OLKLvrjrov, npos o aTrepeiSofievov KLvelrai ro klvov-

ixevov. et yap VTroScoGeL del, olov rots [xvol^ rots

iv rij yfj^ rj rols ev rfj ajxpô) TTOpevofievois, ov

TrpoeicjLVy oz58' ecrrat ovre TTopela, el per) tj yrj fxevoL,

ovre TTrrJGLg 7] vevcng, el pLT) 6 drjp rj rj OdXarra

dvrepeihoi. dvdyKrj Se rovro erepov elvai rod

KLvovfJievov, /cat oXov oXov, kol [xopLov fXTjSev elvau

20 rov KLVovpbevov ro ovrws dKLvrjrov el 8e pLij, ov

KLvrjdi^GeraL. pâprvpiov he rovrov ro dnopov-

fjievov, Sta Tt TTore ro ttXolov eâ>9ev puev, av rt?

(LOfj ro) Kovrcp rov LGrov jj ri dXXo npoG^dXXojv

pLoptov, KiveZ pahiojs, edv 8' ev avraj ris cov ro)

irXoicp rovro Treipdrai irpdrreiv, ovk av KivrjGeiev

25 ovr^ av 6 Tirvos ov6^ 6 Bopea? rrvecov eGCodev e/c

Tov ttXolov, el rvypi Txveoiv rov rporrov rovrov 6v-

^ fivfflv libri : ifivat. coni. Diels.' 7^ libri: fet^ coni. Farquharson.

" It is doubtful whether the ms. reading will bear this

interpretation, and 4p ttj 777 is probably corrupt. It is more

444

MOVEMENT OF ANIMAES, i.-ii.

upon which it will move both as an integral wholeand in its several parts.

II. Any quality of rest, however, in an animal is of

no effect unless there is something outside it which is

absolutely at rest and immovable. And it is worthwhile to stop and consider this dictum ; for the re-

flection which it involves applies not merely to animals,

but also to the motion and progression of the universe.

For just as in the animal there must be somethingwhich is immovable if it is to have any motion, so

a fortiori there must be something which is immov-able outside the animal, supported upon which that

which is moved moves. For if that which supports

the animal is to be always giving way (as it does whenmice walk upon loose soil " and when persons walk onsand), there will be no progress, that is, no walking,

unless the ground were to remain still, and no flying

or swimming unless the air or sea were to offer resist-

ance. And that which offers resistance must be other

than that which is moved, the whole other than the

whole, and that which is thus immovable must formno part of that which is moved ; otherwise the latter

will not move. This contention is supported by the

problem : Why can a man easily move a boat fromoutside if he thrusts it along with a pole by pushingagainst the mast or some other part of the boat,

but if he tries to do this when he is in the boatitself, Tityus could not move it nor Boreas by blow-

ing from inside it, if he really blew as the artists

than likely that the comparison is with a mouse trying towalk upon a heap of corn. Farquharson emends iv ttj yy to

eV Trj ^€1$, which would bear this meaning:. (The form êrj,

cp. Petrie Pap. ii. p. 69 (3rd cent, b.c), would be nearer to the

MS. reading.) Diels' suggestion of fiu'>aiv for fivatu is in-

genious, but does not give the required sense.

41.5

ARISTOTLE698 b

TT€p ol ypa(j)€.Zs TTOiovoiv e^ avrov yap ro TTvevfxa

699a d^teVra ypd(f)OVGLV. edv re ydp T]pe/xa piTrrfj ro

TTvevfid Tis idv r* Icrxvpoj? ovrcus war dvefiou

TToielv Tov fxiyiarov, Idv re d'AAo rtfj

ro piTrrov-

fjLevov ^ (Ldovfievov, dvdyKT^ npajrov fiev rrpos

ripepiodv n rCjv avrov jiopiwv drrepeLSoixevov dtOeZv,

6 etra TrdXiv rovro ro jxopiov, r^ avro tj oS rvy^dvei

jiopiov ov, rrpos rajv e^coOev n aTTOcrri^pitôiievov

jjieveiv. 6 Se ro ttXolov wOajv iv ra> ttXoloj avroswv Kal aTTOGriqpilôpiGvos Trpos to ttXoIov evXoyojs

ov KLvel ro rrXolov hid ro dvayKalov etvai Trpos o

aTToarrjpLêrac fievGLv avfiâtveL 8* avrw ro avro10 o r€ KLveZ Kal Trpos o aTTOGriqpit^^rai. e^codev 8*

(h9a)v Tj eXkcov KLvei- ovOev ydp [xepos r) yrj rodttXolov.

III. Â.TToprjGeie 8' dv ris, dp* et rt KiveZ rdv

oXov ovpavov, etvai re Set aKLvqrov rovro KaV"

fjLTjOev elvai rov ovpavov pLopiov fJ-rjS^ iv ro)

ovpavaj. e'lre ydp avro KLVovjjievov KLveZ avrov,

15 dvdyKrj rivos aKLV-qrov diyydvov KtveZv, Kal rovro

purjhkv elvai piopiov rov klvovvtos' ecr^ evGvs dKLV7]r6v

iari ro klvovv, 6poia>s ovhev eWat^ rod klvov-

jjLevov pLopiov. Kal rovro y' opBcos Xeyovcnv ol

Xiyovres on kvkXo) cfyepofjievr]? rrjs G(f)aLpas ovS'

ortovv fievei popiov ri ydp dv dXr]V dvayKaZov rjv

20 fji€V€LV, TJ hiaoTTaodaL ro ovvex^s avrrjs. dAA'

on rovs ttoXovs oiovrai nva hvvap.iv €;)(6tv, ovOev

^ TovTo Kal scrips! : Kai tovto libri.

• (fcrrat Jaeger (cum Leon.): iveadai Whr'i.

" Just as Odysseus' companions while seated in the shipopen the bags containing the winds, and the ship is blownout of its course (Homer, Od. x. 46 ff.).

446

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ii.-iii.

paint him '^; for they make him emit the breath

from his own hps. For whether one emits thebreath gently or so strongly as to create the greatest

gale (and the same is true if that which is thrownor pushed is something other than breath), it is

necessary, first, that one should be supported uponone of one's own members, which is at rest, when onepushes, and secondly, that either this member itself

or that of which it forms part, should remain still,

resting upon something which is external to it. Nowthe man who tries to push the boat while he himself

is in it and leaning upon it, naturally does not movethe boat, because it is essential that that against

wliich he is leaning should remain still ; but in

this case that which he is trying to move and that

against which he is leaning, is identical. If, onthe other hand, he pushes or drags the boat fromoutside, he can move it ; for the ground is no part of

the boat.

III. The difficulty may be raised, whether, if some-thing moves the whole heaven, this motive powermust be unmoved and be no part of the heaven nor

in the heaven. For if it is moved itself and moves the

heaven, it can only move it by being itself in contact

with something that is immovable, and this can be nopart of that which causes the movement ; or else, if

that which causes the movement is from the first im-movable, it will be equally no part of that which is

moved. And on this point at any rate they are quite

right who say that, when the sphere is moved in a

circle, no part of it whatsoever remains still ; for

either the whole of it must remain still, or its continu-

ity must be rent asunder. They are not right, how-ever, in holding that the poles possess a kind of force,

447

ARISTOTLE9a ^

exovrag fieyedo? aAA' ovras eaxdra kol arty/xas',

ov KaXcos. npog yap rco fn^hefxtav ovoiav elvai

rcov TOLOVTOJV firjSevos, /cat KLvelaOai rrju fxlav

KLVTjGLV VTTO SuoXl^ dSvvaTOV TOVS §€ TToXoVS SvO

25 TTOiovGiv. OTL fiev ovv e;)êt re Kal Trpos rrji^ oXr]v

(j)VOLV ovTOJS cjGTrep rj yrj npo? to. â>a /cat ra

KLVov/xeva 8t' avrcov, e/c rcov roiovrcuv av rt?

Zia7TopriG€i€v. ol 3e jxvOlkcjs tov "ArXavraTTOLOVvres irrl rijg yrjg eôvra rovs irohas Soâuev

av OLTTO StavoLag elpr^Kevai rov fxvdov, co? rovrov

warrep hidpLerpov ovra /cat (JTpe(f)ovTa rov ovpavov

80 rrepl rovs ttoXovs' rovro 8' av avfiâtvoL KaraXoyov Sid ro rrjv yrjv jxeveiv. dXXd rocs ravraXeyovGLV dvayKalov (f)dvaL /xr^Sev etvat fiopLov

avrrjv rov iravros. Trpos Se rovrois Set rr^v laxvv

ladêLV rov Kivovvros /cat rrjV rov fievovros. eonydp ri ttXtjSos lo^vos /cat Swdfieajs /ca^' -^v fxevei

85 rd fX€vov, wGTTep /cat /ca^' rjv klv€l ro klvovv /cat

ecrrt ris dvaXoyla e^ dvdyK7]s, cjarrep rcov ivavricov

KLV-qaecov, ovrco /cat rcov rjpefJLLcov. /cat at fiev

'^'J taat dTTadels vtt* dXX-qXcov, Kparovvrai Se Kara

rrjv VTrepox'^jV. StoTrep etr' "ArXas €Lre ri rotovrov

ioriv erepov ro klvovv rcov ivros, ovSev jidXXov

dvrepeiheiv Set rrjs piovrjs rjv rj yrj rvyxdvet fievovaa'

'q KivrjO-qaeraL r) yrj 0,770 rov fieoov Kal e/c rov

5 avrrjs rorrov. cLs ydp rd ihdovv (hdel, ovrco rd

(hdovfJLevov (hOelraiy Kal dfiOLcos Kar lgxvv, klv€l

* i.e. their limbs. We should, however, perhaps read 5t'

avTuJi/ "the things which move of themselves": Leon,renders "ea quae per se moventur."

448

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iii.

since they have no magnitude and are only ex-

tremities and points. For besides the fact that

nothing of this kind has any substance, it is also im-

possible for a single movement to be started by a dual

agency ; and they represent the poles as two. Fromthese considerations one may hazard the suggestion

that there is something which stands in the samerelation to Nature as a whole as the earth stands to

the animals and the things which are moved throughthem.«Now those who in the fable represent Atlas as hav-

ing his feet planted upon the earth would seem to

have shown sense in the story which they tell, since

they make him as it were a radius, twisting the

heaven about the poles ; it would be a logical account,

since the earth remains still. But those who hold

this view must declare that the earth is no part of the

universe ; and, further, the force of that which causes

the motion and the force of that which remains still

must be equal. For there must be a certain amountof force and strength in virtue of which that whichremains still remains still, just as there is a force in

virtue of which that which causes motion causes

motion ; and there is of necessity a similar proportion

between absences of motion as there is betweenopposite motions, and equal forces are unaffected byone another, but are overmastered by a superiority.

Therefore Atlas, or whatever else it is of like kindwithin that causes motion, must not exert any pressure

which is too strong for the equihbrium of the earth;

or else the earth will be moved away from the centre

and her proper place. For as that which pushespushes, so that which is pushed is pushed, and in

exact proportion to the force exerted ; but it creates

449

ARISTOTLE699 b

Se TO rjpefiovv rrpajrov, cjore ixdXXov /cat TrXeLCOV

rj LG^vs rj ofjLOLa /cat tcrr] rrjg rjpejjLLas. (LoravTOJS

Se /cat TTJs^ rod Ktvovfievov /xeV, {jltj klvovvtos Se.

rocravT-qp ovv hei'âei rrjv BvvajJLLV etvat tt^s" yrj?

iv TO) rjp€fJL€LV 6uT]V 6 T€ TTO-S OVpaVOS ^X^^ '^^^

10 ro KLvovv avTOv. el Se rovro dSvparoVy dbvyarov

/cat TO KLveLGdat rov ovpavov vtto tlvos tolovtov

ra>v ivTos.

IV. "Eo"Tt Se TtS" OLTTOpLa TTepl TOLS KLVT^(7€LS TWVrod ovpavov pLopLcov, rjv cLs ovaav ot/cetav rot?

elprjpilvois eTTiGKeâLT dv rig. idv yap rts" vnep-

PdXXj) rfj Svvdfxei rrjs KLVijcrecog rrjv rrjs yrjs

15 Type/xtW, SrjXov on KivrjoeL avrrjv 0,770 rov fieaov.

/cat rj LGXvs 8' d(/)' rjg avrrj rj Svvapag, on ovk

dneLpos, (fyavepov ovhk yap r] yrj drreipoSy ojor

ovhe TO ^dpos avrrj?. irrel Se ro dSvvarov Xlyerai

TrXeovaxdj? {ov yap (haavrws rrjv re ôjvrjv d^vvarov

(jyajxev elvai opadrjvat /cat rovs eirl rrjs aeXrjvrjs

20 v(f)* rjjiajv ro fiev yap e^ dvdyKrjs, ro Se 7re<û/c6s

opdadai OVK ocfyOrjoerai) , rov S' ovpavov d(f)daprov

etvau /cat dStaAurov olojxeOa jxkv e^ dvdyKrjs etvaL,

GVfjLâiveL Se /card rovrov rov Aoyov ovk e^ dvdyKrjS'

7Te(f)VKe yap /cat evSex^rai etvau Kivrjoriv fielôj

/cat d</>' rjs rjpefiel rj yrj /cat d(^' rjs Kivovvrat ro

25 TTvp /cat TO dvoj crajjia. el fiev ovv elalv at vrrep-

exovaai KLvrjoeis, hiaXvdrjoerai ravra vn dXXrjXcov.

1 T^j PS: 7? Y: aJE.

* i.e. its central position in the universe.^ i.e. the region between the air and the moon (Meteor.

340 b 6 if.).

450

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iii.-iv.

motion in that which is first at rest, so that the force

exerted is greater than the immobility rather thansimilar and equal to it, and likewise greater than the

force of that which is moved but does not create

movement. Therefore the power of the earth in its

immobility will necessarily be as great as that pos-

sessed by the whole heaven and that which sets it in

motion. If, however, this is impossible, the move-ment of the heaven by any such force within it is also

impossible.

IV. A problem also arises about the movementsof the parts of the heaven, which might well be dis-

cussed, since it is closely connected with what has

been said above. If one were to overmaster the im-

mobihty of the earth by the power of motion, one will

obviously move it away from the centre. ° Moreoverit is clear that the force from which this power is de-

rived is not infinite ; for the earth is not infinite, andso its weight is not infinite either. Now^ the wôrd" impossible " is used in several senses (we are using

it in different senses when we say that it is impossible

to see a sound, and when we say that it is impossible

for us to see the men in the moon ; for the former is

of necessity invisible, the latter are of such a natureas to be seen but will never be seen by us), but wê

hold that the heaven is of necessity impossible to

destroy and dissolve, whereas according to our present

argument it is not necessarily so ; for it is within the

nature of things and the bounds of possibility that a

motive force should exist greater both than that

which causes the earth to be at rest and than that

which causes the fire and upper body ^ to move.If, therefore, the overpowering motive forces exist,

these will be dissolved by one another; but if they

p2 451

ARISTOTLE699 b

el 8e fJLTj elal /xeV, ivSex^rai 8' elvai [aTreipov yap

ovK evSe;êTat 8ta ro fi-qSev crco/xa eVSe;êaât

a7T€Lpov elvai), eVSe;ôtr* av' ScaXvOrjvaL rov ovpavov.

TL yap KUjXvei tovto avjJL^rjvai, etVep jjlt] dSuvarov

;

'^*^ OVK dSvvarov 8e, et jLt')7 ravriKeiiievov dvayKalov.

dXXd 776/36 /xev TTjs diTopias ravrrjs 'irepog eurcu

Xoyos.

*Apa he Set aKLvqrov n etvai /cat rfpefjiovv e^co

rov KLvovjievov, pLrjSev ov eKeivov pLopioVy t) ov ;

/cat TOVTO TTOTepOV /cat C77t TOU TraVTOS" OVTOJS

VTToipxî'^ dvayKalov; taajs yap dv Soêiev aToirov

35 elvaiy el rq dpxr] ttjs Kivqaeajs ivTos. 8to Soêiev

av ToZs ovTCDS VTToXafjL^dvovaLV ev elprjodai 'Ofi-qpo)'

dXX* OVK dv epvuaiT ef ovpavoOev TreStovSe

700a TjTJV^ VTTaTOV TTaVTCOV , OuS' €t /XaAa TToXXd KafJLOLTe'

iravTes 8' eâTTTeode deol TTauai re êatvat.

TO ydp oXcos dKiv7]Tov VTT* ovhevos ivSex^Tat

KLVTjdrjvai. 66ev Auerat /cat tJ TraAat Ae;^êto-a

dTTOpia, TTOTepov evSex^rai rj ovk evhex^rai 8ta-

5 Xvdrjvai Trjv tov ovpavov GvaTaauv, el ef dKivrjrov

rjprrjTaL dpX'rjS'

*E7rt 8e TCtJv l,a)<jjv ov jjlovov to ovtcjos dKcvrjTOV

Set VTTapxî^v, dXXd /cat ev avTols toXs KLVovfievois

* direipoi'] sc. Klvrjcriv. The argument is as follows: these

overpowering motive forces might exist and be dissolved byone another, because if they can be dissolved, they are not

infinite, and the reason why they are not infinite is that theyact upon what is finite, and the infinite cannot act on the

finite (7> caelo, 274 b 23 flF.).

•' It is discussed in the Physics and De caelo.

^52

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iv.

do not really exist, but there is a possibility of

their existing (for an infinite motive force " is impos-sible because an infinite body is also impossible),

it would be possible for the heaven to be dissolved.

For what is there to prevent this happening if it

is not impossible ? And it is not impossible, unless

the opposite proposition is inevitable. But let us

leave the discussion of this question for anotheroccasion.^

Must there, then, or must there not, be somethingimmovable and at rest outside that which is movedand forming no part of it ? And must this be true

also of the universe ? For it would perhaps seemstrange if the origin of motion were inside. And so

to those who hold this view Homer's words wôuld

seem appropriate :

Nay, ye could never pull down to the earth from thesummit of heaven,

Zeus, the highest of all, no, not if ye toiled to the utmost.Come, ye gods and ye goddesses all, set your hands to

the hawsers.*

For that which is entirely immovable cannot bemoved by anything. And it is here that we mustlook for the solution of the problem stated some timeago, namely, whether it is possible or impossible for

the composition of the heaven to be dissolved, seeing

that it depends upon an origin which is immovable.Now in the animals there must exist not only that

which is immovable in this sense,** but there mustalso be something immovable in the actual things

which move from place to place and which themselves<= Iliad viii. 20-22. The lines are quoted in the wrong

order and the textits receptus reads iJ.-qaTwp' for Travruv.^ i.e. something immovable and at rest which is outside

that which is moved and forms no part of it (c/. 699 b 32).

453

ARISTOTLE

Kara tottov oaa klv€l avra avra. Set yap avrov

TO fjLev rjpejielv ro 8e KLvetaOai, rrpog o (XTrcpetSo-

-0 puevov TO KLvovpiei'OV KLvrj(j€Tai, olov av tl KLvfj

ra)v pLOpLOJV aTrepetSerat yap OaTCpov ojg irpos

pLevov OaTepov. rrepl Se tcov difivxcov oaa KLvetTac

OiTTOpi](J€i€v av Tig, TTorepov airavr^ e;)(€t iv iavTols

/cat TO rjpepLovv Kal to klvovv, Kal rrpos tcov

eÔ) Tt rjpepiovvTOJV dTrepeiSeadaL dvdyKrj Kal

ravra, 7) dhvvaTOV, otov TTvp tj yrjv t] tojv difivxîv

16 Tt, dAA'^ u^' (Lv TavTa KiveiTai TrpcjTCjjv. Trdvra

yap V7T* dXkov KiveiTai Ta dipyxct-, dpx^j Sc TrdvTcov

TOJV ovTOJS KLVovpievojv rd aura aura KivovvTa,

TCJV Se TOLOVTOJV TTepl pL€V TCOV t,<X>OJV etpTjTaL' Ta

yap ToiavTa Trdvra dvdyKJ) Kal iv avToZs ^X^^^

TO TjpepLovv, Kal eôj rrpog o o-TrepetaeTat. el Se

20 Tt iarlv dvojTepco Kal tt/jcutw? klvovv, dSrjXov,

Kal aAAos" Xoyos irepl ttJs" ToiavTJ^s dpx^jS' '^d

Se ^cpa ocra KLveiTai, Trdvra Trpos rd eô) dnep-

etSd/xeva KivelraL, Kal dvaTTveovra Kal eKTTveovra.

ovSev yap hiaêpei piiya pZipai ^dpos tj puKpov,

OTT€p TTOLOVGIV ol TTTVOVTeS Kal ^rjrrovT€s Kai OL

25 €LGTTV€OVT€g Kal iKTTV€OVT€S.

V. Tlorepov S' iv rep avro klvovvtl Kara tottov

fxovcp Set Tt p,€V€Lv, 7] Kal iv Tw dWoiovpiivcp avrcp

V(f)* avrov Kal avâvopiivcp ; rrepl Se yeviaeojs

TTJs ii dpxrjs Kal cjydopdg aAAo? Xoyog' el ydp icrriv

1 dXX' Jaeger : dXXa P : AXX' ESY.454.

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, iv.-v.

move themselves. For while one part of the animalmust be in motion, another part must be at rest,

supported upon which that will be moved whichis moved, if, for example, it moves one of its parts ;

for one part rests on another part in virtue of thefact that the latter is at rest.

But regarding inanimate things which are moved,one might raise the question whether they all possess

in themselves both that wliich is at rest and that whichcreates movement, and whether they too must besupported by something external which is at rest.

Or is this impossible—for example, in the case of

fire or earth or any inanimate thing—but motion is

due to the primary causes by which these are moved ?

For all inanimate things are moved by something else,

and the origin of all the things that are thus moved is

the things that move themselves. Among things of

this class we have already dealt \\'ith animals ; for all

such things must necessarily have within themselvesthat which is at rest and something outside them onwhich they are to support themselves. But whetherthere is something higher and primary which movesthem is uncertain, and the question of such an origin

of movement is a matter for separate discussion. Butanimals which move all do so supported upon things

outside themselves, as also when they draw their

breath in and out. For it makes no difference whetherthe}" propel a great or a small weight, as those do whospit and cough, and breathe in and out.

V. But is it only in that which moves itself in

respect of place that something must remain at rest,

or is this also true of that in which alteration is

caused by its own agency and in that which grows ?

The question of original coming into being and

455

ARISTOTLE

7]V7T€p (pafiev TTpcoTT] Kivif]GLs, yeveaeojs /cat (puopas

30 avTT] airLa av eirj, /cat rcbv dXXcov 8e KLViâeajv taojs

TraGOJV. a)G7r€p 8' iv rco oXco, /cat eV rep ^cp(p

KLvrjois TTpwrrj avrrj, orav reXecodfj- ware /cat

av^-qaeojs, eu ttote ytVerat, avro avrcp oltlov /cat

dXXoLojoreojg, el Se fJLij, ovk dvdyKTj. at Sc Trpcurat

av^T^creLS /cat dAAotcoaets' i57r' aAAou yivovrai /cat

35 8t* erepojv yeveaecog 8e /cat cf)6opds ovSajuLcos oTov

700 br€ auTO atrtor etiât avrcp ovSev. Trpovirdpx^^v

yap Set ro kivovv rov KLvovfievov /cat ro yevvcjv

rod yevvajfievov avro 8' avrov rrporepov ovhiv

earIV.

VI. Hept /Ltev ouv ifjvxrj?, etre KiveZrai ri fjut],

5 /cat el Kivelraiy ttcj? Kivelrai, rrporepov etpiqrai ev

Tois SicopLGfievoL? rrepl avrr^s. iirel 8e rd dipvxa

rrdvra KiveZrai vcf)* irepov, rrepl 8e^ rod rrpwrov

KLVovfievov /cat aet Kivovjxivov, riva rpoirov Kivelraiy

/cat Traps' KiveZ ro rrpcorov klvovv, hiaypLorai rrporepov

iv rots rrepl rrjg TrpcLrrj^ (/)LXoGO(f)Las, Xolttov 8*

10 iarl BeojprjGai nco? rj ip^XV Kivei ro acofia, /cat

rts dpx^] rrjs rod t,cpov KLvijoecog. rwv yap dXXa>v

TTapd rrjv rov oXov klvt^glv rd efjiifjvxci atria rrjg

KLvqGeoJS, oGa fir] Kivelrai ott^ dXXrjXwv 8ta ro

TTpoGKOTTreiv dXXriXoi£. Sto /cat iripas exovoiv

avrojv Trdaai at KLvt]G€Ls' /cat yap /cat at rcjv

15 ipufjvxcDV. rrdvra ydp rd ^wa /cat KLveZ /cat

KLveZrac evcKd nvos, coore rovr^ eanv avroZs

TrdGrjs rrjs Kivrjoeajs nepas, ro ov eveKa. opdjjjiev

1 5^ ES : fJLiv Y.

* tovt4(Xtiv . . . OVK 6.va.yK7j elvai tl tCjv dWoiovfi^yuv Kal

avâvofiiviov v(f> avrdv -fipe/iovv (Mich.).* i.e. the Metaphysics.

456

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, v.-vi.

corruption is a different one ; for if there is, as weassert, a primary movement, this would be the causeof coming into being and wasting away, and per-

haps of all the other movements as well. And as in

the universe, so in the animal, this is primary motion,when the animal comes to perfection ; so that it is

itself the cause of its own growth, if this ever takesplace, and of any alteration which occurs ; otherwiseit is not necessary that something should remain at

rest." But the first growth and alteration occurthrough another's agency and by other means, andnothing can in any way be itself the cause of its owncoming into being and wasting away ; for that \vhich

moves must be prior to that which is moved, and thatwhich begets to that which is begotten, and nothingis prior to itself.

VI. Now whether soul is moved or not, and if

it is moved, how it is moved, has already beendiscussed in our treatise On Soul. But since all

inanimate things are moved by something else—andhow that which is primarily and eternally moved is

moved, and how the prime mover moves it, has beenalready set forth in our work on First Philosophy ^—it remains to inquire how the soul moves the bodyand what is the origin of movement in an animal.

For, if we exclude the movement of the universe,

animate things are the cause of movement in every-

thing else, except in things which are moved by oneanother through coming into coUision with oneanother. Therefore all their movements have alimit ; for the movements of animate things have a

limit. For all animals move and are moved with

some object, and so this, namely their object, is the

limit of all their movement. Now we see that the

457

ARISTOTLE700 b

Se ra Kivovvra to t,coov hidvoiav /cat <f)avTaalav

Kal TrpoalpecTLv /cat ôvXiquiv /cat €7TLdv[iiav. ravra

Se TTOLvra avdyerai els vovv /cat opeîv. /cat yap

20 7) (f)avraaLa /cat rj aladrjcns ttjv avrrjv rep vcp x^P^^€Xov(JLV KpiTLKa ydp Trdvra, hiaîpovGi 8e Kara

rds elprjfievas ev aAAotj hiacjiopds. ôvXtjols Se

/cat dvpLOs /cat eVtû/xta Trdvra ope^Ls, rj Se vrpo-

atpeorts" /cotvor Stavotas" /cat opeêojs' cjare KtveZ

TrpaJTOv ro opeKrov /cat to Stai'OT^Toi^. ou Trav

25 Se TO StaroT^Tov, aAAa to tojv TrpaKrcov reXos.

8to ro roiovrov ian rwv dyaOojv ro klvovv, dAA*

ov rrav ro KaXov rj ydp eVe/ca rovrov d'AAo, /cat

^ riXos icrrl tcuv dAAou Ttyos" eve/ca ovrcoVy ravrrj

KLV€L. Set Se ridevai /cat to (jâivopievov dyadov

dyadov )(ojp^^ '^X^^^> ^'^^ '^^ 'J^Su* <j)aiv6p.€vov ydp

80 eonv dyadov. ojare SrjXov on eon fiev fjopLoicJs

KLveXrai ro del klvovjjl€vov vtto rod del KLVovvros

/cat rojv t,a)0)v eKaorov, eon 8'fj

dXXojs, 8to /cat

rd /xei^ det Kivelrai, r) 8e tcov t^cpojv Kiviqais €;\;et

Tvepas. ro 8e dt8toP' /caAdi^, /cat to dAT^^dis /cat

rrpajrojs dyadov /cat jLt'37 ttotc fxev TTore Se jlitJ,

86 deiorepov /cat rijxicorepov r) 6oo"t* etP'at Tvporepov^ n"^.

To jLtev ow rrpcorov ov Kivovp,evov /ctvet, t^8'

701 a ope^Ls Kal ro opeKriKov Kivovpievov Kivel. ro he

reXevraZov rcov KLvovjJLevcDV ovk dvdyKTj Kivelv

ovbev. (f)av€p6v 8' e/c toutoji^ /cat OTt evXoyws

^ irpbrepop ESY : irphs ^repov P.2 Ti add. Jaeger.

" De anima, iii. 427 b 14 flF.

458

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vi.

tilings which move the animal are intellect, imagina-tion, purpose, wish and appetite. Now all these canbe referred to mind and desire. For imaginationand sensation cover the same ground as the mind(since they all exercise judgement) though theydiffer in certain aspects as has been defined else-

where.** But will, temper, and appetite are all

forms of desire, while purpose partakes both of

intellect and of desire. So the objects of desire andintellect first set up movement—not, however, everyobject of intellect, but only the end in the sphere of

action. So amongst good things it is the good in the

sphere of action that sets up movement, and not anyand every good ; for it sets up movement only in so

far as it is the motive of something else or the endof something which has something else as its object.

And we must lay dow^n the principle that the apparentgood can take the place of a real good, and so can the

pleasant, for it is an apparent good. So that it is

clear that in one respect that which is eternally

moved by the eternal mover, and the individual

animal, are moved in a similar manner, but that in

another respect they are moved differently ; and so,

while other things move eternally, animal movementhas a limit. Now the eternally beautiful and that

which is truly and primarily good, and not at onemoment good and at another not good, is too divine

and precious to have anything prior to it.

The prime mover, then, moves without itself beingmoved, but desire and the desiderative faculty set

up movement while being themselves moved. Butit is not necessary that the last of a series of things

which are moved should move anything ; and fromthis it is clear that it is only reasonable that pro-

459

ARISTOTLE

-^ (popa TeAeurata row ytvofievcov ev tols klvov-

fievoLS^ • KLvelTat yap /cat TropGveraL to t,a)ov opeêt

5 7) 7rpoaLpe(T€L, dXXoLCoOevros nvos Kara t7]v at-

oQrjGLV T] Tr]v âvraaiav

.

VII. ricDs" Se vocjv ore fikv TrpdrreL ore 8' ov

TTpoLTrei, Kol KLveirai, ore 8' ov KiveZrai; eot/ce

irapaTrX-qaicos cru/xâtVetv kol Trepl rcov aKLvqrajv

SiavoovfievoLS Kal <jvX\oyLl,o[Ji€VOLS . aAA' e/cet fxev

10 Oecoprjfxa to reAo? (orav yap rds Svo TTpordoeis

vo^GT], TO o-u,(X7repaCT/xa ivorjae Kal avvedrjKev),

ivTavOa 8* iK rcov Svo TTpoTacrecov to orufjiTTepacFfia

ylveTai rj irpdîs, olov oTav vo-qarj ort Travrl â-

Stcrreov dvOpcoTTO), avros 8' avSpcmros, â8têt

€vde(i)s, oiv 8' OTL ovSevl âSiGTeov vvv dvdpcona),

16 avros 8* dvOpcjTTOS , evOvs T^pe/xet* Kal TavTa a/xâ>

7TpdrT€L, dv iiTj TL KcoXvYj Tj dvayKdl,r]. TTOirfTeov

fjLoi dyaOov, oiKia 8' dyadov 7tol€l OLKiav evOvs.

aKendafiaTOs 8eo/xat, Ifidrtov Se GKeTracrfxa' L/xarLov

8eo/xat. ov 8eojitat, TTOir^Teov Ifjiariov 8eo/xaf

20 IjîdTiov 7TOL7]reov. Kal to crvpLTTepacxjjLa, to IfidTiov

TTOLTjTeoVy Trpdîs ioTiv. TTpaTTei 8' 0,77' dpxrj?.

el IfidTLOV ecrrat, dvdyKT] To8e irpchTOV, el he To8e,

Tohe' Kal Tovro irpdrTei evdv?. otl p,ev ovv r]

TTpd^LS TO GVfxnepaoiJLa, (jyavepov at 8e TrpordaeLg

at 7TOL7]TtKal Sid Svo elSwv yivovTai, 8ta re tov

25 dyadov Kal hid tov hvvaTOV.

"Q.airep he tojv epcorcovTOJV evioi, ovra> rrfv erepav

^ Kivovfi^pois Jaeger: 7t7J'OAi^»'ois libri.

« i.e. the objects of science ; cf. An. Post. 71 b 18 ff.

460

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vi.-vii.

gression should be the last thing to happen in things

that are moved, since the animal is moved and walks

from desire or purpose, when some alteration has beencaused as the result of sensation or imagination.

VII. But why is it that thought sometimes results

in action and sometimes does not, sometimes in

movement and sometimes not ? Apparently the

same kind of thing happens as when one thinks andforms an inference about immovable objects. <* Butin the latter case, the end is speculation (for when youhave conceived the two premisses, you immediatelyconceive and infer the conclusion) ; but in the formercase the conclusion drawn from the two premisses

becomes the action. For example, when you conceive

that every man ought to walk and you yourself are a

man, you immediately walk ; or if you conceive that

on a particular occasion no man ought to walk, andyou yourself are a man, you immediately remain at

rest. In both instances action follows unless there is

some hindrance or compulsion. Again, I ought to

create a good, and a house is a good, I immediatelycreate a house. Again, I need a covering, and a

cloak is a covering, I need a cloak. \Miat I need I

ought to make ; I need a cloak, I ought to makea cloak. And the conclusion " I ought to make a

cloak " is an action. The action results from the

beginning of the train of thought. If there is to bea cloak, such and such a thing is necessary, if this

thing then something else ; and one immediatelyacts accordingly. That the action is the conclusion is

quite clear ; but the premisses which lead to the doingof something are of two kinds, through the good andthrough the possible.

And as those sometimes do who are eliciting con-

461

ARISTOTLE

irporaoiv rrjv hrjXrjv ouS' tj Sidvoia i(f)Lard(ja GKOTreZ

ovSdv olov €L TO âoitêtv dyaOov dvOpojirco, onavTos dvdpojTTos, ovK ivhiarplêL. î6 /cat oaa fxrj

XoyLodfjuevoL TTpdrro}xeVy raxv TTpdrropLev. orav yapivepyrjGr) t) rfj alodria<Ei npos to ov ere/ca rj rfj

30 âvraoia t) rep vo), ov opeyerau, evOvs ttoleX' dvr*

epcoT'-qaeco? yap rj vo-rjoecos r] rrjs dpeêojs yiverai iv-

Ipyeia. TToriov fiot, rj emOvpiia Xeyec- roSl Se ttotov,

Tj alcrOrjGis elrrev rj rj (fiavraoia rj 6 vovs' evOvs Trivei.

ovrcxjs P'€v ovi^ eTTL TO Kivelodai /cat 77parrety to,

t,cx)a opfjLcoGL, Trjs fJi€v iaxdTrjs atrta? tov KiveladaL

35 opeêcos ovorjs, TavTrjs Se yivopievrjs rj St* alodrjueajs

rj Sta <f)avTaGLa? /cat vo-qcrecos. twv S* opeyopblvcov

TrpdTT€Lv ra fxev St' emdvpLLav r) Ovjjlov to. Se St*

701 b opeîv t) ôvXrjULV Ta fxev ttolovgl, Ta Se rrpdTTOvcriv.

"Q.G-nep Se ra avTopLaTa /ctvetrat jiiKpds Kivrjoeajg

yivojxevrjs, Xvofievcov tcov UTpe^Xcov /cat Kpovovcrojv^

dAATJAas" [ra? OTpe^Xas],^ /cat to d/xaftov, orrep

b (roy 6)(ovp.evov avTO Kivei el? evdv, /cat TrdXiv

kvkXco KLveiTai tco dvlaovs ^X^^^ tovs Tpoxovs(d yap iXdTTOJv oioirep KevTpov ytVerat, Kaddnepiv TOLs /cuAtVSpots"), ovTOJ /cat TO. ^(pa KivelTai.

ex^f' ydp opyava rotaOra Tiqv re rcov vevpcov

(f)VGLV /cat Trjv tCjv ogtc^v, to, fiev ws eKeZ tcl

^ Kpovova-Qv scrips! (Leon, renders laxatis seque mutuo im-pellentihus vertehris) : Kpovbvrwv libri.

rds crrp^/SXas seclusi. ^ rh addidi.

* For this technical use of ipwrav cf. An. Prior. 24- a 24.* By the removal of the pejrs {û\a), cf. below, 701 b 9, 10.

* The context seems to show that the toy-carriage wason an axle which coupled two wheels of unequal diameter.There is, however, no evidence for the existence of such toy-

carriages in antiquity.

462

MO\^MENT OF ANIMALS, vii.

elusions by questioning," so here the mind does notstop and consider at all one of the two premisses,

namely, the obvious one ; for example, if walking is

good for a man, one does not waste time over the pre-

miss " I am myself a man." Hence such things as wedo without calculation, Ave do quickly. For when a

man acts for the object which he has in view fromeither perception or imagination or thought, heimmediately does what he desires ; the carrying outof his desire takes the place of inquiry or thought.

My appetite says, I must drink ; this is drink, says

sensation or imagination or thought, and oneimmediately drinks. It is in this manner that animals

are impelled to move and act, the final cause of their

movement being desire ; and this comes into beingthrough either sensation or imagination and thought.

And things which desire to act, at one time create

something, and at another act, by reason either of

appetite or of passion, or else through desire or wish.

The movement of animals resembles that of

marionettes which move as the result of a small

movement, when the strings are released ^ and strike

one another ; or a toy-carriage which the child that

is riding upon it himself sets in motion in a straight

direction, and which afterwards moves in a circle

because its wheels are unequal, for the smaller wheelacts as a centre," as happens also in the cylinders.'*

Animals have similar parts in their organs, namely,the growth of their sinews and bones, the latter cor-

responding to the pegs in the marionettes and the

<* The marionettes seem to have been worked by means of

cylinders round which weighted strings were wound, the

cylinders being set in motion by the removal of pegs.

463

ARISTOTLE

fuAa Kal 6 uihiipos, ra 8e vevpa a>s" at orpi^Xai'

10 c5v XvofievcDv Kal avi€jiivojv Kivovvrai. iv fxev

ovv rots' avTOfxarois Kal rot? djjLa^LOLs ovk eariv

dXXoicooLs, incl el iyivovTO iXdrrovs ol ivrog

rpoxol Kal rrdXiv pieLt,ovs, Kav kvkXco to avro

iKiveiTO' iv Se rep ^coco Swarat to avro Kal

fjieXôv Kal eXarrov yiveoOai Kal ra G)(rjp,aTa pcera-

15 ^dXXeiv, avâvopevojv rcov pLopiojv hid deppLorrjTa

Kal TTaXiv (jvGreXXopiivojv hid ifjvîv Kal dXXoiov-

pievajv. diXXoiovcn 8' at âvraoiai /cat at alodrjueis

Kal at evvoiai. at /xe^' ydp aludiqueis evOvs vtt-

dpxovGiv dXXoiojGeig riveg ovcrai, rj he âvraoia /cat

7] voTjOis TTjv rcov TTpaypidrojv exovcri hvvapiiv rpo-

20 TTov ydp TLva TO ethos to voovfievov ro rod OeppLov

7] ipvxpov ^ 'qheos ^ (fyoêpov roiovrov rvyxdvei

ov oiov nep Kal rwv rrpaypidrajv eKaarov, hio Kal

(f>piTTovcn Kal (f)oôvi'Tai voTjoravres p.6vov. ravrahe Trdvra TrdOrj Kal dXXoicoaeis eluiv. dXXoiov-

fxevcov 8' iv rep GojpLari rd pev piei^co rd 8* iXdrrcj

25 yiverai. on he puKpd pieraôXr] yivoptevr] iv dpxfj

pieydXas Kal TToXXdg TToiel hia<j)opds diroOev, ovkdhrjXov oiov rod o'iaKos aKapiaZov ri piediGrapLevov

ttoXXt] Tj rrjg TTpcopas yiverai pierdaraGis. en he

Kard Oeppiorrjra -^ i/jvîv t) /car* aAAo n roiovrov

TTados orav yevrjrai aXXoiwuig Trepl rr]v Kaphiav,80 /cat iv ravrrj Kard pieyedos iv dvaiaO-qrcp piopicp,

TToXXrjv TTOiei rod acopiaros hia(f)opdv ipvdr^piaori

Kal (hxpdrrjGi Kal (f)piKais Kal rpopiois Kal rot?

rovrojv ivavrioig.

VIII. *Apxr) piev ovv, axJTTep elp-qrai, rrjs

" The reference is probably to some part of the toy-carriage.

464

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, vii.-viii.

iron,** while the sinews correspond to the strings, the

setting free and loosening of which causes the move-ment. In the marionettes and the toy-carriages noalteration takes place, though, if the inner wheelswere to become smaller and then again larger, the

same circular movement would take place. In the

animal, however, the same part can become bothgreater and smaller and change its form, the mem-bers increasing through heat and contracting again

through cold and thus altering. Alteration is

caused by imagination and sensations and thoughts.

For sensations are from the first a kind of altera-

tion, and imagination and thought have the effect

of the objects which they present ; for in a way the

idea conceived—of hot or cold or pleasant or terrible

—

is really of the same kind as an object possessing oneof these qualities, and so we shudder and feel fear

simply by conceiving an idea ; and all these affec-

tions are alterations, and when an alteration takes

place in the body some parts become larger, others

smaller. Now it is clear that a small change taking

place in an origin of movement ^ causes great andnumerous changes at a distance

;just as, if the rudder

of a boat is moved to an infinitesimal extent, the

change resulting in the position of the bows is con-

siderable. Furthermore, when, owing to heat or

cold or a similar affection, an alteration is caused

in the region of the heart—and even in an imper-

ceptibly small part of it—it gives rise to a consider-

able change in the body, causing blushing or pallor

or shuddering or trembling or the opposites of these.

VIII. The origin, then, ofmovement, as has already

" i.e. here, the heart, cf. below, 701 b 30 ; see also note on698 bl.

465

ARISTOTLE701b

, , , . . <. , . ,

KlVTjGeWS TO €V TCp TTpaKTCO OlCOKTOV Kai (peVKTOV

i^ OLvdyKT]? 8' oLKoXovdeX rfj voTJcrec /cat rfj (f)avra<jla

35 avTOJV OepfJLOT'qg Kal ipvîg. ro fxev yap Xvirrfpov

(fyevKTOv, TO 8' rjSu Slojktov (aAAa Xavddvei nepl

TO, piLKpd TOVTO GVpLÔLVOv) , eCTTL 8e TO. Xv7Tr]pd

702 a Kal Tjhea Trdvra cr;ê8ov jLtera ifjvêco? Ttvog /cat

depjioT'qTOS. TOVTO 8e hr\Xov eK rajv TraOrjjiaTcov.

ddpprj yap /cat cf)6ôL /cat dcfypoSiGtacriiol /cat rdXXaTO, CTo^/xart/ca XvTTiqpd /cat 9^8ea ra pikv /caret fxopiov

{jLeTOL OeppiOTTfTos ri i/jvêcjg Igti, to, Se /ca^* oXov

^ TO Gcbfxa' fJLvrjpâi Se /cat iXTrlSes, olov elSwXoL?

Xp(JOpL€VaL Tols TOiOVTOLS, 6t€ fieV TjTTOV 6t€ 8e

pidXXov atrtat TCJov avTOJV elalv. ooot euAoya>s"

r\hy] 87^/xtoupyetTat ra Ivtos /cat ra rcepX Tas dpyasTojv opyavLKcov pLopiajv /xeraâAAoyra e/c TreTrrjyoTOJv

10 z5y/oa /cat c^ vypojv TreTrr^yora /cat /xaAa/cd /cat

(jKXrjpd i^ dXXTJXojv. tovtojv 8e crvfxpaLvovTOJV

TOV TpOTTOV TOVTOV, Kal €TL TOV TTaOrjTLKOV Kal

rroirfTLKOv TOLavTTjv eôvTcuv ttjv (jivaiv olav ttoX-

Xaôv elpiJKafxev, orroTav Gvp,^fi coot^ elvai to

fXeV TTOLTJTiKOV TO Se TTaQ'qTlKOV, Kal fJLTjSeV aTToXiTTr]

15 avTCJv eKdTepov tcov ev rw Xoycp, ev9vs to fiev

TTOtet TO 8e Trdaxî" Sta tovto 8' dfia ojs etTretv

iôet OTL TTopevTeov Kal Tropeuerat, av fJL'^ tl ipL-

ttoSl^tj €Tepov. TO, fiev yap opyaviKa p-^pr] irapa-

GK€vd^€i iTTLTT^SeLcog TO, TrdOrj , rj 8' ope^Lg to.

Trddrjy rrjv 8' ope^Lv tj (fâvrauia' avTTj Se ytVerat

iq Sta vorjoeojs q St' alad-qaeojs . dp,a Se /cat raxv20 Sta TO (roy^ TTOLTjTLKOV Kal TTaOrjTLKOV TCOV TTpOS

dXXrjXa elvat ttjv (jiVGiv.

^ rh add. Bonitz.

^6Q

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, viii.

been said, is the object of pursuit or avoidance in the

sphere of action, and heat and cold necessarily follow

the thought and imagination of these objects. Forwhat is painful is avoided, and what is pleasant is

pursued. We do not, it is true, notice the effect of

this in the minute parts of the body ; but practically

anything painful or pleasant is accompanied by somedegree of chilling or heating. This is clear from the

effects produced. Reckless daring, terrors, sexual

emotions and the other bodily affections, both pain-

ful and pleasant, are accompanied by heating or

chilling, either local or throughout the body. Re-collections too and anticipations, employing, as it

were, the images of such feelings, are to a greater or

less degree the cause of the same effects. So it is

w^th good reason that the inner portions of the bodyand those which are situated near the origins of the

motion of the organic parts are created as they are,

changing as they do from solid to liquid and fromliquid to solid and from soft to hard and vice versa.

Since, then, these processes occur in this way, and since,

moreover, the passive and the active principles havethe nature which we have frequently ascribed to them,

whenever it so happens that the one is active and the

other passive and neither fails to fulfil its definition,

immediately the one acts and the other is acted upon.

So a man thinks he ought to go, and goes, practically

at the same time, unless something else hinders him.

For the affections fittingly prepare the organic parts,

the desire prepares the affections, and the imagina-

tion prepares the desire, while the imagination is dueto thought or sensation. The process is simultaneous

and quick, because the active and the passive are bynature closely interrelated.

467

ARISTOTLE702a ^ ^ , .. , , -, V

1 o oe KLVovv -npajTov to L,ojov avayKJ) euvat ev rivi

o-PXfi- V ^^ KafjLTTrj on fxev icrrt rov fiev dpxr) rovhe reAeuT-)], eiprjrai. 8to kol ecrrt /xev co? eVt, eart8* o)? Sucre ;^p7^Tat 7^ (f)vuis avrfj. orav yap Kivrjrai

25 ivrevdev, avdyKiq ro fiev rjpefjieLV rcbv arjfieLCJV ra>v

iaxoLTCov, TO Se KLveTadai' otl yap jrpos -qpe/xovu 8et

dTTepeiheudai to klvovv, eipiqTai rrpoTepov. KLveZTai

fxev ovv /cat ov Ktvel to eaxoLTOV tov ^paxôvog, ttjs S'

ev Tip (hXeKpdvo) Kajjufjecus to fxev KLveiTai to eV auroj

T(p oXcp Kivovfievcp, dvdyKrj 8' elvai tl Kal dKivrjTOv,

30 o hrj (jyafxev hvvdpiei fxev ev elvai G7)pielov, evepyeia

he ylveudai hvo' ojgt el to t^wov rjv ^paxiO)v, iv-

Tavd^ dv 7TOV rjv rj dpx'rj ttjs i/jvxt]? y) KLVovora.

67761 8' evSex^Tai Kal Trpo? rrjv x^^P^ ^X^^^ '^^

OVTCOg TUJV dl/jVXCOV, OLOV el KLVOLTJ TTjV âKTTjpLaV

ev Tjj x^^P^y (jyavepov otl ovk dv etr) ev ovSeTepco

35 7) ^vx^] Twv eoxdTOiv, ovT^ ev Tw iaxdTCp tov

KivovfJLevov ovT^ ev ttj eTepa dpxfj- kolI ydp to

702 b ^vXov ex^L Kal dpxr]v Kal TeXog npog ttjv x^^P^-oidTe Sta ye tovto, el fii] ev ttj âKTiqpia rj Kivovoa

diTO TTJs ^^XV^ ^PXV iv^fynv, ouS' ev ttj X^^P^'opLolojg ydp ex^^ Kal to aKpov ttjs x^^P^^ rrpos tov

Kaprrov, Kal tovto to jJiepog Trpog to (LXeKpavov.

5 ovSev ydp hiacjêpei ra TrpodTrecfiVKOTa tcov fxiq

" i.e. the same relation as the forearm has to the elbow,* i.e. the end of the stick where it meets the hand.* i.e. the origin of the movement of the hand which is

situated in the wrist.** It is impossible to find a word in English which covers

the double meaning given to apxn here and in the previous line

(see note on 698 b 1). The sentence /cat 70,^x6^1^X01' . . . x"/"êxplains why the apxh Kivrjaecos of the hand is called rj MpaoiPXVi viz. that there is another dpxv (in the sense of " be-

ginning") in the stick, namely, the point nearest the hand.

468

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, viii.

Now that which first causes movement in the

animal must be situated in a definite beginning.

Now it has already been stated that the joint is the

beginning ofone thing and the end ofanother ; where-

fore nature employs it sometimes as one and some-times as two. For when movement is being origin-

ated from it, one of its extreme points must be at

rest, while the other must move ; for we have already

said that what causes movement must be supported

on something which is at rest. The extremity, there-

fore, of the forearm is moved and does not cause

movement, but in the elbow-joint one part, namelythat which is situated in the actual whole which is in

motion, is moved, but there must also be something

which is unmoved ; and this is what we mean whenwe say that a point is potentially one but becomesactually two. So ifthe forearm were a living creature,

it is somewhere near this point that the origin ofmove-ment set in motion by the soul would be situated.

Since, however, it is possible for an inanimate object

to bear this same relation to the hand,° for instance

if one moves a stick in one's hand, it is clear that the

soul could not be situated in either of the extremities,

neither in the extremity of that which is moved ^ nor

in the other origin of movement (apX'D ^ '» ^^^ ^^^ stick

has an end and a beginning (opxv) ^ hi relation to the

hand. So, for this reason, if the origin of movementset up by the soul is not situated in the stick, it is not

situated in the hand either ; for the extremity of the

hand * bears the same relation to the wrist as the

latter does to the elbow. For there is no difference

between what is attached by growth and what is not

• i.e. the point where the hand joins the stick.

469

ARISTOTLE

yiverai yap ojoirep d(f)aip€T6v [xepos rj PaKrrjpla.

avdyKT) dpa ev /xT^Se/xta etvat dpxfj, t] icrnv aAAoureXevrij, /xr^Se et rt iarlv erepov eKelvov i^wrepo),

OLOV rod fiev rrjg âKrrjpLag iaxd-rov eV rfj X^'-P'^

7) oLpxTj, TovTov S' €v KapTTCp . €L Se /XT]S' iv rfj

10 xî-Ph on dvcoTepco 'in, rj dpx^ oi;S' ivravda' ert

yap rod ojXeKpdvov fievovros KLveiraL drrav ro

Kdroj Gwex^S'IX. 'Ettci S* oixoiojs exî aTTO tu)V dpiarepajv

Kal 0,770 rdJv Se^Lcov, Kal a/xa rdvavria /ctvetrat,

cl)ot€ fjLT) elvai ro) rjpepLelv to Seîov KLveZudai to

dpiOTepov fiTjh^ ai) tw tovto eKelvo, del 8' iv to)

J 5 dvojTipw dii(j)OTipa>v tj dpx'ij, dv'dyKrj iv to) fiiao)

etvai TTjv dpxî^ Trjs ijjvxrjS ttj? KLVovar)S' dix(f)OTipujv

yap Tihv aKpcov to fxicrov 'ioxo^Tov. opLoioJS 8' €;)êi

TTpos Tas KLVTjCjeLs TOVTO Kal rd? aTTO Tov dvco Kal

KdTO), OLOV Tas drro ttjs K€(âXrjg KaV' Tag dno rrj?

20 pdx^(JL>£ ToZs ixovGL pdxt-v. Kal evX6ya>s Se tovto

avfxî^r^Kev Kal yap to aladr^TLKov ivTavda etval

(JiapLCV, cocrr' dXXoiovjjiivov Std ttjv auerd-qcnv tov

TOTTOV tov TTepl TTjV dpX'TjV Kal jXeTa^dXXoVTOS TOL

ixdfJLeva GVfJLfieTa^dXXei iKTeivopievd re Kal avvayo-

fxeva rd /jLopia, cocrr' i^ dvdyK-qs 8td raura yiveaOai

25 TT^v KLvqoLv Tols l,cx)ois. TO he fiiaov TOV crco/xaros"

* Kal scrips! : irpos libri.

*• This is simply a restatement of the doctrine of 702 b 1-4.

The true dpxv is not situated in the extremitj^ of the stick

nearest to the hand (which is an dpxv as being the placewhere the stick begins in relation to the hand), nor yet in anyother member, such as the wrist, which is still farther awayfrom the stick and is an apxv as being the origin of motionin the hand. The wrist, elbow, and shoulder are all of them

470

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, viii.-ix.

so attached ; for the stick becomes a kind of detachedmember. The origin of movement, therefore, cannotbe situated in any origin which is the termination of

something else, nor in any other part which is farther

from it ; for example, the origin of movement of the

extremity of the stick is in the hand, but the origin

of the movement of the hand is in the wrist." Andso if the origin of movement is not in the hand, be-

cause it is still higher up,* neither is it in this higher

position ; for, again, if the elbow is at rest, the con-

tinuous part below it can be set in motion as a whole.

IX. Now since there is similarity in the left and the

right sides of the body, and the opposite parts can bemoved simultaneously, so that it is impossible for the

right side to move just because the left is at rest or vice

versa, and the origin of movement must be in that

which lies above both sides, it necessarily follows that

the origin of movement in the moving soul must bebetween them ; for the middle is the Hmit of bothextremes. And it stands in the same relation to the

movements above as to those below, to those, for

example, which proceed from the head and to those

which proceed from the spine in animals which havea spine. And there is good reason for this ; for wesay that the organ of sensation is also situated in

the centre of the body ; and so if the region roundabout the origin of movement is altered by sense-

perception and undergoes change, the parts whichare attached to it change with it by extension or con-

traction, so that in this way movement necessarily

takes place in animals. And the central part of the

dpxai in relation to the parts below them, but the true apx-n

is situated in the soul, which lies in the centre of the body.* i.e. the wrist.

471

ARISTOTLE702 b ^

[lepos Svi'dfiei [xev eV, evepyeia 8* dvayKj] ytveadaL

TrXeico' Kol yap dfxa KLvelrai rd KcbXa diro rrjs

dp)(rjs, Kol darepov TjpepiOVVTOS Odrepov KiveiTai.

Xiycxj 8' olov eTTL rrjs ABF to B Kivelrai, Kivel

Se TO A. aAAa piriv Set ye tl 'qpe/JLelv, el /xeAAet

80 TO ixev KLveiGOai rd 8e KiveZv. ev dpa Swdfia oV

TO A evepyeia Suo eurai, toar dvdyKT] jjltj OTiyiJLrjv

dXXd pLeyeOos tl etvai. dXXd pLrjv ivSex^Tat to TdpLa TO) B KLveloOai, oj<jt dvdyKrj dpL(f)0T€pas Tds

dpxds Tds iv TO) A KLvovfjLeuas Kivelv. 8et tl dpa

€LvaL TTapd raura? eTepov to klvovv Kal pbrj klvov-

85 pL€POV. aTTepelSoLVTo pL€v ydp dv TO, a/cpa Kal at

dpXOil OLL iv TO) A TTpOS aAArJAtt? KLVOVpiivCOV, a)G7T€p

703 a dv et TLveg ra vwTa dvTepelhovTes klvoI^v Td OKeXrj.

dXXd TO KLVOVV dpL(f)Oj dvayKalov elvaL. tovto 8'

ioTLV Tj i/jvx'q, eTepov fxev ovaa tov pieyedovs tov

TOLovTov, ev TovTcp 8' ovoa.

X. Kara piev ovv tov Xoyov tov XeyovTa ttjv

6 aLTLav TTJs KLvqoeojs eoTLV Tj dpe^LS TO pLecrov, o

KLvel KLvovpievov ev he tols ipupvxoLs aco/xaat Set

TL €LVaL od)pLa TOLOVTOV. TO pLeV OVV KLVOVpLCVOV

pLev pLTj rrecfyvKos Se KLveZv SuVarat 77aa;êty /car'

dXXoTpiav hvvapLLV to Se klvovv dvayKalov e;3êty

TLvd SvvapLLV Kal LGXvv. irdvTa 8e âtVerat ra

10 t,a)a Kal exovTa irvevpLa GvpL(f)VTOV Kal LOXvovTa

TOVTOJ, {tLS pev ovv Tj OCJOTTlpia TOV GVp(f)VTOV

TTvevpLaTOS, eLpr]TaL iv aAAotS".) tovto Se Trpog

TTjv dpx^v Trjv i/jvx^'KTjv eoLKev opLOLOJS ^X^^^ cooTrep

""See Introd. p. 436.

472

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, ix.-x.

body is potentially one, but actually must necessarily

become more than one ; for the limbs are set in

motion simultaneously from the origin of movement,and when one is at rest the other is in motion. Forexample, in ABC, B is moved and A moves it ; there

must, however, be something at rest .

if one thing is to be moved andanother is to move it. So A, thoughpotentially one, will be actually two,

so that it must be not a point but a

magnitude. Again, C may be movedsimultaneously with B, so that both

the origins in A must cause movement by being

moved ; there must, therefore, be something other

than these origins which causes movement without

being itself moved. Otherwise, when movement took

place, the extremities, or origins, in A would rest

upon one another, like men standing back to back andmo\dng their limbs. There must be something which

moves them both, namely the soul, other than such

a magnitude as we have described but situated in it.

X. In accordance with the definition which defines

the cause of motion, desire is the central origin, which

moves by being itself moved ; but in animate bodies

there must be some bodily substance which has these

characteristics. That, then, which is moved but does

not possess the natural quality of setting up move-ment may be affected by a power external to it, andthat which causes movement must possess somepower and strength. Now all animals clearly both

possess an innate spirit and exercise their strength

in virtue of it. (WTiat it is that conserves the innate

spirit has been explained elsewhere. <*) This spirit

seems to bear the same relation to the origin in the

473

ARISTOTLE

TO ev rats /ca/xTrat? (jr]iJL€LOv, to kwovv Kai kwovfJLGVOVy TrpOS TO OLKLVrjTOV. €7761 8' T] apX^ ''Ôt?

/xei' ep' rfj KapSia TOt? 8' ei^ tco dvdXoyov, 8td rovro

Kal TO TTvevfia to <JVjj.ff)VTOv ivTavOa (j)aiveTai 6v.

15 TTOTepov jxev ovv TavTOv Igtl to TTvevfia del -r)

yiveTai del eTepov, eoTCo d'AAos" Adyo? (d avTOS

yap idTL Kal rrepl tcov dXXcov iiopicov)' (jyaiveTai 8'

ev^vojs ^X^^ TTpog to kivtjtikov elvai Kal rrapeyêiv

Igxvv. Ta 8* epya ttjs KivrjGeios (Lais Kal eX^cg,

20 ojCTTe Set TO opyavov av^dvecrOai t€ 8waaât Kal

avGTeXXeoOai. TOiavTi] 8' eo-Ttv rj tov irvevpiaTos

(j)VGLS' Kal yap dîauTos avoTeXXofjievr], Kal

^LaaTLKT] Kal waTLKT] 8td TT^v ai)Tr]v atTtar, /cat

ex^^ Kal ^dpos TTpog Ta TTvpwSr] Kal KovôTiqTa

TTpos TOL evavTia. hel 8e to fieXXov Kivelv (jltj

25 dAAotcoo-et TOiovTOV elvai' KpaTei yap KaTa ttjv

vnepox'^v TO, (fiVcriKa GcofxaTa dAATJAojv, to ^xev

Kovcj)ov KaTOj VTTO TOV âpVTepov diToviKcoixevoVy

to he âpv dva> vtto tov KovÔTepov."^0.1 jjiev ovv Kivel KLVovyêvco {JLOpio) rj j/fup^rJêtpi^Tat,

Kal 8t* "rjv aiTiav VTToXrjTTTeov 8e GweoTavaL to

80 t,ipov ojGTtep ttoXlv evvoiiovfjievrjv. ev t€ yap ttj TToXei

OTav dVaf gvgttj^ -q Taîs, ovSev Bel Kex^p^crp-^ôv

fjiovdpxov, ov Set Trapelvai Trap* eKaGTOV twvyivofjievojv, dAA' auTO? eKaGTOS TTOiel to, avTov

(vs TeTaKTai, Kal yiveTai ToBe pueTCL ToSe 8td

1 (rvarfi P : arfj ESY.

" For this meaning of dîiaaTos cf. Plato, Tim. 61 a. Theaction of the wev/jLa is represented as resembling that of the

breath in the lungs ; when the breath contracts it lacks force

and the lungs collapse, when it expands it thrusts outwardsand exercises force.

'' Namely, expansion.

474

MO\T.MENT OF ANIMALS, x.

soul as the point in the joints, which moves and is

moved, bears to that which is unmoved. Now since

the origin is in some animals situated in the heart, in

others in what corresponds to the heart, it is therefore

clear that the innate spirit also is situated there.

Whether the spirit is always the same or is alwayschanging must be discussed elsewhere (for the samequestion arises about the other parts of the body) ;

at any rate it is clearly well adapted by nature to bea motive power and to exercise strength. Now the

functions of movement are thrusting and pulling, so

that the organ of movement must be able to increase

and contract. And the nature of spirit has these

quahties ; for when it contracts it is without force,"

and one and the same cause ^ gives it force and en-

ables it to thrust, and it possesses weight as comparedwith the fiery element, and lightness as comparedwith the contrary elements,'' Now that which is to

create movement without causing alteration must beof this kind ; for the natural bodies ^ overcome oneanother according as one of them prevails, the light

being conquered and borne down by the heavier andthe heavy borne up by the lighter.

We have now stated what is the part by the move-ment of w^hich the soul creates movement and for

what reason. The constitution of an animal must beregarded as resembling that of a well-governed city-

state. For when order is once established in a city

there is no need of a special ruler with arbitrary

powers to be present at every activity, but each indi-

vidual performs his own task as he is ordered, and oneact succeeds another because of custom. And in the

" The contrary of fire is water, c/. Be gen. et corrupt. 331 a 1.

^ i.e. the elements.

Q 475

ARISTOTLE

TO evos' €v re rots' icoois to avTO tovto Ota ttjv

35 <f)V(nv yiv€Tai /cat to) 7reû/<eVat eKaoTOV ovtco

avGTOLVTOJv rroielv to avTov epyov, oj(jt€ firjSev

8etv iv eKOLGTW etpat ijjvx'^v, aAA' eV rtvt dpxfj '''ov

703 b CTctj/xaros" ovgtjs rdAAa l^rjv fiev toj 7Tpocr7T€(f)VKevaL,

TToieiv he TO epyov to avTcov 8td ttjv (J)volv.

XI. Hios /xev ovv KLveiTai tcls eKovdias /ctvTJoet?

TO, t,ipa, /cat 8td rtVa? atrtas", etpT^rat* /ctêtrat 8e

5 Ttvas" /cat OLKOVGLOvs eVta rcDi^ [Jiepojv, tols 8e

TrAetora? ou;^ eKovalovg. Xeyco 8* (xkovglov? fiev

OLOV TT]v TTJs KapStas T€ /Cat TT^v Tou alSoLOV {noXXaKLs

yap (f)av€VTOs rtvos", ou /xeVrot /ceAeucrai^ros' tol>

VOL? KLVOVVTai), OVX eKOVdLOVS 8' OtOV V7TVOV Kol

iyp-qyopaiv /cat dyaTTVOTjy, /cat oorat d'AAat rotaurai

10 elcTLV. ovOevos yap tovtcov Kvpia airXix)? icrTLV

ov6* 7) (f)avTaala ovO^ rj opeîs, dAA* evethr] dvdyKr]

dXXoLovodai TOL l,ci)a (jiVGLKrjv olXXolcoglv, dAAotou-

/xeVcov 8e TcDv fioptcov to. fiev aufeoât rd 8e c/idiveLV,

coctt' '^'817 KiveloOai /cat fxeTaâXXetv rds" Treû/cutas"

exôOaL fieTaôXas dAATÂoji^ (atrtat 8e rcDv

1^ KLvqaeojv OepfjLOTrjTes re /cat ipvêis, at t€ dvpadev

/cat at ei^rds" VTrdpxovaai (fyvcnKai), /cat at irapd

Tov Adyov 817 yivofxevai KLvrjoeis tcjv prjdevTCOv

fjiopLOJv dAAottuoeco? GvpLTreoovorjs yivovTai. r] yap

voriGLS /cat 17 </)avTaota, oyartep elpryrai npoTepoVy to

TTOnqTiKa ToyvnadrifxdTCJV 7TpoG(f)epovGLV rd ydp et87]

20 TCUV TTOLTJTLKcbv 7TpOU(j)epOVGLV . jJidXlGTa 8e TcDv

fjLopLOJV TavTa TToiet eTTih-qXcDS 8td rd cooTrep ^(Sop'

Kex^JoptGfjLevov eKdTepov elvai rcDv pLopiajv [• tovtov

" See note on 698 b 1.

* Viz. the heart and the privy member." 701 b 18 ff.

476

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, x.-xi.

animals the same process goes on because of nature,

and because each part of them, since they are so

constituted, is naturally suited to perform its ownfunction ; so that there is no need of soul in eachpart, but since it is situated in a central origin of

authority over the body," the other parts live bytheir structural attachment to it and perform their

own functions in the course of nature.

XL We have now discussed the manner of the

voluntary movements of animals, and the cause of

them. Some of their parts, however, undergo certain

involuntary movements, though most of these are

really non-voluntary. By involuntary I mean such

movements as those of the heart and of the privy

member, which are often moved by the presentation

of some image and not at the bidding of reason. Bynon-voluntary I mean sleeping and waking and respira-

tion and the like. For neither imagination nor desire

is strictly speaking responsible for any of these move-ments ; but, since animals must necessarily undergophysical alteration, and, when their parts undergoalteration, some increase and others decrease, and so

their bodies immediately move and undergo the

natural sequence of changes (the causes of their

movements being the natural heatings and chillings,

both external and internal), the movements too of

the above-mentioned parts ^ which occur contrary to

reason are due to the occurrence of a change. Forthought and imagination, as has already been said,*

induce the states which cause the affections ; for

they present the images of the things which causethem. Now these parts act in this way much moreconspicuously than any others, because each is as it

were a separate vital organism[, the reason being that

477

ARISTOTLE703 b

8' aiTLOV OTL exovGLV vyporrjTa t^curiK-qv]} rj fxkv ovv

Kaphia (f>av€p6v St' rjv alriav ras y^p^ apxa^ e;êt

rojv alodiquecov to 8e piopiov to yevvqTiKov otl

25tolovt6v ioTiy GTjiielov Kal yap iêpêTai i^

avTOV axjTTep t^toov tl tj tov GirepixaTO? Sura/xt?.

at Se KLvqaecg ttj re apXT? ^'^^ '^^^ fJLoplcov Kal

rots' fiopioig OLTTO rr^s" o.pxrJ9 evXoyojs ovpiâivovGi,

Kal TTpos dAArjAa? ovtcxjs acjuKvovvTai. Set yapvorjaaL to A dpx^^. at ouu KLvrjaeLS Kad* e/caaroy

30 GTOLXîov Tcov imyeypajjifievcov irrl ttjv dpx^^ d(j)iK-

vovvTai, Kal (xtto ttjs dpxrj? Kivovfievrjs Kal //era-

âXXovG-qg, eTreiSr] 77oAAa hvvdfx€i ecrrtV, -q fiev tov

B dpx'^ ^'^l 'ô B, Tj Se TOV r errl to T, rj S' dfX(f)OLV

€77* dfjicjia). diTo he tov B eVt to V to)^ dno [xev tov35 B iirl TO A iXdelv wg err* dpx^jvy diro he tov A eVt

TO r CO? avr' dpxyj?- otl Be OTe fxkv raura* vorjodv-

Tojv ytVerat o^ KLvrjGig r) Trapd tov Xoyov ev rot?

lOÂ pLopioLs, 6t€ S' ol>, atrtop' to ore /xev vrrapx^LV ttjv

TTaO-qTLKrjv vXtjv 6t6 8e /xi) ToaavTr^v rj ToiavTiqv.

Ylepl pLev ovv tcov pLoplcov eKdoTov tcov [,cpcov,

704 b Kal irepl ipvxTJS, €tl Se nepl alGdrjG€oos Kal vttvov

Kai pLV-qpi-qs Kal Trjg kolvtjs KLvrjuecos, elpiqKapiev

ret? atrta?* Aot77oy Se irepl yeveoecos elireZv.

* TovTov , , . i^cjTLKrjv ut interpolamentum del. Jaeger.2 yap cm. EY.

3 Tw EP : ry 0^ Y : t6 5^ S.* ravTo. Jaeger : to, avTO. P : raOra ESY.

• These words are probably an interpolated gloss ; they

478

MOVEMENT OF ANIMALS, xi.

each contains vital moisture].° The reason for this as

regards the heart is plain, for it contains the origins

of the senses. That the generative organ is of the

same nature is shown by the fact that the seminal

force comes forth from it, being as it were a living

thing. Now it is only in accordance with reason that

movements are set up both in the central origin bythe parts and in the parts by the central origin,

and thus reach one another. Let A be the central

origin ; the movements at each letter in the diagramdrawn above ^ reach the central origin, and from the

central origin, w^hen it is moved or undergoes change(for it is potentially many), the origin of movementin B goes to B, and the origin of movement is C to C,

and of both to both ; but from B to C it travels bygoing from B to A as to a central origin, and fromA to C as from a central origin. Movement, however,contrary to reason, sometimes takes place and some-times does not take place in the organs as the result

of the same thoughts, the reason being that thematter which is liable to be affected is sometimespresent and sometimes not present in the properquantity and quality.

We have now dealt Nvith the reasons for the parts

of each animal, the soul, and also sense-perception,

sleep, memory, and general movement. It remainsto deal with the generation of animals.

are unnecessary in view of the following sentences and con-tradictory in doctrine to them.

'' See figure on p. 473.

479

PROGRESSIONOF ANIMALS

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

Chap. I. Introduction. Problems which arise aboutanimal locomotion. Different number of limbs anddifferent modes of bending them found in different animals.

II. Assumption of generally-accepted principles anddefinitions.

III. Animal movement requires (1) a resisting surface

against which the limbs can press, (2) a distinction ofactive and passive parts in the animal.

IV. ITie dimensions of living bodies. Superior andinferior determined by function and not by position.

Plants and animals compared. Distinction of front andback, right and left. The right, as the source of move-ment, superior to the left. Man the most highly differen-

tiated of the animals.

V. Bipeds, quadrupeds, polypods and footless ammalsdistinguished. Quadrupeds inferior to bipeds. Man the

highest form of biped, being the most " natural."

VI. All movement in the animal must originate in acommon centre, equidistant from the centres of movementin the limbs.

VII. Red-blooded animals move at four points : suchanimals are a continuous whole, while bloodless animals

and polypods are composed of a number of separate

entities. Even limbless red-blooded animals move at

four points.

VIII. Reason for the absence of limbs in snakes. Limbsnecessarily even in number.

IX. Flexion necessary to movement, even in limbless

animals. Its mechanism explained. Illustrations fromleaping, flying, and swinuning animals.

X. Movement of birds. Use of the tail to guide flight,

482


XI. Man, the only erect animal, compared with thebirds. Winged human beings an impossible invention ofthe artists.

XII. Differences of flexion in the limbs of man and ofthe quadrupeds explained.

XIII. The different modes of flexion enumerated andillustrated by diagrams.

XIV. " Diagonal " movement of the legs of quadrupeds.Movement of crabs.

XV. Birds and quadrupeds compared. The structure

of the legs of birds. Oblique attachment of wings andfins. The structure of oviparous quadrupeds.XVI. Movement of bloodless animals. The peculiar

movement of the crab.

XVII. Crabs, lobsters, flat-fish, and web-footed birds.

XVIII. ^^lly birds have feet, while fishes have not.

Fins and wings compared.XIX. The movement of testaceans. Conclusion,

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THEAPPARATUS CRITICUS

Z = Codex Oxoniensis Collegii Corporis Christi W.A.2.7.

U= Codex Vaticanus 260.

S = Codex Laurentianus 81. 1.

P= Codex Vaticanus 1339.

Y = Codex Vaticanus 261.

Leon. = Latin translation of Nicholas Leonicus.

Mich. = Greek commentary of Michael Ephesiug.

q2 483

nEPI nOPEIAS Zi2Ii2N704 a

I. Ilepl Se T<JL)V XPV'^^H'^^ fiopLCov rots ôjols

5 TTpos TTjV KLvrjULv TTjv Kara TOTTOV €TnaK€TTriov Sta

TtV alriav tolovtov iariv eKaarov avrtjjv /cat rivos

€V€K€V VTTOLpX^l' aVTOlS , €TL Se 7T€pl TCJbv SiatÔpOJV

TOiV re TTpos dXXr]Xa roXs rod avrov /cat ivos (â)ov

ixopiois, Koi TTpos TO. T(x)v aXkojv rcjv Tip yivei 8ta-

(f)6p(X)V. TTpcJOTOV Se Xdâ>fJL€V TTepl OGCOV eTTt-

OKeTTriov.

10 "Ecrrt Se TTpchrov /xev ttogols iXax^crroLs rd foJa

KLveZrai ariii€iois, eVetra Sta rt rd fiev eVat/xa

rerrapcn rd 8* dvatfxa TxAetoCTt, /cat /caôAou 8e Sta

TtV alriav rd fiev dnoSa rd 8e StVoSa rd 8e

rerpaTToSa rd 8e 77oAu7ro8a rcov ^cocov icrrl, /cat

8ta Tt TTavr dprlovs e%€t rous' TroSas", ooarrep e;êt

15 TToSa? auToiv oAo;? 8' ot? KLveZrai oiqixeiois, dpria

ravr iariv,

"Ert hk 8ta rtV* alriav dvdpojTTOs [xev /cat opi'ts-

SIttovs, ol 8' IxOves aTToSes eluiv /cat ra? Kapufjeis

o re dvdpcDTTOs /cat o opvis SiTToSes ovres ivavrias

exovGL rwv gkcXcov. 6 ptev ydp dv9p<x)TTos CTit

20 rrjv TT€pL(f)€p€Lav KafiTTreL ro a/ceAo?, o 8' opi^ts"

eVt TO kolXov. /cat o dvdpojTTOS avros avrca

484.


I. We must next discuss the parts which are useful

to animals for their movement from place to place,

and consider why each part is of the nature which

it is, and why they possess them, and further the

differences in the various parts of one and the sameanimal and in those of animals of different species

compared with one another. We must first decide

what questions we have to discuss.

One question is, what is the smallest number of

points at which animals move ; the next is, why red-

blooded animals move at four points, while bloodless

animals move at more than four ; and, in general,

why some animals are without feet, others biped,

others quadrupeds, and others polypods, and why all

that have feet at all have an even number of feet

;

and, in general, why the points at which movementis made are even in number.

We must further consider why a man and a bird are

bipeds, while fishes are without feet ; and why a manand a bird, being both bipeds, have opposite bend-

ings of the legs. For a man bends his legs in a convex

direction, a bird in a concave direction ; and a man

485

ARISTOTLE

ivavrlcos ra OKeXiq /cat tovs ^paxiovag- rovs /xev

yap iirl to koIXov, ra 8e yovara cttl rriv irepi-

(jiepeiav Kdjirrrei. /cat ra rerpoLTToSa ra Jojoro/ca

rots' t' av6pcx)rrois evavriojs KapnTrci /cat aura

auTots"* ra fX€v yap rrpoaOla GKeXrj em ro Kvprov

704 b rrj<s 7T€pi(f)€p€Las /ca/XTrret, ra S' orriuOia irrl ro

6 KoZXov. en Se ra)v rerpaTTohojv ocra fjurj l,cporoKel

aXX ojoroKeZ, tStoj? /cat els ro TrXdytov /ca/XTrret.

Trpo? 8e rovroLs 8ta rtV alriav rd rerpdrroha

Kivelrai Kara Sidpierpov. Trepl Srj irdi^rajv rovrojv,

/cat oo-a d'AAa Gvyyevrj rovrois, ra? airlas Oecop-q-

reov. on fxev yap ovrco ravra GvpLâlvei, SrjXov ei<

10 rrjs Lcrroplas rrjs (f)VGLKrjSy Stort Se, vui' GKenreov.

II. 'Ap)(r) Se rrjs GKeijjeojs vnoOepLevoLS ols

elojQapLev XPV^^^^ TroAAa/cts" irpos rrjv jxedohov

rrjv (f)vaLKTJv, Xaôvres rd rovrov exovra rov

rpoTTOV ev ttolgl roZs rrjs cfyvaews epyois. rovrcov

15 8' ev jLteV eanv on rj (f)VGLs ovOev TTOiet fidrrjv,

aAA' del e/c rcov ev'êxopievcov rfj ovala rrepl eKaarov

yevos t,(pov ro dpiurov hioirep el êXnov coSl,

ovrcos /cat ex^c Kara (f)vcnv. en rds SiaardaeLs

rod fjueyeOovs, TToaai /cat iTolai ttolols VTrdpxovau,

Set Xaêlv. elal yap StaGrdaeis liev ef , Gvl,vyiai

20 he rpels, [xia fiev ro dvoj /cat ro Kdrco, Sevrepa Se

rd efjLTTpoGOev /cat ro oTTLGOev, rplrrj Se ro Se^Lov

/cat ro dpiGrepov . rrpds Se rovrois on rwv KLvrjGewv

rcJov Kara ronov dpxoil cLgls /cat eX^ts. Kad

avrds fiev ow avrai, Kara GviJiê^rjKos Se Kivel-

* i.e. the front rijsrht foot with the left back foot, and the left

front with the right back. ^ The Iflstoria Aniynalium." Leon, renders eodeni . . . modo which seems to im-

ply that he was translating rbf avrbv IxoJ'T'a Tpbirov.

486

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, i.-ii.

himself bends his legs and his arms in opposite

directions, the arms concavely and the knees con-

vexly. And viviparous quadrupeds bend their limbs

in the opposite way to a man's and in opposite

ways to one another ; for they bend their front legs

convexly and their back legs concavely. Further,

quadrupeds which are not viviparous but oviparous

have the peculiarity of bending their legs sideways.

A further question is why do quadrupeds move their

legs diagonally. **

We must examine the reasons of all these andsimilar facts ; that they are facts is clear from our

Natural History,^ and we have now to examine their

causes.

II. We must begin our inquu-y by assuming the

principles which we are frequently accustomed to

employ in natural investigation, namely, by accept-

ing as true what occurs in accordance with these

principles *^ in all the works of nature. One of these

principles is that nature never creates anythingwithout a purpose, but always what is best in viewof the possibilities allowed by the essence of each

kind of animal ; therefore, if it is better to do a thing

in a particular manner, it is also in accordance with

nature. Further, we must accept the dimensions of

magnitude in the size and quahty in which they are

present in various objects. For there are six dimen-sions grouped in three pairs, the first being the

superior and the inferior, the second the front andthe back, and the third the right and the left. Wemust further postulate that the origins of movementfrom place to place are thrusting and pulling. Theseare movements per se ; that which is carried by

487

ARISTOTLE

rat TO cpepofxevov vtt aAAov ov yap avro ooKei

705 a KLvelv avro dAA* utt* aXXov KLveloOai ro vtto rivog

<f)€p6fJi€VOV.

III. TovTCOv 8e hicjpi(jp,ivcov Xeyajfiev ra rovrcov

i(j)e^rj?. Tcov Sr] l,a)Ojv ocra /xeraâAAet Kara

roTTOv, ra fxev adpoco Travrl rep crcu/xart /xeraâAAet,

6 KaOdirep ra aX\6p.€va, ra 8e /caret p,epos^ Kaddrrep

ru)v TTopevofxevojv €Kaorov. iv dfjL,(f)or€paLS 8e rals

IxeraôXals ravrats del fxeraâXXei ro KLVovpLevov

d7Toarripit,6pi€vov npos ro VTroKeifievov avrw.

BiOTTep idv re V7TO(f)epr)raL rovro ddrrov rj cocrr

10 €^€LV dTTepeLdaadaL ro TTOLOvfievov ctt' avrov rrjv

KLvr](jLU, edv 6* oXa)S ixrjSepLiav exjj rots KivovfidvoLs

dvrepeioiv , ovdev ctt' avrov hvvarai Kiveiv eavro.

/cat yap ro aXXofievov /cat Trpo? avro^ dnepecSopLe-

vov ro dvoj /cat Trpos" to vtto rovs vroSas" TTOieZrai

rrjv dXoLV e)(€L ydp riva dvrepeLcriv vpos dX\r]\a

15 TO, jLtopta iv rals KapLTrals, /cat oAoj? ro iTietôv

TTpos ro TTueô/JLevov. 8to /cat ot TrivradXoi dXXovrai

TrXeXov €.)(ovres rovs dXrrjpas t) fJirj exovres, /cat

ot diovres Odrrov diovoi rrapaaeLovreg rds ;\;etpa9*

yLverai ydp ris dTripeiois ev rfj Staracret Trpos ras

Xelpas /cat rovs Kapnovs. del Se ro KLvovfievov

'-'0 hvalv iXaxicrroLS XP^P'^^^^ opyavLKoZs jxepecrL

TTOielrai rrjv fieraôXijv, rep p,ev (hoirepavel OXiôvrLy

ra> he dXiôfxevu). ro puev ydp fjuevov dXiêrai hid

^ Kara ixipo$ Z : n.ipei S : rot j fioplois cet.a avTb PUY: avrb S: iavrb Z.

" Special weights {aXrTjpes) or sometimes stones were held

in the hands and thrown backwards by jumpers while in the

air to add to their impetus ; cf. Norman Gardiner, Greek

488

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ii.-iii.

something else is only moved accidentally, for whatis carried by something else is regarded not as mov-ing itself but as being moved by something else.

III. These points having been decided, let us

proceed to the considerations which follow fromthem. Of the animals, then, which change their local

position, some do so with their whole body at the

same time, for instance those which jump ; others

move part by part, for example those that walk.

In both these changes the animal that moves makesits change of position by pressing against that whichis beneath it ; and so, if the latter slips away too

quickly to allow that which is setting itself in motionupon it to press against it, or if it offers no resistance

at all to that which is moving, the animal cannot moveitself at all upon it. For that which jumps performsthat movement by pressing both on its own upperpart and on that which is beneath its feet ; for the

parts in a way lean upon one another at their joints,

and, in general, that which presses leans on that

which is pressed. Hence athletes jump farther if

they have the weights in their hands than if theyhave not," and runners run faster if they swing their

arms ^; for in the extension of the arms there is a

kind of leaning upon the hands and wrists. Now that

which moves always makes its change of place by theemployment of at least two organic parts, one as it

were compressing and the other being compressed.

For the part which remains still is compressed by

Athletic Sports and Festivals, pp. 298 if., who proves by-

experiment the truth of the statement made in the presentpassage.

'' On the importance attached by the Greeks to arm-action in running, especially in short races, cf. N. Gardiner,op. cit. p. 282.

489

ARISTOTLE705 a ,

,

TO <f>€p€Lv, TO 8' alpofxevov reLverau rep (jyipovri

TO <j)opTLOv. hioirep a/xepe? ovhkv ovtcjo KLvrjOrjvai

SvvaTOV ov yap e;\;et rrjv tov TTeicropievov koI tov

25 TTOLrjaovTog iv avrw^ SidXTjipLV.

IV. 'ETret 8' eldlv at hiaordueis tov dpidpiov

€^, at? 6pii,€a6ai TT€(f)VK€ TOL â>a/ to re aVco /cat

KOLTOJ Kal TO ejjLTTpoadev /cat OTTLodev, ert 8€ 86^101^

/cat dpiGTepov, to pikv avco /cat /caro; fiopLov iravT

exî TOL tôyvTa. ov jjlovov yap iv tols 1,(x)ols €OtI

TO dvoj /cat Kara), dAAa /cat eV rots' (f)VTOLs. 8t-

80 elXrjTTTaL 8' epyco, /cat ou Oecrei piovov ttj Trpos re

Ti7t' yTyv /cat TOV ovpavov. odev /xev yap 1^ tt]? Tpo(f)7Js

SidSoGLs /cat 7^ av^TjGis iKaoTois, dvoj tovt cgtIv'

705 b TTpos o 8* eaxoLTOV avTTj Trepalvei, tovto Kdrco.

TO pi€V yap dpx'ij Tts", to 8e Tripas' dpx^ 8e ro avco.

KaiTOi S6^€L€V dv TOL? (j)VTol? OLKeloV elvai TO Kdroj

pidXXov ovx dpLOLOis yap exî Tjj decret to avco /cat

Kdrco TOVTOLs Kal Tot? t,a)OLS. ^X^'' ^^ Trpos p.ev

6 TO dXov ovx op-OLCos, Kara 8e to epyov opLolcos.

at yap ptât etat to avco toIs ^vtoZs' eKeWev yapTj Tpo(f>r) 8ta8tSoTat Tots <j)Vopiivois, /cat Xapi^dveu

ravTais avTriv, Kaddnep Ta t,a)a T0X9 GTopaavv.

''Oo'a 8e p,r] pLovov l,fj dXXd /cat t^cod ecTt, TOt?

TOtouTOts" VTrdpxî' TO T€ epLTTpoodev Kal TO oTTLodev.

10 aiddrjCTLV yap e;\;et TauTa TrdvTa, 6pil,eTai 8e /caTO.

ravTTjv TO T€ epLTTpooOev Kal to oTnoOev icj)* o

p,ev yap rj a'tudrjais 7Te<^VKe Kal dOev IgtIv eKdoTOiSt

1 avT(^ Jaeger : avrt^ libri. ^ ^<â Y : ^Cbvra ceteri,

• Cf, above, 704 b 19 ff. ^ Cf. De caelo, 294 b 17.* More literally "personal."

' Cf. De vit. long, et brev. 467 b 2 ; Phys. 199 a 28.

490

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iii.-iv.

having to carry the weight, and the part which is

raised is extended by that wliich carries the weight.

And so nothing that is without parts can move in

this manner ; for it does not contain in itself thedistinction between what is to be passive and whatis to be active.

IV. Now the dimensions by which animals are

naturally bounded are six in number, namely,superior and inferior, front and back, and also right

and left." Now all living things have a superior andan inferior part ; for the superior and the inferior is

found not only in the animals but also in plants.^

The distinction is one of function and not merely of

position in relation to the earth and heavens. Forthe part from which is derived the distribution of

nutriment and the growth in any particular thing is

the superior ; the part to which the growth extends

and in which it finally ends is the inferior. The oneis a kind of origin, the other a termination ; and it is

the superior which is an origin. It might, however,seem that in plants the inferior is the more essential ®

part ; for the superior and the inferior are not in thesame position in them as in the animals. Though in

relation to the universe they have not the same posi-

tion, they are similarly situated as regards function.

For in plants the roots are the superior part ^; for it

is from them that the nutriment is distributed to theparts that grow, and it is from their roots that plants

receive it, as do animals from their mouths.Things which not only live but are also animals have

both a front and a back. For all animals have sense-

perception, and it is on account of sense-perception

that the front and the back are distinguished ; for

the parts in which the sense-perception is implanted

491

ARISTOTLE

efjLTTpoGuev ravT eon, ra o avriKeifxeva tovtols

OTTLddeV.

"Ocra 8e rcJov ^djcor /jltj jjiovov alaS-qGecos KOivcovel,

16 dAAa Svvarai rroieiGOai ttjv Kara tottov fiera-

ôX-qv avra St* avTwv, iv tovtols St)^ hicopiGTai

TTpos Tots" Ae;^êtcrt to t' dptGrepov /cat to Se^LoVy

ofJLOLCOs rot? TTporepov elprjyilvois €pya) nvl /cat ov

6eG€L SLCjupLGfievov eKOLTepov aijTajv' odev jxev yap€GTL rod Gcofxaros rj rrjs /caret tottov jJueTaôXi^s OLPXV

20 (j)VG€Ly TOVTO fxev Se^Lov iKaGTO), TO 8' avTiKeipievov

/cat TOVTiO 7T€(f)VK6s OLKoXovdelv dpLGT€p6v. TOVTO

Se hnqpOpajTai fxaXXov eTepois eTepcov. oGa fieu

yap opyaviKols /xepeat ;)(paj/xep'a [Xeycx) 8* olov

ttogIv rj TTTepvîv rj tlvi aAAoj toiovtco) ttjv elpr]-

[xevTjV fji€TaôXr]V Trotetrat, Trepl jxev tol TOiavTa

25 ixdXXov hiiqpdpojTaL to Xe-)(div' ocra 8e pirj tolovtois

jjLopLOLg, avTcp 8e to) GcoixaTL ScaX-qifjeis noLovfieva

TTpoepx^Tai, KaOdrrep evia tojv dTroSojv, otov ot

T€ 6(j)€ts Kal TO TOJV KajjLTTCov ylvos y /Cat rrpos tovtols

d KaXovGi yrjg eVrepa, vrrapx^^ p-^^ f<al iv tovtols

TO XexOeVy ov pL7]v Stao-ecraî^rat y' opioicos.

80 "Ort 8' e/c Ta)V Se^Lcov r) dpx^j ttjs klvt^gccvs eGTL,

GTjpLelov /cat TO (j)€peLV Ta (jiopTLa rrdvTas eVt Tots"

dpLGTepoLS' ovTCxJs ydp evSex^TaL KLveZodaL to (fyepov,

XeXvpuevov tov klv/jgovtos- (8to /cat do'/ccoAtaôuo't

paov iiTL TOt? dpiGTepols' KLvelv ydp 7T€.(j)VKe to706a Se^toVj KLveLGOaL he to dpLGTepov.) a)GT€ /cat to

<f)OpTLOV OVK eVt TO) KLV^GOVTL ClAA' cVt TO) KLVrjGO"

^ 8t] Jaeger : 5^ libri.

" Viz. superior and inferior.

* i.e. from place to place.

492

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iv.

and whence every kind of creature derives it are at

the front, and the opposite parts to these are at the

back.

Those animals which not only partake of sense-

perception but can also of themselves make the

change from place to place, in addition to the dis-

tinctions already mentioned," have a further distinc-

tion of left and right, these being each, like the above,

distinctions of function and not of position. For the

part of the body where the origin of change fromplace to place naturally arises is the right in each

kind of animal, while the part which is opposed to

this and naturally follows its lead is the left.

There is a greater differentiation between right

and left in some animals than in others. All animals

which make the above-mentioned change ^ by the use

of instrumental parts—for example, feet or wings

or the like—show a greater differentiation betweenright and left in such parts ; those, on the other hand,

that progress not by means of such parts but bymoving the body itself in sections—like some of the

footless animals, such as snakes and the caterpillars,

and also earthworms—possess, it is true, this differ-

entiation, but it is not nearly so clearly defined.

That the origin of movement is from the right side

is shown by the fact that men always carry burdens

on the left shoulder ; for then it is possible for that

which bears the weight to be set in motion, that

which is to initiate the movement being free. (For

this reason, too, it is easier to hop on the left leg ; for

it is natural to the right leg to initiate movement,and to the left to be set in motion.) The burden,

therefore, must rest not on the part which is to

initiate movement, but on that which is to be set in

4.93

ARISTOTLE

fievo) dec eTriKeiouaf ear o ern rco klvovvti /cat rr]

dpxfj TTJs KLvy]G€iDS imTeOfj, i^roi oXojs ov Kivqaerai

6 r) -xâXeTTCoTepov. ary/xetov 8' on arro rcov Se^Lcbv

Tj apx^] Trjs Kiv-qoecxis Kal at TrpoôXar Trdvres

yap rd dpLcrrepd Trpo^dXXovrai, Kal ecrrcures' Trpo-

ê^XijKaai'' rd dpiarepd fiaXXov, dv fXTj dno rvx^Scrvfji^f]. ov ydp rep Trpoêp-qKon Kivovvrai, dXXdrep dTToê^rjKOTL- /cat dpLvvovrat rols Seftotj.

10 Sta ravTTjv 8e rrjv alriav Kal rd Se^ta raura ecrrt

TTdvTCOv. 66€v pikv ydp r) apx^) rrj? Ktvijcrecos, rd

avTO rrdoi Kal iv rep avroj ttjv QeoLV ex^t, /cara cf)vo-LV

Se^LOV S' eorlv dOev r) dpx'r] ttjs KLVôecos ianv,

Kal Sid TOVTO rd OTpopL^coSTj Tix)V oGrpaKoSepficov

Seîd iravT* iariv. ov ydp inl rrjv iXiKiqv /ctvetrat,

15 dXX iirl TO KaravTLKpv ndvra Trpoepx^Tat, otov

7TOp(f)Vpai Kal KTjpVKeS. KLVOVp,€VCJ0V OVV TTaVTCOV

diTO rajv Se^Lcov, KaKeivojv inl ravrd KLvovpievojv

iavTols, dvdyKrj iravra Sefta etiât opLolcos. dno-AeAu/xeVa S' exovcrt rd dpiarepd rcov t^cpcov p.d-

Atcrra dvdpcxjTTOi Sta rd /cara (pvacv ex^^v /xaAtcrra

20 ra)v t,a)OJV' (f)vaeL Se êXriov re rd heîdv roddpiorepov Kal Kex(^p^crp.evov. 8to /cat rd Se^td

iv rois dvdpcoTTOi? /xaAtcrra 8eîa icrnv. Stcupta/xe-

vojv Se rcov Se^ttDv evXoycos rd dpiarepd aKivrj-

rorepd eari, Kal aTToXeXvjjieva pidXiara iv rovrois.

Kal at aAAat 8' dpxol pidXiara /cara (f)vaiv St-

25 copiaîevai iv ro) dvdpajTTCp VTrdpxovai, ro t' dvo)

Kal rd ejjLTTpoadev.

^ TTpoê^X-qKacri. PSU : Trpoê^rjKacn YZ.

" i.e. in the sense that man is right-handed.

494

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, iv.

motion ; and if it be placed on that which causes

and is the origin of movement, it will either not bemoved at all or with greater difficulty. The mannerin which we step out also shows that the origin of

movement is in the right side ; for all men put the

left foot foremost, and, when standing, preferably

place the left foot in front, unless they do otherwise

accidentally. For they are moved, not by the foot

which they put in front, but by that with which they

step off; also they defend themselves with their

right limb>. Therefore the right is the same in all ;

for that from which the oria;in ofmovement is derived

is the same in all and has its position by nature in the

same place, and it is from the right that the origin

of movement is derived. For this reason, too, the

stromboid testaceans all have their shells on the

right ; for they all move not in the direction of the

spiral but in the opposite direction, the purple-fish,

for example, and the trumpet-shell. Since, then,

movement in all animals starts from the right, andthe right moves in the same direction as the animal

itself, they must all alike be right-sided." Now manmore than any other animal has his left limbs de-

tached, because of all animals he is most in accord-

ance with nature, and the right is naturally better

than the left and separated from it. Therefore the

right is most right-sided in man. And since the right

is differentiated, it is only reasonable that the left is

less easily set in motion and most detached in man.Moreover the other principles,^ the superior and the

front, are in man most in accord with nature and mostdifferentiated.

* The dpxai here are the dLaardaeis of 701 b 19, 705 a 26,

from the point of view of function rather than position.

495

ARISTOTLE706 a

V. OtS" /xei^ ovv TO di'oj Kal ro efjLTTpoadev 8t-

(hpiaraiy Kaddnep rots dvdpojTTOis Kal roXg opvLcn,

ravra jxev SliToSa [rcov he rerrdpajv rd Svo orjfxeia

TOLS fi€V TTTepvyes ToZs 8e X^^P^^ '^^^ ^paxioves80 elcriv) . oaa 8' eVt ro avro ro TrpoaOev e;!êt Kal

ro dvoj, rerpdrroha Kal TToXviroha Kal diroSa.

KaXd) yap TToha jxepos inl Gruxeico Tre^co KivqrLKcp

Kara roirov Kal yap ro 6Vo/xa eoiKauiv elXrj(f)€vai,

aTTO rod irdSov ol noSes. eVta S' eVt ro avro

ex^L TO rrpoadiov Kal ro ottlgOlov, olov rd re

706 b /xaAciKrta Kal rd arpoi^L^wSr] rtov oarpaKoBepfiajv

etp-qrai 8e Trepl avrdyv nporepov iv erepous.

TpLwv 8* ovrcov roTTOJV, rod dvoj Kal jxeaov

Kal Kdrco, rd jxev 8t7rc8a ro dvoj irpos ro rodoXov dvco ^xî', Td Se rroXviroha tj dnoSa rrpos

6 ro fxeoov, rd he (f)vrd npos ro Kdroj. a'inov 8'

on rd fiev aKivqra, Tipos rrjv rpo(f>r)v Se ro dvoj,

Tj Se rpo(f)rj eK rrjg y^?. to. Se rerpdrroha enl

ro [Meaov, Kal rd TToXviroha Kal djToha, hid ro

pLTj opOd elvai. rd he hiTToha Trpo? ro dvo) hid

10 ro opSd elvai, fidXiora 8' o dv9pa>7TOS' /xaAtcrra

ydp Kard ^volv earl hiTTOV?. evXoycos he Kal at

dpxdi eloiv aTTO rovrwv rcov jxopicjjv rj jxev ydp

dpx'^ TLiJLLOV, ro 8' dvo) rod Kara) Kal ro npoadev

rod omoOev Kal ro heîov rod dpiGrepod rijJLicorepov.

KaXojs 8' ex€L Kal ro avdnaXiv Xeyeiv Trepl avrojv,

<» The whole of man is " front," and his " front " is dividedinto superior and inferior ; in a quadruped only that partis " front " which is superior in man.

" P.J. 681b U ff. ; H.A. 523 b 21 ff.

" *Apxv has here the double meaning of "starting-point"and "centre of authority"; see note on De mot, anim,698b 1.

496

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.

V. Animals in which the superior and the front are

differentiated, man, for example, and the birds, are

bipeds (two of the four points being wings in birds,

and hands and arms in man). But the animals in

which the superior and the front are in the sameposition " are four-footed (quadrupeds), many-footed(polypods), and footless. By " foot " I mean the part

that is at a point which has connexion with the groundand gives movement from place to place ; for the

feet (TToSes) seem to have derived their name fromthe ground (-eSov). Some animals have their front

and their back in the same position, for example the

molluscs and the stromboid testaceans ; with these

we have already dealt elsewhere.^

Now since there are three regions, the superior,

the middle, and the inferior, bipeds have their

superior part in a position corresponding to the

superior region of the universe, polypods and footless

animals in a position corresponding to the middleregion, and plants in a position corresponding to the

inferior region. The reason is that plants lack

movement, and the superior part is situated with a

view to nutriment, and their nutriment comes fromthe earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless

animals have their superior part in a position corre-

sponding to the middle region because they are not

erect ; bipeds have it in a position corresponding to

the superior region because they are erect, especially

man, the biped most in accordance with nature. Andit is only reasonable that the origins <' should comefrom these parts ; for the origin is honourable, andthe superior is more honourable than the inferior, andthe front than the back, and the right than the left.

It is also true if we reverse the proposition and assert

497

ARISTOTLE

15 COS Ota TO rag apxa? ev rovrois etvat Tavra

TLfJLLCOTepa TOJV aVTlK€Lyi€VCOV flOplcOV eGTLV.

VI. "On fxev ovu eK rcjv heîcov rj rrj? KLvqaecLs

icTTLv apx'rjy (jiavepov eK rwv elpr^pidvajv. eVet 8*

avdyKT] TTavTOS avvexovs, ov to [xev KivelTai

TO 8' r]p€fji€Lj oXov hvvapiivov KiveZoOai iaTCOTOs

20 daTepov, fj dpicfja) KiveiTai ivavTias Kiv^creigy etval

TL Koivov Kad^ o Gvvex'Tj raur' eVrtv aWrjXoiSy

KavTavO^ VTrdpx^LV ti]v apx^v rrjs eKarepov tcov

ixepchv KLvriG€cx)s {ofjLOLOjg Se /cat Trjg ardaeajg),

SrjXov QTiy^ KaO" OGas tcov XexOeiacov dvTiOeaecov

tSta KLv-qGLS VTTapxî tcjv dvTiKeipievcov jxepajv

25 eKaTepo), rrdvTa Tavra kolvtjv dpx'rjv e;êt Kara?

TTjv rcjjv elprjjjLevcjov jxepcov uvix^vgiv, Xdyco 8e rajv

T€ Se^Lcbv Kal dpiarepojv /cat rcov dvoj /cat /carco

/cat TOJV epLTTpoodev /cat rcbv omadev. Kara jxkv ovv

to efXTTpoaOev /cat to OTTiuOev StdXrjifjLS ovk eanTOiavrrj rrepl to kivovv eavro, Sta to purjOevl

30 (f>VGiKrjv VTrdpx^LV Kiviqoiv elg to OTTLcrdev, jLti^Se

hiopiGpLOV e;^€tv to Kivovjievov Ka9* ov rrjv i(f>^

eKdrepa rovrcov fjieraôXrjv TTOielraL' Kara he ro

Se^LOV ye /cat dpiorrepov /cat to dvo) /cat ro Kdro)

ecTTLV. 8to TOJV t^cpcxjv oua jiepeaiv dpyaviKols

707 a XP^P-^^^ Trpoepx^raiy rfj fiev rod efnrpocrOev /cat

OTTiadev Sta(f)opa ovk e;\;et SiajpLGfieva ravra, ralg

8e AotTTat?, dpLcfjorepais p-^v, Tjporepa 8e rfj KaraTO Se^Lov Kal dpiGrepov SLopL(l,ovarj, 8ta to ttjv

* drjXov 6ti (Leon, manifestum est quod, etc.) : drfKovbri libri.

2 Kara P Leon. : cm. ceteri.

" i.e. the three pairs of " dimensions " (704 b 19).

498

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, v.-vi.

that, because the origins are situated in these parts,

they are therefore more honourable than the opposite

parts.

VI. It is clear, then, from what has been said that

the origin of movement is on the right. Now in

anything continuous of which part is in motion andpart at rest (the whole being able to move while one

part stands still), there must be, at the point whereboth parts move in opposite movements, something

common to both which makes these parts continuous

with one another (and at this point must be situated

the origin of the movement of each of these parts,

and likewise also of their immobility) : it is evident,

therefore, that in respect of whichever of the above-

mentioned contraries" the individual movement of

each of the opposite parts takes place, there is in

all these cases a common origin of movement byreason of the interconnexion of the said parts, namely,

of the right and the left, the superior and the inferior,

the front and the back. The differentiation accord-

ing to front and back is not one which applies to

that which moves itself, because nothing possesses a

natural movement backwards nor has the movinganimal any distinction in accordance with which it

can make a change from place to place in each of

these two directions ^ ; but there is a differentiation

of right and left, superior and inferior. All animals,

therefore, which progress by the employment of in-

strumental parts have these parts differentiated, not

by the distinction between front and back, but by the

other two pairs, first, by the distinction of right andleft (for this must immediately exist where there are

^ In other words an animal cannot divide itself into twoparts, one of which goes forwards and the other backwards.

499

ARISTOTLE

/xev €v TOLs ovoLu €V0€aj£ avayKaiov elvai vtt-

5 dpxîVy rrjv S' iv rots TerrapciL Trpojrois.

'E77-et OVV TO T€ CLVOJ Kal /CCtTCO Kal TO he^Lov Kal

dpLGTepov rfj avrfj dpxfj Kal KOLvfj (jvv^prrjrai TTpos

avrd [Xiyoj Se ravriqv rr]v rrjs KLvrjaeajs Kvptav), Set

8' iv aTTavTi ro) piiWovTi Kara rpoirov TTOLelcrOaL

TTjv d(j)^ eKdarov KiviqGiv ojptaât ttojs Kal rerd-

10 xdoLL rals dTTOGrdaeoL rals irpos rds p-qOetoas

dpxds, rds re avrioroixovs Kal rag (TUGtolxovs

Tcov iv rot? fiepeGL tovtols, to tcov Ae;^êtcrajv

KLv-qaecov diracrajv atriov (avrr] 8' iorlv dcji" rjs

dpXT]? KOLV7J9 TWV €V TOJ ^COCU Tj TC TOV SeîOV Kal

dpLGT€pov KLvrjcrlg ioriv, opioiiDS 8e Kal r) rod dvoj

15 Kal Kdrcx)), ravT-qv 8'^^X^'-^ eKdoro)

fjirapaTrXiqGLOJS

€X^l'^ TTpos €KduTr]V TCOV iv Tols pTjOeiGL jji€p€GiV

dpxcJf^v, VII. SrjXov OVV (hg 7] piovois ri pLdXicrra

TOVTOLs VTrdpx^f' Tchv t,a)cov T] Kara tottov KLvrjons,

d hvulv t) rerrapGi rroielrai Grjfielois ttjv KaraTOTTOV pb€TafioXriv . OJGT eTTel Gx^Sov TOLS ivaipôLs

20 TOVTO pidXiGTa GV/jiê^-qKe , (jyavepov otl TrXeioGi

T€ GrjjJLeiOLS T€TTdpa)V OvdeV OLOV T€ KLV€LGdaL TCOV

ivalfiajv t,a)cov, Kal et tl TeTTapGi Gr]iJL€iOLS KLvelGdai

Tii^vKe jjLovov, dvayKalov tovt elvai evaip,ov.

'OpLoXoyel 8e toIs Aexêtcrt /cat to. Gvp^âlvovTa

rrepl Ta ^wa. tcov jikv yap ivaipLcuv ovhev els

25 TrXeio) hiaipovfJLevov hvvaTai i,rjv ovOeva ;)(/3ovov

1 5' PUZ : om. SY. a ^^ft z : om. cet.

<» i.e. the distinction of superior and inferior.

^ Namely, the soul situated in the heart (Mich.).* The lef^s move in pairs, either the front and back legs

on the same side together, or the front leg on one side withthe back leg on the other (c/. 704 b 7).

500

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vi.-vii.

two things), and, secondly, by the distinction whichmust arise as soon as there are four things.

°

Since, then, the superior and the inferior, and the

right and the left are connected with one another bythe same common origin (and by this I mean that

which controls their movement ^), and since in any-

thing which is to carry out the movement of eachpart properly the cause of all the said movementsmust be somehow defined and arranged at the right

distance in relation to the said origins, namely,*

those in the limbs, which are in pairs opposite or

diagonal to one another,*' (and the cause of their

movement is the common origin from which the

movement of left and right and likewise of superior

and inferior in the animal's limbs is derived), andsince this origin must in each animal be at a point

where it is in more or less the same relation to each

of the origins in the said parts,*Ô'^-''^-'--)

it is, therefore,

clear that movement from place to place belongs

either solely or chiefly to those animals which maketheir change of place by means of two or four points.

And so, since this condition occurs almost exclusively

in red-blooded animals, it is clear that no red-blooded

animal can move by means of more than four points,

and if an animal is so constituted by nature as to

move by means of four points only, it must neces-

sarily be red-blooded.

What actually occurs in animals is also in agree-

ment with the above statement. For no red-blooded

animal can live for any time worth mentioning if it be

** There are two kinds of dpxai in, e.g., a quadruped, (a)

those in each of the four legs and (6) the central dpxv in theheart ; the former must each be approximately equidistant

from the latter.

501

ARISTOTLE707a , , . _ , , p rt

COS" €L7T€iV, rr]g re Kara rorrov Kivqueois , Kau rjv

eKLvelro cruvepê? oV /cat /xi^ dujpiqjxivov, ov hvvarai

KOLVCoveiv rojv 8* dvaLfiajv re Kal ttoXvttoScdv evia

Siaipovfieva Svvarai t,rjv ttoXvv xP^'^^^ eKaarcp

rwv pLepojv, Kal KtveZadai rrjv avrr)V TJvnep Kal

80 TTplv SiaipeOrjvai Kcvrjcnv, olov at re KaXovfievat

GKoXoTTevhpai Kal d'AAa rwv evrojicov Kal TrpofjirjKOJv'

TTOLvrajv yap rovrcov Kal ro oTnadev fiepos inl

107 b ravro rroieZrai rrjV rropeiav rep epLTrpoodev. atriov

he rod SLaipovfieva l,rjv on, KaOdirep dv el ri

avvexes eK noXXcnv etrj t,ojojv GvyKeiiJievov, ovrcog

eKaarov avrcov ovvecrri^Kev . <âvep6v he rovro eK

rcov TTporepov elprjpievcov, Stort rovrov ex^c rov

5 rpOTTOV.

Aval yap t) rerrapui (j-qpêiois 7Te(f)VKe KtveiGdaL

rd fJidXicrra crvveariqKora Kard cfyvGiv, o/xotws" he

Kal oaa rojv evaipiojv dnohd ecrnv. Kal ydp ravraKivelrai rerrapGi GrjjiieLOi?, 8t' wv rrjv klvtjglv

TTOielrai. hvul ydp ;\;pc(j/xera Trpoepxerat Kajx-

10 TTals' ro ydp he^Lov Kal dpiarepov Kal ro TTpoaBiov

Kal ottlgOlov ev ro) TrXdrei eGrlv ev eKarepa rfj

KafjLTrfj avrols, ev p.ev rep rrpos rrjv Ke<f)aXr]v

fjLepei ro Trpoodiov Giqp.elov heîov re Kal dpi-

Grepov, ev he rep Trpos rrjv ovpdv rd OTTLGdca

Giqp.eZa. hoKeZ he hvoZv G-q/jLeloLV KLveZGOai, rfj r'

epLTTpoGOev d(f)fj Kal rfj • varepov. acrtov 8' on15 Grevov Kard TrXdros eGrlv, eirel Kal ev rovroig ro

he^Lov rjyeZraL, Kal dvra7Tohiha)GL Kard ro OTTiGdev,

ojGTtep ev roZs rerpdnoGiv. rdJv he Kaiîxjjeojv

alnov ro (irJKOs- wGrrep ydp ol fxaKpol rwv dv-

dpcoTTOJv Xophol âhiôvGi, Kal rod heîov Wfiov

" Centipedes.

502

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vii.

divided into several parts, and can no longer partake

of the motion from place to place whereby it movedwhile it was still continuous and undivided. On the

other hand, some of the bloodless animals and poly-

pods can, when they are divided, live in each of

these parts for a considerable time and move with

the same motion as before they were divided, the so-

called scolopendrae,"for example, and other elongated

insects ; for the hinder part of all these continues to

progress in the same direction as the fore-part. Thereason why they live when they are divided is that

each of them consists as it were of a continuous bodymade up of many animals. And the reason why theyare of this kind is clear from what has been said above.

Animals which are constituted most in accordance

with nature naturally move by means of two or four

points, and likewise also those among the red-blooded

animals which are footless ; for they too move at four

points and so effect locomotion. For they progress

by means of two bends ; for in each of their bendsthere is a right and a left, a front and a back in

their breadth—a front point on the right and anotheron the left in the part towards the head, and the twohinder points in the part towards the tail. Theyappear to move at two points only, namely, the points

of contact with the ground in front and behind. Thereason for this is that they are narrow in breadth ;

for in these animals too, as in the quadrupeds, the

right leads the way and sets up a corresponding move-ment behind. The reason of their bendings is their

length; for just as tall men walk with their backshollowed ^ and, while their right shoulder leads the

* Xopoos is the opposite of kv(I>6s^ hunchbacked (Hippocr.Fract. 763).

503

ARISTOTLE707b , , ' n ( / V ' X -, , »

€L5 TO TTpoaUev riyoviievov to apiOTepov La)(Lov et?

20 TOVTTLodeV fxdXXoV OLTTOKXlveLy /Cttt TO flCGOV KOiXoV

yiveTai koI XopSov, ovtoj SeX voetv Kal tovs 6(f)€Ls

KLVovfievovs errt ttj yfj AopSou?. o-qfielov 8' otl

oiJLOLWS KivovvTai Tols TeTpoLTTOGLv ' €v fMcpet yapfX€Ta^dXXovai to koIXov Kal to KvpTov. oTav

yap TToXiv TO apiOTepov tcjjv rrpooOiajv rjyiôyjTai,

25 e^ evavTias ttoXlv to koZXov ytVerat- to yap heîov

evTOS TToXiv yiveTai. arj/jLeXov Seîov Trpoodiov

€(/)' ov A, apiGTepov icf)^ ov B, ottloOlov Se^Lov icj)*

ov r, apiGTepov i(f)^ ov A.

OvTCo 8e KLvovvTai TcJou fi€v ;)(ep(7accov ol oêis,

Tchv S' ivvSpcov at iyx^Xeis Kal ol yoyypoi Kal at

30 fJivpaivaL, Kal tcjv d'AAcuv ooa e;êt Tr]v iJLop(f)rjP

6(f)LajS€(JT€pav. ttXtjv evia fxev tojv ivvSpa>v tcjv

TOLOVTWV ovSev €X^f' TTTepvyiov , olov at pLvpaivai,

708 a aAAa XPV'^^^ '^fiGo-XaTTTj axjTrep ol oêLs ttj yfj

Kal TTJ daXaTTT) [veovui yap ol ocêig o/xotcus"

Kal OTav KLvcjVTai inl ttjs y^s)' to, 8e 8u' ex^t

TTTepvyia pLovov, olov ol t€ yoyypoi Kal at iy-

XeXeig Kal ylvos tl KeGTpeo)v, 6i yivovTai iv

6 TTJ XifJivrj TTJ iv Stoats'. Kal Sta tovto Tals

KapiTTals iXoLTTOOL KiVOVVTai iv Tip VypO) 7) iv TTJ

yfj TO, t,rjv elojOoTa iv Tfj yfj, KadaTrep to tojv

iyxiXecov yevos. ol 8e Svo TTTcpvyla exovTes tcov

K^GTpioJV Tfj KapLvfj OLVLadÔVOLV iv TO) VypO) TO,

rerrapa orjpieZa. VI 11. rot? 8' 6cf)€GLV aiTLov ttjs

10 0,7708 ta? TO T€ TTjV (f)VGLV piTjOiv TTOielv /XClTT^l',

" On the Boeotian coast of the Corinthian Gulf, the Tiphaof Pans. ix. 8i>. 3.

'' i.e. two of its "points" are fins and the other two are

made by bends.

501

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, vii.-viii.

way forward, their left hip indines towards the rear

and the middle of the body becomes concave andhollow, so we must suppose that snakes too moveupon the ground with their backs hollowed. Andthat they move in the same manner as quadrupedsis shown by the fact that they change the concave

into the convex and the convex into the concave.

For when the left forward point is again leading

the way, the concavity comes in turn on the other

side, for the right again becomes the inner. Letthe front point on the right be A, and that on the

left B, and the rear point on the right C, and that onthe left D.

This is the way that snakes move as land-animals,

and eels, conger-eels and lampreys and all the

other snake-like creatures as water-animals. Somewater-animals, however, of this class, lampreys for

example, have no fin and use the sea as snakes

use both the sea and the land ; for snakes swim in

just the same manner as when they move on land.

Others have two fins only, conger-eels for example,

and ordinary eels and a species of mullet which occurs

in the lake at Siphae." For this reason too those

which are accustomed to live on land, the eels for

example, move with fewer bends in the water than

on dry land. The kind of mullet which has only twofins makes up the number of four points in the water

by its bends. ^ VIII. The reason why snakes are

footless is, first, that nature creates nothing without

505

ARISTOTLE708a ,>,. ^ , , ^ V ' nw

aAAa rraura Trpos ro apiorov aTTopAeTrovGav eKaorcp

rcbv ivScxofiei'ojv, hiaaajôvuav iKaarov rrjv ISiav

cvuiav Kal ro ri rjv avrco ctvaf en Se kol to irpo-

repov rjpLiv elpripLevov , to tcov ivaipicov pLrfOkv olov

r' elvai mXeiooi KiveZuBaL OTjixeioig t] Terrapcrtv.

eK TOVTCDV yap (f>av€p6v otl tojv evaipicov ooa Kara15 to fjirJKOs aavixpLerpd eVrt TTpos ttjv dXXrjv rod

a(x)}jiaros (f)V(JLV, Kaddnep ol 6<j)€is, ovOev avrcov

OLOV 6^ VTTOTTovv etvai. irXeiovs fikv yap rerrdpcov

ovx olov re avrd TroSa? ^x^tv (dvaL[jLa yap dv '^v),

exovra §€ Suo TTohas rj rerrapas ox^ôv rjv dv

aKLvrjTa TrdpLTrav ovro) ^pahelav dvayKalov etvai

20 Kal dvcixêXrj rrfv Kiviqcjiv.

Ârrav he ro VTronovv e^ dvdyK7]s dpriovs e;\;ei

Tov? TToSas" ocra piev yap dXoet ;YPc6/xeva jjlovov

TToielrai ttjv Kara tottov jjieraôXrjv , ovOev ttoScov

TTpos y€ rrjV roiavT'qv heZrai KLvrjOLV doa he

Xpy]Tai piev dXaei, prnj eon 8' avroZs avrdpKrjs

25 avTT] rj KLvrjGis dXXd Kal Tropelag Trpocrheovrai, hij-

Xov d)S roXg piev êXrtov roZs S' (dXXojs^ oAcos"

dhdvarov^ TTopeveoOai. [Stort irdv t,a)OV dvayKaZov

dpriovs ^X^^^ rovs TroSa?.]* ovarjg yap rrjg

roLavr7]£ pieraôXrjs Kara piepos, oAA' ovk ddpocp

rravrl rep (JcopLart KaOdrrep rrjs aXoreajg, dvayKaZov80 ian roZs piev pieveiv pieraâXXovrcov rcov TTohwv

roZs he KLveZodaiy Kal roZg dvriKeipievoLs rovrcov

TToieZv eKdrepov, piera^dXXov 0,77-0 rcbv KcvovpLevcuv

6771 rd pLevovra ro ^dpos. hiOTrep ovre rpial ptev

* <(!i\Xws> SXcjs dovparov] oXws ddouaTou <(!i\Xws> Farquharson.di6Tt . . . TTudas om. PwSU: tanquam glossema del. Jaeger.

" Mich.'s explanation of this passage is that certain poly-pods, which can walk with an uneven number of legs (c/.

506

PROGRESSION OF ANIiMALS, viii.

a purpose but always with a view to what is best for

each thing within the bounds of possibiHty, preserv-

ing the particular essence and purpose of each ; and,

secondly, as we have already said, because no red-

blooded animal can move by means of more than four

points. It is clear from this that all red-blooded

animals whose length is out of proportion to the rest

of their bodily constitution, like the snakes, can noneof them have feet ; for they cannot have more than

four feet (for if they had, they would be bloodless),

whereas, if they had two or four feet, they would bepractically incapable of any movement at all, so slow

and useless would their movement necessarily be.

Every animal which has feet must necessarily havean even number of feet ; for those which move fromplace to place by jumping only do not require feet

(at least not for this movement), while those which

jump but do not find this mode of locomotion suffi-

cient by itself and need to walk also, must clearly

either progress better with an even number of legs

or else cannot otherwise progress at all.^ For since

this kind of change from place to place is carried out

by a part and not, like jumping, with the whole of

the body at once, some of the feet during the changeof position must remain at rest while others are in

motion, and the animal must rest and move ^^'ith

opposite legs, transferring the weight from the legs

in motion to those at rest. Hence no animal can

708b 5 ff.), would walk better with an even number; quad-rupeds and bipeds, on the other hand, cannot walk at all withan uneven number of legs. Farquharson's insertion of dXXwsseems therefore a certain emendation : the omission of ctWws,

however, in our mss. would be better accounted for if it is

inserted before 6'Xws rather than before iropeveadai.

R 507

ARISTOTLE

708 h ovOev oud^ eVt^ xpcofieuov âhitêiv olov re* to fxev

yap ovOev oXcos VTToarrjpia e;êt e^* a> ro rodawfxarog eêt ^dpos, ro Se Kara tyjv irlpav

avrlOeaiv fxovrjv, cxidr dvayKolov avro ovrojs

eTTLXîpovv KLveioOai niTTreiv. oaa 8e ttoAuttoSci

6 eoTLv, OLOV at cr/<:oAo77ei'Spat, tovtols Svvarov fxev

Kai arro TTepcrrajv ttoScqv TTopelav yivecrdai, Kaddirep

(f)aLV€TaL TTOLovfieva Kal vvv, dv ns avrajv eva

TT'qpCOOrj T(JL)V TTohcbv, hid TO TTyP' TCJJV dvTlOToi')(WV

TToScuv KoXoâxJLV Idodai rat Xoltto) ttXtJOcl tojv

i(j)^ e/carepa ttoScov ytVerat yap rovroi? olov

10 e(f>eX^Ls rod TreTT-qpojiJievov piopLov rolg dXXoLs,

dXX ov ^dhiGLs. OX) pLTjv dXXd (fâvepov otl ÎXtlov

dv Kal ravra ttololto ttjv pLeraôXrjV dprtov?

exovra rovs TToSag, /cat pLrjdevos iXXeiTTovTOS} aAA'

avTiGToixovs eôvra rovs nohas' ovtoj yap (dv^^

avrcJov dvLordêtv re SvvaLTO^ ro ^dpo? Kal pLTj

15 raXavreveiv iirl Odrepa pidXXoVy el dvriorotxo.

epeicr/xar' €';ôt Kal pirj Kevrjv rrjv irepav x^P^^rojv* dvTLK€Lp,€va)v. 7TpoâLV€L 8* d^' eKarepov

TOJV piepcbv ivaXXd^ ro TTopevopbevov ovrco yapets" ravro rep i^ oiPXV^ o)(ripiarL yeverat rj Kard-Graois.

20 "On puev ovv dprcovs eêt rovs vroSa? Trdvra,

Kal Std TtV airlav, e'lprjrai' IX. ort 8' el pLr]6ev

'qv rjpepLOVV, ovk dv rjv Kdpujjis oi3S' evOuvcns, eK

rcbvSe SijXov. eon ydp Kdpufji? ptev rj e^ evdeos t]

els TTeptcfjepe? t) els ycovlav pieraôXrj, evdwcrts8' Tj eK darepov rovrojv els ev6u. ev aTrdoais 8e

25 rat? elp-qpLevats pieraôXaZs avdyKt] irpos €v oiqpielov

^ oUre Tpicrl fiû ovdev ovd' ivl Jaeger: ovo^ (ovd^ om. PYZ)rpicrl fi^v ovdkv ovdevl libri. ^ hv add. Jaeger.

508

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, viii.-ix.

walk using either three legs or one leg ; for if it uses

one leg it has absolutely no support on which it is to

rest the weight of the body, and if it uses three it will

rest it on a pair of opposite legs, so that, if it attemptsto move thus, it necessarily falls. Polypods, however,for instance the scolopendrae, can achieve progression

with an odd number of legs, as they can be immediatelyseen to do if you mutilate one of their feet, becausethe maiming of some of the feet in the opposing rowsis compensated by the greater number of feet still

remaining on either side ; the result is that the

maimed leg is as it were dragged along by the others,

and the animal does not walk properly. Howêver,

it is clear that these maimed animals would achieve

the change of position better if they had an evennumber of feet, that is, if none were lacking and theyhad all the feet in the corresponding rows ; for thenthey would be able to distribute their weight evenly

and would not sway to one side, if they had corre-

sponding supports on each side and had not one space

in the opposite rows devoid of a leg. An animal,

then, when it walks progresses by means of each of

its limbs alternately ; for thus its state is restored so

as to be identical with its original form.

It has now been established that all animals havean even number of feet, and the reason for this has

been stated. IX. That, if nothing were at rest, there

could be no bending or straightening is clear from the

following considerations. Bending is the change fromwhat is straight to what is curved or angular; straighten-

ing is the change of either of these to what is straight.

In all the above changes the bending or straightening

8vuaLTo scripsi : 5iVarat Z : dvi/aLUTo ceteri.* Tr]v ante runf add. Z.

509

ARISTOTLE

Kaynjjeajs ye jLti^ ovar}? ovr av iropela ovre vevais

ovT€ TTTTJGLg tJv . TO, [xev yoLp VTTOTToSa eTTeihr] eV

eKarepcp rcbv dvrLK€LfjL€vojv crKeXcbv iv fxepei tararat

Kal TO ^dpos Igx^l, dvayKolov daripov npo-

30 âlvovTOS Oarepov TTOieladaL KaiJLifjLV. tea re yap

7re(f)VKev e^îv toj fjnqKei to. dvTLGroL)(a Ka)Xa, Kal

opdov Set elvai to v^€Gt6s rep ^dp€L, olov Kdderov

77/30? rr]v yrjv. orav he rrpoâivr], yiverai r)

709 a vTroreivovGa Kal hwafievr] ro pievov pieyedos Kal

TTjv pLera^v. i-TTel 8' Lcra rd /ccoAa, dvdyKY] Kdpbipai

TO piivov, t) €V TO) yovari t) iv rfj Kdpupei, olov

et TL dyovarov etrj rcov âhitôvrcov. GrjpieZov 8'

5 ort ovrcog '^X^^' ^^ 7^9 '^^^ ^^ yfi^ /SaSiôt irapd

TOLXpv, r) ypa(f)opL6vrj eorai ovk evdela dXXd GKoAta,

Sid ro iXdrroj puev KdpnTrovros yiveoOai rrjv

ypaôix€vr]v, pLel^co 8' lorapievov Kal lâipovros.

'Ei'8e;êTat piivroi KLveladaL Kal pLrj exovros /ca/x-

TTrjv rod OKeXovg, coCTTrep rd Traihia eprrovuLV. Kal

10 TTepl rojv iXecfidi'raji' 6 TraAatos" 17^' Aoyo? roiovros,

OVK dXr]Orjg div. Kiveirai 8e Kal rd roiavra

Kdpupeojg yivopLevrjs iv ralg (hpLOTrXdrais 7) rols

laxôig. aAA' opdov ovhev hvvair* dv TTopevdyjvaL

GVV€xd)9 Kal dG(f)aXa)s, Kiviqdeiy] 8' dv olov iv

rals TTaXaiorpais ol 8ta rr^? Kovea^s rrpo'Covres irrl

rcbv yovdrcov. ttoXv ydp rd dvco piipog, ojore

1 ej/ 777 libri : locus corruptus et lacuna mutilatus,

«» It does not actually do so because it is not long enoughto reach the ground : and so, as is explained below, the other

leg must be bent to enable it to do so.*" Ai'i'afXLs in mathematics is used of a "power," generally

the second power, i.e. the square of a number : similarly in

geometry duvafiis and bvvaimi are used of the figure which

510

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.

must necessarily be relative to a single point. Further,

if there were no bending, there would be no walkingor swimming or flying. For since animals with feet

stand and rest their weight alternately on each of

their two opposite legs, as one leg advances the other

must necessarily be bent. For the corresponding

legs on either side are naturally equal in length, andthe leg which supports the weight must be straight,

at right angles, as it were, to the ground. But whena leg advances, it is assuming the position of the side

subtending a right angle,° the square upon whichequals the squares ^ on the side which is at rest andthe hne between the two legs ; but since the legs

are equal, the leg which is at rest must bend either

at the knee or, in any kneeless animal that walks, at

the joint. That this is so is shown by the fact that

if a man were to walk on the ground alongside a wall

[with a reed dipped in ink attached to his head],^

the Hne traced [by the reed] would not be straight

but zigzag, because it goes lower when he bends andhigher when he stands upright and raises himself.

It is possible, however, to move even if the leg has

no bend in it, as happens when children crawl. (Theold account attributed such motion to elephants, butit is untrue.) Movement of this kind takes place

through a bending in the shoulders or hips. But nocreature could walk erect in this way continuously

and safely, but could only move like those who dragthemselves forward through the dust in the wrestling-

school on their knees. For the upper portion of the

can be formed by constructing squares on the side of, e.g. atriangle.

* The text here is corrupt and something has fallen out in

all our Mss. : the words here bracketed are supplied from theexplanation given by Mich.

511

ARISTOTLE709 a

16 Set fiaKpov elvai to KihXov el he rovro, KoifiipLV

dvayKOLOV elvau. eirel yap earrjKe rrpos opO'qv,

16 b et aKapLTTTOV eorai ro Ktvovpievov et? to irpoadev^

Tj KaTaTTeoelTai eXaTTOVog Trjg opdrjs yivopieviqs , rj

ov TTpo^rjGeTai. el yap opOov ovtos OaTepov UKeXovs

OoLTepov ecrrat 7Tpoê^r]K6s, pêllôv ecrrat, lgov 6vhvvrjCjeTai yap tovto to t rfpepiovv Kac ttjv vtto-

20 Teivovoav . dvdyKrj dpa Kap^vTeadai to Trpo'Cov, Kal

Kapupav a/xa eKTeiveiv OaTepov, eKKXiveiv re /cat 8ta-

êp7]KevaL Kal cVt ttjs KaOeTOV pieveiv IcroaKeXes

yap yiveTai Tpiycxjvov ra /ccoAa, Kal r) Kecf)aXrj yive-

rat KaTWTepov, oTav KaOeTosfj

e^' rjs ê^riKev.

25 To, 8' drroha Ta piev KvpiaivovTa TTpoepxeTau

{tovto 8e Slttw^ GvpLâivei' to. pêv yap eirl

TTJg yTJs", Kaddirep ol 6<j>eis, rds KapLirdg TToieZ-

rat, TO. 8' els to avco, u)GTTep at KapLTrat), rj 8e

KVpiaVGlS KapLTT-q eGTlV TO, 8' IXvGTTaGeL xp^H-^ÔL,

80 KaOdirep Ta KaXovpieva yrjs evTepa Kal ^ScAAat.

TavTa yap to) piev rjyoupieva) TrpoepxeTac, to 8e

XoLTTOv crdjpia Trdv rrpos tovto Gvvdyovai, Kal tov-

TOV TOV TpOTTOV els TOTTOV €AC TOTTOV pLeTa^dXXoVGLV

.

(f>avep6v 8' OTt et pirj at Svo ttjs pads pLelôvs rjGav,

^ el dKa/xTTTOu iarai t6 Kivov/xefov els t6 irpbcrdev om. PSUBekker : e^ et irpbadev om. Z.

<• Let AB be the stationary leg and

AC the advanced \tg^ which are by

hypothesis of equal length. If the right-

angled triangle ABD is constructed its

hypotenuse AD must be longer than

AC.

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.

body is large, and therefore the leg must be long ; and

if this is so, there must necessarily be a bending. For

since a standing position is perpendicular, the leg which

is moved forward, if it is to be unbent, will either fall

as the ritcht ano-le becomes less, or else it will not ad-

vance at all ; for if, while one leg is at right angles, the

other is advanced, the advanced leg will be greater and

at the same time equal ; for it will be equal to the leg

which is at rest and also to the side subtending the

riffht ang-le.^ The advancinfj leff must therefore be

bent, and the animal, as it bends it, must at the same

time stretch the other leg and lean forward and makea stride and remain in the perpendicular ; for the legs

form an isosceles triangle and the head becomes

lower when it is perpendicular to the base of the

triangle.^

Of animals which are footless, some advance with

an undulating motion—this can be of two kinds, for

some animals, for example snakes, make their bends

on the ground, while others, for instance caterpillars,

make them upwards—and undulation is bending.

Others move by crawling, like the earthworms and

leeches ; for these advance ^\^th one part leading the

way, and then draw up all the rest of their body to it,

and in this manner make the change from place to

place. It is plain that, if the two lines which they

^ When the stride has been completed the result is anisosceles triangle formed by the two legs and the ground ; thehead, which is necessarily lower than when the legs weretogether, is perpendicularly above the base.

513

ARISTOTLE

709 b oi)K av iSvvavro KiveLodai ra Kvyiaivovra tojv

L,a)Cx)v. iKradeiorj? yap rij^ KafiTrrj?, el L<jr]v

KareXx^v, ovdev av Trpojêo-av vvv 8' virepâXXei

iKTaOelaay Kal rjpefjLTJGavros tovtov CTrayet to

XoLTTOV.

'Ev TTaoais he rat? XexOeicrais pLeraôXalsro klvov-

6 fjuevov ore jxev eKTewojjLevov els evdv TTpoepx^rai,

ore 8e avyKajJLTrrofievov, rot? jjiev 'qyovpievois

[xepecrw evdv yivofievoVy roZs 8* erropLevoLS orvy

KapLTTrov. TTOielraL 8e /cat ra aWopieva Trdvra

Kapufjiv ev raj vrroKeipieva) pLepei rod crwpiaros,

Kal rovrov rov rporrov eôvra aXXerai. Kal raTTeropLeva 8e Kal ra veovra, ra pikv ras Trrepvyas

10 evOvvovra Kal KapLTrrovra Trerarat, ra Se rot?

TTrepvyiois, Kal rovrcov ra piev rerrapat ra he

hvaiv, ocra rrpopnqKeorepa rrjv pLop^-qv, axnrep ro

rcov eyx^Xeojv yevos' rrjv 8e Xoltttjv Kivqoiv avrl

rcjv hvo TTrepvyicov ra> Xoittw rod Gojpiaros KapLTrro-

pieva vet, KadaTrep eipr^rai nporepov. ol he rrXareZs

15 TcDv IxOvcov rfj puev ro) TrXdrei xpoJ^TOLi rod crco/xaro?

avrl TTrepvylajv, rfj he Trrepvyiois hvuiv. ra he

TTapiTTav TrXarea, KadaTrep 6 ^dros, avroZs rots

Trrepvyiois Kal rats euxdrais rod acopiaros irepi-

(f)epeLaLs evOvvovra Kal Kdpiirrovra TTOieZrai rrjv

vedcTLV.

^ X. *A7Top7Jcrete 8' av ns locos ttcos Kivodvrac

rerrapGL (jTjpLeloLs ol opvideSyTj neropLevoL ^ rropevo-

pLevoLy cos elpripLevov on Trdvra ra evaip-a KiveZrai

rerrapatv. ovk elp-qrai he, aAA' on ov TrXeiooLV.

ov piTjv dAA' ovr^ av TrereaOat hvvaivro d<f)aLpe-

" The bend is represented as two lines forming an angle

;

514

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, ix.-x.

form were not greater than the one," movement wouldbe impossible for animals which advance by undula-

tions. For, when the bend is extended, they wouldnot have made any advance, if it subtended an equal

Hne ; whereas, in fact, it is longer when it is extended,

and then, when this part has come to a standstill,

the animal draws up the rest.

In all the above-mentioned changes that whichmoves advances by first extending itself straight out

and then curving itself—straightening itself out with

its leading parts and curving itself in the parts whichfollow. All animals, too, which jump make a bendin the lower part of their body and jump in this

manner. Animals also which fly and those whichswim, fly by straightening and bending their wingsand swim with their fins, some fish having four

fins and others, namely those which are of a moreelongated form (eels for example), having two fins.

The latter accomplish the rest of their movementby bending themselves in the rest of their body, as a

substitute for the second pair of fins, as has already

been said. Flat-fish use their two fins, and the flat

part of their body instead of the second pair. Fish

that are entirely flat, like the ray, manage to swim byusing their actual fins and the outer periphery of their

body, which they alternately straighten and bend.X. A question might perhaps be asked as to how

birds, whether flying or walking, can move at four

points, in view of the statement that " all red-bloodedanimals move at four points." But this is not exactly

what we stated ; what we said was " at not more thanfour points." However, they could not fly if their

tb.ese two lines together must be longer than the line whichsubtends their angle.

r2 515

ARISTOTLE709 b ^ „ , ^ ,

uevrcov tojv kcoAcjjv ovre Tropeveouai rcov Trrepvyajv

25 a<j)aLpeBei<7(i)v, eirei ouS' avdpojTTOs âhitêi fjurj

Kivcjv Tovg MfjLov?. dXXoL Trdvra ye, KaOdnepe'lprjraL, Kapiêi Koi iKraaet TTOielrai ttjv fiera-

ôXiqv' (iTjavra ydp €ls to vTroKeifxevov fi^xpt' tlvos

olovel avvvTTeXKov^ Trpoepx^rai, cocrr' dvayKolov,

el fjLTj Kal KOT* dXXo fiopiov ytVerat rj Kdjjupcs, dXX*

80 odev ye rq ^PXV ''"ots" jLtev oXoirripois rod Trrepov,

TOt? 8' opvLGi rrjs nripvyos, rot? 8* ctAAots" rod

dvdXoyov fxoplov, Kaddrrep rols lxOvglv. rots' S',

a)G7T€p ol 6cf}€L9, iv roZs /ca/XTrats" rod (jcvfiaros

710 a iorriv rj dpx'T] rrjg Kdpupeois. ro S' odpoTTvyiov icrn

rots TTrrjvoLS Trpos ro Karevdvveiv rrjv Trrrjocv,

Kaddnep rd TrrjhdXia roZs ttXolois. dvayKoiov 8e

KOI ravra eV rfj Trpoa^vGei KdfXTrreiv. hiorrep rd

5 re oXonrepa Kal rojv GX^ÔTrripojv ols ro ovponvyiov

d(j)va)£ e%et 77^6? rrjv elp-qiievrjv XP'^^^^> otov rolg re

racpg Kal roXg dXeKrpvooc Kal oAcos" rot? jjltj Trrrjn-

Kots, ovK evdvTTopovGiv rwv fxev ydp oXorrrepajv

dnXcog ovdev eêt ovpoTTvyiov, (Lare KaOdirep d-

rnqhaXov nXolov (j)eperai, Kal ottov dv rvxj] eKaarov

10 avrojv TrpoGTTCTTrei, ofioLOJS rd re KoXeonrepa,

otov KdvQapoi Kal pL-qXoXovOai, Kal rd dveXvrpa,

otov jxeXirraL Kal G(f)7]Kes. Kal rols fir] TrnqriKoZs

dxpeZov rd ovpoTTvyiov eGriv, otov rols re rropcjiv-

pLa>Gi Kal epcahiols Kal TraGi rols rrXatrols' aAA'

dvrl rod ovporrvyiov neravrac rovs TToSas diro-

^ olovel avvvireiKOv Z : olov ei's virelKOV ceteri.

* Lit. " creatures with undivided wings." (The Greekhere has different words for the wings of insects and thoseof birds.)

* Lit. creatures with cloven wings {i.e. made up of feathers)

as opposed to insects which have undivided wings.

516

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, x.

legs were taken from them, or walk if their wingswere taken from them, just as a man cannot walkwithout moving his shoulders to some extent. All

things, as has been said, make their change of position

by bending and stretching ; for they all progress

upon that which, being beneath them, also as it weregives way to them up to a certain point ; so that,

even if the bending does not take place in any other

part, it must at any rate do so at the point where the

wing begins in flying insects ^ and in birds, and wherethe analogous part begins in other animals, such as

fishes. In other animals, snakes for example, the

beginning of their bending is in the joints of the body.

In winged creatures the tail is used, like the rudderin a ship, to direct the flight ; and this too must bendat the point where it joins the body. Flying insects

also, therefore, and those birds ^ whose tails are ill-

adapted for the purpose just mentioned, peacocks,

for example, and domestic fowls and, generally, those

birds which are not adapted for flight, cannot keepa straight course. Of the flying insects not a single

one possesses a tail, so that they are carried along

like rudderless ships and collide with anything that

they happen to meet. The same is true of sheath-

winged insects,'' such as beetles and cockchafers,

and the sheathless insects, such as bees and wasps.

The tail is useless in such birds as are not adapted

to flight, the porphyrio,*^ for example, and the heron

and water-fowls in general ; these fly stretching out

" Coleoptera.<* The identity of this bird is disputed. W. W. Merry (on

Aristoph. Aves, 707) suggests some kind of coot ; D'A. W.Thompson (on H.A. 509 a 11, 595 a 13) suggests the purplecoot or the flamingo.

517

ARISTOTLE710a , V . , , , , .

reivovra, Kai ;\;pa)VTat arr ovpoTtvyiov tols

15 aKeXeai Trpog to KarcvOvveiv rrjv Trrrjcnv, j3pa-

Seta 8*17 TTTrJGis tujv oXoTTrepcov iorl koI dadevfjs

Sto. TO jJiTj Kara Xoyov €X^t,v r-qv rcov Trrepcov cf)V(jLV

TTpog TO rod Gcofiaros âpos, aAAct to fikv ttoXv,

TO, Se fjLLKpa Kal dadevrj. cjOTiep dv ovv el oA-

KaSiKOP ttXoIov emxîpoiri KcoTrais TroielaOai rov

20 ttXovv, ovtoj ravra rfj TTTiqcjei XPV'^^^' '^^^ Vdcrdeveia Se avrchv re rcov nrepajv Kal rj rrjs

eKcjivcreajg avfiâXXeral n Trpo? ro XexOev. tojv

8' opvidojv to) piev racp ro ovpoTTvyiov ore [xev

Sid ro pieyedos dxp'qcrrov, ore Se Sid ro ano-

fidXXeiv ovdev (hcjyeXel. virevavriajs 8' exovoiv el

25 opvides rots oXoirrepois rrjv rcjv Trrepojv (fyvoiv,

pudXiCTra 8* ol rdx^'Orra avrcov veropuevoL. roiovroi

8* ot yapn/ja)vvx^s' rovrois ydp rj raxvTrjs rrjs

Trnqoecxis XPI^Î^^^ Trpds rov ^lov. dKoXovOa 8'

avra)v eoiKev elvai /cat rd Xoirrd pLopia rov ao)-

puaros TT/oos" rrjv olKeiav Kivqaiv, Kecf)aXr] pLev

30 aTTavrajv puKpd /cat avx'^^ ov Trax^s, orrjdog 8'

loxvpdv /cat d^v, o^v piev Trpos ro evrovov elvai,

Kaddnep dv el ttXolov rrpcopa XepL^coSovs, loxvpov

Se rrj 7Tepi(j)VGei rrjg oapKos, tv' drrojSelv Svvrjrai

7iOb rov TTpoGTTLTTrovra depa, Kal rovro paSlcog Kal pLT]

puerd TTOvov. rd 8' oinudev Kovcjya Kal ovvqKOvra

ndXiv els orevoVy tr' eTraKoXovOfj rolg epLnpoadev,

pLT] ovpovra rov depa hid rd rrXdros.

5 XI. Kat TTepl piev rovrojv hicjpiodoj rov rpoirov

rovrov, rd he pLeXXov ^cpov 6p66v jSa8tetaât 8toTt

Slttovv re dvayKalov eoriv elvai, Kal rd fxev avoj

rod (jcjpLaros p^^py] Kov(f)6repa e'xetP' rd 8' vêorwra

rovrois âpvrepa, bfjXov pbovojs ydp dv ovrojs

518

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, x.-xi.

their feet in place of a tail and use their legs instead

of a tail to direct their flight. The flight of flying

insects is slow and weak, because the growth of their

wings is not in proportion to the weight of their body ;

for their weight is considerable, while their wings

are small and weak ; so they use their power of flight

like a merchant-ship attempting to travel by meansof oars. The weakness also of the wings themselves

and of their manner of growth contributes to someextent to the result which we have described. Amongbirds, the peacock's tail is at one season of no service

because of its size, at another useless because the

bird moults. But birds are the exact opposite of

winged insects in the nature of their ^îngs, especially

the swiftest flyers among them, namely, those with

curved talons ; for their swiftness of flight is useful

in enabling them to gain their livelihood. The other

parts of their body, too, seem to be similarly adapted

for their particular movement, the head being always

small and the neck not thick and the breast strong and

sharp—sharp so as to be compact like the prow of a

light-built ship, and strong owing to the way the flesh

grows—so as to thrust aside the air which meets it,

and that easily and without effort ; but the hinder

parts are light and contract again to a narrow point,

in order that they may follow the forward parts with-

out sweeping the air by their breadth.

XL So much for the discussion of these topics.

The reason why an animal which is to walk erect

must both be a biped and also have the upper part

of its body lighter and the parts situated beneath

these heavier is obvious ; for only if it were so

519

ARISTOTLE710b , ^, , V , , . , , s, S ,

exov OLOV T eirj cpepeiv eauro paoLOJs. oioirep

10 dvdpCOTTOS fJLOVOV OpOoV TCOV t,Cx)a>V (X)V TO, OKeXrj

Kara Xoyov e;\;e6 Trpos ra dva> rod ocofxaros pLeyLora

rwv VTTOTToSojv Kal laxvporara. SrjXov Se iroieZ

TOVTO Kal TO Gvp,âXvov Tols TTaihioLS' ov yaphvvavrai âhitêiv opSd Sta to rravra vavajht] Îvai

Kal /xetôj Kal laxvporepa exîv 7) Kara Xoyov^ rd15 dvoj pLeprj rod crdj/xaros' rcov Karojdev. Trpo'Covarjs

8e ttJ? rjXiKLas av^7]GLV Xapi^dvei rd Kara) /xaAAov,

jJL€Xpt' TTep dv Xd^coui ro TTpoarJKov pbiyedos, Kal

TTOiovvrai rore rots GcopLaai ttjv ^dhiaiv opO-qv.

ol S' opvides Kov(f)OL ovres StVoSes" elui hid ro

OTTLaOev avrols ro ^dpos elvai, KaOdrrep ipydtôvrai

20 rovs L7T7T0VS rovs x^^fôvs rovs rd rrpoadia fjpKoras

rojv GKeXcov. alriov 8e /xaAtcrra rod StVoSa?

dvras SvvacrOaL iurdvai ro exîv ro Icrxôv opLOiou

pirjpcp Kal nqXiKovrov ware SokeXv Svo pL7]povs

€X^t,v, rov r iv rep GKcXei rrpo rrj? Kap,7Trjs Kal rov

TTpos rovro ro pilpos (Xtto rrj? eSpag' eon 8' ov

pLiqpos dXX IcrxLOV. €t ydp ptrj rrfXiKOvrov rjV,

25 ovK dv rfv opvis hiTTovs. uxjTTep ydp rots dvdpcxj-

TTOis Kal roig rerpdiTOGi t,a)ois, evOvs dv rjv drro

^paxios dvros rod lux^-ov 6 pLrjpos Kal ro dXXo

OKeXos' Xiav ovv -qv dv ro crco/xa Trdv nporreres

avr(ji)v. vvv Se p,aKp6v ov piixP^ ^'^^ pLearjv Trapa-

retVet rrjv yaorepa, war ivrevOev rd OKeXt) vtt-

30 epr]p€L(Tp,€va cfyepei ro acofia Trdv. (jiavepov 8'

cfc roTjrajv Kal on opdov ovk ivSex^Tai rov

opviBa etvac wanep rov dvOpojirov. rj ydp rcov

TTrepcov if)vais (hs exovai ro ucopia vvv ovrojs

711 a avrols XPV^^H-^^ ianv, opdols 8* ovaiv dxp^cTTOs

1 ^ Kara \6yov om. PY.520

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xi.

constituted would it be able to carry itself easily.

Therefore man, the only erect animal, has legs larger

and stronger in proportion to the upper part of his

body than any of the other animals which have legs.

What happens with children illustrates this : they

cannot walk erect because they are always dwarfish

and have the upper parts of their body too big and

too strong in proportion to the lower parts. As they

grow older, the lower parts increase more quickly,

until they attain their proper size ; and it is only then

that they can walk ^vith their bodies erect. Birds

are lightly built but can stand on two feet because

their weight is at the back, just like bronze horses

which are made by sculptors with their fore-legs

raised in the air. The chief reason why birds can

stand although they are bipeds is that their hip-joint

resembles a thigh and is of such a size that they seemto have two thighs, one on the leg above the joint andthe other between this and the fundament ; but it is

not really a thigh but a hip. If it were not so large,

a bird could not be a biped ; for then, just as in manand the quadrupeds, the thigh and the rest of the

leg would be directly attached to a short hip, and so

the whole body would tend to fall forward too much.But, as it is, the hip, being long, extends up to the

middle of the belly, and so the legs form supports at

that point and carry the whole body. It is clear too

from this that it is impossible for a bird to stand erect

in the way that a man stands ; for the way that birds*

^vings grow is useful to them in the position in which

they now hold themselves, but if they stood erect,

521

ARISTOTLE

av Tjv, coGTTep ypacpovGL rovs epcoras exovras

TTrepvyas.

"AjLta yap rot? elprjixevois hrjXov on ou8' dvdpcoTTOV

ovS^ el d'AAo Tt TOiovTov eon Tr]v jjiopcf)rjv Svvarov

eliâL TrrepcoTov, ov jjlovov on TrXeioai o-qfieLOis Kivq-

5 oerai 7) rerrapoLv evaipiov 6v, dAA' ort dxP'^'^'ôs

avTols T) T(x)v TTTepvycov e^Ls Kara (f)voiv klvov-

fievoLS' 7) Se (f)voi? ovSev TTOieZ Trapd (f)VOLV.

XII. "Ort fJLev ovv el fxr) Kapuijjis rjv ev rots

GKeXeoLv 7) ev raZs co/xoTrAdrats" koI laxloi?, ovdev

olov 7' Tjv av T(x)v evalfxajv Kal vttottoSojv rrpo-

10 âiveiv, elp-qrai Trporepov, /cat on Kafjupis ovk dv

rjv fjLTjOevos rjpejjiovvTos, on re evavriojs ol re

dvdpcoTTOL SiTToSes ovres Kal ol opvides rrjv tcjv

(jKeXdjv TTOLovvrat KafMipLv, en 8e rd rerpdiToha

VTTevavTLcos Kal avrols Kal rots' dvOpajnoLg. ol

fjiev yap dvOpojiroi rovg piev ^paî'Ovas KapnTTOVOiv

15 cTTt TO. ACotAa, rd he OKeXrj eVt to Kvprov, rd 8e

rerpaTToSa rd fiev TTpoodia OKeX-q inl to Kvprov,

rd 8' oTTLGOta errl to koZXov opLoloJS 8e Kal ol

opviBes. aiTiov 8* ort r] (f>vGis ovhev hiqpLiovpyel

fjLaTrjv, a)G7Tep e'cprjTai rrporepov, dXXd iravTa rrpos

TO êXTLGTOv eK Tcbv ivSexopêvwv . uior irrel

20 ttoLglv ogols VTTapxî Kard (J)vglv tj /caret tottov

fxeTaôXrj tolv GKeXotv, eGTwrog p.ev eKaoTOV to

^dpos ev TovTcp eGTi, Kivovpievoi? 8' et? to Trpoodev

Set roi^ 77d8a tov rjyov/jLevov ttj deoeu Kovcpov etvaL,

Gvvexovs 8e ttjs rropeias yivopieviqs avdis ev tovto)

TO pdpog aTToXapL^dveiv, SrjXov cos" dvayKalov eK

25 TOV KeKdp.(f)dai to GKeXos avdis re evdv yiveodai,

pLevovTos TOV re Kard tov npoojodevTa noSaGr]p,€iov Kal TTJs KV-qpLTjs. TOVTO 8e GvpLpalveiv d/ia

522

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xi.-xii.

as winged ciipids are represented in pictures, thewings would serve no purpose.

At the same time it is clear from what has beensaid that man, or any other creature of like form,

cannot be winged, not only because, being red-

blooded, he wôuld then move at more points thanfour, but also because the possession of wings wouldbe useless to him when moving in a natural manner.Now nature creates nothing unnatural.

XII. It has already been stated that, if there wereno bending in the legs or shoulders and hips, noneof the animals which are red-blooded and have feet

could progress ; and that bending would be impos-sible if something were not at rest ; and that menand birds, being both bipeds, bend their legs in

opposite directions ; and, furthermore, that quadru-peds bend their pairs of legs in opposite directions

to one another and in an opposite manner to men.For men bend their arms concavely and their legs

convexly, but quadrupeds bend their front legs con-

vexly and their back legs concavely ; birds too dothe latter. The reason is that nature never doesanything without a purpose, as has been said before,

but creates all things with a view to the best that

circumstances allow. And so since in all creatures

which possess by nature the power of locomotion bymeans of their two legs, when each leg is stationary

the weight must be upon it, but when they moveforward, the leading leg must have no weight uponit, and as progression continues it is necessary to

transfer the weight on to this leg ; it is clearly essential

that the leg after being bent should become straight

again, the point at which the leg is thrust forwardand the shin remaining at rest. And it is possible

523

ARISTOTLE

/cat TTpo'Cevai ro l^wov eis" rovixTrpoadeu fxev exovros

TTjv KafJLTTrjV rod rjyouiievov (iKeXovg Svvarov, els

Tovmodev 8' ahvvarov. ovro) jxev yap npoevexGev-

so ros rod crco/xaTo? tj eKraais rod gkIXovs ecrrai,

€K€LVCOs 8' dvevexOevTog. ert 8' et? ro omoOev

[lev rrjs Kap,7T7Js ovorjs Sta Svo KLvqorecov eyiyver

av 7) rod ttoSos Oeais vnevavriajv re avrais,^ Kal

711 b rrjs fJLev els ro OTnaOev rrjs 8e els ro epLTrpoadev

avayKOLOV yap ev rfj GvyKajJu/jei rod OKeXovs rod

jjiev jxr^pod ro ecrxcurov els rovTnodev Trpodyeiv,

rrjv 8e Kv^fxrjv oltto rrjs KafJLTrrjs els ro efiTrpoaOev

Tov TToSa KLvetv. els ro epLTrpooOev 8e rrjs Kafxrrrjs

5 ovarjs, ovd^ vrtevavriais Kivijorecn pna re rfj els

TO efjLTrpoddev rj Xexdetaa TTopeia Gvpi^rjaerai.

*0 [lev ovv dvdpcxJTTos hinovs cjv Kal rrjv Kara

TOTTOV [jLeraôXrjv Kara (f)V(Jiv roXs GKeXeorL ttolov-

fjLevos 8ta rr]v elprjjjievr^v alriav KajXTrrei els ro ejJL-

rrpoodev rd GKeXr], rovs 8e ^paxlovas eirl ro kolXov

10 evXoyoJS' dxp^jcrroi ydp du rjaav KaixTTropievoL rov-

vavriov Trpos re rrjv rojv x^'^pd)^ XPV^^^ '^^^ Trpos

TTjv rrjs rpo(f)'rjs XrjipLV. rd 8e rerpdnoSa Kal

^cnoroKa rd jJLev ejJLTrpoodev GKeXr], eTTeiSr] rjyelrai

re rrjs TTOpeias avr(x)v Kal eon radr ev rep puepeL

TO) epLTTpoaOev rod acopiaros, dvdyKr] KdpuTTrecv

15 cTTt rrjv 7Tepi(f)epeiav Sid rr]v avrrjv alriav rjvnep

Kal ol dvdpojTTOi' Kard ydp rodro opLOLOJS exovcnv.

SiOTTep Kal rd rerpdiroSa KdpLrrrovGLV els ro

TTpoaQev TOV elprjpLevov rpoirov. Kal ydp ovrojs

piev rrjs Kdpujjecos avrojv yivopievrjs eirl ttoXv

SvvijGOvrai rovs rroSas pLerewpLêtv ivavrlcos 8e

* virepafTLuv T€ avrals Jaeger: vwevapTicos re (5e UZ) aiiTai

libri.

524

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xii.

for this to happen and for the animal at the sametime to progress if the leading leg can bend forward,

but impossible if it bends backwards. For in thefirst case the extension of the leg will take place withthe forward movement of the body, in the secondcase with its backward movement. Further, if thebending were backwards, the planting of the foot

would be carried out by two movements contrary to

one another, one backwards and the other forwards.

For in bending the leg it is necessary to draw theextremity of the thigh backwards, and the sliin

would move the foot forwards from the point of

bending ; but if the bending be forward, theprogression described above will take place not bytwo contrary movements but by a single forwardmovement.Man then, being a biped and carrying out the

change from place to place in a natural manner bymeans of his legs, bends his legs forwards for thereason already stated, but bends his arms concavely.

This is only in accordance with reason ; for if theywere bent in the opposite direction, they would beuseless for the purpose of the hands and for takingfood. But viviparous quadrupeds of necessity bendtheir front legs in an outward curve, because these

legs lead the way Avhen they walk, and are also

situated in the front part of their bodies ; and thereason is the same as in man, for in this they resembleman. Thus the quadrupeds too bend their legs

forward in the manner already described ; for indeed,since they bend their legs in this way, they will beable to raise their feet high in the air, whereas, if

they bent them in the opposite direction, they -would

525

ARISTOTLE

20 KaiJLTTTOVTCs fJLLKpov aiTO T7y? yTj? av avTOVS efie-

T€<x>pil,ov Sta TO Tov T€ fiT^pov oXov Kal Trjv

KafJLTT-î', a^' rjs r) Kv-qixiq 7Te(f)VKev, vtto rfj yaarpl

yiyveoQai Trpoiovros aurov. twv 8* oTnadev (jkeXcov

el jxev rjv els to efXTrpocrdev r) Kapn/jL?, rcov Trohcov

6 fieTecopLGpLOs ofioicos O.V avTols et)(e rols Trpo-

25 aOiOLs {enl Ppo-X^ 7^9 ^^ eyiyvero /cat rovrois

Kara rrjv dpaiv rcov crKeXcbv, tov re ixrjpov /cat

rrjs KajJLTTTJg djX(f)OT€pcov vtto top rrjs yaarpos tottov

VTroTmrrovTOjv) , el S' els to oTTiadev, Kaddirep /cat

vvv KdfjLTTTOVGLv, ovOev ipLTTohiov avTols yiyverai

TTpos TTjv TTopeiav iv rfj roLavrrj KLVijaeL rcov ttoSwv,

en rots ye dr]Xal,ofievoLS avrcov /cat vpos rrjv

80 roLavrrjv Xeirovpyiav dvayKoiov rj êXriov y ovtoj

K€Kdii(f)6aL rd OKeXrj- ov yap pdStov rrjV Kdfjujjiv

TTOiovjjLevojv evros vcf)^ avrd e;(etv Ta reKva koX

GKeTrdtêLv

.

712 a XIII. "Ovrcov he rerrdpcov rpOTTCJV rrjs Kdfu/jeajs

Kara rovs ovvhvaujxovs^ (dvdyKiq yap KdpLTrreiv

rj eVt ro koZXov /cat Ta TTpoodta /cat rd OTrlaOLa,

Kaddrrep ecf) ôts A, rj evl rovvavriov em ro Kvprov,

KaddrTep e<^' ols B, r) avrecrrpapLfxevajs /cat jir] errl

5 rd avrd, dXXd rd jxev rrpoadia eirl ro Kvprov, rd

8' OTTLodia eVt ro koZXov, Kaddnep€(f)*

ols ro F,

^ rovvavriov rovrois rd jxev Kvprd npos aAArÂa,

* avudvacrfiovs Z : (Twdâfxovs ceteri.

526

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xii.-xiii.

lift them only a little way from the ground, becausethe whole of the thigh and the joint from which the

shin grows would come up against the belly as the

animal advanced. On the other hand, if the bend-ing of the back legs were forward, the raising of the

feet would be similar to that of the front feet (for

they could only be raised a short distance by lifting

the legs, since the thigh and the joint of both legs

would come up under the region of the belly), butthe bending being, as it is, backwards, there is no-

thing to hinder their progression as they move the

feet in this manner. Again, for those animals whichare suckling their young, it is necessary, or at anyrate better, that their legs should bend in this waywith a view to this function ; for if they bent their

legs inwards, it would not be easy for them to keeptheir young underneath them and to protect them.

XIII. Now there are four ways of bending the legs

taking them in pairs. Both the fore and the hind

legs must bend either concavely, as in figure A ; or

in the opposite manner, that is convexly, as in B :

(Mich, supplies the figures which are lacking in the mss. In each groupthe front legs are the left pair, the hind legs the right.)

or inversely, that is to say, not in the same direction,

but the forelegs bend convexly and the back legs

concavely, as in C ; or (the converse of C) with the

convexities towards one another and the concavities

527

ARISTOTLE

ra Se KolXa Iktos, KaOdirep ex^t e(/>' oh to A),

CO? [jiev €X^L e^' olg to A t) to B, ovdev Kdinrrerai

ovre Tix)v hmohojv ovre rcov reTpaTToScov, (Ls Se

10 TO r, rd TCTpaTToSa, cos Se to A, rcov fxev rerpa-

TToScov ovOev TrXrjv iXecfias, 6 8' dvOpcoTTOS rovs ^pa-

Xôvas Kal rd GKeX-q- rovs fi^v ydp cttl to kolXov

KdfjLTrrei, rd Se (iKeXr) Ittl rd Kvprov.

'Aet 8' ivaXXd^ Ivavriojs ^X^''''"^ KcoXa rds

KdfJLijjeLs rols dvOpcoTTOLS, OLOV rd wXeKpavov eirl rd

15 KolXov, 6 he Kaprrds rrjs x^^P^S ^ttI rd Kvprov, Kal

irdXiv 6 ajfios eVt to Kvprov ojoavrcos 8e Kal irrl

rcov o-KeXcdv d p,rjpog eVt to koTXov, rd 8e ydvv irrl

rd Kvprdv, d 8e ttovs rovvavriov inl rd koiXov. Kal

rd Kara) Brj rrpds rd dvco (f)avepdv on ivavriojs'

T) ydp dpx^] VTrevavricos, d fiev cofjios inl rd Kvprov,

20 o 8e fxrjpds inl rd kolXov Sid Kal d fxev ttovs

irrl rd kolXov, d Se Kapirds rrjg êtpos" eVt rd

Kvprdv.

XIV. At piev ovv Kafju/jeis rcov gkcXcov rovrdv

re rdv rpdrrov exovui Kal 8td rd? airLas rds

elp-qpiivas , KLvetrai he rd OTTLadia rrpds rd e/x-

25 rrpoodev Kard hidpLerpov pierd ydp rd heîdv rcov

epurpoudev rd dpiorepdv rcov oTTiudev klvovglv,

elra rd dpiorepdv rcov epLTrpoadev, pierd he rovro rd

heîdv rcov oTTiGdev. airiov 8' OTt el piev rdepLTTpoaOev dpua Kal npcoroVy hteGTrdro dv tj Kal

TrpoTTerrjs dv eyivero tj ^dhiGLS otov e(f)eXKopevoLS

30 TOts" OTTLadev. en 8' ov TTopeia dXXd dXuis rd

rocovrov ;\;aA€7rov he avvex"^ TToieladaL rrjv /xeTa-

ôXrjv dXXofxeva. a-qpelov he' rax^ ydp aTrayopev-

ovoL Kal vvv rcov lttttcov ogol rdv rpdnov rovrov

rroiovvrai rr)v KLvr]GLv, otov ol rropiTTevovres. X'^P^^

528

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xiii.-xiv.

outwards, as in D. No biped or quadruped bends its

limbs as in figure A or B, but quadrupeds bend themas in C. The bendings illustrated by figure D occur

in none of the quadrupeds except the elephant, andin the movement of the arms and legs by man, for

he bends his arms concavely and his legs convexly.

In man the bendings of the limbs always take

place alternately in opposite directions ; for example,the elbow bends concavely but the wrist convexly,

and the shoulder again convexly. Similarly in the

legs, the thigh bends concavely, the knee convexly,

and the foot, on the other hand, concavely. Andobviously the lower limbs bend in opposite directions

to the upper ; for the origin of movement bends in

opposite directions, the shoulder convexly and the

thigh concavely ; therefore also the foot bends con-

cavely and the \\Tist convexly.

XIV. The bendings, then, of the legs take place

in this manner and for the reasons stated. But the

back legs move diagonally in relation to the front

legs ; for after the right fore leg animals move the

left hind leg, then the left fore leg, and after it the

right hind leg. The reason is that, if they moved the

fore legs at the same time and first, their progression

would be interrupted or they would even stumbleforward, with their hind legs as it were trailing behind.

Further, such movement would not be walking butjumping ; and it is difficult to keep up a continuous

movement from place to place by jumping. An illus-

tration of this is that, in actual fact, horses that movein this manner,^ for example in religious processions,

soon become tired. For this reason, then, animals do

" i.e. prancing instead of walking.

529

ARISTOTLE712 a ^ ^ ^ ,,

fX€V ovv rots kfXTTpoGOev /cat oTTioOev Sta ravra712 bou^ TTOiovvrai rrjv Kivrjcnv' el Be rot? Scftot? a/x-

ôrepoLs npcoTOLg, e^co dv eyiyvovro rcov ipei-

afidrcDV Koi eTmrrov dv. el Srj avdyK-q fxev 7)

TOVTOJV Tctjv rporrojv OTTorepovovv TTOielaBaL ttjv

Kivqaiv Tj Kara SidfxeTpov, {jltj evSexerai 8' eKeivoiV

6 pi-qherepov, dvayKr) Kivelodai Kara Scdpierpov

ovroj yap Kivovfieva axurep elp-qrai ovSerepa rovrcov

olov re 7racr)(eLV. /cat Sta rovro ol lttttol /cat oo"a

roiavra, lararat 7Tpoê^7]K6ra Kara SidpLerpov,

/cat ov rots Se^toXs 'r) rolg dpiurepoZs dpLôrepois

a/xa. rov avrov he rpoTTOv /cat ocra TrXeiovs '^X^^

10 TToSa? rerrdpojv TTOtetrat rrjv klvt^glv del yap ev

rots rerrapcri roZs ecfie^rjs rd oTriadia Trpos rd

efjLTTpocrOev Kivelrai Kara hidpierpov. hriXov 8'

CTTt TOtS" ^paSeOJS KLVOVpieVOLS. Kal ol KapKivoi

yap rov avrov rporrov Kivovvrai' rcov ttoXvttoScov

yap etCTtv. del yap /cat ovrot Kara Siafxerpov

15 Kivovvraiy e<^' orrep dv TTOLcovrau rr)V rropeiav.

Ihiojs yap rovro rd l^cpov rroieZrai rrjv KLvrjaLV

jjLovov ydp ov KLvelraL errl rd Trpoadev rcbv t,a)a}v,

dAA* eirl rd rrXdyLOV. dXX ejrel roZs o/x/xacrt

Stajptcrrat to TrpoaOiov, rj (j)VGi£ Tre7TOL7]Kev dKO-

XovdeZv Svvafievovs rov? 6(f)daXf.iovs roZs kcoXols'

20 Kivovvrai ydp els rd TrXdyiov avroZs, ware rpoirov

rivd /cat rovs KapKivovs KiveZadai Sta rovr* enl

rd epLTTpoaOev.

XV. Ot 8' dpvides rd orKeXrj KaOdrrep rd rerpd-

TToba KdfJLTTrovaLV. rporrov ydp riva TTapaTrX-qaiajs

1 0.5 P : om. SYUZ.530

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xiv.-xv.

not move separately with their front and back legs'*;

and, if they moved with both their right legs first,

they would not be above their supporting hmbs andwould fall. If, then, they must necessarily move in

one or other of these two ways or else diagonally,

and neither of the first two ways is possible, theymust necessarily move diagonally ; for if they movethus they cannot, as has been explained, suffer

either of the above ill results. For this reason horses

and similar animals stand at rest with their legs

advanced diagonally and not ^^-ith both right or bothleft legs advanced at the same time. And those

animals which have more than four legs move in

the same manner ; for in any four adjoining legs the

back legs move diagonally with the fore legs, as can

be plainly seen in those which move slowly.

Crabs too move in the same fashion, for they are

among the polypods. They, too, always move onthe diagonal principle in whatever direction they are

proceeding. For this animal moves in a pecuUarmanner, being the only animal to move obliquely

and not forward. But since " forward " is determinedin relation to the vision, nature has made the crab's

eyes able to conform with its limbs ; for its eyes

move obliquely, and so, for this reason, crabs too can,

in a sense, be said to move ** forward."

XV. Birds bend their legs in the same manner as

quadrupeds ; for in a way their nature is closely

" i.e. do not move first the front legs together and thentheir back legs together. The ms. authority is strongly in

favour of the omission of the negative: but 712 b 4 " one orother of these two ways " implies the alternative of movementwith the front legs together and then the back legs together,or else with the right legs together and then the left legs

together.

531

ARISTOTLE712b

, . „ . ^ V , ,

T) (pvais avTCjov e;êf rot? yap opvLOiv at Trrepvyes

avrl rojv TrpoaOiajv OKeXwv eloiv. hio /cat K€Kap,-

25 /xeVat TOi^ auToi^ etcrt rporrov uiOTiep e/cetVot? to,

TTpoaOca GKeXr], inel ttjs eV tt^ Tropela KLViâeajg

rovTOis OLTTO rchv Trrepvyojv rj Kara ^vacv apxTj

rrjs fJierapoXrjg eGriv TrrrJGLS yap €Gtlv tj tovtcdv

OLKEia KLVYjGLs. StoTTcp aâipe6ei(j(x)v Tovrcov ovd^

30 eGrdvai ovre Trpo'Civai h-uvair* av ovdels opvis.

"Ert SlttoSos ovto? /cat ovk opdov, /cat ra €/x-

TTpooOev pieprj rod acofiaros Kovcfiorepa exovrog, 7}

dvayKalov 7) îXnov Trpos ro iordvai h-uvaaOai rov

jJLTjpov ovTOJS vrroKeijJLevov e;\;ety cos" vvv e;!êt, Xlyoj8' ort etV TO oTTLadev TrecjiVKora. dXXd (jltjv el eSct

TOVTOV exî-v rov rponov, dvdyKT] rrjv Kdpufjiv irrl

713 a ro KoiXov yiveodai rod OKeXovs, KaOdrrep roZs

rerpdiTOGiv eTrl rcov OTTiaOiojVy hid rr)v avrrjv alriav

rjVTTep etrrofjiev IttI rwv rerpairoSajv /cat ^cooro/ccov.

"OAoJS" Se OL re opnOes /cat ra oXoirrepa raJv rre-

rofievajv /cat ra ev rw vypco yeucrrt/ca, doa avrcov

5 8t* opydvojv rrjv eVt rod vypov TTOielrai rropeiaVy ov

XaXeTTOV Ihelv on êXnov e/c TrXaylov rrjv rcov el-

prjfjievojv jjiepdjv 7Tp6a(j)VGiv ex^cv, Kaddnep /cat

(j)aLverai vvv vrrdpxîv avrols erri re rcov opvidcov

/cat rdov oXoTrrepwv. ravrd Se rovro /cat eTrl rcov

IxOvcov roLS ixev yap opvioiv at irrepvyes, rots S'

10 ivvSpoLS ra Trrepvyia, ra he TrrlXa rots oXonrepOLS

e/c rod TrXayiov rrpoGTrecfiVKev. ovrco ydp dv rd-

Xi'Crra /cat laxvporara hiaareXXovra rd puev rov

depa rd he ro vypov iroiolro rrjv KLurjaLV els ydpro efJLTTpoodev /cat rd oTnadev fiopia^ rod Gco/xaros

erraKoXovOoiiq dv vireiKovri cf)ep6fieva ra fxev ev

i& ro) vypo) rd h* ev ro) depi. ra Se rpcoyXohvriKd

532

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.

similar. For in birds the wings serve instead of front

legs, and so they are bent in the same manner as thefront legs of quadrupeds, since in the movementinvolved in progression the natural beginning of

the change is from the wings, for their particular

form of movement is flight. Hence, if the wingswere taken away, no bird could stand or progress

forward.

Further, since the bird is a biped and not erect, andthe front parts of its body are lighter, it is either

necessary (or at any rate more desirable), in order to

enable it to stand, that the thigh should be placed, as

it actually is, underneath, by which I mean growingtowards the hinder part. But if the thigh is neces-

sarily in this position, the bending of the leg must bein a concave direction, as in the back legs of quad-rupeds, and for the same reason as we gave in dealing

wdth viviparous quadrupeds.Generally in birds and winged insects and creatures

that s^^'im in the water (all, that is to say, that progress

in the water by means of their instrumental parts), it

is not difficult to see that it is better that the attach-

ment of such parts should be oblique, as in fact

it seems actually to be in the birds and the flying

insects. The same is also true of the fishes ; for the

wings in birds, the fins in fishes, and the wings in

flying insects all grow obliquely. This enables themto cleave the air or water with the greatest speedand force, and so effect their movement ; for thehinder parts, too, can thus follow in a forward direc-

tion, being carried along in the yielding water or air.

The oviparous quadrupeds which live in holes,

* Kal TO. d-madev fj.6pia Jaeger : Kal rb oirLo-dû to. (rd om. YZ)fidpia libri.

533

ARISTOTLE

TCJOV r€Tpa7TOOCOV Kai WOTOKOJV, OLOV OL T€ KpO-

koSclXol /cat aavpoL Kal do-zcaAa^tDrat /cat cfivSes

T€ /cat ;(eAa)vat, Trdvra e/c rou TrXayiov TTpooire-

<f)VK6ra TO, GKeXi) e;\;et /cat cTrt tt} yfj /cararera/xeVa,

20 /cat /cd/x77Tet ets" to 77-Adytov, Std to ovtoj ;^/3')]CTtju,a

eti/at TT-pos" TTî^ rrfs V7toSvg€co£ paarcovrjv /cat Trpos"

TTjv CTTt TOts" ojot? i(j)ehpeiav /cat (JivXaK-qv. eôj

S* ovTcov avrujv, dvayKOiov rovs fjirjpous rrpoa-

areXXovra^ /cat vttottOe/xeva v<f>^ avrd rov jxereoj-

piGjiov rod oXov uixifxaros TTOtetaOaL. tovtov 8e

25 yivojjLevov /cd/xTiTetv auTO, ovx olov re aAAcus" t]

XVI. To, 8* dVat/xa tcop' UTroTrdSaji^ OTt fxev

TToXvTToSd ion /cat ovOev avrcov rerpaTTovv,

TTpoTepov rjfjuv eLprjrai' StoTt 8' auTcDv dvayKoiov

rjv rd GKeXrj ttXtjv raJv ioy^drcxjv e/c re rod TrXayiov

7rpOG7T€(f)VK€VaL /Cat €1? TO dvCxJ TCI? KaflTTa? ^X^^î

30 /cat auTO, viro^XatGa elvai els to onLGdev, (jyavepov.

aTTdvTOJV yap raJv roiovraiv dvayKaZov eo-Tt Ta

fjL€Ga Tcov GKeXojv /cat YjyovjJLeva etvat /cat eVd/xera.

el ovv vtt" avTols rjv, eSet auTO, /cat els to e/x-

713 b TrpoGOev /cat ets" to oiriGdev ttjv Ka/JLTrrjv ^xî'V, Std

/xei^ TO riyelGdai els to efinpoGdev, 8td 8c to

d/coAouêti^ ets" to omGdev. eirel 8* dfKÔTepa

GVfjLâlveLv dvayKalov avrols, Std tovto ê^XaiGa)-

5 Tat T€ /cat et's" to TrXdycov e;êt Td? KapLTrds, ttXt^v

tcov eGxdTOJV TavTa 8' wGTrep irecfiVKe pdXXov,

Ta piev (hs eTTOpLeva Td 8' ojs riyovpLeva. eTi Se

KeKapiTTai tov Tpoirov tovtov /cat 8td to ttXtjOos

TCOV GKeXcov rJTTov yap dv ovtcos €v ttj TTopela

ipTTohid Te avTa avTols eirj /cat TrpoGKOTTTOi. tJ

10 Te ^XacGOTTjs avTcov eGTi 8td to Ty3a)yAo8uTt/cd

534

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xv.-xvi.

such as the crocodile, the common and the spotted

hzard, and land and water tortoises, all have their

legs attached obliquely and stretched out upon the

ground ; and they bend them obliquely, since they

are thus useful in enabling them to crawl easily into

their holes and to sit upon and protect their eggs.

Since their legs project, they are obliged to raise

their whole body by drawing in their thighs and

placing them underneath them ; and in this process

they cannot bend them otherwise than outwards.

XVI. It has already been said that bloodless

animals which have legs are polypods, and none of

them quadrupeds. Their legs, except the twoextreme pairs, are necessarily attached obliquely

and bend upwards and are themselves bowed some-

what backwards ; and the reason for this is plain.

For in all such animals the middle legs must both

lead and follow. If, therefore, they were under-

neath them, they would have to bend both for-

wards and backwards—forwards because they lead,

and backwards because they follow. But since they

must do both these things, their legs are bowedand make their bends obliquely, except the extremepairs, which are more in accordance with nature,

since the first pair leads and the last pair follows.

The number of legs is a further reason for their being

bent in this way ; for they would thus be less likely

to get in each other's way during movement andcollide with one another. The reason that these

animals are bow-legged is that they all, or most of

1 TrpocrcrreWoi/ra (cum Mich.) Jaeger: 7rpocrrA\oj/ra libri.

535

ARISTOTLE

efvat TTOLvra t) tol TrXelara' ov yap olov re vi/irjXa

elvai TO. Iôjvra^ rov rpoirov tovtov,

01 8e KapKivoi TCxiv ttoXvttoScov TTepiTTorara 7r€(f)v-

KauLV ovT€ yap eis" to TrpoaOev noLovprai ttjv rropelav

TrXrjV oiCJTTep etprfraL Trporepov, ttoXXovs re rovg

rjyovixevovs cxovgl (jlovol tujv t^cnoiv. tovtov 8*

15 aLTiov Tj (TKXrjpoTTjg rwv TroSojv, Kal on ;\;pcDvTat

ov vevaews X^P^^ avroZs dAAa iropeias' 7Tet,evovTa

yap SiareXovatv. TTavrcjv fxev ovv tG)V ttoXuttoScov

els TO TrXdyiov at KapLTrai, woTrep Kal tojv rerpa-

TToScuv oaa rpcoyXohvriKd' TOiavTa 8' eWtv olov

oavpai Kal KpoKoheiXoi Kal tol ttoXXol tcov cLo-

20 TOKovvTOJV. auTLOv S' OTL TpojyXohvTeZ rd jxev

TOL9 TOKOLS, Ta he Kal TO) ^LOJ TTaVTl.

XVII. 'AAAa Tcbv fjiev dXXojv ^XaiaovTai ra KcoXa

hid TO fiaXaKd etvai, tcov he Kapdôjv ovtojv gkXtj-

poheppLOJV ol TToSe? elolv IttI rw veZv Kal ov tov

âhitêiv pâptv Tchv he KapKivojv rj /ca/xi/ft? el? to

25 TrXdyiov, Kal ov ê/SAatcrcorat coGrrep rols cootokols

Tcjv TeTpaiTohcov Kal toIs avat/xots" Kal TToXviroaiy

hid TO GKXrjpohepjjia elvai ra KCjXa Kal ouTpaKcnhrj

ovTL ov vevoTLKO) Kal TpajyXohvTTj- TT/Jos" TTJ yfj ydp

6 ^Los. Kal GTpoyyvXos he ttjv pôp^riv, Kal ovk

e;\;cov ovporrvyiov ojGTrep 6 Kdpaôs' Trpos ttjv

80 vevGLV ydp ToZg Kapdôis xprjcjtyLtov, o 8' ov vev-

GTLKos. Kal dpLOLOv he to) OTnodev to TrXdyiov

exî' piovosy hid TO rroXXovg exîv tovs rjyeixovas

^ TO. û}i>Ta om. SU.

« 712 b 20 f.

*> Viz. two pairs of front legs.

i.e. they walk both on dry land and in the sea.

** The whole of the section is obscure, and the text doubtful.

536

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvi.-xvii.

them, live in holes ; for creatures that live thus

cannot be tall.

Crabs are the most strangely constituted of all the

polypods ; for they do not progress forward (except

in the sense already mentioned ^), and they alone

among animals have several leading legs.^ Thereason is the hardness of their feet and the fact that

they use them not for swimming but for walking ;

for they always go along the ground.*' All the

polypods bend their legs obliquely like the quad-

rupeds that live in holes ; lizards, for instance, andcrocodiles and most oviparous quadrupeds are of

this nature. The reason is that they live in holes,

some only during the breeding season, others through-

out their lives.

XVII. Now the other polypods ^ are bow-leggedbecause they are soft-skinned, but the legs of the

spiny lobster,^ which is hard-skinned, are used for

swimming and not for walking.-'' The bendings of

crabs' legs are oblique but their legs are not bowed,as are those of viviparous quadrupeds and bloodless

polypods, because their legs are hard-skinned andtestaceous, the crab not being a swimming animal

and li\ang in holes, for it lives on the ground. More-over, the crab is round in shape and does not possess

a tail like the spiny lobster ; for the latter's tail is

useful for s^^'imming, but the crab does not swim.

And it is the only animal in which the side is like a

hinder part, because its leading feet are numerous.^

* There is no single word in English for this animal, theLatin locusta and the French langouste.

' And therefore are not bowed, as Mich, explains." Since the crab moves sidewise, one of its sides becomes

as it were the back, but why it should be so for the reasongiven is obscure.

537

ARISTOTLE713 b

, c., . « , , , ,

TTooas. rovTov o airiov on ov KafjLTrrei €ls to

714 a TTpoadev ovSe êÂatcrcorat. rod 8e fxr] jSeÂat-

aaxjOai to airiov irpoTepov etpT^rat, -q GKXrjpoTrjs

KOL TO ouTpaKcoSes Tov hepixaTos. avdyKrj hr]

Std raura irdGL re Trpo-qyeladai Koi ets" ro TrXdyiov,

els fiev TO TrXdyLOV otl els to TrXdyiov rj Kdjiipts,

6 TTCtcrt 8' OTi iv€7r6SL'C,ov dv ol rjpejJLOvvTes TToSes

Tols KLVovjJLevoLS. ol 8e i/j-qTToeihels rwv IxOvojv,

wcrrrep ol iTepocjiOaXpioi âhil,ovGLv, ovtco veovoiv

SUcTTpaTTTaL yap avTcov rj ^vgis. ol 8e GT€yav6-

TToSes Tcjv SpvWojv veovGL TOtg rroGLV, /cat Sia fxev

10 TO TOV depa Se;êaât /cat dvaTTvelv hiTrohis €lgl,

8ta 8e TO iv vypco tov ^lov ex^LV GTeyavonoSes'

dvTL TTTepvyicov yap ;j^/07^crt/xot ol noSeg avTolg

TOLOVTOL 6vT€S. eÔVGL 8e TCL GKcXt] OV^ COGTTep

ol dXXoi /caret fxeGov, dAA' oiTLGdev pidXXov ^pa-

XVGKeXojv yap avTwv ovtcov OTriGdev ovTa rrpos

TTjV vevGLV ;!^p7ô-t/xa. ^paxvGKeXelg 8' clglv ol

15 TOLOVTOL 8td TO 0,770 TOV fJH^KOVS TCtJV GKeXoJV

d(f)€XovGav TTjv (f)VGLv TTpooOelvaL et? Tovs TToSas,

Kal dvTi TOV fJLTjKovs Trdôs dnoSovvaL tols GKeXeGi

/cat TT-Adros" rots' ttoglv ;)(/3iô-t/xot yap TrXaTels^

6vT€S jJidXXoV Tj /Xa/Cpot TTpOS TO d7TO^Ldl,€G6aL TO

vypov, OTav vccoglv.

20 XVIII. ^vXoycos 8e /cat Ta fiev TTTrjvd TToSas

€;êt, ot 8' IxOves dVoSes" rot? fJLev yap 6 ^los iv

ra> ^-qpo), fieTecDpov 8' det fxeveiv dSvvaTov, wgtdvdyKTj TToSas ex^Lv tols 8' lxQvglv iv ro) vypcb

6 ^LoSy Kal TO vhojp SexovTaL, ov tov dipa. Ta

Tl4b jJLev ovv TTTcpvyLa XPV^^H'^ Trpos to velvy ol 8e

77086? dxpr]GTOL. et 8' d/x</)a) etxov, dvaL/xoL dv

rJGav. ofiOLOJS 8' exovGLV ol opvcdes Tpoirov TLva

538

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xvii.-xviii.

The reason is that it does not bend its legs forwards

and is not bow-legged. Why it is not bow-leggedhas been already explained before, namely, becauseits skin is hard and testaceous. For this reason it

must lead off with all its legs and obliquely—obliquely

because its bendings are oblique, and with all its legs,

because otherwise those which were at rest wouldimpede those which were moving.

Flat-fish swim as one-eyed men walk ; for their

nature is distorted. Web-footed birds swim with

their feet. They are bipeds, because they take in

l)reath and respire ; they are web-footed, becausethey live in the water, for their feet being of this

kind are of service to them in place of fins. They donot have their legs, as the other birds do, in the

centre of the body, but placed rather towards the

back : for since they are short-legged, their legs

being set back are useful for shimming. This class

of bird is short-legged because nature has takenaway from the length of their legs and added to their

feet, and has given thickness instead of length to

the legs and breadth to the feet ; for, being broad,

they are more useful than if they were long, in order

to force away the water when they are swimming.X^TII. It is for a good reason, too, that winged

anim.als have feet, while fishes have none. Thefoiiner live on dry land and cannot always remain upin the air, and so necessarily have feet ; but fishes

live in the water, and take in water and not air.

Their fins, then, are useful for swimming, whereasfeet would be useless. Also, if they had both feet

and fins, they would be bloodless. Birds in a way

^ TrXarers Z: Traxe's PSUY.s 539

ARISTOTLE714b . , ^, . V ^ V V r , ,

TOLS LXOVGLV. Tot? /xei^ yap opvioiv avco at Trrepvyes

5 eloi, Tols he TTrepvyLa Svo iv raJ Trpavel' koi rot?

/xev iv ToTg vTrrioi^ ol iroheSy rols Se eV re tols

VTTTLOLs Koi iyyus T(jL)v rrpavcov Trrepvyia tols

ttXelgtols' kol ol i-iev ovpoiTvyiov exovGLv, ol S

ovpalov.

XIX. Hepl Se TOJV oGTpaKohepixcDV airop-qGeLev

aV TLS TLS r] KLVTjGLS, Kal el {JLTj exovGL Se^LOV Kal

apiGTepov, TTodev KLvovvTai' (fjalvovTat 8e klvov-

io/x€va. 7) a)G7T€p dvoLTTrjpov Set rtêVat ndv to

TOLovTov yevos, Kal /ctvetaât ojjlolcos olov et rt?

aTTOKoijjeie tcov vnoTroSajv tol GKeX-q, {tJX coGTrep

7] (f)coK-q Kal rj vvKTepis' Kal yap raura TeTpaTToSa,

KaKcos 8' eVrtV. to, 8' OGTpaKoSepfia Actvetrat /xeV,

KLveLTaL 8e Trapa (fiVGLV ov yap eart KLvrjTLKa, dAA'

15 CO? /Xey flOVLpLa Kal TTpOG7T€(f)VK6Ta KLUrjTLKa, CO? Se

TTopevTLKa jJLovLjia. exovGL 8e (f)avXcx}s Kal ol KapKLvoi

TO. Se^La, i-TTel exovGL ye. StjXol 8'77 X^^'^T /^^t'^<^'^

yap /cat LGXVpoTepa rj Sefta, a>? BovXopJvcov St-

ojpLGOaL Tcov he^LOjv Kal tojv apLGTepojv.

20 To, jLtep' ouv Trept Tchv pLopiajv, tcov t' a'AAcov Acat

raJv Trepl tt^v TTopeiav tcjv l,a)OJV Kal Trepl naGavrrjv /caret tottov [xeTaôXrjv, tovtov e^ct tov TpoTTov

TOVTWV Se SLCjopLGjjêvojv exofjLevov Igtl OecoprjoaL

TTepl ipvxrjs.^

7/ addidi.

• i.e. a second pair of fins.

* See IJ.A. 527 b 35 If., where land-snails, sea-snails, oysters

and sea-urchins are given as examples.« See ILA. 498 a 31, P.A. 697 b 1 flf.

^ These Mords can only refer to the De anitna, which fromits citation in the I)e generatione animalivm, De parflbiis

animalium, etc., must be regarded as an earlier work. This

540

PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS, xviii.-xix.

resemble fishes. For birds have their wings in theupper part of their bodies, fishes have two fins in

their fore-part ; birds have feet on their under-part,

most fishes have fins ** in their under-part and neartheir front fins ; also, birds have a tail, fishes a tail-fin.

XIX. A question may be raised as to what is themovement of testaceans,^ and where their movementbegins if they have no right and left ; for theyobviously do move. Must all this class be regardedas maimed and as moving in the same way as ananimal with feet if one were to cut off its legs, or as

analogous to the seal and bat, which are quadrupedsbut malformed ? '^ Now the testaceans move, butmove in a way contrary to nature. They are not

really mobile ; but if you regard them as sedentaryand attached by growth, you find that they are

capable of movement ; if you regard them as pro-

gressing, you find that they are sedentary.

Crabs show only a feeble differentiation of right

and left, but they do show it. It can be seen in theclaw ; for the right claw is bigger and stronger, as

though the left and right wished to be differentiated.

So much for our discussion of the parts of animalsand particularly those which have to do with progres-

sion and all change from place to place. Now that

these points have been settled, our next task is to

consider soul.**

has led some critics {e.g. Brandis) to reject the whole of this

paragraph as a later addition. Such a paragraph, however,is a characteristic conclusion in Aristotle, and should not berejected as a whole. It is quite possible that the words77-ept 4'^xi^ ^re corrupt, and indeed the word i/rfx^^ h^s beensupplied by a later hand in Z, whereas the first hand hadleft a blank and had written loj-qa {sic) in tlie margin, whichwould be a reference to the latter part of the group of treatises

known as the Parva Naturalia.

.S2 541

INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALSThe Index is to be regarded as supplementary to the Sum-mary on pages 12-18. Further references will sometimes befound in the notes on Terminology, pages 24-39.

The numbers 3 to 50 refer to the pages of the Introduction.The numbers 39a to 97b (standing for 639a to 697b) refer

to the pages and columns of the Berlin edition which areprinted at the top of each page of the Greek text. The lines

are referred to in units of five lines ; thus40a1= 640al-640a440b5 = 640b5-640b9.

Such references include footnotes to the translation,

f, ff = following section or sections.

Under any heading, each entry is separated from the pre-ceding by a dash ( / ), unless it has the same page number.

abdomen (abdominal cavi-

ties) 50al0abomasum 74bl5 / 76alOabscess 67b5" abscession " 39 / 90a5Acalephae 81a35Aesop 63a35allantois 93b25Amia 76b20analogy, difference by 44b 10

/ 45b5Anaxagoras 40b5 / 45a35 /

77a5 / 87aoanimal 53b20 / 66a35antelope 63a 10ants oObô / 78b 15 / 83a5Aorta 52b25/66b25/67bl5ff

/71bl5 / 77a5/ 78al

ape 89b30appendage 70a30Aquinas, St Thomas 42Arcadia 73a 15Aristotle, " lantern " of

80a5art 39b 15 / 40a25Ascidian 80a5 / 81al0, 25 f

ass 67a20 / 88b20" Indian " ass 63al5

Astaci 83b25 flf

attributes, "essential" (or" inseparable") 43a25 /

45b 1

auditory passages 57a 15

backbone 51b30 / 52al0 /

54b 10

543

ARISTOTLE

backward-grazing oxen59a 15

Bacon, Francis 58b 15barn-door fowls 57b25bat 97bl ff

Batos 95b25 / 96a25 / 97a5beak 59bl ff /

62a30ff/92bl5 /93al0fbear 58b 1

beautiful, the 45a25bee 48a5 / 501 v25 / 61a20 /

78blOf / S2bl0 / 83a5,30

beetle, see dung-heetlebelly 55albending 54b5 / 83b], 30 /

87b25f / 89alO / 93blBergson 3bile 49b30. See also gall

birds 42bl0 / 57b5, 15 /

59blff /60a25 / 74bl5ff /

76a30 / 91a20 / 92b 1 ff /

97b20bison 63a10bivalves 79bl5ffBlack Sea 82a25bladder 70b25ff / 71bl5, 25 /

76a25"blend" 31 / 37 / 38 / 39 /

50b25 / 52b25, 35 / 69a 10 /

73b30 / 86a 10blinking 57a35, bl5f / 91a20blood 4 / 45b5 / 47b 1 (current

of), 30 ff / 49a 15, b20 /

50a30ff / 51al0 / 56bl /

66b25f /67bl5ff / 78a5blood-vessels 47b5 / 50a25 f /

52b30 /54bl /65bl0f,25 /

661)25 / 67bl5ffGreat Blood-vessel 52b25 /

66b25 / 67bl5ff / 71bl /

78alblooded animals 22 / 42bl0 /

54.4

50b25 / 65a25 / 76bl0f/

78a5 / 85b35 ff

bloodless animals 22 / 23 /

42b 10 / 50b25 / 73a30 /

78a25ffblowhole 59bl5 / 97al5 ff

boar 51alBonasus 63a 10bone52alff / 53b30ff /

54a30ff / 66b 15Bovle, R. 45a6brain 52a20ff / 56alOff /

58bl / 73bl0 / 86a5breast 88alOffbreathing-machine 59a5bregma 53a35bronchial tubes 64a25bull 5lal / 63a35buttocks 89b5 ff

caecal appendages 75al0caecal dilatation 75b5Calamary 54a20 / 78b30 /

79al5 / 85al0ff, bl5camel 63al / 74a30 / 76b25 /

77a35 / 88b20 / 89a30Canthari 82b25Carabi, caraboids 79a30f /

83b25 ff

Carcini 83b25ffCaria 73a 15

Carides 83b25 ff

carnivorous animals 55al0 /

61b5 / 62bl / 93a 1 / 97alCartesian co-ordinates 20cartilage 54b25 / 55a30catamenia 48a30 / 89a 10cattle-flics 61a20Causes 3 / 8 / 11 /21 /24ff/

39bl0ff / 40b5 / 41a25 /

46a 10

cavities 66b20 ff

centipede 82a5, bl

INDEX TO PARTS OF ANIMALS

Cephalopods 23 / 54a 10 /

78a25 if, h25 ff / 84b5 tf

Cercidas 73a 15Cestreus 75al0 / 96a5Cetacea 69a5 / 97al5ffChalcis in Euboea 77a 1

chamaeleon 92a20chance 40a30 / 41b20 / 45a20ciliarv motion 84b20classification 18 / 20 / 42b5 if /

43b 10 if

claws 62b 1 / 83b30 f / 84a 15,

30cloven hoof 74a25 / andpassim

cockchafer 82b 15"coUiquescence" 38 / 77alOcolon 75b5, 15

connnon functions to bodyand soul 9 / 48a35

components in isolation 45a35" composition " 4 / 46alO Scomposition of Aristotle's

works 10" concoction " 31 / 34 / 50a5 /

51a20, b25 / 52a5 / 68b5/70a20, 25/72al /75alOf/77b25 f

connate pneuma 59bl5 / 69a 1

controllinc: part 73b 10 /

81bl5 if/ 82bl,25 / 86al5Cook, A. B. 73al5cooling 56a20 / 62al5 /

68b35 ff / 92a20 / 96b20copulation 89a5, 25Cordylus 95b25couvre-feu 54a5crab 79a30 / 91bl5Crex 95a20crocodile 60b25 f / 90b30 /

91al5, b5 flF

crop 74b20 if / 78b30 f

crow 62b5

Crustacea 23 / 54al / 57b30 /

78a25 if / 83b25 fiF

cuttlefish 54a20. See alsoSepia

Cuvier 44 / 84b 15Cyprinoi 60b35

Darwin 4/7deer50bl5/63al0,bl0/64al

/ 67a20 / 77a30 / 88b25deformed animals 57a20 /

60b25 / 84bl / 95b

1

Democritus 40b30 f / 42a25 /

65a30derivation of words 62b20 /

72b30diaphragm 70a5 / 72bl0 if

dichotomy 18 / 42b5 ff

differentiae 42b20 if

disadvantageous parts 48al5/59al5 / 63a5 / 64a5 / 94al5

Dissections 50a30 / 66a5 /

68b30divers 59a

5

divine things 44b25 ff / 56a5" division of labour " 83a20 /91b20

dog74al / 75a25 / 88a5, blIndian dog 43b5

dog-teeth 61blOdolphin 55a 15 / 69a5 / 77a35 /

96b25 / 97al5dualitv of the bodv 56b30 /

63a20 / 67b30 / 69bl0ffdung 75b30dung-beetle 82b25dwarf-like 86bl ff / 89b25/

95a5dynamis 29 / 30-32 / 40a20 /

46al0, bl5 if / 47b5 / 55bl0

S3

ears 57a 10 ff

earth 51a25

545

ARISTOTLE

earthy matter 6.Sb25 fT etc.

editions of Aristotle's Depart thus 44-45

Edwards, Milne 83a20eel 96al, b20eggs 65a35 / 84a20 / 92al5" Elements " 30 / 42a20 /

46al0, b5 / 47al0 / 48bl0elephant o8b30if / 61a25 /

63a 1 / 83b30 / 88b5, 15 /

92bl5embrvo 51b20 / 55al / 65bl /

66a20 / 71b5 / 76al5Empedocles 40a20, b5 /

42al5 / 48a30Emys 71a30epiglottis 64b20 ff

epipetron 81a20equivalents, law of organic

55a25" excess and defect " (" the

more and less ") 19 / 44a20,bl5 / 49a30 / 55a30 /

61b30ff / 84a30 / 92b5excrement 63a 15. See

residueexcretory organs 89a5 ff

eye and eyelid 57a25 ff/

91a20eyebrows 58blOffeyelashes 58al0ff

Fabricius 43fat51a20ff / 72alfear 50b25 / 67al5 f / 79a25 /

82b25 / 92a20feathers 92b 10fibres 50b 10, 30fin 85bl5 /95b35ffFinal Cause 21 /39bl5ff/46b25

fire 49a20 / 50a5 ff / 52b5fishes 42bl0 / 58al / 60bl0 ff,

546

35f/62a5f/66blO/75alff/76a25, b20 / 95bl ff

fishing-frog 95b 10 / 96a25fishing-rod 93a20flea 83a30flesh 47a20 / 51b5 / 53bl5 ff /

60a5 f / 68a25 ff

fly 61a20 / 78bl5 / 82bl0 /

83a30fluid and solid 32 / 46a 15flax 52b30fontanel, anterior 53a35foot 82a35ff / 85al0ff/

90a25 ff

foreskin 57b 1

form (and matter) 9/11 / 25 /

40al5, b20 / 41al5formation (process of) 27 /

40al0ff / 46a25funnel 79al

gadflies 61a20gall and gall-bladder 5 /

76bl5ffgazelle 50bl5 / 63a 10, b25gills 59bl5 / 96bl ff / 97al5fqladius 54a20goat 73b30 / 74b5 / 76b35 f /' 88b25Goethe 84b 15good, the 39b20 / 59b30 /

70b20" good life " 56a5" goodness " {arete) 42a30goosefish 95b 10 / 96a25grasshopper 82al5fgrease 51a25Great Blood-vessel, see under

blood-vessels

Grosseteste, Richard 41

gut 74al0 / 75a30f

haematoporphyria 68b5


haemorrhage 68bl5hair o8alo flf

hand 87a5ff, bl flf / 90a30hare 67a20 / 69b30 / 76al5Harun-al-Rashid 40Harvev, WilUam 43 / 44hawk 70b 1

head 5(jal0 ff / 58bl / 86a5 ff

hearing 56b 10

heart 47a25 / 53b5 / 54b 10 /

56a25 / 65al0, blOff /

7T)a20f / 73b 10 ' 77bl /

78bl / 8Gal5 / 96bl5heat 53b5 / 96bl5 / andpassim

hepatopancreas, see meconHeraoleitus 45al5Heracieotic crabs 84a 10Herodotus 59al5Hippocrates 30 / 31 / 37 /

40b 15 / 4Sal / 50b20 /

85b5 / 86b25Historia Animalium 46a5 /

oOaSO / 60bl / 74b 15 /

SOal / 84b5 / 89a 15 /

96bl5Holothuria 8 la 15

Homer 73al5hoof 90a5 ff

horned animals 73b30horns 62b20 ff

horse 63al / 66bl5 / 88b20,30

hot, the 50a5 flf

hot and cold 4 lb 15 / 46a 15 /

48a20flF

hucklebone 51a30 / 54b20 /

90alOflf

hyaena 67a20

" idly " (" Nature does no-

thing idlv") 61b20 / 91bl /

94al5 / 95bl5

immortality 37" Indian ass " C3Hl5fink 79a 1 ff/ 81b25Insects 23 / 54a25 / 57b35 /

59bl5 / 78bl0 / 82al flf

instruments, instrumentalparts 30 / 45b 15, 25 / 46b25/ 47al ff, b20 / 87a5 ff

intelligence 48al / 50b20 /

72a30 / 86a25 f / 87a5intermediate creatures 23 /

69alO / 81alO, blO /

89b30 / 97al5 ff

" internal finahtv " 3intestines 50al5 / 74al0 ff /

75bl flf/ 76bl0irrigation 68al0 f

j

ischium 95al ff

I

jaws 91a25 ff

jejunum 75b25 ff

joints 54b 15. See also

bending

Kerkidas 73al5Kestreus 75al0 / 96a5kidney 70al5, b20 / 71a25 ff

kite 70b 1

Knides 81a35Ktesias 63a 15

" lantern of Aristotle " 80a5lard 51a20 ff, b25 / 72a5laymx 64al5 ff

laughter 73a 1 ff

Lee, H. D. P. 10

Leonardo da Vinci 65b5

leopard 67a20 / S8a5Lesbos 80b 1

life 55b35 / 78bllimpet 79b25 / 80a20lion 51b35 / 55al0 / 58a30 /

86a20 / 88a5, bl/89a30547

ARISTOTLE

lips 50b20liver 66a25f^ I 69bi?5ff/

73bl5ff/77alo, :?5f, b35lizard 76a25 /91a5ff** lizards " (aavpai, plaited

tubes) 85b5lobster 84a30locust 83a30logos 26f /39bl5 /40a30 /

42a20 / 46b 1 / 49b25/78a35 / 95bl5

Lophiva piscatorhts 95blOlumen 71bllung 64a20 f / 65a 15 / 68b30 ff

lynx 89a30

Maia 84al0mammae 88al5ffMan 44a 1 / 45b25 / 53a25 ff /

56a5 / 58al5, bl / 59b80 /

eOalOif / 61b5 / 62bl5 /

66b5 / 69a20, b5 / 71bl /

73a5, 25/76b30/86a25ff/88b30 / 89b5ff / 90a25 /

95a5marrow 51b20fFmarten 67a20matter and form 9/35/36mecon 79b 10 / 80a20melanin 34Melolontha 82b 15membrane 73b Iff/77b 15, 35/

82b 15 /83b20 / 9la20mesentery 50a25 / 76blO /

77b35 ff

Methydrion 73a15metre 60a5mice 67a20 / 76b30Michael Scot 40 ff / 46-47

migrants 94a5milk76al0f /88blmoderation 52b 15Moerbeke, William of 42

548

moon, full 80a30mouth 50al0ff / 62al5ff96b20 ff

Murex 61a20mussel 79b25 / 83b 15

mytis 79a5 / 81b20ff

nails 87b20 / 90b5Natural science 39a 10 / 40a" Natural Selection " 4Nature 39bl5/ 41 a25, blOff^

42a 15 / and passimNaxos 77alNecessity 21 / 39b20ff /

42a Iff, 30 ff / 45b30 /

46b25 / 51al5 / 63b20 /

70a30, b20 / 72b30 / 77a 1 5

,

b20/78al/79a25/82b25/85bl5 / 92a 1 / 94b5

neck 64al0/86a5ff/92b20ffNerites 79b20nictitating membrane 57a30" non-uniform " parts 28-30 /

46a20, b5, 30 / 47a25 /

55b25 ff

nostrils 58b25 ff

nutriment (" ultimate ")

50a30 / 51al5 / 7Sa5, 15

nutrition 47a25 / 50a35

octopus 52b25 / 54a20 /

78b25 / 79a5ff / 85a5,15 ff

oesophagus 50al5 / 64a 15 ff /

74al0, b20 / 86a20 /

91alomasum 74b 15 / 76ai0fomentum 76bl0 / 77b 15

opercvlxnn 79b 15opposites, division by 43a30orifice 81a25Oryx 63a20OS sepiae 54a20Ostreae 80b20


ostrich 58a 10 / 95al5 /

97blOff"ova" SOalOff, biffox 66bl5 / 71b5 / 88b25

etc.

oyster 80b5, 20 / SlblO

Parmenides 48a25Parnassus 81a20parrot-fish 62ao / 75al"part" 28-30 / 51b25 / 64a5 /

90a5/passages 50alo / 56bl5 /

71bl, lOff / 78alO" pen " of Calamary 54a20penis 89a20 f" perfect " animals 55b30/66a25 / 82a30

philosophers, early 40b5 /

41a5fr/47al0" philosophical treatises

"

42a5phlegm 53al / 77b5pigeon 70blplants 50a20 / 55b30 / 78 alO /

81al5 fF / 82b30 / 83bl5 /

86b30Plato 30 / 42bo / 45a35 /

51b20 / 69al5 / 76b25pneumaf connate 59b 15 /

69al"potentiality" 43al / 47a5 /

49b Iff/ 67b20 / 68a30" pounce " (of cuttlefish)

54a20privative terms, privation

42b20ff / 49a 15proboscis 78b 10 / 79a5 /

85a30, blOProtagoras 42a25purpose 45a20 / 51al5 /

63b20 / 70b20 / 77al5 /

78al5 / 92al

Purpura 61a20 / 79bl5fPyrrha, strait of 80b 1

Pythagoreans 70b20

rain 53a 1

razor-fishes 83b 15" realization " 35 ff

relative size of parts 65b5rennet 76a5 ff

residue 29 / 32-34 / 47b25 /

50a20 / 70b25 / 71a5 /

74al5 / 75bl0ff / 76a30 /

77alOf, 25 / 81a30respiration 5 / 42a30 / 62al5 /

64b 1 / 65a 15reticulum 74b 15 / 76a5Rhine 97a5rhinoceros 63a 15ribs 55alRis-us Sardonicus 73alOrot 72a30 ff

rumen 74bl5rumination, ruminants 74b5 /

75al f

St-Hilaire, J.Barthelemv- 44/45

St-Hilaire, G. 84bl5saw-teeth 6 lb 15 / 62a5scales 91al5scallops 79b25 / 80b20 /

83bl5Scarus 62a5 / 75alscorpion 83a 10sea-anemone 81a35sea-cucumber 81al5sea-lung 81al5sea-nettle 81a35sea-sickness 64b 10sea-snail 78b20 / 79b5sea-squirt 81alOsea-urchin 79b25f/ 80a Iff, 30,

bl ff / 83bl0

549

ARISTOTLE

seal57a20/71b5/76b:23 /

97blfseed 41b25 / 89a5fSelachia 4 / 55a20, 25, 3o /

76bl /95b5/96blflF/97a.->self-defence 55b5 / 62b25 etc.

semen 51bl0, 20 / 89a5fsensation 47a 1 If / 48a 1 /

50b25/51alO, bl I 5Sb~2() I

5Gal, 15/ 66a35 / 72b30 /

8]al5ifsense, " general " 86a30sense-organs 47a5 / 56b35senses 56a25 if / 86alOSepia 54a20 / 78b25 / 79a5 ff /

85al0ffseptum 81a30serpents 60b5 / 76a25, b^20 /

90bl5ff / 91b25ff /96a5 /

97al0serum 51al5 / 53a 1

Shakespeare 33 / 34sheep 7 1b5 / 72a25 if / 73b30 /

76b35 f

sheep-rot 72a30 if

sinews 66b 10 / 96b5Siphae 96a5sleep 53a10smell 59b 15Smyraena 96a5snake 91al5Socrates 42a25solid and fluid 47a30, blO /

48bl /49bl0ifsolidification 49a30 / 51alOSoul 9/ 34-37/ 38 /41a 15 if/

50b25 / 52b5f / 67b20 /

72b 15 / 76b25 / 78b 1 /

86b25 / 92a20sounds 60al f

speech 59b30 if / 60a20/61bl5 / 64bl / 73a20

spider-crab 84al0

550

spiral shells 79b 10

spit-and-lampstand 83a25spleen 66a25 / 69b25 if /

70a30 if, bSOsponge 81alOfspontaneous production40a30

spurs 94a 10starfish 81b5fsterility 51b 10

sting 61 al5, 25 / 82al0, b30 flf

stomach 74a5 if / 80b25 if /

89b35stone 67b 1

substratum 49al5fsuckers 85b 10suet 51a20if, b25 / 72a5sutures 53a35 / 58b 1 / 67a5sweat 68b 1

swine 63a5 / 88bl, 10 etc.

symmftria 52b35 / 8Gal0systoichia, 70b20

tail 58a30 / 84al / 89bl if /

95b5ftalons 94al5taste 56b35 / 60a20 / 61a5 /

90b25 if

Taylor, Prof. A. E. 20teeth 55b5 / 61a30 flf / 78bl5 /

80b25teleology 3 / 48al5 / 59al5 /

63a 10 / 94a20tentacles 85b 1 f

Testacea 23 / 54a 1 / 78b 10, 20

/ 79bl if / 83bl if

testicles 95a25 / 97alOtext and manuscripts of De

partibus 45 if

theoretical sciences 40aThompson, Prof. D'Arcy 10 /

19 / 20 / 44a20Tipha 96a5


tissues 4toad 73b30Toledo 40/41tongue o9b35 if / 78b5 ff /

901);20 if

torpedo-fish 95b5 / 96a25 f

tortoise 54a5 / 71al5f /

73b30 / 76a30 / 91al5touch 47 / 53b20 / 56a35Transformations, theory of

19 / 20translations of Aristotle's

works 39-43 / 44-45transmigration 36troglodytes 69b5 / 84a5Trvgon 9obo, 25tube-feet 81a5turtle 54a5tusks 55b 10

umbilical cord 93b25umbilicus 93b20" uniform " parts 28-30 /

40b20 / 46a20, b5, 30 /

47a25, blOupright posture 53a30 / 56a 10

/ 58a20 / 62b20 / 69b5 /

86a25if / 87a5 / 89blOif /

90a25 / 95al if

ureters 7 lb 15

vaporization 52b35 / 72b 15

variations in " parts " 47b25 ff

/ 73bl0ifventilation 53b 1

vermiform appendix 75a 15vertebrae 51b30 / 54b 15 /

86a20Vertebrates and Inverte-

brates 45b 10viper 76bl f

viscera 47a30 / 65a25 ff /

73bl0ffVivipara 55a5, blO / 62lv20

/

73bl5/ 74a25 / 85b35ff

wasp 83a5whale 69a5 / 97al5ffwhelk 79bl5f/ 831)10

windpipe 64a35 if ' 86a 15wing (of birds) 93b 1 if

wing (of insects) 82b5 ff

wolf 86a20 / 88a5woodpecker 62b5wryneck 95a20

xanthopterine 34

Zeus hoplosmios 73a 15zoological works of Aris-

totle 8

551

INDEX TO MOVEMENT ANDPROGRESSION OF ANIMALS

Note: 98a-99b = 698a-699b00a-14b = 700a-7Ub.

The matter contained in lines 1-5, 5-10 etc. is treated as asection, and each section is referred to by the number of its

first line : e.g. 98a 1 refers to anything contained in page698a lines 1-4, and 13bl0 to anything contained in page713b lines 10-14.

action, the result of the prac-tical syllogism 01a22 If

active )( passive 02b 10 /

05a20alteration, causes of Olbloanimals passimappetite 00b 10arms, movement of, in run-

ning 05al5athletes, use of weights in

jumping by 05al5Atlas, the fable of 99a25, bl

back )( front, of animals05a25, blO

bat 14bl0bees 10a10beetles lOalObending, as a means of

motion 07b5 / 08b20 ff /

09b 1 ; concave and convexib. 10 ; of legs in walking

552

by man lla25 ff, by quad-rupeds ib. blO, by birds12b20

bipeds 04al0, 15 / 06a25,bl ff / 10b5 / 12b30

birds 09b20 ; are bipeds06a25 ; standing position

of 10bl5 ff ; compared withfishes 14a20 ff ; birds withtalons the swiftest flyers

10a25 ; web-footed birds,

14a5bloodless animals, progres-

sion of 12b20 ff; struc-

ture of ib. 30 ; can havemore than four feet 08al5

;

can live though divided in

parts 07a30boat, illustration from a

98b20bones 01b5Boreas 98b25


bronze, horses in 10b20

caterpillars, 05b25 / 09a30children, their difficulty in

walking 10b 10

cockchafer 10a 10conger-eels 08alcrabs 12bl0/ 14bl5; curious

structure of ISblO flf

crawling 09a5, 25crocodile 13a 15, bl5cupids, pictures of wingedHal

De anima, referred to 00b5 /

14b20Be parfibus animalium, re-

ferred to 98aldesire, as a cause of motion00bl5/01al/03a5; absentin involuntary movements03b 10

diagonal movement of the

legs 04bl / 12a20, b5dimensions of animals 04bl5 /

05a25

earth, immobility of the99a30, b5 ff

earthworms 05b25eels 08al ff / 09blOelbow 12al0 ; elbow-joint

98b 1 / 02a25elephant 09al0 / 12al0

feet, even number of, in all

animals 04al5 / 08a20 ff

fiery element 03a20fire, movement of 99b25 /

00a10fishes 09b30 / 13b5 ; com-

pared with birds 14a20 ff

flat-fish 09bl0 / 14a5

flying 98a5, b]5 / 09b5" foot," defined 06a30footless animals 04al0 /

05b20 / 06b 1 ; movementof 07b5 / 09a25

fore-arm 98bl / 02a25fowls, domestic 10a5

geometrical illustrations

98al0 / 02b25 / 03b25good, the, as a cause of move-ment 00b25 ; real )( appar-ent good, ib.

hand 02a30 ff

heart 03al0 / 03b5, 20heavens, movement of the99alO

heron 10a10hips 98b5 / 09al0 / lla5; of

birds 10b20, of man ib.

Historia animalium, referred

to 04b 10Homer, quoted {Od. viii. 20-

22) 99b35hopping 0ob30horses, of bronze 10b20, in

religious processions 12a30

" impossible," meaning of99bl5

imagination OOblO / Olblo /

02al5 / 03bl0 ff

inferior )( superior parts

04b20 / 05a25 / 06bl ff /

07a5insects 09b30 / 10a5 ff/ 13al

intellect 00b 10

joints 98al5 / 02a20 / 03al0 /

05al5; of elbow 98bljumping 05a5, 15 / 08a20 /

09b5

55^

ARISTOTLE

knee 98bl

lampreys 08alleeches OOaSOleft )( right 05a25, bl5 ff

;

left and right sides ofthe body, similar 02bl0 ;

weights carried on left

shoulder OobSO ; why menstep off with the left foot

06a5legs, the 98b5 / lOblO ; posi-

tion of, in movementOOblo if; of man, bent if.

convex direction O-lalS, of

birds, in a concave direc-

tion ib. 20 ; four ways ofbending the legs 12a I :

transference ofweight fromone leg to another llalO :

of polypods 13b25 ff:

necessary to birds 09b20 :

used to direct flight

10al5lizards 13b 15

lobster lSb20 ff

man, the only erect animal10b 10; right-handed 06a20:why a biped 04a 15 ; whynot winged llal ; his

action in walking 07bl5 ;

bends his legs in a convexdirection 04-al5

marionettes, illustration fromOlbl

Metaphysics^ referred to

00b5mice 98b 15

molluscs 06a30moon 99b 15

motion, movement, of tlie

554>

universe 98b 10, of theheavens 99a 10, blO, ofanimate things OOblO, ofinanimate things OOblO,of the soul 00b 1, of red-blooded footless animals07b5 ; various kinds ofmovement 98a5 / Ooal ff;

cause ofmovement 00b 15 ff;

where situated 02a20, bo ff

;

ori^:in of movement 98al5,bl^ ff / OlbSO / 06bl5;points at which movem.enttakes place 04-alO /0ral5 ff,

b5 ff / 09b20 ; movementbegins on the right side

05b30 / 06b 15 ; movementimplies something at rest

outside 99b30 / 02a25 :

movement of one partnecessitates rest of anotherpart 98al5, bl ff / 00a5

:

movement by bending08b20 ff / 09bl / lla5

:

voluntary )( involuntarymovement 03b5 ; diagonalmovement of the legs

04bl / I2a20, b5: move-ment in jumping, running,and walking 05a5 ff

mover, the prime OObo,moves without being itself

moved 98a5 / 00b35, is

eternal OObSOmullet OSal

nature, creates nothing with-out a purpose 04b 15 /

08a 10, creates nothing un-natural lla5

nutrition, of plants 06b5, ofplants and animals com-pared 05b5


opposite parts of the bodymove simultaneously 02b 1 (

)

oviparous quadrupeds 04b 1 /

13al5

passive )( active 02a 10 /

05a20peacock lOao, 20Physics, reference to (258b49

)

98a 10

plants, nutrition of06b5, lack

movement ib., comparedwith animalsOobo, superiorand inferior parts of 05a25,biff

points at which movementtakes place 04-alO /07a 15 if,

b5 if / 09b20poles, the 99a20 ff

polvpods 04a 10 / 06a30, bo /

OSbl / 12bl0 / 13a25, bioporphjTio (a bird) 10a 10procession, religious 12a30purple-fish 06a 15

purpose 00b 10 / 01a5, in

nature 04b 15 / 08a 10

quadrupeds OlalO ff /06a30 /

07bl5; bending of the legs

of quadrupeds in walkingllblO; oviparous quad-rupeds 04b 1

ray (fish) 09b 15red-blooded animals llao,

move at four points 04a 10 /

07al5, b5/09b20, cannotlive if divided into parls

07a25resistance of earth, air or sea

necessary to movement98bl5

rest )( motion 98b5

right )( left 05a25, bl /

06b25 / 07a5 ; movementoriginates on the right side

0ob30/06bl5; right side

superior to left 06a20,blO ; right limbs used in

defence 06a5roots of plants 05b5rudder, slight movement of,

changes direction of boat01b25

scolopendrae 07a30 / 08b5seal 14b 10sensation 01a35, cause of

alteration 01b 15 ; origin

of sensation situated in tiie

centre of the body 02b20sense-perception, in animals

05b 10: objects of 98a 10sexual organs 03b5, 20shin 98b 1

shoulder 98 bl / 09a 10 / 1 la.3 /

12al0sinews 01b5Siphae 08a5snakes 05b25 / 09a25, move-ment of 07b20 ff, whyfootless 08ao ff

soul, movement of the 90bl,central position of 03a3o,as origin of movement02bl ff / 03al

spine 02b20spirit, innate, in animals

03al0 ff

stromboid testaceans 06al0,bl

superior )( inferior parts

04b20/05a25/06blff/07a5swimming 98a5, bl5 / 091)5

syllogism, the practical

OlalO ff

555

ARISTOTLE

tail, used as a rudder lOaltalons, birds with, the swiftest

tlyers 10a25testaceans 06alO, bl / 14b5thighs 12a 15, of birds 12b30Tityos 98b25tortoise 13a15toy-carriage, illustration from

Olbltrumpet-shell 06a 15

universe, movement of the98blO

viviparous quadrupeds 04a20voluntary )( involuntarymovement 03b5

walking 05a5wasps 10a10water-fowl 10a 10web-footed birds 14a5weights, used by athletes

when jumping 05al5,carried on left shoulder05b30

w ings 05b20 / 06a25 / 09b5,30 ; of birds, necessary for

walking 09b20, and for

standing 10b30, serve as

front legs 12b20; ofcupids,useless Hal ; of insects

10al5 ; grow obliquely

13a5wrestling-school 09blOwrist 02b 1

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A. W. Mair ; Aratus. G. R. MainClement of Alexandria, Rev. G. W. Butterworth.COLLUTIIUS. Cf. OpPIAN.DaPHNIS and CllLOE. Cf. LONGUS.Demosthenes I : Olynthiacs, Philippics and MinorOrations : I-XVII and XX. J. H. Vince.

Demosthenes II : De Corona and De Falsa Legatione.C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince.

Demosthenes III : Meidias, Androtion, Aristocrates,Timocrates, Aristogeiton. J. H. \'inGe.

Demosthenes IV-VI : Private Orations and In Neaeram.A. T. Murray.

Demosthenes VII : Funeral Speech, Erotic Essay,Exordia and Letters. N. W. and X. J. DeWitt


Dio Cassius : Roman History. E. Gary. 9 Vols.Dio CiiRYsosTOM. 5 Vols. Vols. I and II. J. W. Cohoon.

Vol. III. J. \V. Cohoon and H. Lamar Crosby. Vols. IVand V. H. Lamar Crosby.

DioDORUs SicuLus. 12 Vols. Vols. I-VI. C. H. Oldfather.\ôl. VII. C. L. Sherman. Vols. IX and X. Kussel M.Geer. Vol. XT. F. R. Walton.

Diogenes Laertius. R. D. Hicks. 2 Vols.DlONVSIUS OF HaLICARNASSUS : ROMAK ANTIQUITIES. Spcl-man's translation revised by E. Cary. 7 Vols.

Epictetus. W. A. Oldfather." 2 VolsÊuripides. A. S. Way. 4 Vols. \'êrse trans.

EusEBius : Ecclesiastical History. Kirsopp Lake andJ. E. L. Oulton. 2 Vols.

Galen : On the Natural Faculties. A. J. Brock.The Greek Anthology. W. R. Paton. 5 Vols.

The Greek Bucolic Pokts (Theocritus, Bion, Moschus).J. M. Edmonds.

Greek Elegy and Iambus with the Anacreontea. J. M.Edmonds. 2 Vols.

Greek Mathematical Works. Ivor Thomas. 2 Vols.

Herodes. Cf. Theophrastus : Characters.Herodotus. A. D. Godley. 4 Vols.

Hesiod and the Homeric Hymns. H. G. Evelyn White.Hippocrates and the Fragments of Heracleitus. W. H. S.

Jones and E. T. Withington. 4 Vols.

Homer : Iliad. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

Homer : Odyssey. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.

IsAEUS. E. S. Forster.

Isocrates. George Norlin and LaRue Van Hook. 3 Vols.

St. John Damascene : Barlaam and Ioasaph. Rev. G. R.^^'oodward and Harold Mattingly.

JosEPHUS. H. St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus. 9 Vols.Vols. I-VII.

Julian. Wilmer Cave Wright. 3 Vôls.

LoNGUs : Daphnis and Chloe. Thornley's translation

revised by J. M. Edmonds; and Pahthenius. S. Gase-lee.

LuciAN. A. M. Harmon. 8 Vols. Vols. I-V.Lycophron. Cf. Callimachus.Lyra Graeca J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols.

LrsiAs. W. R. M. Lamb.


Manetiio. W. G. Waddell; Ptolemy: Teteabiblos. F. E.Robbins.

Marcus Aurelius. C. R. Haines.Mexander. F. G. Allinson.

Minor Attic Orators. 2 Vols. K. J. Maidment andJ. O. Burtt.

NoNNos : DioNYsiACA. W. H. D. Rouse. 3 Vols.

Oppian, Colluthus, Trytiiiodorus. a. W. Mair.Papyri. Nox-Literary Selections. A. S. Hunt and C. C.

Edgar. 2 Vols. Literary Selections (Poetry). D. L.Page.

PaRTHENIUS. Cf. LONGUS.Pausanias : Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones. 5

Vols, and Companion Vol. arranged by R. E. Wycherley.Philo. 10 Vols. Vok. I-V. F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H.Whitaker ; Vols. VI-IX. F. H. Colson.Two Supplementary \'ols. Translation only from anArmenian Text. Ralph Marcus.

Philosteatus : The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. F. C.

Conybeare. 2 Vols.

Philostratus : Imagines ; Callistratus : Descriptions.A. Fairbanks.

Philostratus and Eunapius : Lives of the Sophists.\\'ilmer Cave Wright.

Pindar. Sir J. E. Sandys.Plato I : Euthyphho, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus.H. N. Fowler.

Plato H : Theaetetus and Sophist. H. N. Fowler.Plato III: Statesman, Philebus. H. N. Fowler: Ion.

W. R. M. Lamb.Plato IV : Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus.W. R. M. Lamb.

Plato V : Lysis, Syjiposium, Gorgias. W. R. M. Lamb.Plato VI : Chatylus, Parmenides, Greater Hippias,Lesser Hippias. H. N, Fowler.

Plato VH : Tlîaeus, Critias, Clitopho, Mejtexenus, Epi-stulae. Rev. R. G. Bury.

Plato VHI : Charmides, Alcibiades, Hippahchus, ThkLovers, Theages, Minos and Epinomis. W. R. M. Lamb.

Plato : Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.

Plato : Republic. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.

Plutarch : Mohalia. 15 Vols. Vols. I-V. F. C. Babbitt;


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Cherniss and W. C. Helmbold.Plutarch : The Parallel Lives. B. Perrln. II Vols.PoLYBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

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Sextus Empihicus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols.

Sophocles. F. Storr. 2 Vols. Verse trans.

Strabo : Geography. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.

Iheophrastus : Characters. J.M.Edmonds; Herodes,etc. A. D. Knox.

Theophrastus : Enquiry into Plants. Sir Arthur Hort.2 Vols.

Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.

TrYPHIODORUS. Cf. QPPIAN.Xenophon : Cyropaedia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.Xenophon : Hellenica, Anabasis, Apology, and Sympo-

sium. C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd. 3 Vols.

Xenophon : Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. E. C. Mar-chant.

Xenophon : Scripta Minora. E. C. Marchant.

VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

GREEK AUTHORS

Aristotle : History of Animals. A. L. Peck.Plotinus. a. H. Armstrong.

LATIN AUTHORS

Babrius and Phaedrus. B. E. Perry.

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PAAristoteles ^^^2

• A?Parts of animals, with an *p,

^^glish translation

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Aristotle Parts-Movement-Gait of Animals

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