Art education in malaysia

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Temple UniversityDoctoral Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Board

Title of Dissertation: VISUAL ART EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA(Please type)

Author:(Please type)

Khatijah Sanusi

Date of Defense:(Please type)

4 /0 3 /2 0 0 0

Dissertation Examining Committee:(piease type)

Dolores SilvaDissertation Advisory Committee Chairperson

Milton Paleologos

Colden Garland_________________

Matt Bruce_____________________

Read and Approved By: (Signatures)

James R. PowellExamining Comminee Chairperson

Date Submitted to Graduate Board:

on Examining

4-i4-ooAccepted by the Graduate Board of Temple Universjrij/in partial degree of Doctojr of Education. /y ^Date if/S 6 /0 0

tent of the requirements for the

(Dean of the Graduate School)



VISUAL ART EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA

A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

byKhatijah Sanusi

May, 2000


UMI Number 9969941

Copyright 2000 by Sanusi, Khatijah

All rights reserved.

UMIUMI Microform 9969941

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byKhatijah Sanusi

2000All Rights Reserved


i v

ABSTRACT

Title: Visual Art Education in MalaysiaCandidate's Name: Khatijah Sanusi

Degree: Doctor of EducationTemple University, 2000

Doctoral Advisory Committee Chair: Professor Dolores Silva

The purpose of this study was to describe the propositions of John Dewey toward developing a basis for linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian art. The aim of this study was to derive implications for program development in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia.

The impact on art during the colonial period was to shift the focus of art from the traditional to that of modern Western art. Decolonization has raised the questions of shifting the focus back to traditional art forms without relinquishing a modern perspective on the past.

Six works of visual art were described in application of criteria derived from John Dewey. The works are by current noted Malaysian artists. The artists and their works are Habibah Zikri's Kain Sonqket: Sulaiman Esa's Garden Mystery Series painting; Fatimah Chik's Nusantara Series-Gununaan 3: Mad Anuar Ismail's Beduk: Harun Coombes Abdullah's Surah An-Nur: Abu Bakar Sabran's Moon-kite Necklace.

These six works were submitted to description by application of criteria derived from Dewey: symbol-shifting, space-time continuum, practical-theoretic


adjustments, and social worth. It was determined that the criteria provide a way of linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian art and therefore are appropriate as a basis for program development in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia. One implication of this study is that additional works of art, traditional and contemporary, should be submitted to application of the criteria derived from Dewey to discern the breadth of appropriateness of application of the criteria as a basis for program development.


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TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

ABSTRACT................................................ ivLIST OF PLATES.......................................... ixCHAPTER1. THE PROBLEM........................................... 1

Statement of the Problem............................ 1Delimitations........................... 1Definitions........................ 7Need for the Study.................................. 8Stages of Research................................. 13

2. MALAYSIA IN TRANSITION............................... 15Malaysia in Perspective............................ 15The Coming of Islam to the Malay World and Its

Impact on the Malay Culture................... 16The Qur'an and the Hadith as Artistic Determinants

of Traditional Malay Art...................... 18Islamic Art in Traditional Society................. 20The Qur'anic Root of Traditional Malay Art......... 21

Man as the Servant of God..................... 21Man as Vicegerent of God...................... 23Nature........................................ 23

Ca 11 igraphy........................................ 24Awan Larat......................................... 25The Concept of Beauty in Traditional Malay Art...... 25British Colonization and Its Impact on

Traditional Art............................... 27The Birth of Modern Malaysian Art.................. 30Art Education in Higher Institutions............... 32Post-Independent Period and the Recovery of

Islamic Identity.............................. 34The Impact of the Linkage Problem: Traditional

Art and Contemporary Malaysian Art............ 353. DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS: ART AS EXPERIENCE.............. 37

Formative Influences: Dewey and Pragmatism......... 39Dewey's Propositions on Aesthetics................. 43

Aesthetic Experience.......................... 44Process of Artistic Expression................ 51


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PageArt in Social Context.............................. 53

Art for Social Integration................... 53Art for Utilitarian Purposes................. 56

Toward Application of Dewey's Propositions......... 60Criterial Statements Derived from Dewey's

Propositions.................................. 60Space-Time Continuum.......................... 60Social Worth ............................. 61Symbol-Shifting............................... 61Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 61

4. APPLICATION OF DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS TO SELECTED 'WORKS OF MALAYSIAN ART............................. 62The Selected Art Products......................... 67Kain Songket (1989) by Habibah Zikri............... 68

Space-Time Continuum.......................... 70Social Worth.................................. 71Symbol-Shifting............................... 72Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 73

Garden Mystery Series (1992) by Sulaiman Esa....... 75Space-Time Continuum.......................... 78Social Worth.................................. 79Symbol-Shifting............................... 81Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 82

Nusantara Series-Gunungan 3 (1992) by Fatimah Chik.. 85Space-Time Continuum.......................... 88Social Worth.................................. 89Symbol-Shifting............................... 90Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 91

Beduk (1993) by Mad Anuar Ismail................... 93Space-Time Continuum.......................... 95Social Worth.................................. 96Symbol-Shifting............................... 98Practical and Theoretical Adjustments......... 99


v i i i

PageSurah An-Nur (1993) by Harun Coombes Abdullah..... 101

Space-Time Continuum......................... 103Social Worth................................. 104Symbol-Shifting.............................. 105Practical and Theoretical Adjustments........ 106

Moon-kite Necklace (1994) by Abu Bakar Sabran..... 109Space-Time Continuum......................... 110Social Worth................................. illSymbol-Shifting.............................. 112Practical and Theoretical Adjustments........ 113

Applicability of Criteria......................... 1135. IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT................ 121REFERENCES CITED....................................... 127


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LIST OF PLATESPage

PLATE1. Kain Sonqket (1989), weaving by Habibah Zikri........ 1152. Garden Mystery Series (1992), painting by

Sulaiman Esa...................................... 1163. Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3 (1992), batik painting

by Fatimah Chik................................... 1174. Beduk (1993), wooden sculpture by Mad Anuar Ismail... 1185. Surah An-Nur (1993), stained glass calligraphic

work by Harun Coombes Abdullah.................... 1196. Moon-kite Necklace (1994), handcrafted jewelry

by Abu Bakar Sabran............................... 120


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CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM

Statement, of the ProblemThe purpose of this study is to describe the

propositions of Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) as a basis for proposing a link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art- The aim of this study is to derive implications for program development in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia.

DelimitationsThe primary purpose of this study is to identify and

describe the propositions of Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) as regards visual arts. It is an attempt to identify a theoretical basis for Malaysian art education, providing a viable context within which to pursue continuity between traditional art forms and contemporary art, and thus to ground the identification of accurate subject matter for art programs in higher education in Malaysia today.

In order to derive implications for program development in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia, theoretical propositions which could delimit the area of study must be identified and described. According to Silva (1994), in program development, the theoretical impacts on the practical and the practical monitors the theoretical.The worthiness of any proposition lies in its potential to


remain constantly tenable and applicable. Theoretical propositions can only become significant for the identification of the content of art education when they possess the potential for being translated consistently into the practical. Accordingly, Dewey's (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions concerning art as instrumental to life are tenable and applicable. Dewey has been selected as a scholar of choice for three main reasons.

First, Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) was regarded as the most influential American thinker, philosopher, and educator of his time. His writings and teachings profoundly affected not only philosophy but also educational theory and practice, both at home and abroad.

Second, Dewey's (1934/1980) writing on Art as Experience laid the foundation for an aesthetic theory applied to the visual arts in America after 1934. Dewey's emphasis on the importance of process in creating an art product also became a major emphasis in the Bauhaus art education program, whose influence has now been adopted by art schools worldwide.

Third, Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) believed art and life to be interpenetrated. He rejected modern artists' view that art is a separate entity, only available to those whom the artist regards as being of superior cultural status. The object that the artist produces may be considered as a work of art, but the actual work of art,


according to Dewey, is to be understood by the extent to which it affects human experience and the actual processes of living. He thus rejected the idea of art-for-art's-sake. In response to the aesthetic propositions advanced by Dewey, artistic works that were socially and culturally oriented became dominant among prominent artists such as Mark Tobey, Barnet Newman, Diego Rivera, Pablo Picasso, Joyce Kozloff, Isamu Naguchi, and many others all over the world, up to the post-modern period.

In this ever-changing world, Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) maintained that the artist, the critic, and the aesthetician must face the fact that change is permanent. Human beings are continually subjected to change, operating within a structure of laws. This structure itself is always subject to change. Art, therefore, must reflect such change. It brings forward aesthetic experience and reveals the life and development of a civilization. It reveals the customs, the rituals, the communal activities that unite the practical, the social, and schooling into a single aesthetic unity. The artist can thus create a physical and moral environment that will shape desires and purposes, that will determine the direction of vision of a particular community or country. Artistic experience, says Dewey, can and should shape the future.

It is for these reasons that Dewey's (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) formulation of the aesthetic


experience can be viewed as a potential basis for proposing a linkage between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art, with implications for program development in the visual arts in higher education in Malaysia. This study will be limited to consideration of Art as Experience (Dewey, 1934/1980) and Experience and Nature (Dewey, 1929/1958). It is in these texts that Dewey (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) presents and discusses his focus on inquiry and critical analysis applied to works of art.

Major traditional Malay art comprises the crafts in the form of woodcarving, textile art (hand-woven songket, batik printing), fiber crafts (screw-pine and bamboo weaving), metalwork, and pottery. Whether in court arts or folk arts, these forms prevail. They are created not only as objects of everyday use to fulfill the practical needs of the people, but they also reflect the Malays' value system.

One of the central features of traditional Malay art is the presence of motifs derived from the rich tropical forest, such as bamboo shoots, creepers, vines, tendrils, flowers, and fruits. These motifs, which had been stylized and abstracted to avoid realistic rendition of living figures or animals, conforming to Islamic teaching, are embodied in architectural and ornamental features as well as everyday utensils. "Thou shall make no graven images," a Judaic commandment on the prohibition against idolatry, is also applicable to Islamic faith. The producers of both


human and animal figures, on the Day of Judgment, cure to bring to life those they have created or be doomed forever. The swirling variations of abstract motifs or protracted clouds, avan larat, are the Malays' version of arabesque— their interpretations and expressions of Islamic doctrine into an aesthetic language of forms and patterns. These seemingly decorative ornamentations are, in actuality, the embodiment of the philosophical and symbolical dimensions of the Malays' religious beliefs, contrary to Western opinion that these ornamentations are merely decorative and devoid of any meaning. Faruqhi (Faruqhi & Lamnya, 1986), in expressing the unique function of ornamentation in Islamic aesthetic, maintains: "Instead ofbeing unessential components added superficially to a work of art after its completion, ornamentation is at the core of the spiritualizing enhancement of the Islamic artistic creation and of the Muslim environment" (p. 380).Similarly, Michon (1982), in highlighting the functionality of traditional Islamic art, avers: "The arts of Islam, asindeed all traditional arts, are always 'functional', [sic] that is useful, whether their usefulness be directly of spiritual order . . . or whether they confer upon the objects used in everyday life a distinctly qualitative character" (p. 51).

In sum, the concept of pure art or art-for-art' s-sake and its corollary notion of fine art is irrelevant in


traditional Malay society. Besides being spiritually revitalizing and utilitarian in nature, the traditional art is also socially integrative. By using a collective and shared vocabulary of patterns, forms, and symbols, a traditional artist is able to generate interconnectedness which contributes positively to social integration.

The global Islamic resurgence in the 1970s and the National Cultural Congress, as cited in Esa (1992), have resulted in a number of modern Malay artists, in their search for identity, investing their art with Islamic identity. While a few turned to Middle-Eastern countries, the majority drew their inspirations from traditional Malay crafts. Various forms and motifs of Malay woodcarving, woven and printed textiles, plaited mats, calligraphic motifs, and elements of Malay myths and legends became sources of inspiration.

For this study, the traditional arts and crafts that will be described are: (a) woodcarving, (b) textile art(woven songket and batik printing), (c) fiber art (screw-pine leaves and bamboo plaiting), (d) calligraphy, and (e) metalwork.

A selection of six contemporary art works which mirror the traditional aesthetic forms and motifs have been chosen for application of this study. Besides being utilitarian in nature, as exemplified by Habibah zikri's woven songket


cloths worn for ceremonial functions, they manifest identifiable cultural values through symbolic icons.

The principal criteria for the selection of the art works were the acclamation they have received both at home and abroad, making them readily accessible to study, and the diversity of form represented in the selection, demonstrating the breadth and prevalence of the traditional in the contemporary. These six works are: (a) a stainedglass calligraphic work, Surah An-Nur. by Harun Coombes Abdullah in 1993; (b) Kain Songket. weaving by Habibah Zikri in 1989; (c) the painting, Garden Mvsterv Series, by Sulaiman Esa in 1992; (d) the batik painting, Nusantara Series-Gununcran 3. by Fatimah Chik in 1992; (e) a wooden sculpture, Beduk, by Mad Anuar Ismail in 1993; and (f) Moon-kite Necklace, handcrafted jewelry, 1994, by Abu Bakar Sabran.

DefinitionsThe following definitions are used in this study:Program Development: The generation and application of

criteria for selecting and organizing content for schooling (Silva, 1976a).

Theoretical Propositions: The "at least" statementswhich characterize necessary but not necessarily sufficient constraints for the visual sorts (Silva, 1976b).


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Practical Propositions: The description andexplanation of propositions that impact on theoretical hypotheses (Silva, 1976b).

Education in the Visual Arts: For the purpose of thisstudy, the terms "visual art education" and "education in the visual arts" will be synonymously used since no distinction is noted in the literature.

Need for the StudyAny justification for art programs in schooling must be based in the discreteness of their content. It is proposed that art education find its source in art theory. It is proposed that consistent theoretical bases for art education have not been described. (Kerschner, 1982, p. 6)Kerschner (1982) calls for the identification and

examination of theoretical propositions for theirplausibility and consistency before adoption as groundingfor the content of art programs. Unlike the schools, whoseart program accords to the art curriculum of Malaysianeducational policy, art education in Malaysia's highereducation institutions adopts a Western view of arteducation. The absence of consistent theoretic bases in artprograms is one of the major factors contributing to thelack of continuity and consistency in art education eitherwithin public schools or colleges or between them. Theissue of identifying theoretical propositions as bases forconsistency in art programs, as posited by Kerschner, isapplicable in the Malaysian context.


As shown by history, art education in Malaysia has adopted a Western art education perspective— the Bauhaus system of art education. Essentially, the fundamental philosophy and rationale underlying art education according to this system is rationalism, scientism, and humanism. The main objective is to cater to the development of intellectual and creative artistic talent of the individual, nurturing the concept of art-for-art1s-sake. The notion of spirituality, subjectivity, and cultural representation (as in traditional Malay art) does not have relevance in Bauhaus art.

While the Bauhaus approach accords well with Western tradition and aspirations, serious problems arise when it is transplanted into a non-Western environment such as Malaysia, whose ethos is rooted in Malay traditional values. Malay art students who are instilled with traditional Malay values, find Bauhaus art education problematic. The secular approach to art education gives rise to conflicts. Such is the predicament facing the art school which is locally known as Kajian Senllukis dan Senlreka (KSSR), whose students are mostly Malays.

The Fine Arts department of KSSR is illustrative of the need for this study. It adopts the perspective of art education in the West, where subjects like painting, sculpture, drawing, printmaking, art history, and so forth are offered. Since the stress is on the importance of


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individualism, creative expressions, and naturalism, littleemphasis is given to transmission or appreciation oftraditional sort. Instead, the students axe instilled withthe idea that the fine artist is a "revered" being, superiorto others. Inevitably, highly individualistic andaggressive artists have begun to emerge. Their works, suchas painting and sculpture, are supposedly "modern," andbecome reminiscent of those of De Kooning, Pollock, Matisse,Picasso, Diebenkom, Hockney, and other Western artists.

The Malaysian public find these abstract renditions ofWestern art incomprehensible, both socially andartistically. Contextually, such art works are not only"alien" to their culture, but also irrelevant, andconsequently receive poor public reception whenever there isa modern art exhibition.

In underscoring the current predicament that facesKSSR, Salleh (1980), an eminent Malaysian educator, believesthat the blind adoption of Western art education values hascaused artistic and spiritual alienation. He observes:

There is one aspect concerning the cultural development in Malaysia that deserves our attention; namely the existence of two dichotomous worlds. First there is the traditional world that is underdeveloped and gradually diminishing; second, there is the modem world that is Western and alien. There seems to be no compatibility between the two. . . . In the after-effect of gaining Independence, we do not seem to have in actual sense the ability or sustenance to think of an educational philosophy that is truly ours.(p. 2)


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Zain (cited in Deraman, 1978), the Director of Culture,lamenting the absence of a sound philosophical base forMalaysian art education writes: "art education in Malaysialacks continuity between the formal education and its socialmilieu . . . most disturbingly the art program in highereducation never questions the philosophy, the rationale thatWestern-oriented art programs adopted" (p. 7).

Arnheim (1989), a world-known philosopher and arteducator, also shares in the idea of philosophy as the pointof departure in art program development. He avers:

The history of art shows that successful art has never been devoid of significant content. Often this was supplied by the religion or the philosophy of the times. . . . A principal mission of art education is to counteract this cultural drought, a task that depends largely on the spirit that guides the work in the art room itself. (p. 51)Discerning the socially alienating spirit of modern

Malaysian art, Zain (1989) could not but comment onMalaysian modern art as not in correspondence to thepolitical, social, or aesthetic needs at the national level.He maintains:

As a result, the dichotomous existence of Modernism in an environment which is not entirely in equanimity with its canons of the West has not only proven to be problematic, but, in extreme cases, also leads to cultural delusions. . . .Thus the Malaysian experience shows that in the absence of a sound philosophic base entrenched within a system that operates on a national level and the consequential epistemology arising therefrom, the pervasive attitude is to value the more prosaic and explicit aspects of Modernism.(p. 23)


What: would be ‘the appropriate content for an art curriculum that would suit a country like Malaysia whose artistic, traditional, and spiritual values are rooted in its population? Three factors could provide a point of reference in determining the direction, the philosophical basis, and the justification for content in art education. First is the two recommendations of the National Cultural Congress, as cited in Esa (1992): (a) to restore the roleand status of Malay indigenous and traditional art forms and elements as vital components in the formation of Malaysian culture, and (b) to recognize Islam as a crucial element in Malaysian cultural development. Second is the national educational policy which emphasizes the implementation of a common curriculum which includes local content such as the history, art, and culture of Malaysia with the aim of preserving and transmitting the cultural heritage of Malaysia*s multi-ethnic society in an attempt to maintain national identity (Wan Teh, 1983).

From this point of view, Dewey's (1934/1980) assertions that the environment denotes the specific continuity of our surroundings and adaptation to that environment should guide our activities, even as our activities adapt to the environment, seem compatible with the direction suggested above for visual art schooling in Malaysia. In consonance with the idea that art begins with the social roots of its own culture, Sutopo (1989) writes: "Art has its roots in


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social life. What it is and what it bears depends on the nature of its soil, on such cultivation as given by custom and tradition, and on the favoring trend of taste” (p. 11). For McFee (1966), art should help students see the function of art in culture. She maintains: ”The social foundationof art transmits values and attitudes, and identifies cultural meaning and leads to respect and understanding of culture" (p. 123). Zain (cited in Deraman, 1978) asserts that Malaysia should begin its art education with the basic understanding of the value of indigenous art, in order to achieve a linkage between modernization and cultural tradition. If art is an experience integral to and a vital part of life, and if art is the visual manifestation of the collective tradition and values of a community, then Dewey's (1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions may provide a basis for deriving implications for program development in visual art in higher education in Malaysia.

Stages of ResearchChapter 2: Malaysian Art Education in Transition: In

this chapter, the problem of linkage between the traditional world and the contemporary world, and the impact of the linkage problem on a special case of schooling— program development in visual art in higher education— are described.

Chapter 3: If, according to Dewey (1934/1980), "a workof art is the subject matter of experience, heightened and


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intensified" (p. 294), and if the visual arts cure a way of presenting a view of social context, then Dewey*s propositions may provide a basis for linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian art toward a prevision of a future Malaysian visual art in higher education. Dewey’s propositions relative to art as experience are identified and described and criteria are derived in this chapter.

Chapter 4: The criteria derived from Dewey's(1916/1966, 1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions are applied to selected works of art. Examination of the applicability of the criteria is the central focus of this chapter toward proposing a linkage between traditional and contemporary works of Malaysian art.

Chapter 5: Implications for program development invisual art in higher education in Malaysia are derived.


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CHAPTER 2 MALAYSIA IN TRANSITION

The focus of this chapter is to describe the problem of linkage between traditional Malay art and the contemporary world, and the impact of the linkage problem on a special case of schooling— program development in the visual arts in Malaysian higher education. Malaysian art underwent transition when the country experienced major social and political transformations, from the pre-colonial era (Islamic period) beginning in the 13th century, to the colonial period in the 19th century, and into the post-independent period— the present time. The purpose is to elucidate the Islamic root of the philosophy of traditional Malay art in an attempt to show the linkage problem between the values of traditional Malay art and contemporary Malaysian art. The impact of this linkage problem in program development in visual arts in Malaysia’s higher education institution will also be described.

Malaysia in Perspective Malaysia, formerly known as Federation of Malaya before

amalgamation with the coastal states of Sabah and Sarawak of the northwestern part of Borneo island in 1963, is made up of two distinct regions: (a) the Malay peninsula, extendingfrom the southern border of Thailand to the Straits of


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Johore (also called West Malaysia)? and (b) the two northwestern coastal states of Borneo known as East Malaysia. The South China Sea separates the two regions by about 400 miles.

The Malay peninsula's strategic location at the crossroads of the sea routes between East and West, situated halfway between India and China, contributed to its commercial importance as early as the first century. This location transformed Malaysia into an important port of call for traders not only from China, but also from the West (Ryan, 1962).

The Coming of Islam to the Malay World and Its Impact on the Malay Culture

When Islam came to the Malay peninsula in the 13th century, it brought the Hindu-Buddhist era in the region to an end. The Muslim traders coming from as far as Persia, Arabia, India, and China flocked to the port of Malacca, a prosperous trading center in the Malay peninsula. These traders not only brought their trade, but also their religion. The new faith became a strong attraction to the Malay rulers c ue to the subtleties of the new faith in integrating earlier Hindu beliefs and practices with the mystical and spiritual dimensions of Islam. Similar to Hinduism, Islam, too, placed a high premium on art as visual manifestations of religious beliefs (Maxwell, 1990).


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That: Islam became a dominant factor in Malaysian artand a major "civilizing force" of the Malay culture cure theopinions shared by many scholars. Al-Attas (1976), one ofthose scholars, maintained:

The process of Islamization of the Malay Archipelago which culminated in the 13th-16th century brought about the greatest known cultural revolution in the region. It was the momentous event that transformed both the body and soul of the Malays. (p. 15)What is it that Islam brought to the Malay world that

is artistically and civilizationally determining? Accordingto Faruqhi (1984), Islam brought the Holy Qur'an, thescripture of Islam, which provided a concrete model forartistic form and content. It also brought the Hadith (theteaching of Prophet Mohammad) literature. From these corematerials came the transformation of the whole culture andcivilization of the Muslim Malays.

The vital role played by the royal courts in the spreadof Islam can hardly be overemphasized. It has been oftenmentioned that Islam was disseminated to the generalpopulace via the royal courts, as asserted by Osman (1984):

The spread of Islam in the Archipelago has been linked with the princely courts since Islamic scholarship and Muslim prestige were associated with the royal courts. Not only Muslim traders and scholars from the West flocked to these centers, but the princely courts provided a base for proselytisation by Muslims in the area.(p. 265)Al-Attas (1969), in his book, Preliminary Statement of

a General Theory of the Islamization of the Malav-Indonesian


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Archipelago. posited that the period from the 15th to the 17th century witnessed the birth of an intellectual tradition among the Malay-Muslims as a result of the efforts of Sufi poets and writers who undertook missionary and intellectual works to spread Islam. As a consequence of their untiring efforts, their spiritual view and knowledge began to penetrate the royal courts and the general Malay populace.

The Qur'an and the Hadith as Artistic Determinants of Traditional Malay Art

The transformation effected by Islam in cultural and artistic expression was just as decisive in other aspects of Malay life. The coming of Islam brought a new vision of reality. As a monotheistic religion, Islam defines God as a unique transcendent Being which is inexpressible. This concept of god-head is directly in contrast with the pre-Islamic Hindu religion which is rooted in polytheism. This belief is expressed through the depiction of various Hindu deities as evidenced in religious monuments and architectures. As opposed to the iconographical nature of Hindu art, Islamic art is essentially aniconic (non-imaginary) in nature. Since in Islam the rendition of naturalistic or representational images is prohibited (hadith), Muslim artists, therefore, resort to the process of stylization and denaturalization in their art.


The sufi ulama (guru) and saints were responsible for determining the fora and direction of Islamic traditional Malay sort. This was made possible through their metaphysical interpretations of the Qur'anic concepts of unity, cosmology, and psychology that proved essential in the shaping of the Malay world-view pertaining to the iconographical aspects of Malay art. The dissemination of the teaching of the Qur'an was not only central to the adult populace but also to their children during the dissemination and transformation into what became the Islamic period.It even overrode the priority of studying the mother-tongue— the Malay language itself. It was only after the children had learned the teachings of the Qur'an that they would be permitted to study the Malay language (Salleh, 1974).

For the school-age children, religious education took place in traditional sekolah Pondok— "hut-like" schools— and the madrasah (smaller mosques). Teachers employed were generally the local guru, trained by sufi masters who were themselves trained in the Middle East. Apart from studying the Qur'an, the children were also taught to master Islamic calligraphy and silat, the art of self-defense which would be applicable in the later part of their life (Deraman,1978).


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Islamic Art in Traditional SocietyThe term "tradition" needs clarification as it is used

in this context, since it is one of the main factors in consideration of Malaysian art. It is derived from the Latin "traditio" indicating a transmission, a handing down of something received (Keeble, 1967). In Islam, the words and deeds of Mohammad were handed down orally until recorded in the sunnah. So, too, in the arts, knowledge and techniques are handed down from one generation of artists to the next. In the general population, beliefs and customs take on the force of law after generations of transmission to successive descendants. In terms of content, tradition implies a vertical axis of descent pertaining to its transhuman (Divine) and integrative principle. T. S. Elliot's (cited in Sabapathy, 1989) notion of tradition is something that cannot be inherited, but has to be obtained by great labor. Elliot further claims that this is a necessary attribute of creativity and a criterion for judging a work that is good. For him, tradition is a force that is active and in a state of flux.

To Nasr (1981), tradition is to be considered as the truth, or principles of supra-individual or divine origin revealed or unveiled by mankind through the various figures envisaged as messengers, prophets, or saints. For man, living in tradition, according to Masr, means he lives in the cosmos that is meaningful— meaningful because it


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reflects divine principles. Accordingly, symbolism became the most influential force in the art of traditional Malaysian society, since it is mutually integrated with life. Not only art has the power of relating to ontology and cosmology, but also aesthetics and morality. As such, the principles underlying the sacred and traditional arts are conveyed by the artist/craftsman; in a traditional society which places no distinction between the sacred and the prof cine, the artist plays a crucial role.

Thus, Nasr (1981) is cited as claiming that there is no elucidation of the complex Buddhist metaphysical teachings of spiritual enlightenment that is more eloquent them the sacred Borobodur; or the Islamic aoctrine of "Divine Unity" them the mosque in Qaraouiyyin; or the Taoist concept of "void" them the landscape painting by Mi Fei (Ardalan & Bakhtiar, 1973).

The Our1anic Root of Traditional Malay Art Since traditional Malay art is deeply rooted in the

Qur'an, a brief description of the iconographical, morphological, and philosophical dimensions of the Qur'anic vision of reality is required, especially concerning the tripartite relationship between God, man, and nature.

Man as the Servant of GodAccording to the Qur'an, man was created "in the most

beautiful nature (95:4), and as "the image of God" (hadith),


together with the gift of language and faculty of expression by means of artistic forms and intuitions as perceived by his inner senses (Michon, 1982). Mein is created by God only that "he should adore Me" (Qur'an, 51:57), and that there is nothing better for man them the remembrance of God. It is only through submission to the Creator, that man's happiness in this world and Hereafter will be attained. Submission to God is conveyed through the act of zikr, remembrance and contemplation of Divine names and attributes such as Divine Unity, Infinity, Transcendence, and Beatitude.

The main mission of Islamic art is thus the art of submission. This is manifested through an aesthetic expression of tauhid, the Unity of Allah as in the proclamation of the Shahadah— there is no god but Allah.But how could a painting, a craft object, or a building reinforce the concept of tauhid? To answer this we need to understand the message of tauhid within monotheism. Allah is other-than His creation. He is inexpressible. "No vision can grasp Him" (Qur'an, 6:103). In order to create within the realm that is permissible (since the Muslim artist realizes the futility of visually depicting God and the prohibition of figural or realistic scenes from nature) the artist needs yet another means of directing man's thought to the idea of transcendence. Therefore, in order to express feeling and conviction to Allah, Muslim artists avoid realistic portrayal of man or nature through the


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process of stylization and denaturalization. Since "No vision can grasp Him" (Qur'an, 6:103), Muslim artists allude to the idea of infinity, transcendence, and imminence of Allah in an abstract manner so as to produce "other-than-nature" artistic renditions which result in an ornamental-like art form. This abstract form is not a response to the subjective or irrational or subconscious mind of the artist as presented in secular modem art. Rather, the abstract manner is the projection of an objective and calculative mind embedded with Malay ethos and religious beliefs (Mohammad, 1980).

Man as Vicegerent of GodMan was the chosen one among the creations of God to

represent Him on earth. In his capacity as the khalifah, vicegerent, every man is entrusted with the duty to "enjoin the good and forbid the evil" (Chandra, 1995, p. 16), thus strengthening the virtuous life among the Muslim ummah, community. To speak out against cruelties, social injustices, and corruption, and to encourage moral, ethical value and virtuous deeds are vital obligations to the Muslim faith and religious piety.

NatureNature, to Muslims, is essentially a theophany— a

mirror that reflects God's divine name and attributes (Corbin, 1969). It is a kitab, an open book regarded as


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sacred. In underscoring this, Mohammad (1980) cited thefollowing Malay perception of nature:

Baik-baik membelah buluh Dalam buluh ada ulat Baik-baik mengkaji tubuh Dalam tubuh ada sifat

Be careful when splitting the bamboo For it contains the maggots Be careful when studying the human body For it contains Divine attributesBaik-baik membuang ulat Dalam ulat ada sengat Baik-bedJc mengkaji sifat Dalam sifat ada zat

Be careful in discarding these maggots For they have stingsBe careful when studying Divine attributes For they reveal Divine Essence. (p. 17)According to Mohammad (1980), the Muslim's idea of

cosmology is embodied in the various forms of traditionalMalay art, including calligraphy— the highest in thehierarchy of Islamic art since it is the Word of God madevisible— arabesque as discerned in woodcarving (for mosquesand traditional houses), woven textiles, metalwork, andpottery.

CalligraphyThe driving force behind the rapid dynamic growth of

seni khat, Islamic calligraphy, is an expression of the desire to attain the state of ihsan, spiritual beauty and nobility, through constant remembrance and contemplation of His sacred Words as embodied in the Qur'an. It is this force that underlies the ubiquitousness of calligraphic


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arabesque on the forms and objects used in everyday life which provide the ambience for the ummah to remember Allah consistently. As argued by Nasr (1987), the Qur'anic verses which generally constitute the content of the calligraphic art are "powerful presences" infused deeply with barakah, the Divine blessings that are spiritually purifying and uplifting.

Awan LaratAwan larat is another technique in the manifestation of

ornamental motifs, similar in structure to arabesque. Theunderlying philosophy of awan larat as an expression of transcendentality of Divine essence in a contemplative manner contributes to its pervading daily presence. In almost all forms of traditional art and crafts, including woven textiles, batik printing, mat-weaving, and metalwork, this ornamentation reminds the ummah of the infinity,transcendence, and imminence of Allah.

The Concept of Beauty in Traditional Malay ArtAccording to Braginsky (1979), the concept of beauty as

presented in Malay philosophy is clearly discernible in the various following attributes: (a) lembut (gentle, pliable,reflexible); (b) halus (refined, subtle); (c) seimbang (balanced, harmonious); (d) teratur (order, decorum); and (e) berguna (functional, beneficial). These attributes, which reflect an ideal Islamic value-orientation in Malay


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society, are considered as adab, decorum. It is this adabthat constitutes the essence of Malay identity andpersonality, mirrored in various forms of artisticexpression. An example of this representation of the MalayIslamic philosophy in composing the motif of woodcarving isdescribed by Deraman (1986) through the statement:

Tumbuh berpunca Punca penuh rahsia Tajam tidak menikam law an Tegak tidak memaut kawan Tapi berlegar penuh mesra

Behind all creations there lies the Creator God who is the mystery of all the mysteries Achievement and progress should be acquired without tension nor conflict But warmth and harmony pervades all. (p. 15)The first two lines describe the universe or cosmos,

including man, as owing its origin to the Supreme Creation(hence, tumbuh berpunca)- However, at the level of DivineEssence, God is transcendent, unknowable, inexpressible— amystery of all mysteries— and thus, punca penuh rahsia. Thelast three lines allude to the Divine qualities andattributes which man should emulate in the moral and ethicalvalues expressed in life. Hence, tidak menikan lawan meansin man*s attempt to strive for success, he should use theproper adab, decorum, so as not to create unnecessarytension. Instead, one ought to stay in harmony towardsachieving one's dreams, hence, tapi berlegar dengan mesra.

Accordingly, in the process of creating a design,whether in woodcarving or in any other traditional craft,


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the Malay Muslim artist will invariably adhere to the principles which provide the ethico-spiritual model which all Malay Muslims aspire to, and upon which the concept of adab resides. In commenting on the Malay craftsmen's skillfulness and ingenuity in the execution of designs, Roth (1993) says:

The freedom of the design and the boldness of the work, the absence of simple repetition and the presence of variegated repetition, led me to the conclusion that the Malay workman (who was at the same time, the designer) must have used neither pattern nor models. On enquiry, I found this to be the case. . . . [He] no doubt mentally recalls certain forms, but only to clothe them in a new dress. (pp. 4-5)During the time when royal patronage actively promoted

the traditional art, from the 13th century until early 19th century, the craftsmen lived in the precincts of the royal palace, with all their needs supplied. Secure in their livelihood, the craftsmen were free to devise vessels and ornamentations, exquisitely, and out of their own free will, as in the words of Sheppard (1986): "Their products were asbeautiful in form, as delicate in workmanship as anything of a similar kind to be found in the East" (p. 150), where time and expense were not the overriding consideration.

British Colonization and Its Impact on Traditional Art

Traditional Malay art flourished from the coming ofIslam to the Malay peninsula in the 13th century andremained deeply ingrained in the fabric of Malay life and


culture until the 19th century, when it fell victim to Western colonization. By the time the Malay peninsula was colonized by the British, the Islamic root of its traditional art had been entrenched deeply in the culture and life of the Malays for more than six centuries. The impact of British colonialism in the 19th century, however, essentially destroyed Malay culture and identity, as has been observed by many scholars, including Maxwell (1990), who argued that: "Through colonial conquest and war,Europeans are directly responsible for the destruction of certain traditional centres of royal authority and the aristocratic court cultures associated with them" (p. 361).

In their attempt to "civilize" and organize the Malay society which they deemed to be "inferior" and primitive, British-based laws and regulations were introduced. This resulted in the dismantling and outlawing of many aspects of traditional Malay Muslim life and culture.

The Pangkor Treaty in 1874 marked the beginning of the British attempt to completely alter the Malay community.The division of the Malay peninsula into different political states: the straits settlement states, the Federated andUnfederated Malay states, further weakened the Malay rulers* hegemony in the states that were reorganized. The royal patronage to the already well-established traditional art gradually declined as the controlling power of the rulers in each state was taken over by the British. Thus began yet


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smother historical turning point in the history of the Malay peninsula— the Westernization of the Malay world. As argued by Mutalib (1990): "The colonial masters had systematicallyattempted to separate Muslims from their religion . . . and whittle away the domination of Islam in Malay society"(p. 21).

For the first time, in British-founded schools in the Malay peninsula, the teaching of formal art from a Western view, especially in drawing and painting, was introduced and adopted (Carline, 1968). Indigenous art was not given any place in the schooling during the British Colonial period. Even though the craft culture of the Malays had flourished and attained a very high level of beauty and sophistication in interpretation, the teaching of these crafts in schools was ignored. Craft works, as perceived from the Western perspective, lacked intellectual value, as claimed by one of the British administrators, who argued: "You will find, Ifear, no art of any value in this territory and it is not worth trying to teach it" (Carline, p. 114).

It was for this reason that Malayan schools under the British colonization followed the same art education program as prevailed in Britain. The earliest school founded by the British was the Penang Free School in 1816 (Carline, 1968). Its art program included drawing on slabs of slate with a slate pencil, or with chalk on a black board. A decade later, the school children were being instructed in


Western-oriented craft work including carpentering, silver-smithing, tailoring, and bookbinding, in addition to the usual elementary school subj ects. The primary and secondary school examinations on art were formulated in conjunction with the Senior and Junior certificate of examinations conducted in England- Not only were the Malay students required to work using Western techniques, namely, water-color and oil painting technique, but they were also burdened with the unfamiliar subject-matter for art as in still-life drawing and imaginative compositions. These were a few of the decisive steps taken by the British in their attempt to Westernize the overseas students while pursuing artistic endeavors. The effect was to hasten the rapid decline of the traditional arts, much to the regret of Sir Thomas Monroe, the Governor of Madras (Carline). The aptitude for the rich patterns and harmonious colors and fine workmanship that prevailed in traditional textiles and crafts gradually receded from Malay life under the control of the British view of art in schooling.

The Birth of Modern Malaysian Art British colonialism and the overwhelming influence of

Westernization gradually eroded the significance of traditional art in the lives of much of Malay society. Colonization in the 19th century not only caused a major shift in the political and socio-cultural aspects of Malay life, but also brought about the birth of modern art. The


introduction of Western formal approaches to art education in Malayan colony schools led to the birth of what can be called modern Malaysian art in the 1930s (Sabapathy & Piyadasa, 1983). This form of modern art subscribes to its own self-defining history and was a new phenomenon in Malaysia. The forms and theoretic basis of this art conflict with the norms and traditions of the Malay Muslim culture. Its emergence in Malay society became a serious threat and a great challenge to the expectations and values of traditional Malay Muslim art practices and bases.

Modern art subscribes to the thinking of modem Western man, who places a high premium on man's reasoning power. As an embodiment of the post-Renaissance period, modern art deifies science, knowledge, and a focus on human interpretation of human affairs. Traditional Malay Muslim art is spiritually based. Modem art, produced by modern Western man, functions as a vehicle for the individual expressions of the artist. In the words of Descartes (cited in Arguelles, 1975), modem man "is essentially an entity reduced to body and mind only, devoid of any soul" (p. 211) . Modem art of Malaysia, despite its still nascent state, moves abreast of the various art movements in the West, producing carbon copies of art works in imitation of such styles as abstract expressionism, constructivism, and conceptual art. As a result of applying formalist and aesthetic Western theories, Malaysian art assumes the status


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of an independent: and autonomous entity. The concept of art-for-art1s-sake, which is the rationale of Western modern art, further exacerbates the alienation between art, society, and Islamic tradition in Malaysia.

Despite the reductive effects of modern art on the tradition of Islamic Malay art, many Malaysian artists still succumb to the influence of modern art. According to Wong (1989) and Zain (1989), many artists submit to modern art because of two main reasons: (a) first, the error ofequating "modernization" with "progress" and "development;" and (b) second, a reflection of the colonized mentality of Malaysian artists in acceptance of the supposedly "superior culture" of the Western white man.

Art Education in Higher InstitutionsThe rise of modern Malaysian art in the 1960s led to

the incorporation of art education in higher education institutions in Malaysia, which is a recent development. Founded in 1967, the School of Art and Design of MARA Institute of Technology (ITM), Shah Alam, was the first art school ever established by the Malaysian government, and it adopted a Western art program. It was mainly to fulfill three basic objectives— to uplift the economic, educational, and spiritual values through the inculcation of Islam for indigenous Malays. Its rationale was primarily to redress the economic shortcoming of the Malay Muslims who have been neglected in comparison to other Malaysian ethnic groups as


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a result of unfavorable policies adopted by the British during their 75-year colonial rule in Malaysia (Mahamood, 1993).

After almost three decades, the ITM School of Art and Design has successfully achieved two out of three of its main objectives. The inculcation of spiritual values in its 99% Muslim student population proved to be problematic. The problem stems from the adoption by the Fine Art department of Kajian Senilukis dan Senireka (KSSR) of a Western basis for art education which is essentially secularistic and humanist, directly in conflict with the religio-spiritual values and ethos of the majority of Malay Muslim students.

A number of criticisms from Malaysian scholars, including Salleh (1977) and Zain (1978), argue the need for KSSR' s Fine Art department to review its Western-oriented art curriculum for its applicability in a Malaysian context, founded on the values and spirit of the Malay Muslim tradition. During the decade of the 1980s, KSSR entered into a period of re-questioning, reevaluating the basic view being maintained toward art. The challenge of identity and focus became urgent. As Masahiro (1989) succinctly stated: "The time has come for us to examine ourselves in the light of what we have become as opposed to what we ought to be"(p. 2).


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Post-Independent: Period and -the Recovery of Islamic Identity

The Independence of Malaysia from colonial status, for Malay artists, consists of two significant factors. First, socially and politically, it signifies the liberation of the Malay "body.” Second, socially and culturally, it denotes the liberation of the Malay "mind and spirit'1 from Western domination. As citizens of the post-colonial period, the burden of having to reconcile Islamic identity with nationalism and modernism in art constantly challenges the Malay Muslim artists.

It was within this context of soul-searching that the convening of the National Cultural Congress in 1971, concurrent with a global Islamic resurgence, became the most significant recent event in the lives of Malay artists. The Congress and the emerging importance of Islam in the world provided a frame of reference for questioning the direction, basis, and justification for artistic activities. The principle concerns are: (a) socio-cultural art withinthe social reality, (b) artistic-creative appropriation of the traditional Malay-Islamic heritage, and (c) philosophical-spiritual aspects in art.

The search for identity, the need to rediscover a national ethos, and the need to overcome the effects of colonization became the source of dysfunction among art educators at KSSR. In addition, KSSR, being under the umbrella of the Education Ministry, also must necessarily


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defer to the Ministry's educational policy. All of these considerations impact on the attempt to determine a theoretical basis from which to identify and formulate a linkage between the values of traditional Islamic Malaysian art and its contemporary expression.

The Impact of the Linkage Problem: Traditional Art and Contemporary Malaysian Art

In the KSSR's effort to forge a link between the values of traditional Islamic Malaysian Art and contemporary expression as a basis for program development in visual arts, many factors are at stake. The danger lies in accommodating pressures rather than engaging in investigation of potential sources for an applicable basis for program development.

The centrality of the spiritual emphasis of Islam which pervades traditional Malaysian Art must, as Losche (1992) suggests, be acknowledged. Program development in the visual arts cannot take place in isolation from the society. The impact of modem art on Malaysia through recent and current exchanges with Western and Asian worlds cannot merely be ignored. The distinction between art as an object of veneration and art as a functional aspect of life must be considered in view of the importance of the traditional perspective of the umraah, the society at large. The requirement of identifying a potential source that would neither violate nor impose any one perspective leads to


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investigation of the propositions of Dewey (1934/1980) in Chapter 3.


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CHAPTER 3DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS: ART AS EXPERIENCE

"Art is the living and concrete proof that man is capable of restoring, consciously, the union of sense, need, impulse and characteristic of the live creature" (Dewey, 1934/1980, p. 25).

As evidenced in Art as Experience. Dewey (1934/1980) established himself as a 20th century philosopher who places art as a central feature of his method of inquiry. This is principally due to his belief that science and art are indissolubly related. According to Dewey (1934/1980), science becomes art because it exhibits aesthetic satisfaction in its logic, and art becomes science due to the manifestation of structural principles and logical modes of inquiry. Dewey (1934/1980) says, "Science states meanings; art expresses them" (p. 84). Dewey (1934/1980) presents an analysis of aesthetic experience within the context of ordinary life experience. Aesthetic experience, for him, is an immediately enjoyed possession. Our daily life is filled with aesthetic or potentially aesthetic experiences, and one does not have to interact with the fine arts for such experiences to occur (Zeltner, 1975).

Today, more than 60 years after Art as Experience (Dewey, 1934/1980) was first published, Dewey's aesthetic philosophy still exerts a major influence on the thoughts of


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a number of contemporary philosophers and scholars. Forexample, Shusterman (1992), a philosopher, writes:

Dewey's pragmatist aesthetics concerns with the empirical spirit and down-to-earth sense.Pragmatism is very well placed to help us to direct and reinvigorate contemporary philosophy of art. This view of pragmatism acts as a more promising middle way and mediator between the analytic and continental traditions. . . . (p. 4)

Jensen (1995) also notes:Faith in the social powers of the arts allows American intellectuals to maintain a loyalty to democracy in the abstract while deploring people's concrete cultural practices. This perspective is analyzed and critiqued, and Dewey's beliefs in "art as experience" offered as an alternative that can refigure, and thereby benefit, American social thought. (p. 365)Dewey's (1934/1980) main focus in writing Art as

Experience was to propose the continuity of aesthetic experience with the normal processes of living. His integral philosophy, that is, the oneness of art and everyday experience in life, appears to accord with the world-view of traditional Malay art. Essentially, the traditional Malay aesthetic subscribes to the integration of art and life, so that art plays a central role in embodying the traditional ethos and world-view. Thus, the rationale of this chapter is to describe Dewey's (1929/1958,1934/1980) propositions about art as experience and the interrelationship of art and life. Such a study is necessary to determine whether Dewey's (1929/1958,1934/1980) propositions provide a basis toward proposing a link between Malaysia's contemporary and traditional art.


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To achieve the above-mentioned aim, this chapter will be presented in three main sections. First, the formative influences that shaped Dewey's (1929/1958, 1934/1980) philosophy of art are presented. Second, Dewey's views on art and aesthetic experience are described, and third, Dewey's propositions concerning the significant roles of art in society will be presented. These descriptions are toward deriving criteria for possible application to art objects.

Formative Influences: Dewev and PragmatismDewey (cited in Sleeper, 1986) was born in Burlington,

Vermont, in 1859 to Archibald Sprague Dewey, a grocer, and Lucina Rich Dewey, his wife. In 1879, Dewey graduated from the University of Vermont and spent the next three years as a school teacher in Oil City, Pennsylvania. Dewey pursued graduate study in philosophy with Charles Sanders Peirce at the Johns Hopkins University in 1882. His five years at Johns Hopkins gave him the opportunity to study with psychologist Stanley Hall, and G. S. Morris (Sleeper).

Dewey (cited in Sleeper, 1986) earned his Ph.D. in 1884 with a dissertation on Kant's psychology and later began teaching philosophy at the University of Michigan where he remained for a decade. His first book, Psychology. was published in 1887. In Dewey's view, psychological and philosophical theories needed to be tested and practiced in life. Accordingly, when Dewey became the Chairman of the Department of Philosophy and Psychology and Education at the


University of Chicago, in 1894, he established his famous laboratory school. In this school, learning was focused through the practice of problem solving pertaining to activities of everyday life experiences in school in such subjects as housekeeping, woodworking, house building, and other activities that cure appropriate to a social setting. For Dewey, schooling is the microcosm of a society. He wrote a number of books on schooling and society, including Mv Pedagogic Creed (1897), School and Society (1900), and the Child and the Curriculum (1902), which explained the underlying theory of Dewey's laboratory school: practical-theoretical adjustment. Dewey left the University of Chicago in 1904 to go to Columbia University as professor of philosophy and psychology. It was here that Dewey's career became most noteworthy. His 34 years at Columbia witnessed an unprecedented outpouring of philosophical scholarship: Reconstruction in Philosophy (1921),Experience and Nature (1929), How We Think (1933), Art as Experience (1934), and Experience and Education (1938).Dewey was very active in socio-political matters and wrote many articles for general popular magazines and newspapers, as well as scholarly periodicals. His scholarly writings continued until his death in New York in 1952.

The pragmatist movement emerged out of the cross currents of the 19th century: developments in science, theevolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, and industrialized


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democracy. Charles Saunders Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986) and William Jaimes (cited in Sleeper) were the main exponents of this movement.

Peirce's (cited in Sleeper, 1986) version of pragmatism focuses on meaning and truth in the context of scientific inquiry. In arriving at "truth" as unified and systematic knowledge, a scientific inquiry, Peirce argues, should be adopted as a methodology whereby the intentional and creative "life-doubt" are applied to generate rather than solve a problem. Furthermore, Peirce believes that science is the exemplar of restoring as well as embodying the method of human intelligence (Sleeper).

It is through the application of a scientific method of inquiry, Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986) contends, that the study of the universe becomes possible. With regard to human nature, he maintains that humans are highly adaptive organisms which have successively satisfied their survival needs through the adoption of "belief-doubt" systems. In fact, Peirce avers that the essence of human inquiry revolves around the enterprise of resolving doubt and seeking belief (Sleeper).

In contrast to Peirce (cited in Sleeper, 1986), who gives priority to scientific inquiry towards knowledge,James (cited in Sleeper) proposes a humanist version of pragmatism, stressing the primacy for human beings of their belief and value systems towards God, moral life, and fellow


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human beings. Philosophy, to Janes, becomes the determinant that shapes one's perception of reality. James, as a psychology-oriented pragmatist, proposes that one's lived experience takes priority over intellectual speculation or abstract thinking, as advocated by Peirce. James insists that it is experience that helps individuals to operate purposefully, that is, experience becomes the best means and a teacher that helps one to function effectively in society (Sleeper).

In this view, meaning, to James (cited in Sleeper,1986), is determined by usefulness, practicability, and workability of one's belief in the world, in terms of both success and failure. Unlike Peirce (cited in Sleeper), whose views of meaning and knowledge were directed to the realm of science, James insists that meaning and knowledge are inextricably tied to one's immediate experience in responding to the world.

As a student of Peirce (cited in Alexander, 1987) and James (cited in Alexander), Dewey (cited in Alexander) developed a form of pragmatism that differs from theirs, but which can be seen as a synthesis of the two major positions. Sharing Peirce's and James' views, Dewey maintains that human beings and mental life are biological and evolutionary (Alexander). But while Dewey incorporates the two versions of the pragmatists* value of lived experience, he further adds his own vision of progressive and democratic society.


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To some extent, this vision is based on the evolutionary view which Dewey derived from his close relationship with Mead (cited in Alexander).

Echoing Peirce's (cited in Sleeper, 1986) influence, Dewey (cited in Sleeper) maintains that Peirce's scientific mode of inquiry and its systemization of human experience was the highest attainment of human evolution. But Dewey opposes a limiting, purely scientific method of inquiry purportedly leading to or arriving at "truth." The intellectual appeal which pragmatism holds for Dewey lies, fundamentally, in its emphasis on the priority of actual experience. Experience, for Dewey, is the most significant source and form of knowledge. Experience is a means to solutions to problems, both philosophic and social. This conception provides the cornerstone of human understanding, perception, and thinking.

Dewev's Propositions on AestheticsDewey (cited in Kadish, 1977) is perhaps the only

philosopher who maintains that it is appropriate to address art through scientific inquiry. He also believes that one's understanding of the world, can be grounded through everyday experience to attain meaning as a basis for action. Dewey's (1934/1980) interest in biology influenced his description of everyday living experience and aesthetic experience. He defines "experience" as a process of fulfilling certain needs of the organism in an environment. He maintains:


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. . . We have an experience when the material experienced runs its course to fulfillment. Then and then only it is integrated within and demarcated in the general stream of experience from other experiences. A piece of work is finished in a way that is satisfactory; a problem receives its solution; a game is played through; a situation, whether that of eating a meal, playing a game of chess, carrying on a conversation, writing a book, or taking part in a political campaign, is so rounded out that its close is a consummation and not a cessation. Such an experience is a whole and carries with it its own individualizing quality and self-sufficiency. It is an experience. (p. 35)Experience is, therefore, the result of the interaction

of organism and environment which, when it is carried to the full, is a transformation of the interaction into participation and communication.

Aesthetic ExperienceAccording to Dewey's (1934/1980) description, aesthetic

experience occurs when one has "an" experience. Such an experience is not in terms of end-in-view but simply "an experience," complete and whole in itself. Experience is itself a process of doing and undergoing between the living creature and its environment, where each side is acting and being acted upon by the other to generate an experience, that which "is a whole and carries with it its own individualizing quality and self-sufficiency" (p. 35).

Although most of the experiences that we encounter are desultory, there are times when we do have an experience "which stands out" from the rest of our other experiences. When this happens, things seem to flow freely and naturally


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without any resistance or sacrifices into what ensues (Dewey, 1934/1980). Such an experience has some pattern and structure which become ordered into rhythmic movement and embodied with meaning. Dewey further claims that aesthetic experience does not only occur when there is unity which is incorporated in immediate qualities, but also conveys an intuition, a grasp of the inspiring quality of the immediate object.

Dewey (1934/1980) contends:"Intuition" has been used by philosophers to designate many things, some of which are suspicious characters. But the penetrating quality that runs through all the parts of a work of art and binds them into an individualized whole can only be emotionally "intuited." The different elements and specific qualities of a work of art blend and fuse in a way which physical things cannot emulate. (p. 192)Dewey (1934/1980) further considers that no experience

can be regarded as aesthetic unless our emotions are involved, unless in some way we empathize by becoming appreciative and excited and enjoy the experience achieved. In order to enjoy one's aesthetic experience to the maximum, Dewey points out the following four human qualities that contribute to aesthetic experience.

Intelligence. Intelligence constitutes the ability to unite past experience in influencing future action. Claims which ignore the role of intelligence in the production of art are based on the postulate that thinking is restricted to verbal signs and words only. In this view, to think is


•the manifestation of creating symbols, verbal and mathematical orientations and their relationship to qualities of materials, which demand a high level of thought and calculation. According to Dewey (1934/1980), selection or manipulation of objects which acquire meaning is only possible when the self has acquired sufficient knowledge to become aware of aesthetic powers. Through intelligent control of the environment, one is able to direct and consolidate one's artistic capabilities. The production of genuine art work, according to Dewey, "probably demands more intelligence them most of the so-called thinking that goes on among those who pride themselves on being 'intellectuals'" (p. 46).

Object of interest. Interest is the element that binds early stages of the process to the final outcome. Interest sparks an immediate realization of intent. It is only with a strong intention that an interest is able to be carried forward from its initial stage until the completion of a task. As the interest grows, experience begins to develop and deepen. The constant nurturing of interest increases and expands the range of the object of interest (Dewey, 1934/1980).

Emotion. Emotion is a response to an objective situation. It attaches itself to an object and brings about a new fusion by fastening on what is congenial and


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discarding what is alien. As a corollary, it brings forth unity that is present in the various parts of aesthetic experience. Emotions always accompany an experience.Without emotion, there is no action. Our response to a work of art is mainly due to the varying emotional states manifested in the art work (Dewey, 1934/1980).

Imagination. Imagination is a creative conjunction in the formation of a new idea about a given subject as a result of past experience. Dewey (1934/1980) insists that the artist's past life always influences his present artistic vision. These meanings from actual life become embodied in the art work in the particular manner in which he treats his subject matter. It is through imagination that things that are absent physically are brought back into an environment. It is creative since it involves a dissolution of old objects into new ones in a fresh new medium.

To a high degree, experience is an imaginative wholeness, which conveys the point that aesthetic experience is a pure experience. Emphasis upon the subjective contribution to experience makes it feasible to view Dewey's (1934/1980) orientation to aesthetic experience as an activity which not only requires a deep understanding of artistic ventures, but also personal involvement with the art in application.


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For Dewey (1934/1980), aesthetic experience occurs when the several factors simultaneously combine:

1. Tensions and resistance are converted to movement toward a fulfilling close— the operation of intelligence on a social context.

2. Dynamic growing forms are lifted high above the threshold of perception and made manifest for their own sake, resulting in an enjoyment characteristic of aesthetic perception— seizure, the operation of interest objectified in a social contexti

3. There is unity, integratedness, and an emotionally satisfying situation.

4. Imagination adjusts the new, connecting the new with its physical past and the viewer's past experience in a social context.

The aesthetic experience is located in the interactionbetween the spectator and the art product and is theculmination of all the described factors. However, Dewey(1934/1980) acknowledges that there are enemies to aestheticexperience. He notes:

The enemies of esthetic experience are neither the practical nor the intellectual. They are the humdrum; slackness of loose ends; submission to the convention in practice and intellectual procedure. Rigid abstinence, coerced submission, tightness on one side and dissipation, incoherence and aimless indulgence on the other, are deviations in opposite directions from the unity of an experience. (p. 40)


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To Dewey (1934/1980), art is not nature; it is nature organized, simplified, transformed in such a way that it places the individual and the community in a context of greater order and unity. Experience is not alien to nature, but it is nature in one of its myriad forms, an aspect which involves the interaction of the human organism in the rest of nature. It is the most direct and complete manifestation of experience since it represents nature as experienced by the artist.

Dewey (cited in Zeltner, 1975) rejects the Formalists'aesthetic theory of "Significant Form" as advocated by RogerFry (cited in Zeltner) and Clive Bell (cited in Zeltner).Fundamentally, this theory emphasizes the purist concept ofart in which art is divorced from any contextualrelationship in its environment. Art is independent of itssocial milieu; it is elitist and is dependent only on theform (art work) and its formal aesthetic.

As maintained by Bell (cited in Langer, 1953):To appreciate a work of art, we need bring nothing but a sense of form and color and a knowledge of three dimensional space. . . . Great art remains stable and unobscured because the feelings that it awakens are independent of time and place, because its kingdom is not from this world. (p. 37)Dewey (1934/1980) strongly opposes this "pure,"

uncontaminated by life, view of art. To combat such anartificial separation, he proposes a paradigm of art inwhich art and life are not isolated from each other but,instead, coalesce. In his discussion of the notion of the


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work of art, Dewey's pragmatist theory underscores the integratedness between art and life. For him all art is socially oriented. The inclusiveness of experience incorporates art and all other human activities. Art is the product of the interaction process between the living organism and its environment which involves the restructuring of energies, actions, and materials.

Unlike the traditionalist view of art as the object produced by the artist (Zeltner, 1975), to Dewey (1934/1980), a work of art is not the product, but instead, it is what the product does in the experience of the perceiver. Dewey insists on a clear distinction between the art product and a work of art. The product of art is the physical entity created by the artist as the statue, the painting, the sculpture, and so on. But the work of art in Dewey's words "is what the product does with an experience" (p. 3).

Dewey (1934/1980) further states:The product of art— temple, painting, statue, poem— is not the work of art. The work takes place when a human being cooperates with the product so that the outcome is an experience that is enjoyed because of its liberating and ordered properties. (p. 214)What can be inferred from the above is that a work of

art is intended for human consumption and, therefore, it requires the active involvement and participation of the viewer to experience and appreciate it. A work of art, for Dewey (1934/1980), can only exist when there is a


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collaboration between an art product and the perceiver. As such, there is a need for the perceiver to possess some knowledge and language about art, in order to participate actively and meaningfully in an aesthetic experience. The perceiver, therefore, upon his apprehension of the artist's operations embodied in the art product, experiences an aesthetic emotion of "delightful perceptions" (Dewey, p. 19). For Dewey's unconventional insight concerning art to accommodate his philosophy of integration between art and life, presumes that a work of art is, accordingly, perpetually new, created by each individual perceiver.

Process of Artistic ExpressionThe painter, like any other artist, according to Dewey

(1934/1980), perceives the world, initially, just like everyone else. But every experience the artist undergoes starts a compulsion, a craving for something desirable to satisfy a need to establish a definite relation with the environment. An inner agitation is discharged to be expressed and carried forward towards completion. The artist converts lines, paints, and pigments into a means of expressing an imaginative experience. What is taken as important is influenced by the artist's past experience, theories of art, attitudes toward life, and the context in which he lives with a purpose.

That is, according to Dewey (1934/1980), the act of creating involves a total integration between subject


(artist) and object (material). It is a continuous process of reconstruction, readjustment as the artist's feeling is heightened. Until he reaches satisfaction, he continues to shape and reshape and eliminate those elements and forms that do not contribute to the desired organization. The artist, Dewey continues, is one who does and undergoes more keenly than others. He organizes, clarifies, and simplifies his materials to accord with his intuition, vision, and interest. He has not only superior dexterity (doing) but is also unusually sensitive (undergoing) to "the qualities of things" (Dewey, 1934/1980, p. 49).

An artistic endeavor is not an instantaneous emission. It takes time to transfer ideas and for imagination to manifest itself (Dewey, 1934/1980). In an artistic endeavor, there is time for inception, development, fulfillment, integration of both materials and intuition, and interaction toward reorganization as a result of past experience. A period of incubation takes place until what is conceived is finally completed and brought forth. In the process of actualizing every stage of his work, that is, in creating the form that Dewey defines as "the dynamic process of shaping experience by means of a medium so that it became expressive" (p. 55), the artist must, at each point, retain and sum up what has gone before as a whole with reference to the whole to come. If not, there would not be any consistency and unity in his successive acts. The


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undergoings that correspond to a variety of rhythms ofexperience not only save the work from being monotonous andaimless but also yield a heightened enjoyment andfulfillment. Dewey says:

An object is peculiarly and dominantly esthetic, yielding the enjoyment characteristic of esthetic perception, when the factors that determine anything which can be called an experience are lifted high above the threshold of perception and are made manifest for their own sake. (p. 57)Dewey (1934/1980) holds aesthetic experience, artistic

creation and appreciation to be a paradigm found in thedaily interactional processes of needing and meeting one'sneeds.

Art in Social ContextEvery art communicates because it expresses. It enables us to share vividly and deeply in meanings to which we had been dumb. . . . Communication is the process of creating participation. . . . The expressions that constitute art are communication in its pure and undefiled form. Art breaks through barriers that divide human beings, which are impermeable in ordinary association. (Dewey, 1934/1980, p. 244)

Art for Social IntegrationA central aspect of art as presented by Dewey

(1934/1980) in Art as Experience is its instrumental role in transmitting values and attitudes and in identifying cultural meanings. Art has meaning and order derived from cultural values. In any society, art functions at two levels: It serves not only in fulfilling the metaphysicaland spiritual needs of man, but also serves the physical


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needs of man (Michon, 1982). Art permits and supports participation in a common understanding of shared values, beliefs, and aspirations as well as providing for the practical necessities of a community. To the extent that art fulfills such roles, it ensures participation and integration toward perpetuation of common sheared values and aspirations.

In explaining the unifying role of art, Dewey (cited inDennis, 1968) writes:

It is an extension of traditional beliefs and values which are manifested in the form of rituals, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, etc. . . . They are means to perpetuate cultures.They are signs of civilization and national status. They are unifying. They have intellectual and moral worth. They focus on essentials. (p. 24)To Dewey (1934/1980), art affords communication and

participation in the values of life through the imaginative visions of the artists. Through art, artists are able to translate their emotions and ideas, their insight, which cannot always be adequately expressed through ordinary language or gestures. An artist chooses the most expressive forms, materials, and technique to best express his ideas in order to elicit attention from his audience. Whether the art product generates similar responses from the viewers as those experienced by the artist is another issue. The artist attempts to communicate, to inspire the viewer's appreciation and sympathetic understanding, so as to promote an aesthetic experience.


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In commenting on the integratedness of aesthetic form in the communal modes of activities, Dewey (1934/1980) writes:

They [communal activities] introduced social values into experience in a way that was most impressive. They connected things that were overtly important and overtly done with the substantial life of the community. . . . These activities conformed to the needs and conditions of most intense, most readily grasped and longest remembered experience. (p. 328)Dewey (1934/1980) believes that a society's culture is

a basic, essential factor in education. It is through understanding of the meanings of the symbols and icons found in cultural and artistic products that one's outlook is formed in both liberating and binding ways, for it is through artistic products that the very possibility of a shared life of meaning is established. Dewey maintains that no one can escape culture. But the most important human goal is to develop a culture that is consciously aware of itself, to use Alexander's (1987) words, "as a shape and shapeable power" (p. 72). Culture, that is, must recognize itself as an entity for critical self-reflection, reevaluation, and exploration toward the possibility of a better and more enriching life.

The defining role art plays sustains its intrinsic value in the life and culture of a society. As Dewey (1934/1980) says, "Continuity of culture from one civilization to another is conditioned by art more than anything else" (p. 327). He further asserts that without


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art, all the activities of a community, the rites and ceremony, the dance and the drama, the delicate ornamental designs on utensils and articles of the activities of daily living would perish. "Art," says Dewey, "not only realizes the community in its fullest sense, as communication, but embodies in itself the very guest of the democratic community: the creative exploration of the fulfillingmeaning and values of experience" (p. 332).

Art for Utilitarian Purposes"Art must continue to maintain its traditional role as

an integral part of daily living. . . . In life that istruly life, everything overlaps and merges" (Dewey,1934/1980, p. 7).

In traditional society, artists function at two equallysignificant and meaningful levels. Through his talents, theartist not only assumes the role of visualizer of culturalvalues and ethos, he is also responsible for the productionof objects of everyday use to fulfill societal needs.Traditional artists employ dexterity and skill in theservice of the society. His talents are manifested for thebenefit of the entire community. Art, therefore, becomes agift that the artist bestows upon the society as a whole.As argued by Coomaraswamy (1991):

There can be no doubt about the purpose of art in traditional society. When it has been decided that such and such a thing should be made, it is by art that it can be properly made. There can be no good use without art; there is no good use if


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things are not properly made. The artist is producing a utility— something to be used. (p. 6)Elaborating on the social function of art, Tawa (1992)

says:In this sense art is making well whatever needs making— be it a garden, an icon, a building, a city, a cloth. Making well means making for the good of the whole human being: body, mind,spirit. Something well-made, something artfully made, is physically satisfying, mentally intriguing and spiritually fulfilling. (p. 283)Tawa (1992) further maintains that in traditional

society, art is never exclusivistic but socially oriented aswell as ubiquitous in nature. It pervades and permeatesevery facet of human life and becomes, to use Dewey's(1934/1980) words, "the enhancements of the processes ofeveryday life" (p. 7). or what Jamal (1992) describes as"museums without walls" (p. 23), muzium tanpa tembuk.

Art products, therefore, are not luxury objectsespecially designed for the appreciation of the "elite"group as they are sometimes perceived in some contemporarysocieties. Furthermore, in a society where art becomes acollective property— that it is for all and belongs toall— it is neither distanced from the soul of each person,who is empowered to associate with it, nor from the soul ofthe community in general. Thus, the nature of traditionallyviewed art is preeminently social and not driven by theidiosyncratic impulse for self-expression as commonly is thecase in modern art. The artist in traditional society didnot hold an elevated view of himself. As expressed by Tawa


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(1992): "The traditional [view of an artist] is moreinclusive. An artist is not a special kind of person, but that every person is a special kind of artist" (p. 284). In a similar vein, Gablik (1984) also maintains: "Anindividual in traditional society is submerged in tradition which he accepts as an immediate reality, something that is transmitted from the past" (p. 47).

Gablik (1984) further says that in traditional art, the individual does nothing on his own account apart from the social group. In fact, there is nothing more terrible them to be cast out of the collective and remain alone. In this view, traditional art is never personal as it does not reflect a personal viewpoint.

Concomitantly, in traditional society, objects of daily use that intensify a sense of immediate living, become the focus of admiration. Ornaments in gold and silver, domestic furnishings, pots, spears, and other household utensils cure made with intense care and skill since they are the "enhancements of the processes of everyday life" and "were part of the significant life of an organized society"(Dewey, 1934/1980, pp. 6-7).

Dewey (1934/1980) rejects the view which separates art from life experience. By virtue of the fact that an artifact is generally understood as a physical entity which can be stored anywhere, the work of art tends to be understood as a thing, an object only to be regarded as a


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sheer physical presence. But for Dewey, an art work is theinteractive experience between the art object and theappreciator; art does not exist if it is set apart from thehuman experience.

Theories that isolate art from its origin, and asdisconnected from other experience, are operatingineffectively, maintained Dewey (1934/1980). They tend tocompartmentalize aesthetic perception as a transientpleasure. "Art-for-art's-sake theories" he contends"spiritualize art out from its context and make it appealingto a selected audience" (p. 10). Such theories, he posits:

. . . disconnected from other modes of experiencing, cure not inherent in the subject matter but arise because of specifiable extraneous conditions . . . driving away aesthetic perceptions that are necessary ingredients of happiness. (p. 10)Anderson (1985) too shares this opinion and insists

that:The aesthetic quality— the formal make up and the style of art work— is crucial to its overall significance and meaning; but the consideration of formal quality divorced from culturally contextual concerns inevitably leads the viewer to an incomplete or even false understanding of the work. (p. 54)To Dewey (1934/1980), an art work bridges the dichotomy

which seeks to separate the aesthetic from the world of ordinary experience. But once the art products are, in Shusterman’s (1992) words, "effectively quarantined" to the museums and galleries and set upon far-off pedestals, the art works lose their legitimacy. They have been elevated to


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an isolated position for the elitists' "entertainment" and subsequently impoverish the cultivation of artistic sensibilities among ordinary people. Dewey blamed the growth of capitalism as a powerful influence resulting in making art products into a commodity. Modem industry not only testifies to the growth of museums and galleries but also mobilizes trade and population eventually destroying the connection of art and its original context.

Toward Application of Dewey's Propositions Dewey's (1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions relative to

art as experience have been described. If Dewey's propositions provide the basis for linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian art, then the propositions must be demonstrated in application. If Dewey's propositions are shown to be applicable, they can serve to lessen the tension between traditional and contemporary visual art in Malaysia. If Dewey's propositions can provide a basis for linking traditional and contemporary Malaysian visual art, then Dewey's propositions can be the basis for program development in visual arts in higher education in Malaysia.

Criterial Statements Derived From Dewev's Propositions

Space-Time ContinuumIf by "experience" Dewey (1929/1958, 1934/1980) means

the result of interaction of organism and environment, and if "interaction" requires participation and communication,


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then art products are located within a space-time continuum where past and present become the bases for future reflection toward an improved social life.

Social WorthIf the art product becomes an art work as an individual

interacts with the art product daily, then ideas of social worth represented in symbols are objects of utility and reflection.

Svmbol-ShiftinqIf art products, located on a space-time continuum,

embody ideas of social worth in symbols, then the artist engages in symbol-shifting, using and re-interpreting symbols so as to maintain and enhance meanings of symbols, making the symbols of social worth useful in everyday life.

Practical and Theoretical Adi ustments

If art products represent past and present toward an improved future, then art products demonstrate practical and theoretical adjustments toward an improved social life.

In Chapter 4, selected art objects are described, and the criterial statements derived from Dewey's (1929/1958, 1934/1980) propositions are applied toward determining their appropriateness as a basis for proposing a link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.


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CHAPTER 4APPLICATION OF DEWEY'S PROPOSITIONS TO SELECTED

WORKS OF MALAYSIAN ART

In this chapter, selected Malaysian art works are described. The criterial statements derived from Dewey's propositions about art are applied to the six art products. The aim is to determine the appropriateness of the criteria as a proposed link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.

The works of six contemporary artists have been selected for three reasons. First, they have been widely acknowledged by Malaysian art critics as being the most consistent in promoting and propagating traditional values, norms, and motifs in their art for more than a decade (Arem, 1996; Arney, 1987; Fan, 1996; Sabapathy & Piyadasa, 1983). Second, the Malaysian art critics further maintain that these artists' works have been pivotal and influential in shaping the direction of contemporary Malaysian art. They are working to present an alternative paradigm to modernistic and secular art by offering aesthetic values and principles which are deeply rooted in the collective and spiritual Malaysian life. Finally, in the context of the post-colonial period, their artistic endeavors are seen as a positive response to the challenge of the Euro-American western hegemony as well as a means to retrieve the loss of identity due to the process of homogenization generated by


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the influence of globalization. These artists seethemselves as committed to de-westernize and de-colonizeMalaysian art, opening the way for reconsideration of otherarenas of artistic expression such as literature, music, anddance, freeing Malaysian art from the dominance of Westerncultural hegemony.

Dewey's (1934/1980) central propositions, derived fromArt as Experience, will first be briefly presented. One ofthe central concerns in Dewey's Art as Experience is theinstrumental quality of art— that is, the social worth ofart. In a sense, all art performs a social function sinceit is created for an audience. Specifically, Dewey claimsthat the social worth of art is that it influences thecollective behavior of a people. He argues that it is notonly a manifestation, but also a record and celebration ofthe life of a community.

Through the use of a shared vocabulary of forms andcontent, the artist is able to generate interconnectedness,eliciting positive integration and cohesion between andamong members of the society. The primary objective in thecreation of art is to serve the spiritual, moral, andphysical needs of the society. Hence, the concept ofart-for-art's-sake is simply unacceptable to Dewey(1934/1980). He states:

The remaking of the material of experience in the act of expression is not an isolated event confined to the artist and to a person here and there who happens to enjoy the work. In the


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degree in which art exercises its office, it is also a remaking of the experience of the community in the direction of greater order and unity.(p. 81)But how does art, which deals with images, symbols, and

icons, fulfill its social role in unifying members of a society? How does art play its role in perpetuating traditional social values through symbolism and still find its relevance in a modern context? According to an American anthropologist, Clifford Geertz, mem is basically a conceptualizing, symbolizing, and meaning-making animal.The search for meaning is central to man regardless of the time and space in which a society exists. More specifically, in traditional society, sacred symbols become the transmitters of the values manifest in the church, the mosque, the temples, etc. (Geertz, 1973). As time advances, society's collective symbols shift to accommodate change in order to create meaningful art.

For Dewey (1934/1980), "symbol" is an abstract expression in the embodiment of social values which are deeply rooted in religious beliefs. The role of the symbol is to intensify emotional reactions by direct appeal to sense and the sensuous imagination which exude emotions of suspense, wonder, and awe. Dewey recognizes that the philosophy or the theories that govern the underlying system of thought in the use of symbols in art will shift because of the impermanent nature of time. There will also be shifts of nuances in the manner in which symbols are


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manifested in relation to the current needs of theenvironment in which the art is created.

Implicit in this view is the urgent need to readjustartistic endeavors which reflect change toward thedevelopment of a new kind of experience— a liberation of thehuman spirit (Dewey, 1934/1980). Nevertheless, it isDewey's intention to judge artistic success as part of asymbolic accommodation to the surroundings, including ofcourse the social surroundings. He argues:

Inner harmony is attained only when, by some means, terms are made with the significant terms of environment, not only just of events but also the normal processes of living and what is characteristically valuable in the things of everyday enjoyment. (p. 87)Dewey sees the artist as someone who makes creative use

of his talent to express social values in an intelligible and memorable experience as well as providing a way for individuals to enjoy the normal processes of living.Artistic expression not only unites the practical, the social, and the educative into an integrated whole, but also becomes the axis of continuity in the life of a civilization (Dewey, 1934/1980).

Another central position of Dewey's propositions is the need to restore continuity between art and other human activities in life, including the worshipping of gods, feasting, music, theatre, painting, architecture, and other activities which are part of a significant life in an organized community.


In Dewey’s (1934/1980) view, the intrusion of economic forces into the provenance of art promotes the development of galleries as the proper place to house and view art, removing art from common life. In this way, art becomes a commodity, a collector’s acquisition. The artist, confronted by the mechanization of industry, finds it difficult to work mechanically for mass production. His once important role, working in the service of society, especially in making objects for daily consumption, has now been taken over by industry for mass production. Consequently, the artist finds himself less integrated and it becomes incumbent upon him to work as a means of "self-expression," thus fostering the aesthetic of "individualism." Eventually, an artist becomes a super hero, an individual whose concern is to serve his idiosyncrasies, creating works that are isolated in a separate realm in art galleries, where they are divorced from everyday living experiences. Art thus loses its indigenous status, its continuity of aesthetic experience with daily life, and instead acquires a new status— a restricted specimen of fine art for viewing by a small selected population.

Dewey strongly disagrees with a philosophy that isolates art and its appreciation by placing art in a separate realm, disconnected from other modes of experience. For him, in art there is no sharp distinction between pure


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aesthetic experience and everyday aesthetic experience. In fact, both are interconnected.

A Deweyan perspective encourages one to notice and respect the ways in which aesthetic experience penetrates everyday life. He explains that art is part of a space-time continuum due to the inseparable nature of aesthetic experience in the interactive processes between humans and the environment. The relationship of organism and environment is dynamic and is characterized fundamentally by ongoing activity, interaction, and change. Since art is intended for human consumption, it is an active process of interaction on the part of the spectator who consumes and benefits from the newly achieved experience.

For some artists, artistic vision is deepened by recourse to the past. The object produced becomes meaningful not only in confirming one's ideal aesthetic and spiritual values, but also in making artistic activities that contribute to dynamic cultural enrichment. Artistic expression, therefore, becomes a means of maintaining cultural continuity by constantly revitalizing a traditional heritage in an ongoing process in a space-time continuum.

The Selected Art Products For this study, the selected art works are drawn from

contemporary examples of traditional Malaysian crafts or art forms. Each art product, in addition to being a distinctive form, is by a different contemporary artist. Kain Sonqket


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(1989), woven fabric, is by Habibah Zikri. Garden Mystery Series (1992), a painting made from handmade paper, is by Sulaiman Esa. Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3 (1992) is a batik print by Fatimah Chik. Beduk (1993) is a wood sculpture by Mad Anuar Ismail. Surah An-Nur (1993) is calligraphy in stained glass by Harun Coombes Abdullah. Moon-kite Necklace (1994) is handcrafted jewelry by Abu Bakar Sabran.

Each of the selected art products was submitted to application of all four criteria derived from Dewey's propositions. Only in this way is it possible to ascertain the applicability of the criteria in proposing a link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.

Kain Sonqket (1989) by Habibah Zikri (See Plate 1, p. 115)

Songket is a Malaysian version of brocade material. It is a rich, luxurious ceremonial fabric intricately hand-woven with gold and silver thread. At one time songket was woven by court artisans for ceremonial or royal occasions. Songket is woven of cotton or silk, and motifs of strongly contrasting metallic thread are inserted between the weft threads of the main cloth. One piece of songket sarong can take from one to three months to complete. It is an art both time-consuming and painstaking. Bibah's Songket is woven in rhombus, vertical and horizontal motifs across the cloth. The rhomboid or "chained lagoon" motif is derived from the corolla of the persimmon. The cloth is


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comprised of a ground weave of silk in multiple shades of cool and warm colors ranging from purple, maroon, and red to turquoise. The gold designs contrast with the ground. Appearing alternately between the rows of the bamboo shoot motif is a turquoise blue bamboo shoot motif proceeding from the opposite direction. The top and bottom border design is a close-weave intricate scroll pattern. Songket is worn either unsewn, draped around the waist or shoulders, or sewn into sarongs or other traditional Malay dresses.

Although the origin of songket weaving in Malaysia remains obscure, its history points to a long tradition of weaving in the Peninsula, which undoubtedly stimulated the flourishing trade between the East and the West in the 13th and 14th centuries (Sheppard, 1986). Whatever its provenance, songket, as a revered craft, was at one time assured in the northern Malay kingdoms and received the traditional royal patronage.

Due to the complex set of techniques, songket weaving has been the occupation solely of women working at home who have passed the craft on from one generation to the next. Songket weaving has given women the opportunity to contribute in a significant way to maintaining and perpetuating the cultural identity of Malaysia.

Habibah Zikri, better known as Bibah, is a textile designer who graduated from the School of Art and Design of MARA Institute of Technology (ITM), Malaysia, in the early


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1970s. As one of the foremost weavers in Malaysia, she has won a number of awards in songket weaving competitions held both locally and abroad. Her pieces are not only worn during installations, state functions, and religious celebrations, but also grace the walls of royal palaces and major hotels throughout the country.

Space-Time ContinuumAccording to Bibah, the environment and nature become

the most important source for songket motifs. Nature and culture are intrinsically intertwined with Malay life and provide the model to which all aspire (Zikri, 1997). For example, the ubiquitous bamboo trees of the Malay environment also fulfill multiple functions for human needs— from making the structures of certain types of houses to utilitarian objects of everyday use. Artisans convert the triangular-shaped pacuk rebung, bamboo shoot, into one of the most important traditional motifs of wood carvers and potters as well as weavers of songket. The motif of bamboo shoot is rendered in the sample described here, Kain Songket (1989), by Habibah Zikri.

One criterion derived from Dewey's propositions requires that art products be located within a space-time continuum where past and present become the bases for future reflection toward an improved social life. The space-time continuum is represented in Kain Songket in several ways: by assuring the continuity of traditional motifs into modem


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design; by restoring the once dying craft of songket weaving to the daily activity of local craftswomen; by bringing the triangular-shaped motif derived from bamboo shoots from the crafts of the past into current interaction with the environment. The revitalization of the indigenous tradition of songket promises to continue into the future. In this way, the weavers of the past inspire contemporary interpreters of the environment toward maintaining and improving the Malaysian society of the future.

Social WorthThe criterion of social worth requires that the art

product become an art work as an individual interacts with the art product daily. It follows, then, that ideas of social worth represented in symbols are objects of both utility and reflection.

It is possible to see Kain Songket as a fine art piece to be hung as a wall panel whose intrinsic beauty cam be viewed for enjoyment. Even in this use, the intricately hand-woven piece, deeply embodying Islamic ideology, serves to intensify the spiritual ambiance of its location. But traditionally songket is attire, a costume to be worn for Malay social and formal functions. The unique design of each songket is especially patterned to suit particular occasions.

A simple two-piece garment, Bibah's woven songket serves multiple purposes. The unique choice of colors


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achieved by utilizing the resist technique of pua kambu weaving transforms this songket into a shawl, a decorative wedding display, or such utilitarian objects as handbags, bed and table runners, or furnishings. The woven songket is no longer exclusively for the enjoyment of royalty or the wealthy, but attains wide social worth by conveying beauty into objects of daily utility.

Symbol-ShiftingAnother criterion derived from Dewey is that art

products should be located on a space-time continuum and embody ideas of social worth in symbols. In so doing, the artist necessarily engages in symbol-shifting. The shapes and designs in traditional songket are attributed to generations of cultural influences and the Malays' conscious efforts to define their own reality.

A traditional songket sarong has three main divisions, each characterized by repeated shapes and designs. The divisions of Kain Songket (1989) convey, in altered fashion, the chained-lagoon design of continuous diamond-shaped pattern, the isosceles triangle shape of the central portion, and the linear floral or arabesque design of the hemline. Bibah's Kain Songket (1989) transforms these traditional symbols, but they do not disappear; the symbols are altered, not submerged.

The rationale for the reconstruction of traditional designs, according to Zikri (1997), 'is that the breaking of


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angular rigidity of square shapes and straight lines into an intricate, lacelike, and shimmering effect results in creating a dynamic and mysterious feeling. Bibah promotes subtlety and flexibility to express mystery and a transcendental quality intrinsic to Malay art. This conception is grounded in tawhid, the unity of God and the wish for harmony in life.

Bibah also uses the traditional motifs of bamboo shoots, the floral star-shape and Bugis designs, also in transformed patterns. Presented primarily in varying shades and intensities of purple, for example, the simple bamboo shoot motif assumes the appearance of an elaborate triangular lacelike pattern called Lawi ayam, reminiscent of the tail of a rooster. The traditional chain-lagoon design is elaborated by the introduction of metallic threads into an intricate pattern of linked diamond shapes. Zubir (1988, p. 7) quotes Bibah as saying that "Allah has granted me creativity and I feel the art of weaving has waited too long to be revived. Time and circumstances have fated us to meet."


In fulfilling the diversified and varied needs of contemporary Malaysian society, the practical functions of songket have widened into the realm of fine art. To accommodate this change of status from applied art to fine


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art signifies the adjustments being made both theoretically and practically. With traditional philosophy and aesthetic principles of Islamic art remaining intact to ensure cultural continuity, Bibah feels strongly that it is in the approach and technique that adjustments have to be constantly improved in order to keep songket material contextually relevant (Zikri, 1997).

According to Bibah, modem technology offers unlimited possibilities for innovations, and artists and designers have to be informed and open to technological advancement for new ideas. She laments weavers who are uninspired by the advancement of modem scientific achievement, continuing to produce songket which appears drab, unlively, and restricted in function.

However, Bibah disputes total dependency on modem technology in art-making. Works created by machines are not only superficial, but have lost the human touch and can no longer be regarded as authentically handmade, since the quality of a mass-produced object can never rival or be equal to one which is handmade. Mass-produced songket "becomes very 'textilish* and ' structured1 . . . it's like being alive but without a soul" (Arem, 1996, p. 78). It appears that Bibah shares Dewey's notion of the integration of experience and interaction with the art product as equally important as the product itself. This is because traditional art always has ends-in-view and the means of


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operation are maintained and transmitted from teacher to pupil through generations.

The complicated process involved in weaving the songket allows the artist to continue experiencing highly disciplined, committed, and patient spiritual enlightenment by constantly repeating a similar process until completion. To Bibah, the act of continuous repetition of this arduous process is like practicing the dhikir, the act of remembering God (Zikri, 1997).

Garden Mystery Series f19921 by Sulaiman Esa (See Plate 2, p. 116)

An artist who shares Bibah*s commitment to the revitalization of traditional values within the context of contemporary artistic expression in Malaysia is Sulaiman Esa, whose work is also inspired by the traditional woven crafts of the songket. The training and experiences he gained in London, Paris, Rome, and the United States as a designer, painter, and an academician in Islamic art studies, as well as his continuous involvement and commitment to the development of modem Malaysian art since the early 1970s, have combined to shape Esa's present ideas and innovations.

According to Piyadasa, a Malaysian art critic, Esa*s academic training at Hornsey College of Art, London, in the early 1960s contributed to his early intellectual inclination toward a "thinking artist" approach' (Sabapathy &


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Piyadasa, 1983, p. 136). Esa's most significant contributions in the context of modern Malaysian art tradition, Piyadasa maintains, can be categorized in three ways: (a) in coloristic painting; (b) in theoretical andconceptual views of art; and (c) in printmaking. In these areas, Piyadasa writes, "He [Esa] has projected unusual standards of achievement. Of the artists featured mainly in the Malaysian art scene in the 1970s, he may be considered one of the most important. . . . (Sabapathy & Piyadasa,1983, p. 137).

As a consequence of his research in the Islamic concept of garden, Esa has occupied himself in the creation of woven paper in carpet-like formations reminiscent of Persia's au jardin, the compositional layout based on interpretation of the Persian conception of garden.

In a Persian garden, the land area is not only divided into straight pathways like canals, but in the form of rectangles with canals intersecting at right angles. The canals are filled with fish, the rectangles with flowers and shrubs, and the intersections are sometimes marked with ornamental fountains. Esa expresses such principles through the arrangement of geometrical motifs enclosed within squares, rectangles, and mihrab, arched shapes.

Esa uses multiple media such as handmade paper, bamboo strips, yams, and acrylics in creating his "painting." He employs traditional weaving techniques and draws inspiration


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from Middle-Eastern Islamic designs such as Persian carpets. In this example (Garden Mvsterv Series), the central medallion, corner-piece composition, and borders are reminiscent of such a carpet design.

The central medallion is an eight-pointed star enclosed in a bigger star in an arch-like mihrab design. The medallion is then enclosed in a double border mihrab design both horizontally and vertically, dominating the central area of the painting surface. The eight-pointed star motif is repeated at the inner border and corner composition, shaped in a simpler square unit within double grid lines in a mirror image at the corners. These geometric motifs are made from finely cut bamboo strips inserted into the woven yams which give "body" to the handmade paper. Esa uses a wide range of warm colors: deep red, purple, orange, andyellow. To create the sense of weightlessness, the darker heavy tones occupy the lower portions of the painting, gradually and subtly changing to lighter tones as the viewer*s vision rises to the top of the painting.

According to Esa, the concept of garden is significant in Islam since it is closely linked to the concept of paradise, which to a Muslim is the supreme place to be in the life hereafter. Esa’s preoccupation has been with creating art works based on a garden series, such as the garden of certainty, the enclosed garden of truth, and the garden of mystery. All are metaphors for the "paradisiacal


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reality," the abode reserved for believers as portrayed in the Qur'an.

Space-Time ContinuumThe attempt to revive cultural continuity in creative

endeavors by Malaysian artists is evidenced by the convening of the Cultural Congress in 1971, promoting the indigenous culture as the core of Malaysian culture. The art scene in the decades following the 1970s has been an artistic response to this conscious effort by a large number of Malaysian artists to revive and revitalize traditional art forms such as batik, songket, woodcarving, etc.

Since the early 1980s, Esa has been inspired by the songket weaving technique, which he expresses in his painting using bamboo strips, metallic yarns, canvas, and acrylic in his attempt to produce contextually relevant art. His use of bamboo, silver, and gold yarns mirroring the craft of songket is an effort to convey cultural continuity and thus to be contextually relevant within the tradition of weaving. The meaning of his work is enhanced by the representation of these traditional materials.

The abstract patterns which are manipulated in his "woven" piece are comprised of stylized patterns derived from traditional songket motifs. Based on Islamic cosmology, through the arrangements of patterns, order is derived. Working purely through abstract patterns, Esa escapes the limitations of representational art and creates


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an art form with balanced tensions and dynamic equilibrium. His involvement with the Islamic world view and its aesthetic principles, as expressed in a contemporary aesthetic, constitute the main emphasis of his work.

In Bibah's work, she brings back the weaving activity into the everyday lives of the village women by employing them to produce utilitarian objects made from songket material. Esa, on the other hand, reinterprets traditional songket weaving into contemporary expressions acting as reminders of traditional heritage in the everyday lives and experiences of the perceivers. Esa's contemporary expression of traditional Islamic stylized patterns appears to be consistent with a criterion derived from Dewey. In keeping with Dewey's propositions, art products are necessarily, functionally located within a space-time continuum. Accordingly, Esa's Garden Mvsterv Series incorporates the past into the present to become the basis for reflection toward an improved future Malaysian social life.

Social WorthUnlike Bibah's songket-woven fabric which is

specifically designed to serve practical needs as clothing, Esa's work functions in spiritual worth. It contributes to daily life by describing the roots of Malay identity at two levels. First, academically, his work is a visual reflection of his understanding of the Islamic world view in


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art. The composition of his work, specifically in theorganization of geometric forms and subtle colors within thepainting, conforms not only to traditional aestheticprinciples, but also is within the constraint of modemexpression. His choice in naming his work, Garden MysterySeries. is imbued with meanings related to traditionalIslamic aesthetics.

Spiritually, Esa's geometric patterns are also imbuedwith meaning. His aesthetic objective is to express theconcept of transcendentality. As asserted by Nasr and citedby Yeoh (1986):

Contextually, Sulaiman Esa relates his art form to the traditional woven crafts of songkets. The message is directly felt, and the compulsive biomorphic computations of geometric shapes suggested within the major field, reinstate, as it were, the law of creation through revealed forms which while externally bound and limited, open up inwardly towards the Boundless . . . from the relative to the Absolute, from the finite to the Infinite, from multiplicity to Unity, (p. 7)In his effort to provide a sense of presence and a

visual impact, the artist deliberately works on a largescale. Garden Mvsterv Series, for example, measures about40 square feet. Confronted by such a large work,intertwined with delicate and intricate floral motifs ingeometric patterns expressed in harmonic colors and balanceof space, one can directly feel that the work exudes a senseof Islamic ambiance. It awakens the receptive viewer to acontemplative and meditative mood. Garden Mvsterv Seriesattains social worth, meeting the criterion derived from


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Dewey's propositions, by conveying beauty and spirituality derived from the Islamic view of creation.

Symbol-ShiftingAfter the National Cultural Congress, Esa persisted for

awhile with the "avant garde" approach as typified by his works on color contrast. Hashim, in Ke Arah Tawhid (Toward Tawhid— An Overview), states that Esa's present works are not the result of his turning to the recommendations of the Congress and adopting them as stances; rather, they are the end results of his search for meaning and order. Having reached the present stage, he realizes what he sought and what he has worked out are compatible with the findings of the Congress (Hashim, 1984).

Esa extends and transforms the art of songket weaving technique into his work. He is no longer dependent on the use of conventional fine art materials such as the canvas, acrylic, oil paints, etc. His medium of expression has shifted to the use of indigenous materials like handmade paper, bamboo strips, metallic yams, fiber dyes, and pigments. Symbol-shifting is evidenced in Esa's paintings in the use of a medium that breaks away from the conventional materials of painting and in the arrangement of spiritual and symbolic figures central to Islamic tradition.

In traditional painting such as Persian miniature paintings, the mode of imitating light is through controlling the tonal value of colors. Esa, besides having


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to grapple with the lowest form of light (reflected throughpigment) found another medium, the physical presence andglitterings of silver and gold yams, to enhance the qualityof nur, light, that symbolizes the ultimate energy which notonly illuminates, but can dematerialize.

Victoria Gellner (1984), an art critic, writes:His works are icon, spiritual and symbolic. The Arabic names underscore his intent: Kaaba, the holy shrine of Mecca; Nur, divine light; Zuhur and Maghrib, the Muslim prayers for afternoon and twilight. He has deliberately introduced "craft art" into the realm of "fine art" to stress his belief that the two cannot be separated as the western tradition supposes, (p. 6)


After colonization by the West, traditional Malaysian art which was deeply imbued with religious and spiritual values was displaced by Western art. Since the end of colonization, there has been an effort to regain authenticity and cultural identity. As postulated by Guillermo, cultural traditions give a certain character, identity, and situatedness to the creative practice of art. It is this special and unique trait or character that has to be enhanced and brought back into the society's way of life. Admittedly, the challenge of maintaining meaningful cultural continuity according to Guillermo is very complex (Guillermo, 1989).

Adjustments made by Esa in his theoretical perception as a fine artist lie in his endless reinterpretation of an


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old craft, the art of songket weaving, renewed as a form of contemporary artistic expression. For instance, the central design of Garden Mvsterv Series, that is, the eight-point star motif symbolizing the universal harmony of mankind, appears repeatedly in most of his works, including the mural design he built for the World Trade Center at Kuala Lumpur in 1985 and the logo which was designed for the Center for Civilizational Dialog, University of Malaysia in July, 1997.

Esa sees artists as preservers and transmitters of traditional values and identity. Art works, Esa argues, should not only be intelligible and innovative, but also contextually relevant to one's own time and society. Accordingly, images must be "a continuation of what has been accepted as the norm in the society" (Esa, 1993, p. 56). In order for art to be a living process, the artist functions as a cultural interpreter by making a synthesis between traditional art and contemporary expression. He must be able to re-appropriate traditional values and norms and represent them in a new dimension so that art will be contextually relevant.

Esa maintains that Malay Muslim artists cannot afford to emulate the Western model of art-for-art1s-sake. The artist should not try to be different for the sake of wanting change, nor should he aim to project his own ego. Instead, the artist has to try to make his work comprehensible to the majority of the public. To achieve


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this, Muslim artists need to be well-versed in the philosophy and aesthetic of Islamic art and possess a wide knowledge and skill in contemporary art technique (Mohamed, 1984).

For Esa, the artist does not only create an art object, but also has to practice the values that he expresses through symbols and images he chooses to communicate to his audience. Esa (1992, p. 6) says: "The self that produces beautiful art must also be beautiful, that is unveiling the inner quality of the himself/herself— always striving to maintain the ideal aesthetics of traditional Islamic art."

In his design, balance and integration are manifested through arabesque, equal amounts being given to both the positive and negative spaces. Besides giving expression to the underlying Islamic world view, such a design offers a new meaning to Esa. The balanced positive and negative spaces in his pattern are significant not only in its metaphysical context, but also from a socio-political standpoint.

Garden Mvsterv Series, by Sulaiman Esa, demonstrates the applicability of the four criteria derived from the propositions of John Dewey. It is possible to view the painting as representing a space-time continuum, reinterpreting traditional songket weaving in a contemporary painting. The social worth of Esa's painting is in the spiritual contribution it makes by promoting geometric


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shapes suggestive of the Islamic view of creation. As an example of symbol-shifting, Esa's painting demonstrates a shift to indigenous materials away from the traditional materials of Western fine art. Illustrative of practical and theoretic adjustment is Esa's (1993) claim that art is a living process synthesizing and accommodating traditional and contemporary expression.

Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3 (1992) bv Fatimah Chik

(See Plate 3, p. 117)The word, batik, suggests an Indonesian origin. Amba

is an Indonesian word for make, whereas titik is a Malay word for dot, thus, batik is the making of dots. The first known record of batik refers to tulis, a reference to cloth decorated by the wax resist process. Buhler, Eberhard, and Nahholz (1980), renowned scholars of Indian and Indonesian textiles, define batik as "resist dyeing by covering fabric with mud, gram or wax, which then becomes hard, serves as a screen that resists the dye" (p. 149). The origin of batik remains obscure. Arney (1987) claims that the first attempts made by Malay craftsmen in wood-block batik printing were by Haji Che Su from Kelantan state and Haji Ali from Trengganu, both prior to 1920. The batik sarong is similar in its structure to that of songket. It has three main parts: the main body, the central panel design, andthe border or hemline. Unlike weaving, batik-making is not


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confined to women. Due to the strenuous nature of its production, men play an important role. Today, batik-making produced by block-printing is largely confined to the north coastal states of Kelantan and Trengganu.

The batik-decorated sarong produced in the early period of its history was made as a form of attire, specifically as a sarong worn by Malay women and men alike. The changing economic and political atmosphere in the post-Independence period has broadened the uses of batik not only in fulfilling its utilitarian function, but also as a medium for artistic expression. In the 1940s, the early figurative batik paintings (like those produced by Chuah Thean Teng) centered on the batik "look,” the "cracks" patterning which results from the dyes which bleed through the squashed wax. Malaysian artists since the 1980s see batik painting as a unique visual means of expressing the Malay indigenous identity.

By exploring and exploiting various techniques, materials, and symbols, the artists have been able to attain their primary goal of projecting and asserting Malaysian identity. The work of a textile designer, Fatimah Chik (1992), entitled Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3. exemplifies such art. Her work is a visual documentation of the multi-ethnic traditional motifs from the Nusantara region, the Malay-Indo archipelago. Specifically, the design symbols are derived from the native Iban of Sarawak, the


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Batak 'tribe from Sumatra, and also from the East Indonesian islands such as Celebes and Bali.

In Nusantara Series-Gununqan 3 (1992), Fatimah Chik displays the qualities of batik as both process and product. She employs metal blocks to apply motifs from various regions of southeast Asia. Unlike Bibah's use of the bamboo shoot design as the focus of the central panel only,Fatimah's entire work is comprised of the lacelike ornamental geometric design, completely dominating the entire picture plane.

The central triangular motif is flanked by two similar designs on either side. The triangular motif symbolizes the concept of cosmic mountain, a dwelling place for gods. The horizontal plane consists of alternately repeated patterns of linear plant motifs and stylized human figures. In addition to serving as the foundation to the zigzag triangular shapes, this plane is repeated twice in an upward balancing position.

The surface is layered in shades of earth tones such as moss green, deep brown, and beige, acquired by dipping the cloth in dye, layered with the opaque sections, allowing each thread to retain separate identity. The stamped wax provides fluidity, with each image slightly different from the others, adding complexity to the work. In addition to other resist techniques, Fatimah uses masking tape to create


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hard-edge lines against the rich and loosely textured ground.

Soace-Time ContinuumDespite its comparatively short history, batik is

considered a traditional Malay craft. It was introduced from Java in the early 20th century. The Malay craftsmen in the states of Kelantan and Trengganu adopted and developed the Javanese technique into a local industry. As with all traditional arts, each individual artist contributes some slight variation to each design, although they were primarily dedicated to repeating established design motifs. Batik-making has traditionally been a family affair in which sons and daughters carry on the skill of their parents and relatives. Contemporary batik continues to be a traditional art form which will presumably be passed on to subsequent generations.

Being indigenous to Malaysian culture, Fatimah Chik considers batik to be an appropriate medium for the expression of Malaysian identity. Creating batik work for a living, maintains Fatimah (Amey, 1987), is the best way of revitalizing the continuity of traditional art in contemporary life. In her attempt to reconcile the distinction between fine art and craft as exists in the Western tradition, Fatimah Chik seems to share Dewey's contention that artistic activity has to be examined in the social context in which art is created. By making batik


prints, chik is organizing her artistic behavior on a continuum from practical action in daily life to the creation of abstract nonobjective forms. In her daily life, her opportunities for engaging with aesthetic experiences are limitless and such experience is extended in the art object which she produces. Through the images found in her work, the perceiver may have a glimpse of experiential aspects of daily life without actually participating. The skill in manipulating batik technique as a medium for expression has not only succeeded in making a new art form from traditional technique, but also challenges the artifical division between art and craft (Arney, 1987). The usefulness of the traditional product cannot be separated from the inventiveness of expression of Malaysian art.

Social WorthUnlike Bibah and Esa, who consciously create their

artwork within the context of Islamically-oriented Malay art, a batik print made by Fatimah is inspired by traditional design motifs of various ethnic tribes from Nusantara or the Indo-Malay archipelago. The indigenous motifs of the Iban of Sarawak, the Kadazan of Sabah, and the various ethnic tribes in the Indonesian region are included.

The importance of Chik's work lies in representing the meanings of the traditional motifs of stylized figures from the pua kumbu, the textiles of the Iban of Sarawak, the Sumatra Batak ragldup, a ceremonial cloth which literally


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means "pattern of life," and Eastern Indonesian tie-dye design. These are arranged in a typically Asian format of the Mahameru, a triangular mountain shape, reminiscent of the bamboo shoot motif discerned in the central panel of Bibah's songket.

Fatimah1 s work is noteworthy because of her ability to incorporate and highlight the various ethnic spiritualities into harmonious composition. Her endless search for new images through experimentations and juxtapositions of multi-ethnic motifs result in a batik picture that provokes thought and promotes creative interpretation. Arney (1987, p. 104) writes, "The surface fluctuates to and fro, carrying the observer from the summit of the Mahameru to the inner depths of the cloth." As the multi-ethnic motifs are expressed and combined to create new artistic forms from which individual identities can no longer be discerned, so too the people and their spiritual identities blend and overcome divisions and competitions in the spirit of harmony.

Symbol-ShiftingThe triangular bamboo shoot motif found in Bibah’s

songket central panel has been transformed into a different image, as presented in Fatimah's Nusantara Series-Gununaan 3.. Inspired by the idea of transcendentality and the heavenly world, the elegant small-scale bamboo shoot motif found in most traditional art forms becomes a dominant


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mountain-like shape in Fatimah' s work. The shift in size is to express the idea of the mountain as a sacred symbol.

Another shift of images found in Fatimah1 s work is her inclusion of other ethnic cultures in addition to Malay traditional design motifs. Her decision to select and incorporate the motifs of other cultures is to express her belief that the peoples from the Nusantara region are one.In this way, Fatimah reaffirms the cultural ties that bind the various indigenous communities of Southeast Asia, representing them symbolically.

Practical and Theoretical Adjustments

In affirming the Southeast Asian motif of her design,Fatimah (Zubir, 1988) maintains:

Each work I have drawn from various traditional designs of the region— I have studied the ancient motifs from the Celebes, Batak art, Iban and Dayak designs, Balinese and Malay motifs. The spiritual cosmology of man— the sky, the mountain and the sea have inspired my works. (p. 7)As one of the traditional crafts of the Malay culture,

batik has always been conceived as a garment, whether a sarong, a shirt, or an evening dress. However, in recent years, batik has expanded from its traditional use and is now also recognized as an interesting medium for artistic expression. While working as a batik designer with Kutang Kraft in the early 1970s, Fatimah was very much involved in creating and producing batik for attire. It was only in the early 1980s, after gaining wide experience in designing and


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working with batik techniques, that Fatimah began to venture into batik as her principal medium of expression. This adjustment from making only utilitarian objects to also creating fine artwork reflects Fatimah's underlying theoretical concept of art as a form of communication.

Fatimah believes that by presenting the traditional art form in a fine art orientation, its symbolic meaning will be better understood, appreciated, and developed to improve the multi-ethnic relationship of the Nusantara region. As with songket, batik too can transcend its usage into a mode of artistic expression which is not only indigenously Malaysian, but also inclusive of Southeast Asia.

Fatimah*s deep engagement in employing multi-ethnic motifs in addition to that of traditional Malay motifs is a reflection of her belief that traditional designs from the Nusantara region embody religious values and spirituality (Lokman, 1985). Being a Muslim and coming from a religious family background, Fatimah responds readily to spiritually oriented art works. When one mentions textile arts in Southeast Asia, one must be confronted with the diversity of cultural expressions from more than 350 ethnic groups. The essence of the broad spectrum of textile art lies in propagating religious values symbolically. Fatimah maintains that one of the most important traits of Southeast Asian art is the belief of unity in diversity. To her, all religions teach the same universal truth. For example, the


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ethical-moral teachings of such virtues as humility,honesty, and generosity are all present in variousreligions: Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and others. Thefact that Fatimah is a Muslim does not interfere withincorporating other religious traditions into her art. Infact, this attitude is very much in accord with the teachingof Islam. The Qur'an (Ali, 1983) states:

0 mankind! We created you from a single pair of male and female. And made you into Nations and tribes, that ye may know each other. Not that ye may despise each other. Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah, is he who is the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge. And He is acquainted with all things.(49:13)Fatimah's practical and theoretic adjustments have

significance in two ways. The traditional utilitarian craft of batik is extended to incorporate aesthetic artistic expression. Batik design is altered from the focus on Malaysian motifs to include the diverse motifs of multiple ethnic Southeast Asian groups. The adjustments from the practical to the theoretical to alter the practical is toward an enlightened future of art as a human activity.

Beduk (1993) bv Mad Anuar Ismail (See Plate 4, p. 118)

In traditional Malay society, a mosque would not be considered complete without the worship-calling device called a beduk. Made from hollowed wood with both ends covered with leather, it is quite similar in size to a gong.


The beduk, whose function is similar to that of a church bell, is found in almost all mosques in Nusantara. Its smaller and simpler version, called kerentung, is made from a hollowed wooden block; at 10 centimeters in diameter, it gives a crisp sound when struck with a wooden bat. The beduk indicates the time for the five ritual daily times of worship for the Muslims, namely fajr, at dawn; zvhr, at noon; asr, in the afternoon; maghrib, during sunset; and isha, at nightfall. When any of these worship times begins, the beduk will be beaten several times by the muezzin, a person who chants the Muslim call to worship, the azan. On hearing this communicative sound, Muslims will make the necessary preparations to perform the communal ritual worship at the mosque.

However, with the advent of modern technology in the life and culture of the contemporary Muslim society, this indigenous sound-making instrument gradually loses its function and is replaced by the blaring sound of loudspeakers through which the call for the daily worship is chanted. However, one can still find the traditional device in the mosques located in remote areas which are least affected by modernization and development.

The sculpture, Beduk (1993), by Mad Anuar Ismail, is an example of a symbolic representation of the religious function of this instrument. It is meant to remind worshippers of earlier times when Muslims were called to the


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mosque by direct, simple means. The strength of this sculpture lies in its form and composition, with color playing a minimal role. The wood of this beduk is stained a dark, deep brownish-black to convey a sense of religious mystery. The calligraphic figures executed in a relief design are the principal focus of the central piece and are echoed by the textural lines throughout the sculpture.

Space-Time ContinuumThe art of woodcarving has occupied a central position

as a mode of visual expression among traditional Malay craftsmen for two reasons. First, there is an abundant supply of wood from the rich tropical forest, and second, woodcarving does not demand sophisticated machines or techniques. Simple tools such as hammers, carvers, cutters, and drillers are ideal for rural folks who are not economically well off. One can also add that traditional craftsmen have a natural affinity for the indigenous elements that surround their lives, including bamboo, rattan, screw-pine leaves, and the like.

Before British colonization in the Malay Peninsula in the late 19th century, the art of woodcarving had reached an enviable status among Malay royalty and aristocrats who would not consider their palaces and homes complete unless decorated with fine woodcarvings. Due to the Malays' religious background, their carvings were rarely figures or animal images but, instead, were Islamic calligraphy and


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arabesque motifs. Currently, traditional woodcarving is still practiced in less developed regions, especially in the states of Trengganu and Kelantan.

Having been brought up within a family of woodcarvers in Jertih, Trengganu, Anuar continued the woodcarving tradition after graduation from ITM's School of Art and Design in 1977. One of the major wood sculptures Anuar has made is called beduk sculpture, which is a reinterpretation of the socio-religious form and function of traditional beduk in a modem context. Traditionally, beduk is hung at the main entrance of a mosque; Anuar's new beduk as a sculptural piece is presented by suspending it from a metallic triangular-shaped structure to maintain the original status of this once very significant object. By transforming the beduk into an artistic form of expression, Anuar hopes to reinstate the important religious role of this instrument back into the everyday experiences of modern Muslims. The utility of the beduk is greatly reduced because of modem electronic equipment. The religious significance of the beduk can only be maintained by the presentation of the sculpture as a spiritual artifact.

Social WorthAs an artistic manifestation, the intrinsic value of

Anuar's sculpture lies in its role as a reminder to Muslims of the traditional role of the beduk as a religious device in traditional society. Through interpretation of this


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important instrument into artistic expression, Anuar's workstill continues in its traditional function as a prayer-calldevice. His aim is to evoke consciousness toward submissionto the Divine through visual form. Submission by performingthe salat, worshipping, is an absolute commandment of Godimposed on all adult Muslims. To ignore it means to leaveIslam; to neglect it is to commit a great sin which must berepented. Interaction with the sculptural form visuallyreminds one of the obligatory ritual daily worships.

In their daily life, Muslims may become preoccupied bymaterial and worldly concerns so that they tend to forgetfulfilling their religious, spiritual role as servants ofGod and His vicegerents. Reminders are important to a closerapport with their Creator and through His blessing toachieve happiness both in this world and the life after.Worship in its highest form, says Nasr (1987a), iscontemplative and unitive; it leads to salvation, which inturn leads to correct action. He maintains:

Without prayer or contemplation, one cannot be in a state of grace or goodness and without being good one cannot do good. Correct action depends on correct mode of being which in turn issues from the correct relation with the source of all existence through prayer. (p. 69)Faith and practice are inseparable in Islam. This

simple truth, however, has been forgotten by some modemMuslims. As argued by Ashraf (1982), one of the illnessesthat afflicts modem man is the endless search for materialgain and worldly success. Due to man's doubts about the


validity of revelation, reason and logic have become more important them spiritual realization. By constantly being reminded of the significant role of beduk as a timer to perform the daily worship, it is hoped that they will not forget practicing their obligatory duty as Muslims.

The social worth of beduk, since it is no longer the primary means of calling people to worship, is its visual presence. The wood sculpture has attained a more symbolic than utilitarian influence, but its importance is not diminished in Muslim society.

Symbol-ShiftingIn traditional society, beduk plays a major

socio-religious role as a reminder for worship through a sound likened to that of the church bell. It is not a symbol for a particular religious concept, but performs the function of timekeeper for all five daily calls to prayer.

In the modem context, the function of Anuar's beduk sculpture is now shifted to assume an aesthetic and personal expression. It is Anuar's mode of interpretation, his own artistic endeavor, which has been inspired by the form and function of the traditional beduk. Anuar*s sculpture may thus be seen as a transformation of a religious symbol into a personal statement in the context of creating an art object which can be appreciated in terms of formal aesthetic language and still convey to the viewer the importance of the duty of prayer. Consistent with Dewey's (1934/1980)


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view of the artist shifting symbols to accommodate change, Anuar shifts the symbolic emphases of the beduk from the auditory to the visual image.

Practical and Theoretical Adjustments

As opposed to Fatimah Chik, whose interest lies in the multicultural motifs from Nusantara, Anuar focuses on the spiritual dimension of Islam by addressing the mystical and metaphysical elements embodied in traditional Malay art forms.

Woodcarving is an embodiment of an ideal value-orientation in Malay society. It functions on two levels— utilitarian and egalitarian. The Malay tradition, which is deeply rooted in the Islamic world view, becomes the guiding principle for artistic creativity. Artistic creativity is viewed as a God-given predisposition which has to be used to celebrate Allah*s greatness. As a servant of God, the artist has a social role to play in the community. One way to accomplish this is by making oneself a faithful interpreter of Islamic tradition.

Although a contemporary sculptor who is knowledgeable about the approach to art, Anuar is committed to preserve traditional Malay art in the sculptural form of his work.As an artist who is attempting to create a new form of artistic expression while still preserving its traditional form, Anuar made a number of practical-theoretic adjustments


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in his interpretation of beduk. These transformations are necessary in his effort to provide a traditionally meaningful work while at the same time being relevant to modern aesthetic expression.

Anuar's main audience is modem city dwellers, regardless of their religious beliefs and ethnic background. The artistic treatment given to his new sculpture has to a certain extent been adjusted, but it still maintains the traditional beduk form in its presentation, as evident in the cylindrical-shaped sculpture which is suspended on a triangular metal structure. This cylindrical shape which forms the central piece of his art is heavily textured with carved Islamic calligraphic symbols for decorative purposes as well as to remind one of its spiritual overtones. Vertically surrounding the main structure are three baton-like configurations out of which protrude five spiky objects reminiscent of hulu kris, the hilt of a traditional Malay dagger. The hulu kris has been a recurrent motif of Anuar's art since the early 1980s. The significance of the five hulu kris is that they symbolize the importance of the five obligatory daily prayers to Muslim ummah.

Anuar's pioneering effort in woodcarving as a contemporary means of expressing the Islamic world view, coordinating the traditional and contemporary aesthetic languages, is noted by Fan (1996, p. 34), a Malaysian art critic, who writes, "Drawing on traditional Malaysian myths,


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Mad Anuar Ismail has developed a unique sculptural language."

Due to its abundant supply in a tropical country like Malaysia# wood has been a popular material for expressing religious and spiritual values and beliefs among traditional Malays. Even in modern times# its popularity as a visual medium continues as in the case of Mad Anuar, a pioneering sculptor committed to revitalizing traditional art forms in the mainstream of contemporary Malaysian art. In this sense, Beduk is an embodiment of the criteria derived from Dewey.

Surah An-Nur f1993) bv Harm Pnowhps Abdullah (See Plate 5# p. 119)

Harun Coombes Abdullah received his early academic training in art (painting and printmaking) in England during the mid-1960s. As a Christian living in a highly developed and industrialized country, Harun became disillusioned with what he saw as the lack of socio-moral ethics in the Western way of living and what seemed to him endless material acquisitiveness being widely practiced in modern Western society. As a consequence of this disillusionment with the Western value system and way of life# Harun embarked on a soul-searching journey.

It was during this period that he discovered Islam, and especially the art of Islamic calligraphy and its ornamental arabesque design. After deepening his knowledge about the


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Islamic faith by studying the Qur'an through a sufi master in London and visiting various Islamic countries in the Middle East and Morocco, Harun was gradually drawn to Islamic art. Among the many forms of Islamic art, calligraphy fascinated him most. Harun became a Muslim convert and migrated to Malaysia in the early 1990s.

Today, Harun is among a few Muslim artists in Malaysia known for calligraphic works which are produced by stained glass and sandblasting techniques— a pioneering technique in the presentation of Islamic calligraphy, especially in Malaysia.

Surah An-Nur (1993), by Harun Coombes Abdullah, is a calligraphic rendition from naskhi style, evidenced in the rounded forms of the calligraphic alphabets. Abdullah adopts the popular medallion motif commonly found in Islamic carpet designs. The central medallion is surrounded by an arabesque design and the whole work is compact and tightly contained within a rectangular format, yielding a sense of harmony and stability.

Iconographically, the calligraphic writing is derived from Qur'anic verse alluding to the metaphorical symbol of God. Nurin-al-nurin, light upon light, is a description of the highest and purest form of light and refers to God's supremacy and majesty. The artist conveys this idea through two colors— blue and yellow— against a black background in the central figure. The blue calligraphic content


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complements the yellow scalloped circle. The black background provides strong contrast and a sense of harmony.

Space-Time Continuum\

The Qur'an, which means "reading" and "recitation" without equal, is accepted as the verbatim transcription of the Word of God revealed in human language (Arabic calligraphy) through the Archangel Gabriel to the prophet, Muhammad, about 14 centuries ago. The Qur'an, also known as Umm al-kitab, the mother of Books, the prototype of all books, is a unique guide to the thought and life of Muslims. Accordingly, Islamic calligraphy occupies the highest status in the hierarchy of Islamic art. According to Nasr (1987b), it is the origin of the plastic arts in the Muslim world, while Schimmel (1970) argues it as the most typical expression of Islamic culture. Harun's calligraphic rendition of Qur'anic verse on Light from Surah An-Nur is seen, in terms of its content, as an attempt to continue the tradition of calling upon the viewer's experience of the sacred word produced in human language. The Qur'anic text acts as a constant reminder of the Qur'anic teachings which are deeply integrated with the Muslim way of life. It is through awareness of the teaching of the Qur'an and its amal, application of its teaching, that an individual attains guidance for worldly life and the hereafter.

The space-time continuum, in the case of Harun's art, can be seen in the execution of stained glass technique.


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Stained glass, whose early history can be traced back to installation in Canterbury Cathedral in England in the 11th century, is considered a Christian art (Lee, Seddon, & Stephens, 1976). The representation of the ancient sacred word of Islam through the old technique of stained glass is a two-way expression of the space-time continuum. Harun's presentation of Islamic calligraphy in stained glass is an effort to express and maintain the idea of spirituality of Islam while echoing the conception of divinity from his past European heritage.

Social WorthAnuar created a wooden sculpture based on a

traditionally functional instrument to evoke a sense of spirituality. Similarly, Harun's execution of stained glass Islamic calligraphy is meant to convey a spiritual message to Muslim viewers. The Qur'anic words engender an aura of sacredness directly to the mind as well as to the senses.It is through the understanding of the sacred meaning of the verse taken from the Qur'an, Nurin-al-nurin, light upcn light, that man can understand the similitude of His light as that of a lamp in a glass which is likened to a shining star. As a result, the contemplation of this verse may elicit a deep feeling for the spirituality of light and consequently would illuminate man's mind with God's light.

Besides providing spiritual enhancement, Harun's calligraphic rendition in stained glass techniques provides


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a new means of presenting sacred text to the Malaysian art audience. He paves a new direction in expressing the idea of spirituality and transcendentality by exploiting the intrinsic reflective quality of glass as a medium of expression. In New York, Ben Shann's stained glass work entitled Morning Service includes verses from Psalm 150 to adorn the Temple Beth Zion. In Kuala Lumpur, Harun's work with Surah An-Nur adorns the interiors of modern mosques, private buildings, and dwellings.

Within the context of the modern Malaysian art scene, Harun*s work echoes his Western heritage. Harun's work also provides an alternative direction in presenting and promoting calligraphic art in a contemporary approach, thus also propagating dakwa, missionary work, to disseminate images of religious and spiritual Islamic faith specifically to the Muslims and the Malaysian society in general.

Symbol-ShiftingIn the 1970s, exhibitions of Islamic calligraphic works

were from collections drawn from various Muslim countries in the Middle East (Aziz, 1975). The 1980s saw exhibitions drawn from development of Malaysia's own calligraphers' works. During this stage, the Malaysian calligraphers' concern was to preserve the traditional art of writing Islamic calligraphy in various styles (Muhammad, 1982). The differences between calligraphers' work is principally in the manipulation of calligraphic renditions of the sacred


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text on varieties of flat conventional materials such as paper and cloth. Innovations in new techniques of presenting their works were not their priority. Instead of writing calligraphy in the conventional Malaysian way, Harun created a new technique in the presentation of the sacred Word— stained glass. Stained glass is unique in capturing the relationship between glass and light. Since his calligraphic art work focuses on the idea of light, Harun argues that this technique is most suitable to the interpretation of spiritual effects. He strongly advocates breaking away from traditional and conventional techniques of presenting Islamic calligraphy because innovations will not only produce dynamic art forms, but are also contextually relevant and meaningful for a modem audience.


If in traditional society Islamic calligraphy plays a significant role in creating Islamic ambiance in both homes and mosques, Harun's stained glass calligraphic work in the modem context aims to create a similar impact for urban Muslims. The contemporary style of life exerts forces of Islamic traditions, on the one hand, and secularism and modernism, on the other. Exposure to modem globalization has to some extent alienated Muslims from their traditional values which are rooted in religious belief.


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Harun chose the Surah An-Nur in order to remind Muslims of the significance of this surah in their effort to achieve felicity in worldly life and the hereafter. The Qur'an does not deal with intellectual or cognitive matters, but integrates spiritual and practical aspects concerning mankind. It is for this reason that the Qur'an often includes belief, light, and guidance.

As for Christians, so fair Muslims' light has been a favorite metaphor for spiritual language and also to connote knowledge in contrast to the darkness of ignorance. In Rosenthal's (1970, p. 155) words: "The symbol of light wascommon in Biblical thought, and throughout later Judaism and Christianity. Light shows the way and provides guidance, as do wisdom and religious law."

The word, light, as in Surah An-Nur, metaphorically refers to God being the Light of the heavens and the earth. Asad (1980, p. 541) suggests that it "alludes to the illumination which He [God], who is the Ultimate Truth, bestows upon the minds and the feelings of all who are willing to be guided." Hence, in the last part of this verse, nurin-ala-nurin, the Qur'an (24:35) declares: "Godguides unto His light whom He wills." The situation for those who deny the truth, on the other hand, will be total darkness— darkness in its deepest meaning.

Harun suggests the need to readjust creative approaches through art to stimulate the interest of modern Muslims to


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Islamic faith. His ultimate aim in representing SurahAn-Nur in stained glass instead of the conventionalMalaysian approach of presenting calligraphy is for theviewer to feel purified and enlightened with Allah, theLight of heaven and earth. The unique manifestation ofcalligraphy in stained glass technique is not only toemphasize the spiritual through writing of the sacred text,but is an effort to integrate art as modern technology; inthis example, specifically, glass and metal.

Sulaiman Esa (1998), an Islamic art scholar and apracticing artist, comments on Harun*s innovation inpresenting the age-old craft of calligraphic writing. Hedraws attention to the practical and theoretical adjustmentin Harun*s representation of the traditional dimensions ofthe Qur'an in glass and metal. Harun does not break withtradition; he extends the practical-theoretical continuum.Esa (1998) writes:

In context of Malaysia, he is able to fuse two techniques— the sandblasting and stained-glass— as a new form of artistic expression which is quite foreign in this part of the world. Such an approach is definitely spiritually enhancing and enterprising especially to the development of contemporary Islamic art in Malaysia. (p. 34)In the West, stained glass, due to its translucent

quality, is popular in enhancing building interiors. In thecase of Harun, this quality has been exploited to achievespiritual enlightenment while experiencing the beauty of hisart. The transmission of light through multicolored glass


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becomes the most appropriate metaphor to translate the symbol of light as the spiritual light which not only illuminates the universe, but aids mankind to pierce through the veil of matter to gain the barakah, divine blessing (Nasr, 1987b).

Moon-kite Necklace (1994) bv Abu Bakar Sabran (See Plate 6, p. 120)

Abu Bakar Sabran, a graduate from the Fine Metal department in the School of Art and Design, ITM, joined the department in 1986 as one of its teaching staff. Since his student days, Bakar has shown a strong inclination toward designing jewelry inspired by traditional forms and motifs. Currently, he is among a number of young designers who are committed to preserving and developing traditional metal works in contemporary designs. Among the most significant work whose motif was inspired by a traditional art form is a necklace derivative of the traditional moon-kite.

In traditional Malay society, kite flying was a favorite pastime, especially among the fishermen living in the eastern coastal region of Trengganu and Kelantan. Soon after the monsoon season, which is in the early part of the year, come the hot sun and arid wind which not only activate the rice harvesting season, but also provide an appropriate time for intervillage kite-flying contests on the broad and flat rice plains.


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Among the types of kite cure the bird kite, the fish, and the peacock kite. The wau bulan, or moon-kite, whose size is about seven feet from top to tail and about six feet across the wings, is one of the most attractive and popular designs among kite makers.

In the Moon-kite Necklace (1994), Abu Bakar Sabran presents a stylized, miniaturized version of the traditional kite. The strength of the mini-sculpture lies in its form and texture in representing the arabesque design. The silvery reflections of the shiny surface of silver present a complementary harmony with the black leather cord at both ends of the pendant.

Space-Time ContinuumBakar's effort to recreate a traditional craft motif

into a contemporary design product is toward ensuring the continuity of experience from the tradition of kite-making into a contemporary medium. A kite must not only have a strong structure to withstand the strong wind, but must also be aesthetically pleasing. To achieve the latter, the kite maker adheres to traditional aesthetic principles which have been passed on through many generations, establishing a space-time continuum.

Incorporating the shape of this once popular kite into modern design, Bakar has adapted the basic structure and its ornamentation for his jewelry. Although his creation is not a literal configuration of the moon-kite as such, the


I l l

simplified and smaller version is sufficient to remind the viewer of the source which has inspired Bakar. The moon-kite necklace transforms and extends the space-time continuum, encouraging the viewer to look into both past and future through the present necklace.

Social WorthThe social worth of Bakar ’ s art is expressed on two

levels— practical and intellectual. The crescent-shaped silver pendant is designed as a choker, on a black leather thong. The black leather thong not only complements the silver pendant, but extends the half-moon lace work into a complete round which is designed to closely follow the contours of the neck. The impression is simple and aesthetically pleasing. The necklace creates harmony through its contrasting elements of silver and black in differing materials.

The arabesque figures are an abstract rendition of the floral motifs that are ubiquitous in various functional artifacts of Malay tradition. The highly stylized arabesque motif incorporated into the metalwork design is to evoke in the viewer the impression of infinite pattern. The ease with which the necklace can be worn and its visual prominence imbue the necklace with the potential to convey the limitlessness of spiritual attributes to all who wear and see it.


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Symbol-ShiftingThe half circle crescent-shape found in the structure

of the lower portion of the moon-kite necklace forms the central focus of Bakcir's necklace design. The half-moon shape is commonly found on the dome of traditional mosques in the Middle East, symbolizing Islamic faith. Transforming the moon-kite into a jewelry object, Bakar necessarily shifted symbols from the original moon-kite shape and motifs. For example, to accommodate both physical movement and the comfort of the wearer, the semicircle shape is widened with both ends attached to a leather loop. The overall design of arabesque motif has also been changed from an intricate and floral motif into a simplified abstract and angular shape. This was necessary because the mold technique from which this motif is made does not allow elaborate intricate design due to the miniaturized representation of the moon-kite.

The artist, choosing to represent a traditional artifact in a different medium, revised the shape and configuration of the traditional to achieve a new artistic rendition without destroying the symbolism. In one sense, neither a kite nor a necklace has utility; in another sense, both have utility in service of aesthetic and spiritual signif icance.


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The transformation of the traditional moon-kite into a moon-kite necklace could only be accomplished through practical and theoretic adjustments introduced by the artist. Considerable change of size and purpose of the art object from kite to jewelry posed practical problems. Adjustments to accommodate the practical raised theoretic problems about conceiving and representing symbols.

Thus, to revive and perpetuate the meaning and uniqueness of the traditional moon-kite and its arabesque decorative element in contemporary jewelry design, Bakar utilizes the crescent shape and its motif. Although small in size, the structural essence of the traditional kite and its awan larat are still visible and they are represented in a contemporary outlook. Bakar has been able to make adjustments based on his commitment to maintain traditional values of Malay art in the design, technique, and spiritual connotation of his moon-kite necklace.

Applicability of CriteriaThe hallmark of traditional Malay art is based upon

continuity and change. It is through continuity and change that Malaysian traditional art forms have been developed into a unique contemporary art of the mainstream. As evidenced in the works of the six Malaysian artists discussed here, traditional Islamic Malay art continues to


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embody social values in the symbols that appeal to religious belief and the senses. Habibah Zikri, Sulaiman Esa, Fatimah Chik, Mad Anuar Ismail, Harun Coombes Abdullah, and Abu Bakar Sabran continue to express social values in memorable artistic experience uniting the practical, the social, and the religious into integrated continuity in the life of contemporary Malaysia.

It appears that the criteria derived from Dewey*s propositions are applicable to a description of the six art products presented here. If these art products are exemplary of contemporary Malaysian art, then the criteria are potentially capable of providing a link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.


3-. Rain Songket (1989) , weaving by HaV>-iV»a>» zikri


1 1 6

Plate 2. Garden Mystery Series (1992) , painting by Sulaiman Esa.


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Plate 3. Nusantara Seri^fi-RtinTmaan 3 (1992) , batik painting by Fatimah. Chik.


Plate 4. Bednk (1993) , wooden sculpture by Mad Anuar Ismail.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner Further reproduction prohibited without permissioh.

Plate 5. Snrah An-Nur (1993), stained glass calligraphic work by Hanrn Coombes Abdul lab.


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Plate 6. Moon-kite Necklace (1994), handcrafted jewelry by Abu Bakar Sabran.


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CHAPTER 5IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

If program development: in schooling is toward accurate and appropriate selection, description and organization of subject matter, then program development requires specification of applicable criteria. Criteria provide the bases for program development decision-making about inclusion or exclusion of subject matter. Examination of the propositions of John Dewey in Art as Experience (1934/1980) yields identification of four criteria for the selection, description, and organization of works of art to be considered in program development in visual art in Malaysia. The criteria are: symbol-shifting, social worth,practical-theoretic adjustment, and space-time continuum.

The four criteria derived from Dewey have been demonstrated to be applicable to description of six examples of contemporary Malaysian art. The art works selected for examination cure all products of prominent contemporary Malaysian artists. The six art works differ from each other in size, material, color, and form of expression. One implication of this study is that the criteria derived from Dewey were applicable to these six works of art and are a potential source for a basis of program development in visual art in Malaysia.

Dewey's concern with the social worth of works of art requires that artists enter into the daily life of a people.


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One way the artist can manifest participation in the life of a people is through symbol-shifting. For example, a useful instrument such as a garment or a bell may carry a significant symbol into arenas of daily life in which the symbol did not usually occur. When a familiar symbol appears in unfamiliar places and unexpected forms, the symbol takes on new meaning, and members of the society are constantly reminded of the power of the symbol's meanings. Symbol-shifting permits variant interpretations of the natural world as a source of inspiration. Rather them becoming static and obvious, new ways of seeing and presenting a symbol challenge a society to rethink its view of the world.

An implication of symbol-shifting is the capacity of connecting the world as it was and the world as it is and as it may become. It is the grasp of a space-time continuum that fosters projection of an improved future. An improved future does not require an abrupt change from the past. Incremental steps toward a better life for the society are likely to be more fully accepted and more enduring than would wrenching change. The social worth of art pervasively incorporated into daily life encourages reflection toward practical-theoretic adjustments by the artist and by the viewer. Symbol-shifting requires seeing the familiar in new ways and under new circumstances.


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Another implication of this study is that a wide range of art works by a variety of artists should be submitted to scrutiny comparable to that exerted on the selected art works described in this study. It is not necessary that every work of art meet every criterion. However, if most works can be described through application of, say, three of the four criteria, then a supportable claim can be made that the criteria derived from Dewey are a viable basis for program development in visual art in contemporary Malaysia. If extended scrutiny of additional art works bears out the applicability of the criteria, then program development could be undertaken in the spirit of establishing a link between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.

If it is feasible for the artist to pursue linkage between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art, then a search for symmetry in art works appears promising. If symmetry is a search for pattern in a description of the universe, then artists must contemplate and visualize the identical, reverse and variant representation of, for example, left and right, up and down, front and back. Difficult as this visualization is, the artist must further be concerned with revealing imperfect or broken symmetry to acknowledge that perfection is not attainable. Perfection, in this sense, belongs only to God. The artist creates reality that only the artist can see through the mind's eye. The artist then presents the artistic creation for others to


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view. In the creation of an original art product, the artist pursues the potential to resonate with the life of the viewer. It is the rhythmic sense of patterns of light and dark that may capture the interplay of the natural and spiritual worlds. According to Dewey, an art product becomes a work of art to the extent that the viewer interacts with it and is changed by the experience. By implication the discernment of symmetry is supportive of the possible linkage between traditional and contemporary Malaysian art.

Symmetry is dependent on the line segment and the line segment can be viewed as indispensable to the subject matter of art. Artists extend line segments between dots; line segments then take on significance as visual representations of form and shape. The line segment acquires a sense of mystery and even awe in its capacity to connect the finite dot and the infinite line. It is the genius of the artist that conceives of shape, form, color, size, and texture to constitute an original work of art from a limited set of preexisting sources. Both traditional and contemporary Malaysian artists are dependent on the indigenous materials of the natural world. It is the artist, traditional and contemporary, who transforms the natural materials to capture the artist's vision into manifestations of beauty.

Among the most commonly occurring natural materials of Malaysia is bamboo. The bamboo shoot, in greatly


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exaggerated or minimized size, accentuating one or another recognizable feature of its shape to the exclusion of other features, is ubiquitous in traditional and contemporary Malaysian art. Light is highly significant in the Qur'an and is an all-pervasive quality of the natural world. In the spiritual world there is the Light of Lights; in the natural world there is fire, the fire fly, the electromagnetic wave and the particle, the x-ray and the microwave. As a pervasive aspect of artistic expression, light requires consideration for practical-theoretic adjustments. Light is visible not only in stained glass, but also in jewelry, sculpture, and the metallic threads of songket weaving. It is the repetition, in symbolic presentation, of these and other symbols that makes them central to Malaysian society. The exchange of meaning between artist and society in the shaping and viewing of symbols is central to the criteria derived from Dewey.

Program development centers on the selection and organization of sub j ect matter in schooling. If, say, art works are to be selected and organized, then a wide range of works of art must be meticulously described and submitted to examination according to an appropriate set of criteria. In the example of program development in visual art in Malaysia, the criteria must be applicable to both traditional and contemporary works of art. A further


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implication of this study is that a variety of traditional works must be examined.


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