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REVIEW ARTICLE
Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review G.D. Leishangthem, N.D. Singh*, R.S. Brar and H.S. Banga Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences, Guru Angad Veterinary and Animal Science University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab, India.
*Corresponding Author: N. D. Singh Email: [email protected] Received: 09/01/2015
Revised: 17/02/2015
Accepted: 19/02/2015
Abstract Aspergillosis is an infectious, non-contagious fungal disease of wild
and domestic birds caused by fungus Aspergillus species. It is characterized by primary involvement of respiratory tract, formation of yellow cheesy plaques and hard nodular masses in the lungs and air sacs, though other organs may also be generally involved. This fungal disease is of economic importance being the main cause of mortality in the captive birds. Major causative factors are inhalation of overwhelming amount of spores in immunocompromised birds. The review presents the current knowledge on avian aspergillosis, though in brief due to journal space limitations, from etiology, pathology, diagnosis to treatment and control. Keywords: Aspergillosis, Aspergillus, Avian species, Pathology, Prevention and control.
1. Introduction Avian Aspergillosis is an infectious fungal
disease of wild and domestic birds caused by fungus Aspergillus species. It is characterized by primary involvement of respiratory tract, formation of yellow cheesy plaques and hard nodular masses in the lungs and air sacs, though other organs may also be generally involved. The disease is non-contagious and usually occur either in epizootic (acute) or sporadic (chronic) form.
Aspergillus species is a ubiquitous saprophytic mold with a worldwide distribution (Ben-Ami et al., 2010; McCormick et al., 2010). Aspergillosis is the most common opportunistic mycotic infection of respiratory tract in birds causing high morbidity and mortality (Tell, 2005) thus inducing a significant economic losses especially in poultry. Inhalation of A. fumigatus asexual spores (conidia) can cause a spectrum of clinical manifestations depending on the immunological status of the host (Ben-Ami et al., 2010; McCormick et al., 2010), besides anatomical and physiological factors also predisposed to such infection. 2. Etiology
Among the avian pathogenic species of Aspergillus, Aspergillus fumigatus is the main cause of aspergillosis. Other species like A. flavus, A. nidulans, A. niger and A. terreus can also cause the disease but less frequently than A. fumigatus. Aspergillus belongs to the Kingdom: Fungi, Division: Ascomycota, Class:
Eurotiomycetes, Order: Eurotiales, Family: Trichocomaceae. Genus Aspergillus was classified in 1729 by Micheli. The spore-bearing head is the first structure observed in a detailed study of the colony. The arrangement, shape, size and colour of such heads are characteristic of the species and to a lesser extent of the groups to which they belong (Table 1). 3. Transmission and Predisposing Factors
All birds are susceptible to aspergillosis. It is reported in domestic birds like poultry, duck, and quails as well as in wild birds as shown in Table 2. Inhalation of conidia or spores from contaminated feed, fecal material, soil and contamination of egg in ovo, infect the developing embryo. Higher susceptibility of birds to aspergillosis may be attributed to anatomic and physiologic characteristics of the avian respiratory system. The small non-expanding lungs and nine air sacs constitute a primary nidus for infection because the air (or conidia) reaches the caudal air sacs before it pass through those part of the lungs in which the gas exchange takes place (Nardoni et al., 2006). Higher body temperature also allows quick fungal growth. Other factors include chronic stress, unsanitary conditions, overcrowding, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies especially vitamin A and overuse of certain medications (corticosteroids) as well as respiratory irritants (disinfectant fumes and aerosol sprays). Birds that are otherwise ill or are very young or old are also susceptible to aspergillosis.
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
Table 1: Summary of microscopic features and colour of colony of various Aspergillus species
4. Pathogenesis
Aspergillosis is caused by inhalation of overwhelming numbers of small, hydrophobic fungal spores (conidia) into the lungs (Oglesbee, 1997). During inhalation, spores initially enters the bird through the nares (two holes in the beak leading to respiratory system), trachea and to the primary bronchi (mesobronchi) which deliver the inhaled air to the posterior thoracic and abdominal air sacs. Thus the inhaled air reaches the posterior air sacs prior to contacting epithelial surfaces in the lungs (Nardoni et al., 2006). Air sacs are particularly prone to infection due to epithelial surface nearly devoid of a mucociliary transport mechanism and absence of macrophages (Brown et al., 1997). Conidia of small size (2-3 microns) enter and germinate in the lungs and air sacs (Fedde, 1998).
Aspergillus and Respiratory Epithelial Cells (REC) Interaction: After entry, the fungus comes in contact with the sticky mucus lining the respiratory tract and respiratory epithelial cells (REC). REC acts not only as a physical barrier but also an addition of the innate immune system. REC engulfed the conidia which are embedded in the atria and parts of the infundibula in the parabronchus (Maina, 2002). Féménia et al. (2009) evaluated that conidia of A. fumigatus and A. flavus inhibit human respiratory cell apoptosis. RECs internalized a portion of adherent conidia by endocytosis while some of the spores germinate externally forming hyphae which penetrates and damage the cells (Bellanger et al., 2009; Nardoni et al., 2006; Cacciuttolo et al., 2009). Invasion of hyphae, via spaces between and within the epithelium, cause cilia loss and cell detachment (Amitani and Kawanami, 2009) or the air sacs cause serosal
inflammation and superficial necrosis in the adjacent organs (Tsai et al., 1992).
Aspergillus and Endothelail Cells Interaction: Fungal conidia and hyphae interact differently with endothelial cells. Conidia were endocytosed by the endothelial cells. Disseminated mycosis occurs by haematogenous spread. Hyphae are tissue and angio invasive and have a unique capacity to survive and proliferate within the host (Dahlhausen et al., 2004). Hyphus interacts with endothelial cells lining of the blood vessels by passing from the abluminal to the luminal surface and cause endothelial cell injury (Kamai et al., 2009). Some of these hyphal fragments can break off and circulate in the bloodstream resulting in disseminated lesions, involving pneumatic bone, peritoneum, internal organs or the CNS (Redig, 1993).
Aspergillus and Macrophages Interaction: The avian respiratory system responds efficiently to invasion by pathogens with a rapid influx of heterophils and macrophages from the subepithelial compartment and pulmonary blood vessels (Nganpiep and Maina, 2002). Macrophages are the main by the phagocytic cells of the respiratory tract and phagocytosed conidia in an actin-dependent manner through the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by host cell pattern recognition receptors, PRRs (Toll Like Receptors, TLR2 and TLR4 (Netea et al., 2003; 2006) and the C-type lectin receptor dectin-1 (Gersuk et al., 2006). A proinflammatory response is generated characterized production of cytokines (Phadke and Mehrad, 2005) and chemokines (Morrison et al., 2003). Dectin-1 specifically binds to fungal carbohydrates (1, 3)- glucan, which results in phagocytosis, activation of macrophages and generation of proinflammatory responses (Gersuk et al., 2006; Hohl et al., 2005;
Species of Aspergillus
Characteristics of structures supporting asexual spores
Shape of vesicles Colour of the colony
A. clavatus A. flavus A. fumigatus
Long, smooth Colurless, round Short smooth, colourless, greenish
Clavate shape Round, radiate Round, columnar head
Blue-green Yellow-green Blue-green to gray
A. glaucus group A. nidulans A. niger
Variable length, smooth, colourless Short, smooth, brown Long, smooth, colourless or brown
Round, radiate to very loosely columnar head Round, small columnar head Round, radiate, globose and large head
Green with yellow areas Green, buff to yellow Black
A. terreus Short, smooth, colourless Round, compactly colourless head
Cinnamon to brown
A. versicolour
Long, smooth, colourless
Round, loosely, radiate head
White at the beginning turns to yellow, tan, pale green or pink
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
Singh et al., 1994 Pandita et al., 1991 Chaudhari and Sadana, 1988; Gümüşsoy, 2004; Tell, 2010 Ghori and Edgar, 1973; Borah et al., 2010
Turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo)
A.flavus A. fumigatus
Mycotic pneumonia and pododermatitisArticular aspergillosis of hip joints
Stoute et al., 2010 Olias et al., 2010
Pulmonary Aspergillosis Kunkle and Sacco, 1998; Ghori and Edgar, 1973; Singh et al., 2009
Omphalitis Cortes et al., 2005 Acute aspergillosis Kunkle and Rimler, 1996 Aspergillosis in the brains Ozmen and Dorrestein (2004) Airsacculitis Richard et al., 1996
Ainsworth and Rewell, 1949; Alvarez-Perez et al., 2010; Carrasco et al., 2001; Flach et al., 1990; Khan et al., 1977; Kittle et al., 2004; Obendorf and McColl, 1980; Graczyk and Cockrem,1995; Hocken, 2000; Nakeeb et al., 1981
Ostrich (Struthio camelus)
A. fumigatus A. niger and A. flavus
Pulmonary Aspergillosis Yokota et al., 2004; Perelman and Kuttin, 1992; Rousseaux and Dalziel, 1981
A. fumigatus
Severe disseminated aspergillosis
Khosravi et al., 2008
A.fumigatus Mycotic rhinitis Fitzgerald and Moisan, 1995
A.fumigatus, A. niger and A. flavus
Pulmonary Aspergillosis
Katz et al., 1996; Marks et al., 1994; Yokota et al., 2004; Perelman and Kuttin 1992
Poultry chicken (Gallus domesticus)
A. flavus A. fumigatus
Multisystemic Aspergillosis with Granulomas Systemic mycosis
Kim et al., 2011 Sawale et al., 2012
Pneumonic-encephalitic aspergillosis
Sawale et al., 2011
Pneumomycosis Islam et al., 2009
Mycotic tracheitis Corkish, 1982; Pal et al., 1990; Singh et al., 1993
Airsacculitis Spanamberg et al., 2013
Pulmonary aspergillosis Mukaratirwa, 2006 Disseminated mycosis Steinlage et al., 2003
Mycotic dermatitis Grewal and Brar, 1987
Concurrent aspergillosis and ascites
Zafra et al., 2008
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
Luther et al., 2007; Kolls and Brown, 2005). Respiratory macrophages kill conidia that have swollen within the phagolysosome with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phagolysosomal acidification (Ibrahim-Granet et al., 2003; Philippe et al., 2003).
Macrophages in the respiratory tract ingest spores and find their way through the interstitium into the blood and lymphatic stream and thus to other organs (Richard and Thurston, 1983). Macrophage infiltration and the formation of aggregates consisting of multinucleated macrophage giant cells may serve as a cellular defense against the spread of this disease to distant body organs. Van Waeyenberghe et al. (2009) and Qureshi et al. (2000) suggested that spores of A. fumigatus may escape killing by the avian respiratory macrophage. Large amounts of A. fumigatus conidia leads to intracellular germination and lysis of the phagocytic cells (Van Waeyenberghe et al., 2012). Aspergillus species produced a highly immunosuppressive mycotoxin (gliotoxin) which causes degeneration, oncosis and necrosis of the macrophages (Watanabe et al., 2004). Thus this may contribute to colonization of the respiratory tract.
Aspergillus and Immune Cells: Aspergillus fumigatus extract differentially regulates antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses to promote host immunity (Tao et al., 2006).
Aspergillus Defences: Resting A. fumigatus conidia are resistant to macrophage killing by masking (1, 3)-glucan with hydrophobic rodlets protein and delaying macrophage activation. Melanin pigment in Aspergillus, serve a protective role against host defenses, specifically via scavenging ROS (Jacobson, 2000; Langfelder et al., 2003). Rodlets and superoxide dismutases (SODs) implicated in pathogenicity as scavengers of toxic ROS. Rodlets through the rod gene, rodA mutants, display increased susceptibility to alveolar macrophage killing (Paris et al., 2003). Rodletless conidia also induced a weak inflammatory response in a rat model of invasive aspergillosis (Shibuya et al., 1999). The eukaryotic SOD enzyme, Cu/Zn-SOD has been detected in the cell wall of conidia and hyphae (Hamilton et al., 1996). 5. Clinical Signs
Susceptible bird develops polymorphic clinical forms in relation to either localized or disseminated lesions. Aspergillosis occurs in acute and chronic form. Acute aspergillosis results from inhaling an overwhelming number of spores while chronic aspergillosis generally associates with immunosuppression (Vanderheyden, 1993). 5.1 Acute Form
The acute form usually develops less than a week. Young birds generally have a acute or peracute infection resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Clinical signs include difficult breathing, decrease or anorexia, polydypsia, cyanosis, foetid diarrhea and emaciation. Sometimes the birds may die suddenly without showing any clinical sign. Diagnosis is generally made through a post-mortem examination.
5.2 Chronic Form
The chronic form of aspergillosis may take weeks or months to develop. It is much more common in older birds. Clinical signs vary with the location of the infection. It includes inappetence, emaciation, dyspnea, gasping, increased thirst, fever, diarrhea and signs of nervous involvement (Jensen et al., 1997; Henrici, 1939). Green coloration in urates and hepatomegaly can be seen. Respiration may be noiseless and syrinx involvement leads to wheezing, rattling or clicking sound. Nares may become plugged or discharge with rhinitis (Tsai et al., 1992) along with malformation of the nostrils and beak (Bauck et al., 1992). Death occurs due to severe respiratory involvement. There may be opthalmitis and keratitis (periorbital and eyelid swelling with cheesy yellow exudates in the conjunctival sac) (Beckman et al., 1994; Hoppes et al., 2000) as well as necrotic granulomatous dermatitis (Abrams et al., 2001). Wing droop can be observed when pneumatic bones such as the humerus gets involved (Forbes, 1991). 6. Lesions
The primary location of lesions is the lungs and air sacs although other organs may be involved. Extensive involvement of the respiratory tract can occur before development of clinical signs. Lesions vary in size from pinhead or miller seed (milliary <1mm in diameter) white to yellowish granulomas up to the size of a pea. Roughly spherical granulomatous nodules (>2 cm) may also be observed in serosa and parenchyma of the other organs involved.
6.1 Respiratory System
In acute aspergillosis, lungs showed the most striking lesions which are characterized by marked congestion and often studded with milliary yellow nodules. Each nodule is surrounded by a dark infiltrated zone while the other part of the lung appears normal. Air sacs are usually thickened with small whitish-yellow plaque-like lesions. In peracute pneumonic form, there is complete congestion of lung and no formation of nodules. Chronic aspergillosis is characterized by typical granulomatous lesions. It includes of variable sized nodules or multiple plaques that may be disseminated throughout the air sacs and
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
lungs (Fig 1). These lesions are especially observed in the periphery of the lungs and caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs and may show sporulating fungal colonies. The serous membrane of the air-sacs is presented with yellowish-white plaque-like lesions or raised white nodules.
Trachea and bronchi may become blocked either by mucoid discharge or by the yellowish-white plaque-like lesions or raised white nodules. Nasal aspergillosis causes exudative rhinitis (Tsai et al., 1992). Malformation of the nostrils and beak were reported (Bauck et al., 1992). Mycotic tracheitis has been reported in chickens (Corkish, 1982) and domestic fowl (Singh et al., 1993). Fungal rhinosinusitis, with almost complete destruction of the premaxilla and deformation of the upper beak were reported by Mans et al. (2007).
6.2 Gastro-intestinal Tract
In turkeys, plaque-like lesions may occur in the mouth, gizzard and intestines (Lignires and Petit, 1898).
Fig 1: Yellowish dense nodules are observed in the air sac and lungs. There is also involvement of the rib bone beneath the lung
6.3 Liver, Kidney, Spleen, Heart, Brain, Ovary
Visceral organs were involved in aspergillosis with formation of nodular granulomatous lesions (Fig 2). Right ventricular dilatation or cor pulmonale due to pulmonary hypertension may occur with or without ascites in poultry (Julian and Goryo, 1990; Hofle et al., 2001). Abscesses in the cerebellum and cerebrum were reported (Raines et al., 1956; Jungherr and Gifford, 1944). It may occur with or without pulmonary and other lesions. In the cerebellum of broiler breeders and turkeys, circumscribed white to greyish areas were observed (Akan et al., 2002; Jensen et al., 1997). Granuloma formation was also seen in the brain and lungs of layer chicken (Kim et al., 2011). Nodular lesions have been reported in ovary (Emmel, 1929). Mycotic salphingitis associated with A. flavus was
reported in adult female Japanese quail. White to grayish nodules 2-5 mm in diameter was present on the serosal surface of the oviduct (Singh et al., 1994).
6.4 Skin
Mycotic pododermatitis along with pulmonary aspergillosis was reported in turkeys. In footpads, keratinized epidermal disruption, encrustations and acute inflammation were noted (Stoute et al., 2009). Epidermal cysts associated with A. fumigatus have been described in the comb of a silky bantam chicken (Suedmeyer et al., 2002). Mycotic dermatitis was also reported in domestic fowl (Grewal and Brar, 1987). 6.5 Eyes
Lesions were observed in the eyes of baby chicks (Hudson, 1947) and in turkeys (Moore, 1953). Mycotic keratitis has been reported. It leads to periorbital swelling, swollen and adhered eyelids with turbid discharge, cloudy cornea and cheesy yellow exudates within the conjunctival sac (Beckman et al., 1994; Hoppes et al., 2000). In a peregrine falcon-gyrfalcon hybrid, blepharitis and dermatitis involving the eyelids and the head were recorded (Abrams et al., 2001). Dyar et al. (1984) reported non ulcerative or mildly ulcerative keratitis in a turkey flock. Dalton and Ainsworth (2011) reported mycotic keratoconjunctivitis in 12-day-old red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa).
Involvement of ribs of broiler is observed as shown in Fig 3. Osteo-arthritis and granulomatous osteoarthritis of the hip joints with necrosis of the femur head was observed in turkey (Olias et al., 2010). Ribs of ostriches (Perelman and Kuttin, 1992) and sternum of broiler breeders with A. flavus (Martin et al., 2007) were reported.
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
7. Histopathology Based on histopathological alterations,
aspergillosis is distinguished into a deep nodular and a superficial diffuse form (Cacciuttolo et al., 2009). A well-organised granulomatous reaction develops in non-aerated as well as aerated parenchyma. An outer thick fibrous layer encapsulated these organised granulomas (Beytut et al., 2004; Copetti et al., 2004). In the adjoining tissues neither exudative inflammation nor vascular lesions were observed in this form (Nardoni et al., 2006, Cacciuttolo et al., 2009).
of Aspergillus granuloma structure showing necrotic area, inflammatory cells and fungal hyphae (Arrow). Grocott's methenamine silver, X10.
In superficial diffuse form, pyogranulomatous
reaction containing fungal elements predominates in air sacs and lungs and was non-encapsulated (Jensen, 1997). Pyogranuloma is characterized by a centre with variable amounts of septate, dichotomously branching hyphae containing large numbers of conidiophores and conidia. These hyphae were surrounded by a cliff of radially arranged macrophages, heterophils, foreign body giant cells and lymphocytes (Nardoni et al., 2006; Cacciuttolo et al., 2009). Multinucleated cells phagocytized fungal elements. Lymphocytes infiltrated along the margins of the granuloma. In case of severe inflammation, parabronchioles obscured with eosinophilic necrotic material containing degenerated heterophils, erythrocytes and exfoliated epithelial cells (Martin et al., 2007; Beytut, 2004). A mixed type of both tissue reactions in the same tissue section were also reported (Tsai et al., 1992; Atasever and Gu¨mu¨ssoy, 2004).
In case of angioinvasive pulmonary aspergillosis by A. fumigatus (Barathidasan et al., 2013), there was vascular invasion by fungal hyphae involving numerous small to large veins of lungs and air sacs. Both alveolar epithelium and the blood vessel wall were severely damaged by penetrating fungal
hyphae. Numerous vessels were thrombosed as a result of fungal hyphae invasion and intramural host reaction (Barathidasan et al., 2013). 8. Diagnosis
Antemortem diagnosis of aspergillosis can be very difficult since the signs of disease mimic those of many other illnesses, especially in the chronic form. Cases of aspergillosis in birds are often diagnosed based on postmortem findings of white caseous nodules in the lungs or air sacs of affected birds since clinical diagnosis is difficult (Beytut et al., 2004; Charlton et al., 2008). In case of exotic pet birds, cumulative diagnostic tests including biochemistry, haematology, radiography, laparoscopy or endoscopy (Jones and Orosz, 2000) may prove beneficial but these are not available in the poultry context.
8.1 Clinical History
A detailed history of the course of the illness and an accurate description of the diet and husbandry of the bird is required.
8.2 Necropsy Examination
Granulomatous nodules and /or cheesy plaques on the serosa and parenchyma of respiratory tracts as well as other organs are observed. But, definitive diagnosis is based on the isolation of Aspergillus species by culture or by the detection of the organism during histological examination (Kunkle, 2003). 8.3 Direct Microscopy (Wet Smear
Examination) Identification can also be made by preparing a
wet smear. For this, a nodule can be dissected out and crushed on a slide beneath a cover slip in a drop of 20% potassium hydroxide and lactophenol cotton blue. The lactophenol cotton blue stains the fungal hyphae. Wet mounts can also be prepared from sputum or nasal swabs in either 10% KOH and Calcofluor or Parker ink and/or Gram stain. 8.4 Histopathological Examinations
The tissue samples (lungs, trachea, pharynx and thoracic air sacs as well as other organs) fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin are processed and embedded in paraffin blocks and stain with haematoxylin and eosin (HE) method. Aspergillus hyphae stained poorly in H and E stained sections. Differential stains such as Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), Bauer's and Gridley's stains differentiate and easily identify the hyphae and mycelia. Special stains for fungus Grocott’s and Gomori Methanamine Silver stain should be employed to detect the presence of fungal hyphae (Fig 3-Arrows). 8.5 Culture
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
For proper identification of the species, the pathogenic organism must be isolated by culturing it on differential media. Small pieces of lesions aseptically removed are placed onto plates or slants containing malt agar, Sabouraud's glucose agar or antibiotics and incubated at 37ºC for 24 hours. Species of Aspergillus can be identified by observing the characteristic conidial head and colony as shown in Table 2.
8.6 Immunohistochemistry
Immunohistochemistry with monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies can be used to identify A. fumigatus in lesions. 8.7 Serology
A number of serological test have been applied in the diagnosis of aspergillosis. It includes counter immunoelectrophoresis (CIE), agar gel immunodiffusion (AGI) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). However, they should never be used alone, and must be correlated with other clinical and diagnostic data (Redig et al., 1997; Cray et al., 2006; 2009). In acute cases, antibody titre is low and thus detection of circulating Aspergillus antigen in the serum (Cray et al., 2006) while in chronic cases in which antigen levels may be low, detection of antibodies (Jones and Orosz, 2000) may be useful. It should be noted that serological tests have not been validated in poultry and are not currently used in farms to investigate Aspergillosis outbreaks. França et al (2012) reported serologic testing for aspergillosis in commercial broiler chickens and turkeys.
8.8 Differential Diagnosis
Avian aspergillosis signs are nonspecific and depend on the system involved. Pulmonary aspergillosis is usually differentiated from other avian respiratory diseases by the granulomatous lesions at necropsy, but needs to be differentiated from other mycoses and mycobacteriosis. Aspergillosis should be differentiated from chlamydiophylosis, tuberculosis,
neoplasia, vitamin A deficiency, bacterial disease, candidiasis, ascitis, hepatomegaly and pneumonia. 9. Treatment
Treatment for aspergillosis is complicated and relies on the use of antifungal medication. The success of treatment depends upon the location and extent of the infection. However even the most potent drugs could not reach the fungal granulomas or the walled-off fungus by the inflammatory response. This disease has a poor prognosis in extensive infection in the tissues and using only systemic drugs. The best treatment results if the granulomatous lesions are debrided and a topic treatment in conjunction with a systemic therapy is given. The drugs used include itraconazole, fluconazole, clotrimazole, miconazole, ketoconazole and amphotericin B as shown in Table 3. 10. Prevention and Control
No vaccine against aspergillosis is available till date. Some autogenous vaccines have been applied but with little information about this vaccine. Although numerous antifungal protocols have been proposed to cure birds with aspergillosis, treatment of the disease in poultry farms is virtually impossible. Therefore, preventative measures should be practiced so that this disease does not become established in the flock. Since Aspergillus genus is an opportunistic pathogen, reduction of predisposing immunosuppressive factors such as malnutrition and stress should be encouraged. Standard of hygiene, nutrition and housing should be maintained. Mouldy litter or feed should be avoided. Feeders, waterers and incubators should be frequently cleaned and disinfected. Appropriate ventilation should be provided to maintain relative humidity so as to prevent wet litter. Environmental contamination should be control by sporadic or repeated antifungal treatment.
Spraying of fungistatic agents like nystatin, thiabendazole or copper sulphate (at 1 gram per 2 litre of water daily morning for 3 days) decreased fungal
Table 3: Summary of the antifungal drugs used in Aspergillosis
Anti-fungal drugs Dosage Route Amphotericin B
1 mg/kg for 20 minutes, 3 to 4 times a day for 10-14 days 1.5 mg/Kg TID for 3-5 days 1.35 mg/kg
Nebulization IV Topically
Clotrimazole
1% in 2 or 3 ml saline 1.5 hr/day for 4 to 6 weeks
Topical Nebulization
Fluconazole 15mg/kg twice a day for 7 days Orally Itraconazole 5mg-10 mg/kg twice a day for 7-21 days
or 10mg/kg once a day for 7-21 days Orally in feed
Ketoconazole 20 to 30mg/kg twice a day for 2 to 6 weeks Oral Miconazole 1% suspension in 2 or 3 ml saline for 1 week Topical
Leishangthem et al…Aspergillosis in Avian Species: A Review
contamination of litter. Itraconazole at 10mg/kg once a day for 10 days orally have been used as prophylactic measures in birds with high risk to develop aspergillosis. During outbreak, disease spread can be decreased by changing CuSO4 solution at a dose of 1 gram per 2 litre of water daily orally for 5 days instead of drinking water. Poultry breeder should disinfect eggs soon after being laid and gathered in order not to have problems for future new born chickens.
11. Conclusions
In conclusion, aspergillosis is precipitated when the natural defenses and immunity of the bird is challenged by Aspergillus species. Since clinical diagnosis is difficult, avian aspergillosis is often diagnosed based on postmortem findings supported by microscopy, culture, immunohistochemical technique and molecular methods. Aspergillosis is preventable if proper intensive poultry farming with good husbandry practices like hygiene, food storage and preparation methods, cage location and avoiding stress factors and other conditions that could predispose a bird to the development of the disease.
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