61 ASSESSMENT OF HARARE WATER SERVICE DELIVERY Mediel Hove 1 and Auxillia Tirimboi 2 1 Department of History, University of Zimbabwe 2 Geography Department, the Christian College of Southern Africa, Zimbabwe ABSTRACT Water service provision continues to dog most water utilities in developing countries including Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe’s capital, Harare, the service delivery has been declining from 2005 when Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) took over the mandate from Harare City Council (HCC). The challenges were evidenced by unrelenting water shortages which forced people to adopt unsafe water sources leading to outbreak of waterborne diseases such as cholera. In February 2009, HCC repossessed the mandate. This study assesses HCC’s performance by focusing on water service delivery. Key aspects investigated included service quality, affordability, water production and demand, coverage and Non Revenue Water. The nerve centre to this research is a sample study that was carried out in Harare from January to March 2010. Data was collected by means of reading secondary and primary sources, interviews and field observations. Harare water utility has a Non Revenue Water of 35-40% and coverage of about 98%. The study established that active coverage was 88.1 % and residents without tap water were resisting payment of monthly fixed charges. Only 50.4% of the population had a 24 hour service and 54.8% of the residents perceived water to be of poor quality and have resorted to household level disinfection methods, drinking borehole and bottled water. Service availability was still bad in the eastern suburbs compared to western areas. It is suggested that the Government and other stakeholders form and capacitate a strong regulatory board, diversify water sources, outsource some of the water service divisions and also scrap off fixed charges for residents without tap water. Keywords: Harare City Council, Water service delivery, service delivery indicators INTRODUCTION Water is an indispensable human right and access to it is therefore critical for human development. This view point is in line with one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Goal 7, target 10 which aims to halve the proportion of world population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015 (United Nations, UN, 2006a). Integrated Water Resources Management’s observation also emphasises on equitable access to water resources. The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations International Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) 2010 update on global access to water and sanitation show that about 884 million people in the world are still using unimproved water sources and unsaved urban population is growing (WHO and UNICEF, 2010). Africa has a gigantic challenge in providing tolerable service to its people and this harmfully impact household water security. Studies show that only 64% of Africa’s population had access to safe water supply in 2006, (UNICEF and WHO, 2008). UNICEF, (2009) noted that fulfilling acceptable targets in developing countries remains an area of concern Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 13, No.4, 2011) ISSN: 1520-5509 Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania
Transcript
61
ASSESSMENT OF HARARE WATER SERVICE DELIVERY
Mediel Hove1 and Auxillia Tirimboi 2 1Department of History, University of Zimbabwe
2Geography Department, the Christian College of Southern Africa, Zimbabwe
ABSTRACT
Water service provision continues to dog most water utilities in developing countries including Zimbabwe. In
Zimbabwe’s capital, Harare, the service delivery has been declining from 2005 when Zimbabwe National Water
Authority (ZINWA) took over the mandate from Harare City Council (HCC). The challenges were evidenced by
unrelenting water shortages which forced people to adopt unsafe water sources leading to outbreak of waterborne
diseases such as cholera. In February 2009, HCC repossessed the mandate. This study assesses HCC’s performance by
focusing on water service delivery. Key aspects investigated included service quality, affordability, water production and
demand, coverage and Non Revenue Water. The nerve centre to this research is a sample study that was carried out in
Harare from January to March 2010. Data was collected by means of reading secondary and primary sources, interviews
and field observations. Harare water utility has a Non Revenue Water of 35-40% and coverage of about 98%. The study
established that active coverage was 88.1 % and residents without tap water were resisting payment of monthly fixed
charges. Only 50.4% of the population had a 24 hour service and 54.8% of the residents perceived water to be of poor
quality and have resorted to household level disinfection methods, drinking borehole and bottled water. Service
availability was still bad in the eastern suburbs compared to western areas. It is suggested that the Government and other
stakeholders form and capacitate a strong regulatory board, diversify water sources, outsource some of the water service
divisions and also scrap off fixed charges for residents without tap water.
Keywords: Harare City Council, Water service delivery, service delivery indicators
INTRODUCTION
Water is an indispensable human right and access to it is therefore critical for human development. This view point is in
line with one of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Goal 7, target 10 which aims to halve the proportion of
world population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015 (United Nations, UN,
2006a). Integrated Water Resources Management’s observation also emphasises on equitable access to water resources.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations International Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) 2010
update on global access to water and sanitation show that about 884 million people in the world are still using
unimproved water sources and unsaved urban population is growing (WHO and UNICEF, 2010).
Africa has a gigantic challenge in providing tolerable service to its people and this harmfully impact household water
security. Studies show that only 64% of Africa’s population had access to safe water supply in 2006, (UNICEF and
WHO, 2008). UNICEF, (2009) noted that fulfilling acceptable targets in developing countries remains an area of concern
Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 13, No.4, 2011) ISSN: 1520-5509 Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania
62
as over 884 million still lack safe drinking water sources. Projections by UNDP, (2006) cited in Water Operators
Partnership (WOP), (2009) show that Sub-Saharan Africa would only reach the MDG targets for water services by 2040,
and those for sanitation by 2076. The major set back is the inefficiencies of water utilities and the problem is magnified
in urban areas due to limited alternatives. The Asian Development Bank (ADB), (2009), singled out government crisis
which is often associated with how countries manage their water resources as the major limitation.
The situation in developing countries is further aggravated by urbanisation. This challenge as noted by WOP (2009) and
is revealed by Africa’s lagging behind other regions in the context of the MDGs. Zimbabwe is not an exception as its
track record of urban water supply has been dogged by challenges. Its urban water supply was mandated by Urban
Councils up to 2005 when the 1998 Water Reform Act was implemented. Urban water users had a sentiment that since
the system take over by ZINWA, the organisation has been unable to execute its mandate leading to the gradual
deterioration of the service.
Subsequently, water challenges hit Zimbabwe’s urban areas during ZINWA’s era and residents could hardly maintain
hygienic living conditions. The peak of the service deterioration was manifested in a cholera epidemic which gripped
many parts of the country with 191, 164 reported cases and 4,047 reported deaths for the period 15 August 2008 to 17
March 2009, (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), (OCHA, 2009).
Causes of the outbreak as unravelled by Jonga and Chirisa (2009) were but not limited to lack of water to flush toilets,
lack of clean water supply and bursting sewerage pipes. Unlike Zimbabwe’s second largest city, Bulawayo, whose water
challenges are aggravated by poor rainfall that characterise the catchment, Harare’s are intertwined.
The focus of this research was the residential areas where the water woes culminated into the cholera epidemic. The
hardest hit or the hotspots were western areas such as Budiriro among others (Jonga and Chirisa, 2009). Acute water
shortages were also experienced in Harare’s eastern suburbs and a research by Musemwa, (2008) listed Mabvuku among
others to have been experiencing erratic supplies. Residents adopted various coping strategies notably the use of ground
water which according to the War Act is illegal in high density areas. In low density areas, residents were drilling
boreholes without permission. Some residents had to walk for long distance and queue the whole day to get water from
the surrounding farms and low density areas. It was also reported that some residents were using toilets without flushing.
In response to this predicament the Government of Zimbabwe changed the management body and HCC repossessed the
water sector in February 2009. Given this background, this research assessed Harare water utility’s performance as
reflected in water service delivery.
A paper by Baietti, Kingdom and Ginneken (2006) acknowledged that many public utilities in developing countries find
themselves locked in the vicious cycle from which they cannot escape due to poor performance. They added that the poor
performance creates a vicious spiral as the problems regenerate. Savedoff and Spiller cited in Berg, (2008), in their
survey of the provision of water services in Latin America, described utility performance as a low level equilibrium
where low prices lead to low quality, limited service expansion, operational inefficiency and corruption, thereby further
eroding public support.
63
A paper by Musemwa (2004) indicates that Harare water woes can be traced way back to the late 1990s and they were
triggered by drought, increased consumption and mismanagement. Mtisis (2008) discusses a number of factors which
were hindering the provision of clean water to Zimbabwe’s urban areas, particularly Harare, Gweru, and Mutare. The
underlying causes are; economic decline, poor local governance structures, political interference, corruption, population
growth, dilapidation in water supply infrastructure, and sheer disregard of water quality standards and laws. Harare water
sector is mandated by the City Council which as well supplies bulk water to Norton, Ruwa, Epworth and Chitungwiza. It
is a local Public Organisation administered by the Government through its local arm, HCC. This utility gets its bulk water
allocation from ZINWA. The water sector comprises of seven divisions which are production, quality control,
distribution, infrastructure, support service, sewerage and finance.
Harare water service provider classifies residential areas into major groups which are high and low density. According to
the Service Provider, acting on WHO directive in response to the 2008-2009 cholera epidemic, all western suburbs are
scheduled to get supplies every day for twenty four hours whereas eastern suburbs are supposed to get water for three
days per week. This entails that Mabvuku because of its eastern location gets water three days per week even if it is a low
income residential area. In contrast, all western suburbs are on daily water supply schedules. This puts at an advantage
even high and medium income suburbs which are located in the western part of the city.
Description of Study Area
The city of Harare is surrounded by satellite towns of Chitungwiza, Norton, Epworth and Ruwa. Harare, founded in 1890
is Zimbabwe’s capital and largest city which is located in the north-east of the country (Figure 1).
Harare urban has a tropical continental type of climate which is characterised by winter and summer seasons. According
to Mapsofworld.com, (2008), the winter season is dry with the coldest month temperature varying from 7°C to 20°C. The
average annual rainfall in Harare is approximately 840 millimetres and it varies from year to year. The city sits on a
watershed plateau between Limpopo and Zambezi and is located upstream in Manyame River catchment at an elevation of
1,483 m. Storm runoff and waste water generated from the city flow down to Lake Chivero which is the capital’s source
of domestic water, where Morton Jaffrey Water Works is situated. Harare population has been growing rapidly for the past
three decades and is estimated at population size of about 2, 3 million (Mongabay.com, 2010). The population has been
growing rapidly for the past three decades. Between 1982 and 1992, it had a sudden population increase from 656 011 to 1
189 103 (Zimbabwe City Population, 2007) and in 2002 there were 1 435 784 people (CSO, 2002).
Chitungwiza was established during the colonial period. The reason behind its establishment was the need to decongest
the city of Harare. The decision was politically motivated and it was not planned to house thousands of people. After
independence in 1980 Chitungwiza developed an industrial area. The establishment of industries led to the increase in the
number of residents but without corresponding development of water sources and treatment plants to service the satellite
town. Harare’s water sources and treatment plants were further strained by the establishment and growth of Norton and
Ruwa after 1980.
64
Figure 1: The Location of Harare in Zimbabwe (Source: Authors)
Harare Suburbs
High density suburbs are concentrated in the western part of the town where two of the sampled areas, Budiriro and
Kuwadzana Phase 3 are located. The eastern suburbs are a home to medium and high income earners with some
exceptions of high density suburbs such as Mabvuku and Tafara. The sampled areas are shown in Figure 2.
Mabvuku is a high density suburb in Harare, located about 17 kilometres east of the city centre. The area incorporates
Old and New Mabvuku with the former dating back to the 1950s and the later was built in 1972 (WorldLingo, 2010).
65
Population figures for 2002 Census, (Central Statistics Office, CSO 2002: 82), show that Mabvuku had 57 082 people
and data collected from Mabvuku District Office in February 2010 showed that there are about 6 374 residential stands,
of which 1 333 are in Old Mabvuku and 6 374 are in New Mabvuku. To this end, Mabvuku together with Tafara have
been undergoing a lot of water cuts, known to be the worst scenario throughout the whole city.
Figure 2: Sampled Residential Areas in Harare Urban
Source: Adopted from OCHA (2009)
Budiriro is a high density residential area located about 10 kilometres west of the city centre and it falls into five sections.
February 2010 statistics from Budiriro District Office indicated that the area has 11 687 residential stands and a
population size of about 106 801 as of 2002, (CSO, 2002: 82). The five sections have 2 696, 1 700, 1 109, 1 260 and 4
922 residential stands in their respective ascending order (statistics provided by Budiriro District Office). Owing to the
persistent water cuts, Budiriro among other suburbs was a cholera hotspot in 2008-2009. However unlike Old Mabvuku,
Budiriro is a relatively new suburb with its water infrastructure still intact.
Kuwadzana Phase 3, established in 1998 is a new expanding high density western suburb. Dzivarasekwa District Office,
(March 2010) said that the suburb has around 2000 housing stands. Greendale is a medium density suburb which lies to
the east of Harare and is surrounded by a number of other medium and low density areas such as Athlone and Chisipite.
This suburb houses 8 803 people (CSO, 2002: 82) and has roughly 1 282 housing units (Greendale District Office
February 2010 statistics).
Problem Statement
Zimbabwe’s urban areas have been experiencing water supply challenges for the past years under the management of
Urban Councils and Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA). Researches show that the water service delivery has
66
been deteriorating from the late 1990s up to the present day, (Jonga and Chirisa, 2009 and Musemwa, 2008) especially in
the large cities of Harare and Bulawayo. In the city of Harare, poor performance which reached its peak during ZINWA’s
regime was causing persistent water shortages as reported in media (Zimeye 7 June 2009). The most affected areas were
low income residential areas for instance Mabvuku, Tafara and Budiriro due to limited alternative sources of water and
high population densities. Nonetheless, high income suburbs located in the eastern and northern areas for example
Greendale, Glen Lorne, Chisipite and Meadowlands also suffered from this crisis. Some of the causes as noted by
Manzungu and Machiridza (2005) were institutional, economic and demographic. The water challenges resulted in a
cholera epidemic which the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared the worst in Africa in the past 15 years. This
research aimed at assessing the current utility’s water service delivery.
The Aim
• To assess Water Service Delivery by Harare City Council.
Objectives
The study sought to;
1. make an inventory of the service delivery indicators specific for Harare.
2 develop a framework for the assessment of Harare Water Service delivery.
3 assess Harare Water Service Delivery.
Justification of Study
The assessment of a utility’s social performance warrants attention if political leaders, utility managers, citizens and other
stakeholders are to have a good understanding of the quality of service offered. In addition, this study will motivate the
Government and policy planners to monitor and adjust sector institutional set ups and water policies to improve water
services in large urban areas. Resultantly, this research can be an entry point for substitute providers with alternative
water sources other than surface, to be part of reform design because they play a pivotal role in alleviating urban water
insecurity. Assessment of HCC water service delivery is strategic for the service provider to plan for the increasing
demand and find new strategies to further improve service delivery in effort to achieve the MDGs. Overall, it is hoped
that findings from this study will provide basis for intervention from various stakeholders and bring more sustainable
solutions to the challenge of urban water crisis in Zimbabwe.
Scope and Limitations
This study dwelt much on service delivery because it is a critical aspect in Harare urban household water security.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This research was based on a case study approach. Residential areas and the service provider were the main sources of
data. Sampling was used to get the actual respondents from the residential areas.
67
Data Collection Methods
The researchers collected information through literature review, structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and
observations. A total of 353 questionnaires were administered in the four sampled residential areas. The formula,
suggested by Israel, (1992) as shown below was used.
2)(1 eNNn
+=
Where n Sample size
N Number of houses
e Precision size or sampling error (0.08)
Sampling error is the range in which the true value of the population is estimated to be (Israel 1992). A number of factors
were considered to come up with study areas. Mabvuku suburb was sampled because it is Harare’s oldest suburb which
has been suffering from erratic water supplies. Budiriro suburb was selected because it suffered severely from the cholera
epidemic (2008-2009) due to acute water shortages which forced people to rely on unsafe water sources. Two more study
areas, Kuwadzana Phase 3 and Greendale were sampled from the west and east for comparison purposes so as to have a
clear picture of the service delivered.
Methods for Specific Objectives
Data for various indicators was collected using various methods. Objective 1: To make an Inventory of the Service
Delivery Indicators Specific for Harare. The first step of the study involved examining existing data and carrying out a
preliminary survey to establish indicators which had an impact on Harare’s service delivery. An inventory of the
indicators specific for Harare was therefore created from literature reviewing, interviews and survey data. The
researchers identified nine indicators which are: Production and consumption, Non Revenue Water, Coverage, Continuity
of service, Water quality, Bill affordability, Connection fees, Response to customers and Cost recovery.
Objective 2: To Formulate a Framework for the Assessment of Harare Water Service Delivery. Having created the
inventory, a framework for the indicators was formulated by assessing expected targets using International and WHO
guidelines and local standard specifications. Data for this objective were collected from literature reviewing and the key
interview respondents.
Production and Demand
Information on the utility’s total production and service area demand was collected from key interview respondents. It
was difficult to get figures on actual consumption per capita or household as residents relied on multiple water sources
and some of the water bill statements did not show monthly consumptions.
68
Non Revenue Water
According to the information provided by the Service Provider, it is the difference between total production and billed
water expressed as a percentage.
Coverage
This was calculated from the reticulated percentage using the formula
100xpopulationTotal
watertapwithPopulation
For Harare urban, the number of reticulated houses was considered because residents have yard or stand connections.
Service Continuity
The availability of service was measured from the duration residents were getting tap water. According to international
specifications, the desired standard is a 24 hour service. Local specifications as well stipulate the same duration but only
for western suburbs. This indicator was addressed through the household questionnaire which focused on daily hours of
service. Additional information to verify the continuity was provided by interviewees at the Head Office, Pumping
Stations and Water District Offices.
Water Quality
Harare Water did not grant permission for water sampling to test for pathogens and other standards such as compliance
with the residual chlorine rule to mention only a few. This indicator was therefore assessed from incidences of disease
outbreak and media reports. Customer perception approach was also used.
Bill Affordability
In this research bill affordability was assessed against the country’s GNI using 6m3. The yardstick for 6m3 was 3% of per
capita GNI. Bill affordability is calculated using the formula;
Bill affordability = 100x
HouseholdsTotalbillleunaffordabwithHouseholds
That is households for which rates may represent an unaffordable level: number of households served as a percentage.
Additional information on bill payment to have a clear picture on affordability was covered under the household
questionnaire. Attempts to get residents’ bills from the service provider were fruitless because they did not provide with
recent information.
Connection Fees
This indicator can be assessed using household income or a country’s GDP. The benchmark for connection fees is 5% of
the income and if measured against a country’s GDP, the ceiling is 20% of the GDP per capita.
69
Customer Complaints
Average response period was measured against 24 hours because Harare water’s emphasis is placed on immediate
resolution of customer complaints. The researchers established that few people launched complaints to the service
provider. This was not because they were getting satisfaction from the service offered, but due to poor response.
Assessment of this indicator thus was based on the average response period of the few reported problems.
Cost Recovery
A financially sustainable utility should have a ratio of 0.68 or less. Utility records could not be accessed so assessment of
this indicator was based on interview responses and media reports.
Objective 3: To Assess Water Service Delivery by Harare City Council. Data for the analysis of specific indicators
was collected through questionnaires, interviews and field observations. SPSS was used to analyse the questionnaires and
graphs were drawn using excel for evaluation against expected standards and specifications as outlined in the discussed
framework. The researchers’ point of view was also given for a comprehensive picture of the performance.
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction
This study presents data that was collected from the field. Graphs and tables were the major tools used to present the
results. In addition, it identified water service delivery indicators specific for Harare and then developed a framework
which was used to assess HCC performance. This was followed by assessment of the service delivered to Harare
residents.
An inventory of the Service Delivery Indicators Specific for Harare
The researchers identified nine indicators which are: Production and consumption, Non Revenue Water, Coverage,
Continuity of service, Water quality, Bill affordability, Connection fees, Response to customers and Cost recovery
HCC performance indicators were mainly those which satisfy societal needs because the scope of the project was to
assess water service delivery after changes in the management board. The aim was to establish if this reform has
succeeded in addressing water challenges at household level to reduce the use of unsafe alternative water sources so as to
curb water borne diseases.
A framework for the Evaluation of Harare Water Service Delivery The framework for service delivery analysis was formulated from local and international specifications as shown in table 1.
70
Table 1: Framework for Service Delivery Analysis Indicator
Yardstick
Production and consumption
Production which meets demand Consumption of at least 50 litres per capita per day
Non Revenue Water
15% to 25%
Coverage
100%
Continuity of Service
24 Hours per day
Water quality
Residual chlorine which is 1mg/l Microbial, chemical and radiological components
Bill Affordability
<3% of GNI per capita for 6m3
US $ 1 to $12 per 15m3 $0.11 to $53 per m3
0.2% of GDP per 20 litres of water <5% of monthly household income
Connection fees
5% of consumers’ household income 20% of GDP per capita
Customer Complaints.
Response period of 24 hours Number of complaints per 1000 consumers
Cost recovery
0.68 or less
Assessment of Harare Water Service Delivery
The service quality was assessed using field data.
Production and Consumption
Harare has an unrestricted demand of about 1200 megalitres per day. The utility relies on surface water abstraction from
Lakes Chivero and Manyame to Morton Jaffray Water Treatment Plant
and from Harava and Seke dams to Prince Edward Water treatment Plant (Figure 3). It is imperative to note that these
water treatment plants, the lakes and dams named above were built before the huge increase of the city’s population.
Moroe-so as the economic melt down continued the treatment plants and water sources were strained and as a result they
failed to satisfy the needs of the population. Among other factors shortage of chemicals for purifying water was principal
due to foreign currency reserves which dwindled.
71
Figure 3: A Sketch Map of Harare’s Reticulation System
Source: Warren Control
The two plants, according to the Service Provider have a maximum daily production of about 600 megalitres and roughly
a third of the demand is met. Figure 4 shows the relationship between daily production, supply and demand for Harare.
Morton
Jaffray
Warren Letombo
Marimba
Alexander Park
Bluff Hill
Dzivarasekwa
Prince
Edward
Lonchnivar
Donnybrook
Glenview
Tynwald
Mufakose
Dzivarasekwa
Athlone
Glen Norah
Kuwadzana Greendale
Budiriro
Tafara
Mabvuku
Kuwadzana Phase
3
Norton
Ruwa
Chitungwiza
Key Water Treatment Plant
Water Works
Sampled Areas
Other Residential Areas
Satellite Towns
S lli T
72
Figure 4: Daily Production and Demand (Source: Harare Water)
Key interview respondents indicated that 35% to 40 % (210 to 240 megalitres) of the production is lost as NRW. The
remaining 360 to 390 megalitres (< 32.5%) of the total demand is partitioned among various uses of which the major are
domestic (2, 3 million people) and industrial. The amount of water produced is not sufficient for Greater Harare and this
is the chief cause of water rationing and dry taps in most of the eastern suburbs.
Key interview respondents cited low production capacity by the water treatment plants as the major cause of the problem.
The two treatment plants’ total designed capacity is about 704 megalitres per day but their daily capacity has gone down
due to dilapidation. However, average consumption per capita could not be calculated because some bill statements did
not show residents’ monthly consumptions.
Non Revenue Water
Harare utility’s NRW stood at 35-40%. This was largely attributed to infrastructure dilapidation and in case of pipe
ruptures, it would take time to repair them because the reticulation system was not computerised. Residents indicated that
some reported bursts (Figure 5 a and b) went unrepaired for up to three months and Harare Water attributed this to lack
of capital to buy the required inputs for infrastructure maintenance.
Harare Production and Demand
0 400
800
1200 1600
Megalitres/day
Amount of water in megalitres
Max. ProductionMax. SupplyDemand
73
Harare’s NRW went down slightly from about 45% (The Herald, 18 May 2009) after renovations in the city centre. This
loss exceeds the recommended 15% to 25% for a well performing water utility and if all the losses are incurred by
consumers, they end up having exorbitant monthly bills. Harare Water confirmed that it was losing a lot of water due to
financial problems to refurbish the reticulation system. Although some renovations were done in the city centre in 2009,
they said that the whole system including the treatment plants and pumping stations required a complete overhaul.
According to the Herald (13 April 2010), Morton Jaffrey alone was losing 13 megalitres of water daily which is 2% of its
production. Leakages as well were going unnoticed because the system is not computerised.
Figure 5: Water Loss from Pipe Bursts in the Residential Areas
Source: Field Photographs by Auxillia Tirimboi.
Coverage
According to key respondents from the Head Office, the reticulated population in its jurisdiction is about 98%. However
some of the respondents said that they did not have the exact coverage figure due to urban expansion. The existence of
unplanned settlements for instance Hatcliffe Camp was a chief cause of the utility’s failure to achieve 100% service
coverage. Another obstacle was the recently constructed high density suburbs where residents were allowed to settle
without piped water and sewerage, for instance Dzivarasekwa Extension. However it was established that some taps were
dry. Some eastern residents had been without supply up to the end of February 2010 due to a major burst between the
main pumping station, Warren Control and Letombo Water Works. When the supply resumed in, active connections rose
to 88.1%. The water works personnel at Donnybrook pointed out that dry taps in some areas, was due to high level
pumping machine outages.
Harare water utility falls within the developing and medium income countries’ coverage which ranges from 18% to 100%
and is even lower than Namibia’s which was found to be 98% from 2001-2005, (Ndokosho, Hoko, Makurira, 2007). To
improve the coverage, HCC should refurbish dilapidated machinery and look for alternative water sources.
Continuity of Service
Harare water Utility was failing to provide its consumers with continuous running tap water. Some of the residents were
spending day hours without tap water. Reports given by various organizations such as Combined Harare Residents
ab
74
Association (CHRA), Zimcode, Harare Residents Trust and Transparency International of Zimbabwe in Public hearing
meeting on Harare services on 19 February 2010 shows that many suburbs had residents without tap water. Out of the
total 353 questionnaire respondents, only 178 (50.4 %) had a 24 hour service and 37.6 % had less than 24 hour service
but with varying durations, as shown in Figure 6.
Hours of service
24 hrs
>18 to < 24 hrs>13 to 18
4 to 13 hrsNo tap water
Figure 6: Hours of Service (Source: Field Data)
In most cases tap water would stop flowing at 5 in the morning and resumption varied from 11 in the morning up to 2
after midnight. This is in line with Schwartz’s observation that most low and middle income countries’ utilities can
deliver a 24 hour service only to 50% of their consumers, (Schwartz, 2009). A number of reticulated residents relied on
alternative water sources such as boreholes, elephant pumps, deep wells, shallow wells and rainwater harvesting. Most of
the low density suburbs in the northern part of the city were not getting water. This area deserves attention if water
security is to be realised in Harare urban because the utility’s water production of 50% is very low.
Failure to provide water for 24 hours is common in African countries as noted by Kimey (2008) in his study on
Tanzania’s water utilities that on average Korogwe and Muheza town residents receive water for 4 to 10 hours per day.
The hours of service varied greatly from one residential area to the other. Key interview respondents explained that
failure to maintain a 24 hour flow was water demand management among other causes. Each water works had a daily
stipulated amount of water which could not keep the taps flowing for 24 hours. Other major causes were power cuts,
main pipe bursts and low pumping pressure.
Most residents in the less than 24 hours service said tap water would stop as early as four and supplies would resume
from 11 in the morning up to two after midnight. People had to wake up at night to do their laundry and fill up storage
containers for household use. Other residents did not have tap water, evident by borehole drilling in low density areas and
ongoing illegal deep well digging in high density areas. Figure 7 shows deep well digging in Mabvuku where residential
stands are small and there is risk of the water being contaminated by sewage.
75
Figure 7: Deep Well Digging in Old Mabvuku.
Source: Field Photograph by Auxillia Tirimboi
Questionnaire respondents reported that the service was not reliable due to unexpected water cuts which could go for 1 to
3 days. Media reports show that service disruptions are common in Harare. According to the Herald, (23 March 2010),
Harare urban taps ran dry on the 18th of March 2010 due to a power cut and the situation returned back to normal over the
weekend. Another widespread service disruption occurred during the second week of April due to some repairs at Morton
Jaffrey and residents spend the weekend with dry taps. (The Herald, 13 April 2010). In response to the persistent cuts,
people were storing water for domestic uses. Figure 8 a b and c show evidence of water storage in sinks and containers.
People were also storing grey water for flushing toilets as shown in Figure 8 d.
The varying scenarios in the continuity of the service were determined by an areas altitude. Areas at lower altitudes
rarely experienced water cuts and the duration of cuts increased with increase in altitude, thus some residential stands
were only getting water at night when pressure was high. This was as well confirmed by the District Office Personnel
particularly for Budiriro and Kuwadzana Phase 3.
Figure 8: Household Water Storage. (Source: Field Photographs by Auxillia Tirimboi)
ab
c d
76
Water cuts were compromising with standards of hygiene. Residents were resorting to unsafe water sources and in
Mabvuku there was a typhoid outbreak which affected more than 140 people with 5 deaths cases in February 2010.
Water Quality
Although the detrimental drinking water components are microbial, chemical and radiological, which have undesirable
impact on public health, Harare Water did not allow the researchers to take water samples to check these parameters.
The production team at Warren Control indicated that they were supplying consumers with clean water. Required
amounts of ammonia were added to increase the duration period of the water and that at drawing points, the water had
1mg/l of chlorine to prevent recontamination in the distribution system.
The researchers had to assess the quality of water from disease outbreak in Harare suburbs but statistics on disease
outbreak could not be obtained from the City Health Department due to bureaucracies. Areas such as Kuwadzana Phase 3
which relied on tap due to limited alternatives did not have a history of waterborne disease outbreaks but in places such
as Mabvuku, typhoid outbreak was attributed to the use of possibly sewage contaminated ground water.
The major problem that existed pertaining to the quality was lack of transparency. The service provider did not want to
disclose any information on water quality results. According to media reports, as of December 2009, HCC was buying
poor quality aluminium sulphate and was failing to buy algae kill, (The Herald, 28 December 2009), which meant that
chances of supplying residents with water of poor quality were high. Consumers had different perception on colour, taste
and odour (Figure 9).
Water Quality Perception
0
20
40
60
80
100
Water quality parameters
Perc
ent
Water clearSuspended particlesGood testBad testOdour not offensiveOffensive odour
Figure 9: Residents’ Perception on Water Colour, Taste and Odour.
Source: Field Data
They were forced to rely on their perception as indicated by WHO (2004) that acceptability is determined by senses if
consumers are unable to verify the drinking water safety. Those who were not contented complained about suspended
particles which settled in stored water and rust when supplies resumed. Residents added that the water would turn green
if stored for more than three days. This was confirmed by the Combined Harare Residents Association (CHRA) which
had water samples collected from 2007 up to 2009. Respondents from this Civic Organisation said that tap water had
become greenish whereas ground water samples had settled particles only.
77
The researchers noted that residents’ perception of the taste was determined by whether one was accustomed to drinking
the water or not. Residents without drinking water options were now used to the taste. This goes hand in hand with what
Kimey (2008) established for Korogwe and Muheza residents.
Despite having bad taste and suspended particles, few respondents found the water odour offensive. In spite of this,
residents indicated that Harare water was of poor quality and that they had no trust in the service provider because of the
water quality history. Residents reported that during the 2009 cholera epidemic, they were advised not to drink tap by
UNICEF, unless disinfected at household level. During the time of study they perceived the water unsuitable for drinking
due to lack of assurance by the Service Provider and the Water Quality Regulatory Board, the Ministry of Health.
To overcome this uncertainty, residents adopted various coping strategies which included drinking ground water boiling
water, using aqua tablets to disinfect the water and drinking bottled water. However most of Kuwadzana Phase 3
residents were drinking water direct from the tap due to limited alternative drinking water sources.
Bill Affordability
Harare water bill has a rising block tariff structure with different unit prices for low income, high income and commercial
areas. The least amount that residents can pay is US$ 10.75 per month and the maximum is determined by one’s
consumption because the utility does not have a consumption ceiling. Table 2 shows cost per m3 for different categories
of consumption.
Table 2: Monthly Bills for Varying Consumptions
High Density Domestic Consumers
Water Tariff per m3
Total Monthly Water Bill with Fixed Charges (US$) for
Cost per m3
Monthly cost for 6 m3
0.30 6 m3 =12.55 2.1
Monthly cost for 15 m3
0.30 15 m3 =15.25 1.02
Monthly cost for 20 m3
0.30 20 m3 =16.75 0.84
Monthly cost for 21 m3 to 30 m3
0.40 30 m3 =20.75 0.69
Monthly cost for >100 m3
0.70 >100 m3 =>61.45 0.61
Low Density Domestic Consumers
Total Monthly Water Bills without Sewerage Charge/ with Sewage Charges
Monthly cost for the first 20 m3
0.40 20 m3 =18.75 /28.75 0.94/ 1.44
Monthly cost for 21 m3 to 30 m3
0.50 30 m3 =23.75 /33.75 0.79/ 1.13
Monthly cost for >100 m3
0.80 >100 m3 =71.55 /81.55 0.71/ 0.81
Source: Harare Water Billing Section
78
This study noted that the cost per m3 for various consumptions ranges between $0.61 and $2.1. This exceeds U$ 0.11 per
m3, the average tariff for poorest developing countries by far, not to mention the average global tariff which is US $0.53
per m3.
The minimum household consumption of 6m3 means that some households spend $12.55, equivalent to 2.5 % of
Zimbabwe’s GNI ($506.89) on their monthly water bills. This is in within WOP’s (2009) recommendations that in
Africa, poor households should not pay more than 3 % of per capita GNI for 6m3 of water per month, implying that
Harare bills are affordable. However, this gives a misleading conclusion because the minimum typical consumption per
month is 15 m3. Kalulu, (2008) indicated that in most developing countries, the amount for 15 m3 varies between less
than US$1 and US$12 per month, but for Harare $15. 25 are above the average figure.
Nonetheless, the real situation on the ground remains concealed as there were some residents paying monthly water bills
without any service rendered. Harare Water commented that their water bills were only 30 cents per m3 (for the first
30m3 in high density residential areas) and 366 times less than private suppliers’ charges (The Herald, 15 March 2010).
Justified as they were, residents were complaining about excessive bills. Harare’s water bills had some extremes and a
notable example is Kuwadzana Phase 3’s March 2010 bills which had consumptions of around 90 kilolitres, requiring
them to pay at least US $40. This was reported by Kubatana.net (9 September 2009) that residents were getting
exaggerated consumptions because Harare Water officials had not been conducting any meter readings.
These bills were creating suspicion among residents given that some statements did not provide residents with
information on meter readings. Only detailed statements could clear this. Failure by some residents to settle their
accounts could be an indication of unaffordable bills. According to The Herald, (15 March 2010), the Competition and
Tariff Commission was investigating the public outcry on Harare water bills.
A bar graph in Figure 10 shows average monthly water bills for the sampled area.
41.4
7.9
29.515.6
5.7
0
20
40
60
80
100
Perc
ent
water bills in USD
Average monthly water bills
<$10.75
>10.75-<15>$15-<20
>$20-<25
>$25
Figure 10: Residents' Monthly Water Bills (Source: Field Data)
Monthly water bills were dominated by $10.75 comprising of 41.4% of residents who had been without the supply and
the lowest was 5.7% for residents who had consumption exceeding $25. However, these bills could not be verified
because District Offices did not provide the researchers with information on the residents’ recent water bills.
Added to that, Harare Water does not have a pro-poor services policy such as free basic water as all consumption is
billed. This shows that even the disadvantaged notably the unemployed, disabled, homeless, orphans and HIV patients to
79
mention but a few are not catered for which can negatively impact on equity in water allocation at local level and the
achievement of MDGs.
The utility expected all residents to pay monthly fixed charges. This had resulted in some people’s bills accruing to US
$400 (for Mabvuku, as of December 2009). In Greendale and Old Mabvuku residents particularly those with their own
water sources have since stopped paying the fixed charges. The researchers also assessed bill payment (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Bill Payment According to Residential Areas. (Source: Field Data)
84% and 66.4% in Kuwadzana Phase 3 and Budiriro 2 were paid up, mainly because they had limited alternative water
sources. 95% of Old Mabvuku residents were not paid up because they had no service for long and most of them had dug
deep wells. Greendale residents were reluctant to pay because they had their own reliable water sources. It was
established that the payment of monthly fixed charges was unfair as these residents were meeting alternative water costs
such as well digging, borehole drilling, buying the water from neighbours or from bowsers.
Connection Fees
According to Harare Water Billing Section, the connection fee is US $50. The recommended percentage is 20% of a
country’s GDP. In Harare, this fee takes 11.4% of US $438, the 2010 estimated GDP per capita (Global Finance, 2009).
Residents were silent on connection fees because it is embedded in land cost. Such costs are met during the initial stages
when residential areas are serviced by responsible authorities. There are a few exceptions where residents moved in
before servicing and for low income residents, the fee can be a hindrance from having yard connection because some
consumers indicated that they were getting a monthly salary of around US $100.
Customer Complaints
Harare water said that complaints were mainly on sewerage bursts, piped water bursts, dry taps and billing. The service
provider did not provide figures on the number of complaints and average response period because there is a lot of
decentralisation in the system. Some of the complaints were launched to District Offices and some directly to the Hotline
Department.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Perc
ent
Old Mabvuku Budiriro 2 KuwadzanaPhase 3
Greendale
Residential Area
Bills Paid Up
NoYes
80
At water District Offices, it was observed that the personnel did not record all grievances and the response period varied
because of different reasons. The utility’s target is to address all complaints within 24 hours but key interview
respondents acknowledged that some complaints went unaddressed for long periods because of circumstances which
were beyond their control. A case in point was dry taps in some parts of Harare especially the eastern and northern
suburbs which they attributed to low water production. They also pointed out that financial problems and lack of
transport contributed to delays in the repairing of bursts.
Questionnaire responses showed that only 16.7 % (Figure 12) of the respondents had reported their grievances.
Average Response Period
0
20
40
60
80
100
Hours
Perc
ent
48 hours
Delay
No response
Haven'tcomplained
Figure 12: Response Period to Customer Complaints. Source: Field Data
Only 2.3% of the population got responses in 48 hours, 5.1% the responses delayed and 9.3% did not get any response.
Residents reported that they would end up contributing money for sewerage pipe burst repairs hence they had formed
community groups for this purpose. On a positive note, people indicated that sewerage blockages had markedly
decreased because the sewer system had been repaired in some areas.
The rest said they did not report grievances because of various reasons for instance that they had become used to the
water crisis, the response was not urgent or that they had their own water sources. From a public hearing on service
delivery in Harare which was held on February 19, 2010, there was a sentiment that the utility personnel were not
friendly. CHRA reported that some HCC personnel were telling residents not to launch complaints because no changes
were going to be made for instance on inflated water bills.
Cost Recovery
No figures were obtained from the utility on cost recovery but HCC which supplies bulk water to Norton, Chitungwiza,
Ruwa and Epworth complained that the satellite towns owed it huge sums of money which was a major drawback in
service improvement. Media reports indicated that they were using US $2 million every month for water treatment
(Herald, 13 April, 2010). HCC has been failing to sustain itself financially, evidenced by water chemical donations from
UNICEF (newZimSituation.com, 15 May 2010), and this might be an indication of low cost recovery.
81
CONCLUSIONS
Changes in the management of Harare water have made some positive impacts in service delivery. Some suburbs which
had a history of dry taps and long queues at alternative drawing points were getting tap water. NRW has also slightly
gone down after water infrastructure refurbishment in the city centre.
However, the city has not yet recovered from the persistent water crisis. Major problems noted were low water
production, high NRW, water shortages, poor water quality, poor response to customer complaints and paying for
undelivered services.
Although the reticulated percentage is high, (about 98 %), the service provider was failing to supply all connected
residents with water. This is mainly due to low production and high Non Revenue Water (35% to 40%). Harare Water
was supplying residents with only a third of the total demand. High level pumping machine outages were as well
negatively impacting the water coverage.
HCC’s failure to supply residents with a 24 hour service was forcing residents to use unhygienic strategies which are a
health hazard.
Information on water quality was not available to the residents, which made them to believe that the water was unsuitable
for domestic use, revealed by ongoing household level disinfection and drinking water from alternative sources. This
further impacts Harare service quality as some of the sources are unsafe.
There is lack of a satisfactory regulatory board. Residents who fail to get satisfactory responses from the service provider
have limited options to further their complaints. Reported challenges as a result take long to be addressed or remain
unaddressed.
Although water tariffs measured against the country’s GNI appeared to be affordable, the bills were higher than the
global and developing countries’ expected standards. Failure by some residents to pay is evidence or testimony that the
monthly bills were beyond their reach.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In view of this research’s findings, it is recommended that;
1. The utility come up with multiple water sources to reduce reliance on the two treatment plants which have an
insufficient capacity. This can speed up the weaning of satellite towns by HCC.
2. The utility put in contingency measures for residents to have alternative water sources in case of tap water
service disruptions. This can be done through rehabilitation of boreholes which lie idle in some of the residential
areas such as Dzivarasekwa and Mabvuku. For their sustainability, community involvement in the management
of these boreholes is called for.
3. In future urban planning should consider leaving space for borehole drilling in high density residential areas and
the boreholes should be manned by water utilities.
4. The Water Service Provider rehabilitate all dilapidated water infrastructure, speed up the installation of leak
detection devices and computerise the whole system to reduce water losses. Residents should also be given
incentives for reporting water thefts.
82
5. The Government sets a strong capacitated regulatory board for Harare water services. The surveillance agency
should be given the necessary powers to enforce standards, laws and regulations for a better water service
delivery.
6. Residents need to be provided with detailed statements for cross checking in case of queries to erase suspicions
on bill inflation.
7. Monthly fixed charges for residents without water services be scrapped
REFERENCES
ADB (Asian Development Bank), (2009), Guidance Note, Urban Water Supply Risk Assessment,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Guidelines/Urban-Water-Sector-Risk-Assessment, accessed on Tuesday,
19th January, 2010.
AfDBG (African Development Bank Group) (2000), Sectorial and Project Performance Indicators in the WaterSsupply
and Sanitation Sub-Sector,
http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Evaluation-Reports, accessed on Tuesday, 19th
January, 2010.
Baietti, A., Kingdom, W., and Ginneken, M. V., (2006), Water Supply and Sanitation Working Notes. Note no. 9,
Characteristics of Well Performing Public Water Utilities, Washington DC, World Bank.
Berg, S.V., (2008), Water Utility Performance in Central America: The Political Economy of Coverage, Quality and
Cost,
http://warrington.ufl.edu/purc/purcdocs/papers/0801_Berg_Utility Performance pdf, accessed on Friday,
21st May, 2010
Berg, S.V., (2007), “Conflict resolution: Benchmarking Water Utility Performance”, Public Administration and
Development Journal, University of Florida, Volume 27 pp 1–11.
CSO (Central Statistics Office), (2002), Census 2002, Provincial Profile, Causeway, Central Census Office.
Global Finance (2009), Zimbabwe Country Report: GDP data and GDP forecasts, http://www.gfmag.com/gdp-data-
country-reports/143-zimbabwe-gdp-country-report.html, accessed on Wednesday, 26th May, 2010.
Israel, G. D., (1992), Determining Sample Size, http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pd006, accessed on Thursday, 3rd December, 2009.
Jonga, W., and Chirisa, I., (2009), “Urban Local Governance in the Crucible: Empirical Overtones of Central
Government Meddling in Local Urban Councils Affairs in Zimbabwe”. Theoretical and Empirical
Researchs in Urban Management, CCASP TERUM, Volume 3, No. 12.
Kalulu, K., (2009), Assessment of the Performance of a Public Water Utility: A Case Study of Blantyre Water Board in
Malawi. University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering Unpublished MSc Thesis.
Kimey, V., (2008) An Assessment of the Performance of Urban Water Supply Utilities: A Case Study of Korogwe and
Muheza Town, Tanzania, University of Zimbabwe, Department of Civil Engineering Unpublished MSc
Thesis.
Kubatana.net, (9 September 2009), Harare Water’s Inconsistent Billing: A Cause for Concern, Combined Harare
Residents Association (CHRA),
http://www.kubatana.net/html/archive, accessed on Monday, 12th July, 2010.
83
MACA (Moldova Apa Canal Association), (2004), Analysis of Operational and Financial Performance Indicators of
Water and Sewerage Utilities in the Republic of Moldova for 2002. Chisinau, Moldova Apa-Canal
Association.
Manzungu, E., and Machiridza, R., (2005), An Analysis of Water Consumption and Prospects for Implementing Water
Demand Management at Household Level in the City of Harare, Zimbabwe, Harare, University of
