Microbial Air Pollution: A Case Study from Sisdol Sanitary Landfill Site

Panthi, J. Shrestha, U.

Chapter I: Introduction

1.1 BackgroundAs urbanization continues to take place, the management of solid waste has become a

major public health and environmental concern in urban areas of many developing

countries including Nepal. In recent years solid waste has become major environmental

problem in Kathmandu and other urban areas of Nepal. The only ultimate management of

solid waste in Kathmandu Valley is to dump solid waste in a landfill site and Sisdol is the

single land fill site for the disposal of solid waste of Kathmandu Valley. A typical solid

waste management system in Kathmandu valley displays an array of problems, including

low collection coverage and irregular collection services, crude open dumping and

burning without air and water pollution control, the breeding of flies and vermin, and the

handling and control of informal waste picking or scavenging activities.

Since, the waste was used to dump in the riverbank of Bagmati River. The government of

Nepal in 1995 decided to develop as a sanitary landfill site for the Sisdol of Okharpauwa-

8 in Nuwakot district as a long term solution to the solid waste problem of the valley.

However it came into operation only after ten years in June 2005 (Rising Nepal). Lots of

problems due to landfill sites have been noticed such as water pollution, air pollution, soil

pollution, noise pollution etc.

Air is the precious natural gift without which no life can exist in this earth and clean air is

vital for human survival. Air pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical

and biological composition in the air causing detrimental effects to human livelihood.

According to World Health Organization (WHO, 1996), air pollution is "limited to

situations in which the outer ambient atmosphere contains materials in concentrations

which are harmful to human being and their environment" (www.who.org).

Air pollution is a major environmental problem that is becoming day by day in Nepal. Air

pollution in Nepal is considered as one of the most dangerous and common kind of

environmental pollution of an urban area than a rural one. However, in rural areas also,

burning of firewood for domestic purpose and agricultural activities such as field

burning, crop spraying and drying activities contribute air pollution.

As far as microbial air pollution is concerned, no microorganisms are indigenous to the

atmosphere but microorganisms of the air within 300 to 1000 or more feet of the earth’s

surface are merely organisms of soil that have become attached to fragments of dried

leaves, straw or dust particles light enough to be blown about by the wind. Kinds and

number of microorganisms found in the atmosphere depend on where the samples are

collected, weather, speed and direction of wind and the level of concentration of

pollutants at that place. Therefore, air pollution is the combined contribution and relative

effects of suspended particulate matter (SPM), gaseous/chemicals and air borne

microorganisms.

Although biological pollutants are not extensively studied in ambient air pollution as

chemical/gaseous pollutants, these seem to be equally dangerous for public health point

of view. Many animal and plant parasites and pathogenic microorganisms are released to

atmosphere from their natural hosts. Human activities such as disposal of hazardous

waste, industrial waste contribute for the contamination of air with pathogenic

microorganisms.

Fungi, bacteria, virus, pollens, lichens, insects etc. become biological air pollutants and

cause fatal health effects to the human beings. Because, the ultimate fate of the

microorganisms in the air are governed by various atmosphere conditions such as

humidity, intensity of light, temperature, wind velocity, seasons, topography,

geographical variations, size of the particles bearing microorganisms etc. Many

pathogenic microorganisms are secreted from the nose and throat of the infected

individuals which can be transmitted to air by aerosols generated by coughing, sneezing

and even talking and then transmitted to the community by air.

The fungi cause the various skin diseases (fungal) and eye infections. The higher

concentration of fungi in the atmosphere causes severe and serious diseases like

Aspergilosis, Allergic Bronchopulmonary infections, skin and nil infections, Blasto

mycosos, Chromoblastomycosis, Coccidiomycosis, Histoplasmosis, Cryptococcosis,

Dengue, Facil eczema, Rhinitis, Sinusitis, Asthma, Palatitis, Myacarditis, sub cutaneous

mycetoma, Angular cheilitis, central nervous system infections, Meningitis and colitis.

Besides there, a wide variety of fungal toxic metabolites are encompassed into a common

name mycotoxin, as Aflatoxin Ochrotoxin, Patulin etc. which are very much hazardous to

human health. The fungi frequently found in the air are the species of Alternaria,

Aspergillus, Botrytis, Clardosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium, Helminthosporium, Mucor,

Penecillium, Trichoderma etc.

Different types of bacteria like Micrococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus

spp., Bacillus spp., Sarcina spp., Gram positive pleomorphic rods and aerobic spore

former are predominantly found into the air. Among them, pathogenic bacteria such as

Streptococcus viridous, Gram’s positive cocci, the commensal of mouth is considered as

the indicator of respiratory pollution

The higher concentration of bacteria causes various diseases like skin and soft tissue

infection, nasal vestibullitis, hay fever, cystic fibrosis, asthma, rhinitis, nasal polyps,

sinusitis, tonsillitis, quirsy, typhoid fever, dermatitis, acute laryngotrachaeitis, epiglotitis,

papilloma, pulmonary pneumonia, anthrax, pulmonary tuberculosis and various eye

infections as keratitis, conjunctivitis. Similarly higher concentration of fungi in the air

causes several serious diseases like aspergilosis, allergic bronchopulnomonary infection,

skin and nailo infections, blastomicosis, chromoblastomycosis, dengue, histoplamosis,

cryptococoosis, facil eczema, rhinitis, sinusitis, asthma, palatitis, central nervous system

infection etc (Subedi, 2003)

Sources of microbial air pollution:

The microbial flora of air is transient and variable. Air is not the medium in which

microorganisms can grow but is a carrier of Particulate matter, dusts and droplets, which

may be laden with microorganisms. Hence no microorganisms are indigenous to the

atmosphere. Microorganisms of the air within 300 to 1000 or more feet of the earth’s

surface are merely organisms of soil (Frobisher, 1974). The sources of microorganisms

into the atmosphere can be categorized into:

Human beings and animals:

Human and other living beings are the major sources of the pathogenic and non

pathogenic microorganisms; these organisms are continuously emitted into the

atmosphere through various mechanisms. Human being, for example, expels out many

droplet of moisture during sneezing, coughing scabbing and even talking. Each droplet

has size about 10 micrometer and normally contains 1-2 bacteria. So, the number of

bacteria from the single sneeze varies from 10,000 to 10, 00,000 cells (Brock, 1998).

Plants:

Plants contain wide variety of microorganisms in their parts such as leaves, trunks, roots

etc. These organisms become air borne through a variety of mechanisms such wind,

rainfall other animals and bird’s activities.

Soil and solid waste:

Soil is normal habitat of various kinds of bacteria and fungi that become ate source of air

pollution. Solid waste such as garbage, pathological wastes, agricultural waste and

decaying materials are excellent nutrients for the growth and multiplication of

microorganisms. Turbulence force of air carries a vague amount of microorganisms in the

air and become the source of air pollution.

Industries:

Industries that process various animal skins, hair, furs such as cotton industries, carpet

industries, garment industries, leather industries etc. discharge a lot of microbes including

most bacteria and fungi. For example, Anthrax bacilli, Tubercle bacilli and Aspergillus

spp. Even Clostridium tetani is released from the metal industries.

1.2 Study area

Sisdol land-fill site lies in the Okharpauwa VDC ward no 8 of Nuwakot district, 18 km

NW from Kathmandu. It covers 485 ropanies of area and has a capacity of 4.2 million

metric tons. The semi-aerobic system has been incorporated into the Sisdol LFS

considering the advantage of reducing leachate intensity and methane gas generation and

of rapid stabilization of the disposed waste with cost effective and simple construction

and operation manner. The total population of Okharpauwa VDC is estimated to be 6183

with 48% of female. The village is predominated by Chhetry, Brahmin, Tamang and

Balami being Balami the dominant caste. There is high household family size i.e. 10 to

15 members with three to four generations. More than 80% of the people depend on

agriculture and some work as employees in offices and laborers in the construction

activities.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The generation of solid waste is increasing at an accelerated rate in municipalities of

Nepal. At the same time, human health problems associated with rampant disposal of

solid wastes are also increasing. The production of solid waste in Kathmandu Valley is

about 520 tons to 550 tons per day and most of it is managed through disposal in landfill

site (Kantipur daily). According to ENPHO/KMC (2000), the infectious waste generation

from hospitals/clinics in the Kathmandu valley is 1312 kg/day (23% of hospital waste)

whereas it becomes 1189 kg/day in the Kathmandu city only. Due to increase in number

of hospitals in Kathmandu valley those are lacking of incineration, dispose the infectious

waste to the same landfill site. Solid wastes such as garbage, pathological waste,

agricultural wastes and decaying materials are excellent nutrients for the growth and

multiplication of microorganisms. In this way, there is chance of contamination of

pathogenic microorganisms in and around the land fill site. Air borne transmission of

many human, plant and other animal diseases are the major hazardous effects of

biological pollutants. Sisdol land-fill site is only the landfill site of the Kathmandu valley

which has fulfilled the basic criteria of environmental assessment of the government.

However number of health impacts has been rising in recent days in the territory of the

landfill site. The public stress not to dump the solid waste at Sisdol is high which was

faced time to time. The frequent conflict between the local residents of Sisdol and KMC

is becoming a major problem to dispose the waste of Kathmandu valley.

1.4 Objective

The broad objective of the study is to assess the microbial air pollution of Sisdol

sanitary landfill site.

The specific objectives are

To find total bacterial, Gram’s negative bacterial and total fungal load in the

ambient air of the study area.

To isolate and identify the air micro-flora (bacteria) present in the site.

To study the seasonal variation of the air microbes.

1.5 Justification of the study

Many studies have been carried out on different potentially adverse health effects of

pathogenic microorganisms due to land filling in the foreign countries. However we can’t

find any single research here on the health impacts of the landfill air microbes on the

local people. This types of study should be carried out frequently not only once because

the air quality and its impact area in always dynamic. Up-to-date knowledge about

epidemiologic evidence for potential human health effects of landfill sites is important for

those deciding on regulation of sites, their sitting and remediation, and for those whose

task is to respond to concerns from the public in a satisfactory way.

This study will be a valuable document comprising the health status of the local residents

of project affected area. Further this research will also provide the valuable information

on the quality of ambient air in terms of microorganisms which is directly co-related with

the health of the local people. Likewise this study will also recommends the mitigation

measures on the health impacts of local residents which will be useful for the

stakeholders, policy makers and concern agencies. Therefore this research will fulfill

some lacking in this sector in Nepal.

Chapter II: Review of Literature:

Boger et.al. (1990) has found species of Gram’s positive Bacillus and Gram’s negative

Pseudomonas species as a dominant bacterial species in the air of Halatcher textile

factory.

In 1992, UNCED considered landfills as a potential threat to the quality of the

environment, although the full extent of this threat has not always been scientifically

validated. Landfills can produce gas and contaminate water, as well as wind-blown litter

and dust, and attract vermin. Transport of waste to landfill sites can also have a

significant impact on the environment in terms of noise, vehicular emissions, accidental

spillages, etc

Danuta et.al. in their research found that the air in the offices was characterized not only

by elevated concentrations of bacteria and fungi but also by high frequencies of gram-

negative bacteria, along with fungal species characteristic of landfills.

Huang et al. (2002) studied the bioaerosols of a municipal landfill site in west Taiwan.

They found that the levels of air borne bacteria and fungi were all far above 103 CFU/m3.

The concentration of culturable bacteria and fungi were higher in winter than in other

seasons.

Acharya (2004) in his research study done in Kathmandu valley says that various

industrial discharges may contribute as anthropogenic source of microorganisms in

atmosphere. Unmanaged solid waste, sewage are also the sources of microbes in

atmosphere.

Ariya and Amyot (2004) found that the major health threat is the release of bio-aerosols

from the landfill site. According to their research the bio-aerosols are organic aerosol

particles ranging from 10 nm to 100 µm in size. They are either alive, carry living

organisms or released from living organisms. Particles that carry living organisms tend to

contain pathogenic microorganisms (such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, yeasts and

protozoans), which have the potential to pose serious health risks to humans.

Komilis et al (2004) suggests that the main odorous emissions from waste are volatile

organic compounds (VOCs), such as organic sulphur compounds, amines and aromatic

hydrocarbons. VOCs are organic compounds with boiling points less than 80°C. Some

VOCs are hazardous and/or malodorous.

Simkhada, et al (2005), studied the air quality of the Bishnumati corridor, Kathmandu

and found that the bacterial load and fungal load vary according to the nature of location

and season. Concentrations of air micro flora also vary at different locations depending

on the sanitations and waste management of the area. He found that the higher

concentration of air microbes than the average level.

DEFRA (2007) reported that the flies (diptera) as a major health threat of the landfill

sites. The flies are insects with one pair of functional wings and are among the most

widely distributed of insects. The close association of flies with humans has led them to

be perceived as a general annoyance and they are known to be vectors of pathogenic

(disease causing) micro-organisms.

Chapter III: Methods and Materials

3.1 Research Design

This research is descriptive because in this research, the influence of the microorganisms

at and near the landfill site atmosphere near ground surface has been described. This

research is longitudinal because the data were taken according to the time series as

monsoon season to the winter season.

Period of sampling: The samples of the air microbes were taken two times in two

seasons, one in August (monsoon) and other in February (winter season)

Sampling design: The sampling procedure adopted here the random sampling method.

The four corners of the landfill site were selected for the sampling of the air microbes and

the 10 household near the landfill site along the roadside were selected for the study.

The principal steps undertaken to accomplish the assignment are briefly discussed below.

3.2 Sampling procedure

For the sampling of the settlable bacteria and fungi from the atmosphere, three different

media were used. Nutrient agar (NA) media was used for the sampling of the total

bacteria; MacConkey Agar (MA) was used as the selective media for the sampling of the

Gram’s negative bacteria while Potato dextrose agar (PDA) was used as the selective

media for the sampling of the fungi. The media were transported to the sampling from the

laboratory keeping them into the ice-box and they were taken back to the laboratory into

the same ice box. The appropriate time periods of the exposure was assessed by pre-

feasibility study and was found to be 10 minutes. The media in circular Petri-plates with

diameter nine centimeters were used for the sampling. The three different media plates

were exposed at the same time for the same period of time and at the same sampling site

as very close to each other. The time of exposure of the plates was day time.

3.3 Laboratory analysis

The samples were brought to the laboratory and the MA and NA plates were subjected to

the incubation for 48 hours at 37°C and the PDA plates were kept into the room

temperature for three days.

Colony counting: After sufficiently growth of the colonies, the number of colonies was

counted manually in each plate viz. NA, MA and PDA. For large number of colonies in a

single plate, the plate was divided into two halves using marker on the outer part and one

part is counted and the number was multiplied by two to get the total number.

The NA and MA samples were further analyzed as the Gram’s staining; spore staining

and biochemical test to identify the bacteria and their types but the PDA plates were not

subjected for further analysis.

Gram’s staining: The Gram’s staining of the microbes was done as follows:

1. A thin smear of the sample was made by inoculating loop on a glass slide.

2. The smear was left for the air dry and then was heat fixed.

3. Then the smear was covered with crystal violet for a minute and then washed with

distilled water.

4. The Gram’s iodine solution was added on it and left a minute for complete

reaction.

5. The iodine solution was washed off with 95% ethyl alcohol ane then the slide was

washed away with distilled water.

6. Again, safranin was applied to the smear and washed with distilled water.

7. The stained slide was left for air dry and observed under the compound

microscope.

Biochemical test:

3.4 Literature Review (Secondary data collection)

Existing secondary information/data from various governmental and non-governmental

organizations were collected. The published report and document on and about the

project sites were reviewed intensively. The similar studies conducted in other sites were

also reviewed for building the general concept.

Chapter IV: Results

The colony forming units (cfu) were counted in the laboratory and changed into the cfu

per cubic meter. For this, the diameter of the Petri-plate was measured and found to be

9cm and the height from the ground was taken as the 10 feet. Then, the volume of the air

sampled was changed into cfu/m3 using the formula πr2h. The different activities of the

human beings such as agricultural practices also affect the distribution of the air

microbes. The time of sampling is also one of the determining factor as in sunny time, the

air microbes distribute very less than in the cool because the solar radiation also affect

their distribution.

The concentrations of microorganisms in different places are shown below:

Fig 4.1: Seasonal variation of total count of bacteria in landfill site

The total count of bacteria is higher in landfill site in winter than in monsoon. In

monsoon season, the atmospheric particles where the microbes get deposited by the

process of wash out and rainout. But in western direction in monsoon, the higher

concentration of the total bacteria is due to wind action since the air flow pattern at the

time of sampling was west-ward.

Fig 4.2: Seasonal variation of Gram’s negative bacteria in landfill site

The concentration of Gram’s negative bacteria is higher in winter season than in

monsoon. The higher concentration observed in west direction of the landfill site in

monsoon season was due to the wind action since the wind flow pattern at the time of

sampling was west-ward.

Fig 4.3: Seasonal variation of total fungi in the landfill site

The variation in fungal load has not followed any trend. It is maximum in north direction

in winter season. The distribution of the fungi is controlled by the various climatic and

topographic factors.

Fig 4.4: Total bacterial count in households in monsoon and winter

The total bacterial load is in the ambient air of the nearby households significantly higher

in winter season than in monsoon. In monsoon season, the atmospheric particles where

the microbes are attached get deposited by the process of wash out and rainout.

Fig 4.5: Gram’s negative bacterial load in households in monsoon and winter season

Gram’s negative bacterial load is in increasing trend when the distance from the landfill

site increases. There can not be seen any significant variation of their concentration of

Gram’s negative bacteria in between monsoon and winter.

Fig 4.6: Total fungal load in households in monsoon and winter season

Total fungal load is significantly higher in winter season than in monsoon season. The

concentration of the fungi is increasing when the distance from the landfill site increases.

Fig 4.7: Distance wise variation of total bacterial load from the landfill site

The total bacterial load is in decreasing order when we approach to the land filling site in

winter season while the trend is in decreasing order in monsoon season. The methane gas

emitted by the anaerobic decomposition of the organic matters also affect to the

distribution of the microbes.

Fig 4.8: Distance wise variation of the Gram’s negative bacteria from landfill site

The number of Gram’s negative bacteria is higher in the west site of the landfill site. The

air flow pattern at the time of sampling was westward so the higher concentration of

Gram’s negative bacteria may be due to the wind action.

Fig 4.9: Distance wise variation of total fungi from the land fill site:

The variation of the total fungi is in decreasing order when we approach towards the

landfill site. The distribution of the fungi is controlled by various climatic and local

topographic factors. The higher concentration of the fungi in far sites of the land filling

site may be due to the agricultural practices and the feedlots activities nearby the homes.

Table 4.1: Concentration of different types of microorganisms

Name of the microorganisms

Landfill site Households

Monsoon Winter Monsoon WinterMicrococcus sps. +++ +++ +++ +++Bacillus sps. +++ ++ +++ +++Klebsiella Sps. ++ +++ ++ ++E.Coli ++ ++ ++ ++Staphelo aurie ++ ++ + ++Pseudomonas Sps. + + - + Keys: - Absent, + Rare, ++Intermediate, +++large in number

The microorganisms isolated from the samples were found in the ambient air above the

landfill site have also been available in the sample of ambient air from the nearby

households. Some of the bacteria such as Micrococcus Sps. was abundant in landfill site

and nearby households in monsoon season and winter as well. The general trend of the

isolated microorganisms is that they are abundant in winter season than in the monsoon

season. Bacteria like Klebsiella sps has been decreased in monsoon season than in the

winter season.

Chapter V: Discussion

The concentration of the microorganisms in the air samples taken from the landfill site is

higher than the normal atmospheric concentration of the microorganisms. As the average

level of the microbes in the ambient air is 1083 cfu per cubic meter, but the result

obtained here in the ambient air of the landfill site is much higher than the average. The

total bacterial load in the ambient air of the landfill site in monsoon ranges from 3,299 to

22,268 cfu per cubic mater while the value ranges from 1959 to 13,196 cfu per cubic

meter in winter season. Similarly, the total bacterial load in the air samples taken from

the nearby households ranges from 6,237 to 28,299 cfu per cubic meter in monsoon

season while the value ranges from 10309 to 1,13,866 cfu per cubic meter. The

microorganisms isolated from the air samples taken from the nearby households are

similar in composition and distribution with those isolated from the air samples taken

from the landfill site.

In a similar study conducted in different parts Kathmandu valley by K. Simkhada, K.

Murthy V and S. N. Khanal found that the total bacterial load ranges from 500000 cfu per

cubic meter to 37000000 cfu per cubic meter. Since, the samples were collected from the

Bishnumati river corridor from the Kathmandu Valley.

In a similar types of study conducted by Panda et.al., (2005) in Himanchal Pradesh,

India, it was found that out of 14 samples examined from outdoor public places, no

sample revealed microbes more than common level i.e. 5 to 100 c.f.u/ft3 . All of them

revealed microbes within common level.

Chapter VI: Conclusion

From the study, it can be conclude that the ambient air of the households nearby the

landfill site is not safe for the breathing. The total bacterial load is higher in any samples

taken in both the season exceed the average recommended level that is 1083 cfu per cubic

meter. The microorganisms found into the air of the landfill site are also dominantly

found into the ambient air of the households nearby the households. The Gram’s negative

bacteria in the household’s ambient air are sufficiently higher than the normal level and

the condition is same for the total fungi load too.

VII. References

1. Acharya, P. 2004, Air Quality Assessment of Kathmandu Valley, A Dissertation

submitted to Central Department of Microbiology, T.U.

2. Ariya, P.A., Amyot, M. 2004. New Directions: The Role of Bio-aerosols in

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. Atmospheric Environment, 38, pp 1231-

1232.

3. Brock, T.D. & Madigan, M.T., (1988), Biology of Microorganisms, 5th edition,

Pentice Hall, Inc. USA

4. Danuta Lis, Krzysztof Ulfig, Agnieszka Wlaz and Józef Pastuszka Journal of

Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, Volume 1, Number 2, February 2004 ,

pp. 62-68(7)

5. DEFRA, Wycombe District Council. 2007. Health Impact Assessment of

Alternate Week Waste Collections of Bio-degradable Waste Implementation

Program.

6. ENPHO/KMC (2000), Medical Waste Management: A Survey in the Kathmandu

Valley.

7. Frobisher, M., et.al. (1974) Fundamental of microbiology, 9 th edition, Toppan

company Ltd, Tokyo, Japan

8. Huang, C.Y., Lee, C.C., Li, F.C., Ma, Y.P., and Jenny Su, H.J. 2003, The

Seasonal Distribution of Bio-aerosols in Municipal Landfill Site: A 3-year study,

West Taiwan (www.sciencedirect.com)

9. JICA and GoN. 2007. The Study on Solid Waste Management for the Kathmandu

Valley.

10. Kantipur Daily. 2008, Public Blockade Disrupt the Collection of Waste in Valley,

14th June, 2008

11. Komilis, D.P., Ham, R.K., Park, J.K. 2004. Emission of Volatile Organic

Compounds During Composting of Municipal Solid Wastes, Water Research, 387,

pp1707-1714.

12. Panda, A. K., Katoch, R & Sahoo, A., (2005), Microbial Air Quality in Public

Places and Livestock Farms of Northwestern Himalayas, Department of

Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, CSK-

Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, Kangra (Himachal

Pradesh), India

13. Rising Nepal. 2005. Okharpauwa Landfill Site Came into Operation. 7th June

2005.

14. Simkhada, K., Murthy V, K. and Khanal, S. N.(2005), Assessment of ambient air

quality in Bishnumati corridor, Kathmandu metropolis, Kathmandu University,

Dhulikhel, Kavre, Kathmandu, Nepal.

15. Subedi, R.P. 2003, Study on Ambient Air Micro-flora of Kathmandu Valley and

Its relation to PM10, A Dissertation submitted to Central Department of

Microbiology, T.U.

16. UNCED, 1992. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development. Annex I Principle 15. Also available at

http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm

Annex I:

Number of colony forming units of different microbes per cubic meter of air Landfill site (monsoon)

Sampling siteTotal bacterial

Count (Monsoon)Total bacterial Count (Monsoon)

cfu/m3

East 113 5824.742268North 76 3917.525773West 432 22268.04124South 64 3298.969072

Sampling siteGram's Negative

Bacteria (monsoon)Gram's Negative Bacteria

(monsoon) cfu/m3

East 6 309.2783505North 6 309.2783505West 83 4278.350515South 1 51.54639175

Sampling site Total Fungi (monsoon) Total Fungi (monsoon) cfu/m3

East 61 3144.329897North 143 7371.134021West 257 13247.42268South 65 3350.515464

Landfill site (winter)

Sampling site Total Count (Winter)Total bacterial Count (Winter)

cfu/m3

East 38 1958.762887North 256 13195.87629West 206 10618.5567South 122 6288.659794

Sampling siteGram's Negative Bacteria (winter)

Gram's Negative Bacteria (winter) cfu/m3

East 21 1082.474227North 18 927.8350515West 3 154.6391753South 6 309.2783505

Total Fungi (winter) Total Fungi (winter) cfu/m3

Sampling siteEast 70 3608.247423

North 452 23298.96907West 57 2938.14433South 112 5773.195876

Households (monsoon):Sampling

sitesTotal bacterial

Count(Monsoon)Total bacterial Count (Monsoon)

cfu/m3

HH1 158 8144.329897HH2 549 28298.96907HH3 462 23814.43299HH4 352 18144.3299HH5 437 22525.7732HH6 121 6237.113402HH7 257 13247.42268HH8 120 6185.56701HH9 340 17525.7732

HH10 389 20051.54639

Sampling sites

Gram's Negative Bacteria (Monsoon)

Gram's Negative Bacteria (Monsoon) cfu/m3

HH1 8 412.371134HH2 7 360.8247423HH3 109 5618.556701HH4 25 1288.659794HH5 122 6288.659794HH6 11 567.0103093HH7 123 6340.206186HH8 132 6804.123711HH9 91 4690.721649

HH10 102 5257.731959

Sampling sites Total Fungi (Monsoon) Total Fungi (Monsoon)cfu/m3

HH1 138 7113.402062HH2 90 4639.175258HH3 132 6804.123711HH4 223 11494.84536HH5 186 9587.628866HH6 95 4896.907216HH7 349 17989.69072HH8 61 3144.329897HH9 146 7525.773196HH10 470 24226.80412

Households (winter):Sampling

sitesTotal bacterial count of

bacteria (Winter)Total bacterial count

(Winter)cfu/m3

HH1 200 10309.27835HH2 1218 62783.50515HH3 874 45051.54639HH4 353 18195.87629HH5 936 48247.42268HH6 843 43453.60825HH7 630 32474.2268HH8 2209 113865.9794HH9 632 32577.31959

HH10 853 43969.07216

Sampling sites

Gram's Negative Bacteria(Winter)

Gram's Negative Bacteria(Winter) cfu/m3

HH1 17 876.2886598HH2 37 1907.216495HH3 26 1340.206186HH4 4 206.185567HH5 121 6237.113402HH6 58 2989.690722HH7 23 1185.56701HH8 37 1907.216495HH9 86 4432.989691

HH10 41 2113.402062

Sampling sites Total fungi(winter) Total fungi(winter)cfu/m3

HH1 156 8041.237113HH2 332 17113.40206

HH3 328 16907.21649HH4 252 12989.69072HH5 468 24123.71134HH6 392 20206.18557HH7 536 27628.86598HH8 328 16907.21649HH9 508 26185.56701

HH10 460 23711.34021