CHAPTER 11.1 INTRODUCTIONTigernut ( Cyperus esculentus L.) known also as yellow nut sedge, zulu nut, earth almond, chufa in Spanish, ofio in Yoruba, aya in Hausa and Aki Hausa among the igbos in Nigeria, Is a species of sedge native to warm temperate to subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, often cultivated for its edible tubers (tigernuts). It is an annual or perennial plant, growing to 90cm tall, with solitary stems growing from a tuber. The stems are triangular in section, and bear slender leaves 310mm wide. The flowers of the plant are distinctive, with a cluster of flat oval seeds surrounded by four hanging, leaf-like bracts positioned 90 degrees from each other. The plant foliage is very tough and fibrous, and is often mistaken for a grass. It is among the oldest cultivated plants in Egypt. Chufa was no doubt an important food element in ancient Egypt during dynastic times; its cultivation in ancient times seems to have remained (totally or almost totally) an Egyptian specialty. (Zohary and Hopf , 2000).They were used to make cakes in ancient Egypt. Presently, they are cultivated mainly, at least for extended and common commercial purposes, in Spain, where they were introduced by Arabs, almost exclusively in the Valencia region. Tiger nuts are also grown in Ghana, Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Mali. Cyperus esculentus typically grows where soils are wet (Colorado Natural Area Program, 2000), growing best in moist, fertile soils. It tolerates many soil conditions, including periods of drought and flooding. Yet it does not do well on soils that are extremely wet or flooded during its growing season (Mitchell and Martin, 1986). It will tolerate a dry site once it is established. In Northern Nigeria, the nut can be bought in the market all year round. The weight of fresh tuber ranges from 70mg to about 900mg while the weight of dried tuber ranges from 30mg to 350mg. A dried tuber nut can absorb up to three times its own weight of water.

1.2 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Almost all the tiger nut consumed in Nigeria is from the Northern states of Nigeria. Tiger nuts have found uses in food, feed, medicine, oil and soap. It is necessary that the yield be investigated in the soils of South-Eastern Nigeria.1.3 OBJECTIVES- To assess tiger nut productivity in the ultisols in Owerri, South-Eastern Nigeria- To determine if tiger nuts can thrive in the South-Eastern part of Nigeria - To make recommendation to any would-be tiger nut farmers

CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTIONCyperus esculentus is an herbaceous perennial crop of the same genus as the papyrus. It belongs to the division magnoliophyta, class libiopsida, order cyperales and family cyperaceae. It is among the oldest cultivated plants in Egypt. Chufa was no doubt an important food element in ancient Egypt during dynastic times; its cultivation in ancient times seems to have remained (totally or almost totally) an Egyptian specialty. (Zohary and Hopf, 2000).They were used to make cakes in ancient Egypt. Presently, they are cultivated mainly, at least for extended and common commercial purposes, in Spain, where they were introduced by Arabs, almost exclusively in the Valencia region. They are found extensively in California and were grown by the Paiute in Owens Valley.Tiger nuts are also grown in Ghana, Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Mali in West Africa. (Cobley, 1962)

2.2BOTANY Tiger nut is a tough erect fibrous-rooted perennial plant, 1 to 3 ft. high, reproducing by seeds and by many deep, slender rhizomes, which form weak runners above the ground, and small tubers or nutlets at the tips of underground stems. (Consejo, 2006). This native perennial sedge is 2-5cm tall and unbranched. The central stem is erect, 3-angled, and mostly covered by the sheaths of the leaves. The leaves tend to congregate toward the base of the plant. The leaf blades are up to 2cm long and 1cm across; they are light green and glabrous, spreading outward from the stem. There is a conspicuous channel along the central vein of each leaf blade, especially the larger ones. The leaf sheaths are whitish green, closed, and hairless; sometimes they become pale red towards the base of the plant (Kelley, 1990). The central stem terminates in an umbel or compound umbel of floral spikes; the size and shape of the umbel is rather variable (on larger plants, it is usually several centimeters across). Each umbel has 1-3 sessile spikes and 6-10 non-sessile spikes on straight branches of varying length. At the base of each umbel or compound umbel of spikelets, there are several leafy bracts of varying length; the largest bract is usually longer than the inflorescence. Each floral spike is about 2-3 centimetes long, consisting of 4 ranks of spikelets along its central stalk (or rachis). The central stalk is flattened and narrowly winged. The spikelets are perpendicular to this stalk and about 1cm long. The spikelets are yellow to golden brown, narrowly linear, and flattened in shape; they consist of 10-30 florets and their scales. The overlapping scales are slightly spreading along the length of each spikelet; each scale is 2.03.0 mm. in length. Each floret has a white tripartite style and yellowish brown anthers; the tips of the styles are curly. The blooming period occurs from mid-summer to early fall. Pollination of the tiger nut plant is by wind (James et al, 1991). The florets are replaced by small achenes that are 1.01.5 mm. long, oblongoid or oblongoid-obovoid, and flattened. The shallow root system is fibrous, rhizomatous, and tuberous. The white rhizomes have a slightly segmented appearance from the brown margins of their outer membranes; the rhizomes are connected to small globoid tubers up to 1cm across. Young tubers are white, while older tubers are covered by a yellow outer membrane; they are usually found within 6 inches of the ground surface. Vegetative colonies of plants are often produced from the tubers and their rhizomes. The nutlets are almost smooth at maturity and unevenly globe shaped (James et al, 1991). High temperatures and low nitrogen levels increase tuber production and an increased day length (by lighting) will reduce tuber formation. The tuber epidermis (skin) contains substances, which inhibit sprouting of tubers; the plant grows best in moist sandy-loam soils but will grow in the hardest clay, tolerates high soil moisture and is intolerant to shade (James et al, 1991; Oderinde and Tairu, 1988). The plant produces small, oblong tubers in abundance, which is sweet and rich in fat (Aliyu and Sani, 2009).

2.3IMPORTANCE OF TIGER NUTTiger nuts have found uses in food, feed, medicine, oil and soap (Grin, 2000; Holm et al, 1991; Mero, 1996). Tiger nut tubers are daily ingredients of the diet of many people in North Africa and Spain (Oladele et al, 2009). In North Africa, the tubers are consumed in their natural form or after being soaked in water for some hours. In Spain, the tubers are consumed mainly as a drink called locally horchata de chufa (chufa milk). This plant was originally native to the Mediterranean region but its cultivation has now spread to many warm countries (Mohamed et al, 2005). It is usually sown in April and picked in November (Osagie et al, 1986). There are mainly three varieties namely: black, brown and yellow, and only yellow and brown are readily available in the Nigerian markets. The yellow variety is preferred to all other varieties because of its inherent properties like its bigger size, attractive color and fleshier body. The yellow variety also yields more milk, contains lower fat and higher protein and less anti-nutritional factors especially polyphenols (Okafor et al, 2003). According to Mason (Mason, 2005), tiger nuts have long been recognized for their health benefits as they have a high content of soluble glucose and oleic acid, along with high energy content (starch, fats, sugars and proteins), they are rich in minerals such as phosphorous and potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron necessary for bones, tissue repair, muscles, the blood stream and for body growth and development and rich in vitamins E and C. Sugar-free tiger nut milk is suitable for diabetic people and also helps in weight control (Martinez, 2003), due to its content of carbohydrates with a base of sucrose and starch (without glucose), and its high content of Arginine, which liberates the hormone that produces insulin (Chevallier,1996). It is recommended for those who suffer from indigestion, flatulence and diarrhea because it provides digestive enzymes like the catalase, lipase and amylase. The high content of oleic acid has positive effect on cholesterol, thereby preventing heart attacks, thrombosis and activates blood content of soluble glucose. Tiger nut reduces the risk of colon cancer. It prevents constipation. Tiger nut contains a good quantity of vitamin B1, which assists in balancing the central nervous system and helps to encourage the body to adapt to stress (Tiger nut traders, 2005; David, 2005). The milk supplies the body with enough quantity of Vitamin E, essential for fertility in both men and women. Vitamin E also delays cell aging, improves elasticity of skin and helps to clear the appearance of wrinkles, acne and other skin alterations. In China, tiger nut milk is used as a liver tonic, heart stimulant, drank to heal serious stomach pain, to promote normal menstruation, to heal mouth and gum ulcers, used in Ayurvedic medicines and is a powerful aphrodisiac (sexual stimulant). The black species of the tiger nut is an excellent medicine for breast lumps and cancer. The tubers have a relatively high total antioxidant capacity, because they contain considerable amounts of water-soluble flavonoid glycosides. Consumption of antioxidants could protect the immune system of malnourished populations. The intake of antioxidant-containing foods may delay the progression of HIV infection to AIDS (The spectators, 2010). For many years, the tiger nut tubers have been considered to have adequate properties to fight respiratory infections, and some stomach illnesses. To this date, the Horchata de chufa is considered an effective remedy for diarrhea, according to popular tradition in Valencia, Spain. It promotes the production of urine and this is why it is a preventive measure for cyst, prostrate, hernia, rectum deformation and prolapsed (anal feature-small painful flesh at the tip of the anus) and to prevent endometriosis or fibrosis as well as blockage of the tip of the fallopian tube. The oil reduces low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and increases high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) (Belewu and Abodunrin, 2006), reduces levels of triglycerides in blood and the risk of forming bloody clots, thereby preventing arteriosclerosis. It also stimulates the absorption of calcium in bones and the production of new bony material, due to short and medium chain fatty acids, oleic acid and essential fatty acids (Temple et al, 1990). It is also recommended for infants and the elderly because of its high content in Vitamin E and its antioxidant benefits in the cell membrane (David, 2005). In the United States, the primary use of tiger nut as a crop is to attract and feed game, particularly wild turkeys. Turkeys love tiger nut tubers; as natural scratchers, once discovering a plot of chufa, they will return again and again, all winter long, or until spring arrives and other food is readily available (Tiger nut Traders, 2005). Tiger nut tubers have been planted so that pigs could be attracted to the fields to fatten and improve the taste of pork. The tubers have been used as hog feed, pastured in the field in states such as Florida, Georgia, and Alabama. Tubers of tiger nut have also been identified as valuable food for waterfowl and cranes. Ducks dive for them when wetland fields are flooded. It is also used in seed mixes for wetland restoration, mitigation, and erosion control. The caramel from malted tubers of Cyperus esculentus may be used to add body, flavor, or color to certain baked products, non-alcoholic malt beverages and dark beers, and in the production of condiments. The starches obtained from tiger nut and rice showed similar properties; the solutions of the starch exhibited a good paste stability, clarity, and adhesive strength. The starch can be used in many starch-based foods as well as in the cosmetic industry, and for laundry, glazing and stiffening. The waste residue after oil extraction could be further modified to produce syrups, flours, or livestock feeds (Umerie and Enebeli, 1997; The spectators, 2010).

2.4CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTSCyperus esculentus tubers can survive areas with low air temperatures, and low soil temperatures (Mero-Macias, 1996; Stoller, 1973 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976), withstanding low temperatures for long periods of time and surviving freezing winter temperatures (Mero-Macias, 1996). 50% of Cyperus esculentus tubers were killed at 20F (-6.5C) (Stoller, 1973 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976).Cyperus esculentus likes water, and typically grows where soils are wet (Colorado Natural Areas Program, 2000) growing best in moist fertile soils. Cyperus esculentus will tolerate many soil conditions, including periods of drought and flooding (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia, 2002) yet does not do well on sites that are extremely wet or flooded during its growing season (Merrell, 1975 in Mitchell andMartin, 1986) In Louisiana, Cyperus esculentus has good tuber production when there was a least a 3-month flood-free period during its growing season; prolonged flooding during the late summer to early fall impacted the growth and survival of the plants (Merrell, 1975 in Mitchell and Martin, 1986). It will tolerate a dry site once it is established (University of Illinois Turf grass Program, 2000).Cyperus esculentus likes plenty of sunlight and will not tolerate shady sites (Holm et al, 1991; University of Illinois Turf grass Program, 2000). In plots observed for 5 years occurring in sun-exposed mudflats or under bottomland hardwood canopy, Cyperus esculentus tuber production was approximately 8 times greater on the sunny sites versus the shaded sites (Wills, 1970 in Mitchell and Martin, 1986).Soil type will influence the depths from which tuber sprouts can emerge (Holm et al, 1991). During trials, emergence from tubers was observed to be satisfactory from all soils at depths between 3-6 inches (8-15 cm); in sandy silt loam soil, one shoot emerged from a tuber depth of 32 in. (80 cm) (Tumbleson and Kommedahl, 1961 in Holm et al, 1991).On sites with compacted soils, tuber sprouting is greatly inhibited (Mero-Macias, 1996; Bell et al, 1962 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976). Cyperus esculentus grows on all soil types (sand, sandy-loam, sandy-gravel, loam, muck, clay-loam, clay, black peat), especially those wet to moist (Holm et al, 1991; Mero-Macias 1996; Mulligan and Junkins, 1976; University of Illinois TurfgrassProgram, 2000) poorly-drained, and irrigated (Mero-Macias, 1996). Cyperusesculentus often grows on sandy, well-drained soils (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia, 2002, Mero-Macias, 1996). And it grows best on soils having fine textures with high moisture contents (Mitchell and Martin, 1986). Sprouts from tubers of Cyperus esculentus grown in sand emerged sooner than sprouts in sandy silt-loam; tubers in sandy silt-loam produced more plants after 6 weeks (Tumbleson and Kommedahl ,1961 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976). Tubers planted in peat produced the most shoots, at initial tallies and at final tallies(Tumbleson and Kommedahl, 1961 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976). Also, soil type will influence the depths from which tuber sprouts can emerge (Holm et al, 1991). As stated previously, Cyperus esculentus tuber sprouting is greatly inhibited in compacted soils (Bell et al, 1962 in Mulligan and Junkins, 1976). Cyperus esculentus grows best on sites having a pH between 5.0-7.5 (Mitchell andMartin,1986).

2.5 PROPAGATION AND SPACING

Tiger nut is propagated by tubers and basal bulbs at the end of rhizomes (United States Department of Agriculture, forest services, Iverson 2002). They can be planted in cultivated Beds.Spacing in Cyperus esculentus is extremely variable depending on the soil conditions, local cultural methods and the purpose for which the crop is grown. When grown for pig feed they are usually planted in rows at 60-90cm apart with either 30cm or 15cm between plants. Tubers can also be planted at 10cm intervals along rows 60cm apart, with spacing in the row 10 x 60cm a single tuber is placed in a hole and covered with 2.5-4cm of soil, with 15 x 60cm spacing two tubers are used and at 30 x 60cm four tubers are used. The tubers are planted 15 to 30cm in rows and 60 to 90cm apart. High densities have been reported to have inter-specific impact on the crop performance (Mero-Macias, 1996).

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD3.1LOCATIONThe experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research farm of the school of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO). Owerri is located at latitude 5025IN and longitude 702IE in the rainforest zone of south eaten Nigeria. The mean annual rainfall is between 1500-2500mm which starts from March to November. The minimum and maximum mean annual temperature is 25.5 and 31.90C respectively with relative humidity of about 82.6%. 3.2PLANTING MATERIALS AND TREATMENTSDry tubers were soaked for 24 hours before planting to facilitate germination.

3.3EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND ALLOCATION OF TREATMENTSThe experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) using four different spacing with three replicates. This gave a total of twelve experimental plots.

3.4LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTINGThe land was cleared using cutlass, and hoe. The plots were mapped out appropriately with ranging poles, tapes, lines and pegs. Each plot measures 3m x 1.5m. The distance between plot and between block is 1m. Two seeds were planted per hole on a flat bed and later thinned to one per stand 3.5DATA COLLECTION Before commencing the field trial, soil samples were randomly collected from the experimental site at a depth of 20cm for the laboratory determination of some soil physical and chemical properties. Soil Chemicals properties determined in the laboratory were pH, Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus and other physical properties.The parameters investigated are: plant height (cm), number of leaves per plant, leaf area(cm2), Dry matter content, fresh weight, Number of tubers produced per plant and percentage emergence. 3.5.1Percentage Emergence Percentage emergence was taken by physically counting the number of sprouted cultivars in each plot. It was carried out at 4days after planting.

3.5.2Plant Height Plant height was measured using tape, starting from the base of the stem to the tip of the longest leaves. Measuring of plant height was carried out every two weeks. 5 samples were selected in each experimental unit for measurement.

3.5.3Number of Leaves The number of leaves was taken by counting all the leaves on a plant stand every two weeks. 3.5.4 Leaf AreaThis is obtained by measuring the length and width of five plants in a plot.3.5.5Fresh WeightFresh weight was taken by harvesting three plants stands of each crop randomly from each experimental unit and measuring the weight on electronic weighing balance. It was carried out on maturity.3.5.6Number of TubersIt was obtained randomly by counting the tubers of two plant stands from each experimental plot.3.5.7Dry Matter ContentDry matter content was determined by randomly harvesting two plants from each plot and their tubers were collected, and oven dried for 24 hours at 600C. Dry weight was measured using an electronic weighing balance.

3.5.8Data Analysis All data collected was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) according to the method outlined by Steel and Torrie 1980 for randomized complete block design (RCBD). Test of means for significant difference was done using the least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level.

CHAPTER 4RESULTS4.0 PRE-PLANTING SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIESThe table below shows that the soil is slightly acidic, with very low organic carbon and low exchangeable cations. This means that the soil is low in fertility status.

Table 4.0: pre-planting soil physical and chemical propertiesPhysical/ chemical property

result

pH in H2O4.40pH in KCL3.80Organic Carbon (%)1.55Organic matter (%)2.70Percentage Nitrogen 0.92Sodium (cmol/0.1kg soil)0.41Potassium (cmol/0.1kg soil)0.07Calcium (cmol/0.1kg soil)0.08Magnesium (cmol/0.1kg soil)0.61ECEC5.80Base saturation (%)28.00Phosphorus (ppm)3.20Total exchangeable base1.46Aluminum (cmol/0.1kg soil)5.20Total Exchangeable acidity6.25Percent sand95.00Percent clay15Percent silt10Textural classSandy loam 4.1 PERCENTAGE EMERGENCEThe percentage emergence recorded with the various treatments 4 days after sowing is shown on table 4.1. The highest emergence percentage was recorded on the plant spacing of 30X90cm at 98.33%. The least emergence recorded was on 30cmX30cm at 89.17%.

Table 4.1: Effect of different spacing on Percentage emergence TREATMENTS Percentage Emergence 100%30X60cm93.33

15X15cm96.9

30X30cm89.17

30X90cm98.33

4.2 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE PLANT HEIGHT OF TIGER NUT The result indicates that there was no significant difference in the Plant Height. However on the average, 15X15cm plots recorded the highest figures on plant height followed by 30X30cm heights.

Table 4.2: Effect of different spacing on the Plant Height (cm) of Tiger nutTREATMENTS 2 WAP4 WAP6 WAP

30X30cm42.9341.8945.75

15X15cm55.0056.5652.94

30X60cm35.1343.9439.56

30X90cm42.0738.2041.34

LSD0.05 51.7665.12NS

Key WAP = Week After PlantingNS = Not SignificantLSD = Least Significant Difference.

4.3 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE LEAF FORMATION OF TIGER NUT.The result indicates that there was no significant difference the spacing on leaf formation; however the result shows that, leaf formation was rapid within the first two weeks of germination, producing 5 to 6 leaf. After the first two weeks, the rate of leaf formation gradually reduces until after the 6th week when it begins to shrivel and die back. Table three below shows the different number of leaves for the different weeks after planting.

Table 4.3: Effect of different spacing on the Number of Leaves of Tiger nut TREATMENT 2 WAP4 WAP6 WAP

30X30cm8.209.838.58

15X15cm9.8010.008.25

30X90cm7.937.758.25

30X60cm8.1310.106.67

LSD0.05 NSNSNS

Key WAP = Week After PlantingNS = Not SignificantLSD = Least Significant Difference.

4.4: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE LEAF AREA OF TIGER NUTResult show that the leaf area was significantly affected by the different plant spacing on all the weeks analyzed as shown in the table below.

Table 4.4: Effect of different spacing on the leaf area (cm2) of Tiger nutTREATMENT 2 WAP4 WAP6 WAP

30X30cm30.0228.7023.20

15X15cm39.9039.7133.47

30X90cm29.5325.4319.67

30X60cm24.4027.2520.35

LSD0.05 33.8949.3539.61

4.5 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE FRESH TUBER WEIGHT OF TIGER NUTThe result from the fresh weight analysis shows that there is no significant difference among the sources of variation at 5% level.as the weeks go by, the fresh weight of the tiger nut tubers increase in all treatments as shown in the table 4.4 below.

Table 4.5: Effect of different spacing on the Fresh tuber Weight of Tiger nutTREATMENT 6 WAP 8 WAP 10 WAP

30X60cm6.1214.4622.59

30X30cm8.6718.9225.93

15X15cm10.8318.0322.13

30X90cm9.1218.7422.25

LSD0.05 NSNSNS

Key WAP = Week After PlantingNS = Not SignificantLSD = Least Significant Difference.

4.6 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE DRY MATTER CONTENT OF TIGER NUT TUBERSThe result showed that there was no significant difference among the treatment all through the weeks of recorded plant Dry matter content at 5% level. The weight of dry matter increases with maturity of the tubers.

Table 4.6: Effect of different spacing on Dry matter Content of tiger nut tubers TREATMENT6 WAP8 WAP10 WAP

30X60cm2.886.7614.43

15X15cm6.1610.0417.78

30X30cm4.439.0715.52

30X90cm4.919.2016.47

LSD0.05 NSNSNS

Key WAP = Week After PlantingNS = Not SignificantLSD = Least Significant Difference.

4.7: EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SPACING ON THE NUMBER OF TUBERSFrom the result shown in table 4.7 below, the difference in the treatments and blocks were not significant, however the mean weight for the 30X90cm spacing was highest for the weeks recorded.

Table 4.7: Effect of different spacing on the Number of tubers of Tiger nut

TREATMENT 6 WAP8 WAP10 WAP

30X60cm55.3325.6761.00

30X30cm34.0021.0060.00

15X15cm44.3325.6775.67

30X90cm62.0033.6761.00

LSD0.05 NSNSNS

Key WAP = Week After PlantingNS = Not SignificantLSD = Least Significant Difference.

CHAPTER 55.1: DISCUSSIONFrom the result of the physical and chemical analysis carried out, it is obvious that the soil fertility is very poor. However the yield of tiger nut was still appreciable under such condition. This is in agreement with (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia, 2002) which reported that Cyperus esculentus will tolerate many soil conditions, including periods of drought and flooding. Plant height and leaf area showed significant differences in their height and area respectively. Plant spacing of 15 X15 cm recorded the highest mean leaf area and height; this tends to agree with (Mero-Mecias, 1996) that high densities have more inter-specific impact on the crop performance. The other parameters investigated were not significantly affected by the different spacing the crop was subjected to.

5.2: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A research was carried out to assess the performance of tiger nut in the ultisols of Owerri, South Eastern Nigeria using different spacing. Results show that tiger nut performed well in the Ultisols of Owerri South Eastern Nigeria and it is not affected by the plant spacing it was subjected to. Having observed these, I recommend that the local farmers embark on the cultivation of tiger nut in the ultisols of Owerri South Eastern Nigeria because; it will yield well and thus reduce dependence on the Northern States of Nigeria for tiger nut supply.Also I recommend a spacing of 15 X15cm since it yielded as much as other different spacing and this means more yield per square meter.

REFERENCES

Aliyu HN and U Sani Production of Biscuit from Composite Flour as a Substitute for Wheat. J Biosci. Res. Commun. 2009; 3: 21-27Belewu MA and OA Abodunrin Preparation of Kunnu from unexploited rich food source: Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus). World Journal of Dairy and Food Sciences, 2006; 1: 19-21.

California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia. 2002. Cyperus. Healy, E.A., S. Enloe, J.M. DiTomaso, B. Roberson, N. Dechoretz, S. Schoenig, P. Akers, L. Butler, and J. Garvin (eds.). Non-Cropland Weed group, UC Extension Service, Weed Science Program, Department of Vegetable Crops, The University of California. Davis, CA. 95616. website: http://pi.cdfa.ca.gov/weedinfo/CYPERUSE2.htmChevallier A The Encyclopedia of medicinal plants. Dorling Kindersley Press London.1996: 48-51.Colorado Natural Areas Program. 2000. Yellow nutsedge, Cyperus esculentus L. In:Creating an integrated weed management plan: A handbook for owners and manager of lands with natural values. Colorado Natural Areas Program, Colorado State Parks, Colorado Department of Natural Resources, Division of Plant Industry, Colorado Department of Agriculture. Denver, Colorado. 349 pp.Website: http://parks.state.co.us/cnap/IWM_handbook/IWM_index.htm Click on index for appropriate plant family to find species Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service

Consejo Regulador De Chufa de Valencia Horchata de chufas @ http://www.chufadevalencia.org 2006. Accessed December, 2009.David AB "Tiger nut." A Dictionary of Food and Nutrition. 2005. Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O39-tigernut.html. Accessed May, 2010. Grin Taxonomy. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Website: http://www.ars grin.gov/npgs /tax/index.html then click on simple queries of species data' and search for plant species.Holm, L.G., D.L. Plunknett, J.V. Pancho, and J.P. Herberger. 1991. The world's worst weeds. Distribution and biology. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 609 pp.James R. Kelley JR and HF Leigh Chufa Biology and Management In Waterfowl management handbook of Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13 Washington, D.C. 1991.Kelley JR Biomass production of chufa (Cyperus esculentus) in a seasonally flooded Wetland. Wetlands 1990; 10:6167.

Martinez V Scientific analysis of effects of tiger nut on heart diseases and related aspects In: Tiger Nut and Health 2003. Mero-Macias, The weedy nutsedges (Cyperus spp.) outline. Outline for: Agronomy 517; Weed Biology and Ecology, Spring Semester, 1996.Mitchell, W.A., and C.O. Martin. 1986. Chufa (Cyperus esculentus). Final Report. Department of the Army, Section 7.4.1. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wildlife Resources Management Manual, Environmental Impact Research Program, Technical Report EL-86-22, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,Vicksburg,Mississippi.Website: http://www.wes.army.mil/EL/emrrp/emris/Mohamed LS, Mohsen Z and K Imaizumi Dietary supplementation with Cyperus esculentus L (tiger nut) tubers attenuated atherosclerotic lesion in apolipoprotein E knockout mouse associated with inhibition of inflammatory cell responses. Am. J. Immunology 2005;1: 60-67.Oderinde RA and OA Tairu Evaluation of the properties of yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) tuber oil. J. Agric. Food Chem., 1988; 28, 233-237.Okafor JNC Mordi JI Ozumba AU Solomon HM and O Olatunji Preliminary studies on the characterization of contaminants in tiger nut (Yellow variety). In Proceedings of 27th annual Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST) Conference.13-17 October, 2003. pp. 210-211.Oladele KA, Osundahunsi FO and AY Adebowale Influence of Processing Techniques on the Nutrients and anti-nutrients of Tigernut (Cyperus esculentus L.). World J. Dairy & Food Sci., 2009; 2: 88-93.Osagie AU, Okoye WI, Oluwayose BO and OA Dawodu Chemical quality parameters and fatty acid position of oils of underexploited tropical seeds. Nig. J. Appl. Sci. 1986; 4:151-162.Steel and Torrie (1980) Principles and procedures of statistics: A biometric approachTemple VJ, Ojobe TO and MM Kapu Chemical analysis of Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus). J.Sci Agric 1990; 50: 261- 263The spectators Importance of tiger nuts @ www.peacefmonline.com. Accessed January 2010.Tiger nut Traders Tiger nut and health In http://www.tigernut.com 2005. Accessed November 2009Umerie SC and JN Enebeli Malt caramel from the nuts of Cyperus esculentus. J. Bio. Resource Technol., 1997; 8: 215-216 Stoller, E.W. 1973. Effect of minimum soil temperature on differential distribution of Cyperus rotundus and C. esculentus in the U.S.A. Weed Research 13:209-217.United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2001. The PLANTS database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov/plants/). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.University of Illinois Turfgrass Program. 2000. Yellow nutsedge, Cyperus esculentus. University of Illinois at Urbana-Campaign, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Midwest Turf grass Weed Identification and Control. Website: http://www.turf.uiuc.edu/weed_web/index.htm then click on name of plant USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, September 2002 has published 'Linking Wilderness Research and Management. Volume 4 - Understanding and Managing.Zohary D. and Hopf M, 2000. Domestication of plants in the old world, 3rd Edition. Oxford University press.

APPENDICES PH 2 WAP CF = 23003.76Source of variation d.fSsMssFcalFtab 5%

Block (r) (r-1) 260.1930.091.615.14

Treatment (t)(t-1) 3612.92204.3110.964.76

Error (t-1) (r-1) 6111.8118.64

Total (rt-1) 11784.92

LSD(0.05) = 51.76

P H 4 WAP CF = 24461.36

Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab 5%

Block 2117.6558.831.995.14

Treatment 3571.84190.616.464.76

Error 6177.0329.51

Total 11866.52

LSD (0.05) = 65.12

PH 6 WAP CF= 24187.63

Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 228.4114.210.395.14

Treatment3319.69106.562.954.76

Error 6216.9436.16

Total 11565.04

NO OF LEAF 2 WAP CF=870.40Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 20.810.410.535.14

Treatment36.712.242.874.76

Error 64.680.78

Total 1112.2

NO OF LEAF 4 WAP CF=1065.03Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 23.451.731.655.14

Treatment311.273.763.584.76

Error 66.281.05

Total 1121

NO OF LEAF 6 WAP CF=748.13Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 23.461.732.845.14

Treatment36.432.143.514.76

Error 63.670.61

Total 1113.55

Fresh weight 6 WAP CF = 904.63Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 214.077.040.355.14

Treatment334.1511.380.564.76

Error 6121.3620.23

Total 11169.58

FW 8 WAP CF= 3690.42 Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 2132.5666.280.935.14

Treatment339.2513.080.184.76

Error 6427.5871.26

Total 11599.39

FW 10 WAP CF = 6611.97Source of variation d.fSsMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 2104.9852.491.325.14

Treatment326.118.700.224.76

Error 6239.1239.85

Total 11370.21

DRY WEIGHT 6 WAP CF= 253.37Source of variation d.fSSMssFcal Ftab5%

Block 23.061.530.255.14

Treatment316.575.520.904.76

Error 636.996.16

Total 1156.6

DRY WEIGHT 8WAP CF = 922.08Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block246.1423.071.175.14

Treatment317.795.930.294.76

Error6121.8120.30

Total 11185.74

DRY WEIGHT 10WAP CF = 3091.23Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block2101.7050.851.065.14

Treatment318.316.100.134.76

Error6287.1347.86

Total 11407.14

NO of Tubers 6WAP CF = 8427Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block273.536.750.0965.14

Treatment324.98.30.224.76

Error62258.52376.42

Total 11

NO of Tubers 8WAP CF = 28714.08Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block23173.181586.591.755.14

Treatment31367.69455.860.504.76

Error65440.16906.69

Total 119980.92

NO of Tubers 10WAP CF = 49794.08Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block21804.42902.212.115.14

Treatment3507.53169.110.404.76

Error62562.97427.16

Total 114874.92

LEAF AREA TIGERNUT 2WAP CF = 11508.45Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block248.4524.233.035.14

Treatment3378.20126.0715.78**4.76

Error647.937.99

Total 11474.58

LSD (0.05) = 33.85LEAF AREA TN 4WAP CF = 10997.70Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block244.6022.301.325.14

Treatment3372.24124.087.32*4.76

Error6101.6916.95

Total 11518.53

LSD (0.05) = 49.35LEAF AREA TN 6WAP CF = 7012.68Source of Variation DfSSMSFcalFtab5%

Block2102.0751.044.675.14

Treatment3360.45122.1512.22**4.76

Error665.5310.92

Total 11534.05

LSD (0.05) = 39.61

46