Assessment of the Quality of Shallow Groundwater for Irrigation in the Atankwidi Sub-Basin of the...

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&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

1

Assessment of the Quality of Shallow Groundwater for Irrigation

in the Atankwidi Sub-Basin of the White Volta Basin, Ghana

Sauel )arnie1*

' +eohre, . nornu2 an/ )enon, ola ortatsi

3

1.

0eartent of griusiness' &alle, &iew niersit,' echian 5aus

2. 0eartent of 5iil ngineering' wae N7ruah niersit, of Science an/ echnolog,' uasi

3. 5SIR- ater Research Institute' ccra

*ail of the correson/ing author9 sauel.arnie:u.e/u.gh

Abstract

he otential use of shallow groun/water for sall-scale /r, season irrigation is a 7e, issue for irrigation

/eeloent in the ari/ ;one of +hana. <arers within the tan7wi/i su-asin of the hite &olta )asin are

increasingl, a/oting groun/water as a source of irrigation water /ue to the unaailailit, of surface water

/uring the /r, season. =oweer the >ualit, of the groun/water an/ its suitailit, for irrigation is not 7nown'

hence the nee/ to assess the >ualit, an/ its suitailit, in or/er to ensure sustainailit, in the alication an/

ossile e?ansion of groun/water irrigation in the area. wo ain water t,es (5a-@g-=5%3 an/ Na-@g-5a-

=5%3! hae een /eterine/ using the Pier /iagra. he relatie aun/ance of cations in the groun/water was

foun/ to e in the /ecreasing or/er of NaA B 5a2A B A B @g2A B <e2A. Siilarl,' that of anions was foun/ to

hae a /ecreasing or/er of =5%3- B S%4

2- B 5l

-B P%4

2- B N%3

-B <

-. +roun/water in the area ha/ low SR an/

low to e/iu salinit, ha;ar/. =oweer' agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ al7alinit, roles are li7el, to liit its use

for irrigation.

eywords! Shallow +roun/water' =,/rocheical facies' Irrigation ater Cualit,.

"# Introduction

+loall, there is a strong ositie relationshi etween higher /ensit, of irrigation an/ lower oert, rates' asDiton et al. (2##3! in/icates. In frica' onl, 3E of crolan/ is irrigate/ an/ the region has e?erience/ er,

little re/uction in oert, in the 1$$#s (orl/ )an7' 2###!. In contrast' those regions that hae the greatest

roortion of cultiate/ area irrigate/ (nael, ast sia' Pacific' North frica an/ @i//le ast! hae

e?erience/ the greatest oert, re/uction. hat of +hana is ut at #.#2 E as at the en/ of 2##8. Irrigation of

soe of these arale lan/s coul/ not aterialise /ue to the roFecte/ caital inoleent in channeling surfacewater oer long /istances to the irrigale lan/s.he use of han/-/ug wells enales the utili;ation of shallow groun/water for irrigate/ ro/uction of egetales

an/ cash cros /uring the /r, season an/' therefore' roi/es an alternatie source of incoe for farers an/

oor househol/s. <or instance' the large scale ro/uction of shallot an/ other egetales using shallow

groun/water in the eta Stri has roi/e/ enorous incoe to the in/igenous inhaitants (ortatsi an/

g,e7u' 2###!. In ost cases' Shallow +roun/water Irrigation (S+I! has /eeloe/ without an, goernent

or /onor inoleent.<arers in the hite &olta )asin an/ the tan7wi/i su-asin to e secific where this stu/, focuses heail,

rel, on shallow groun/water as a source of irrigation water /ue to the unaailailit, of surface water in the /r,

season. s this is farer /rien' little is 7nown aout the >ualit, of water use/ for the ro/uction of egetales

which crucial so far as faring is concern. his is ecause' esi/es affecting cro ,iel/ an/ soil h,sical

con/itions' irrigation water >ualit, can affect fertilit, nee/s' irrigation s,ste erforance an/ how the water

can e alie/. herefore' 7nowle/ge of irrigation water >ualit, is critical to un/erstan/ing what anageentchanges are necessar, for long-ter ro/uctiit,. oe all' water >ualit, anal,sis in general' an/ not liite/ to

irrigation water' is one of the ost iortant issues in groun/water stu/ies. It reeals the suitailit, of the water

for /ifferent uroses an/ also hels to un/erstan/ the ossile change in >ualit, roal, /ue to roc7-water

interaction or anthroogenic effects. he ain oFectie of this aer is therefore to assess the shallow

groun/water >ualit, for irrigation in the stu/, area which will infor oth olic, an/ /ecision a7ers so far asS+I in the area is concern.

$# Study Area

2.1 Location and Size

he tan7wi/i su-asin is locate/ etween latitu/es 1#o4$G4H N an/ 1#

o""G3" N an/ longitu/inal #

o""G2H

an/ #o"$G2H ' a triutar, of the hite &olta locate/ in the er ast Region of +hana etween Narongo

an/ )olgatanga (assena Nan7ana 0istrict! with its uer reach in )ur7ina <aso as shown in <igure 1. he su-

asin is locate/ in one of the areas with the highest groun/water use er 7 in the &olta Rier asin (@artin2##6!. he su-asin coers an area of aout 2H" 7

2 of the hite &olta asin.





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

2

<igure 1. @a of the tan7wi/i su-asin

2.2 Climate and Vegetationhe stu/, area falls within the Su/an-Saanna cliate ;one' which is characterise/ , high teeratures an/ a

uni-o/al rainfall /istriution with a /istinct rain, season lasting aro?iatel, fro @a, to Seteer. he

ean annual rainfall in Narongo is aro?iatel, $8#. he satio-teoral /istriutions of reciitation

an/ eaoration hae a large iact on the water regie inclu/ing the groun/water ariailit,. In the rain,

season /ail, rainfall a, e?cee/ "# ' this falls in less than one hour. @onthl, rainfall onl, e?cee/s otential

eaoration in the three wettest onths' Jul,' ugust an/ Seteer. he total otential eaoration is 2#"# '

which is twice the annual rainfall. he aerage annual teerature is 2$o5. he ean /ail, iniu

teerature is 2"o5' coinci/ing with the ea7 of the rain, season' an/ rises to a a?iu of 34

o5 in ril.

Relatie hui/it, is highest /uring the rain, season with 6" E. It /ros >uic7l, after the en/ of the rain, season

in %ctoer' reaching a low of less than 1# E /uring the harattan erio/ in 0eceer an/ Januar, (@artin'

2##6!.

2.3 Land Use

%en tree-saanna fors the natural egetation in the er ast Region. rees show a large sacing an/ thearea is largel, coere/ with grass an/ shrus. he ost coon econoic trees are the sheanut' /awa/awa'

oaa an/ acacia. 5oon grasses inclu/e Andropogen gayyanus in the less ero/e/ areas an/ Hyperrhenia

spp.' Aristida spp. an/ Heteropogen spp. in the seerel, ero/e/ areas. @ost of the area is use/ for sall-scale

agriculture. 0uring the rain, season' alost H# E of the area is coere/ with sall lots of rainfe/ agriculture

(@artin' 2##6!. %ther arts of the area are use/ for liestoc7 gra;ing an/ /rin7ing. In the /r, season' the aount

of agriculture is sustantiall, lower' aro?iatel, 1 E of the area (nofficial reort' +&P' 2##H!. he other

arts of agricultural lan/ reain as are soil until the ne?t rain, season starts. Dan/ not use/ for agriculture is

either sarse egetation on shallow soils in ston, areas or lan/ use/ for the gra;ing of liestoc7' which is

coere/ , grass' shrus an/ trees.

2.4 Relief and Drainage

he relief of the su-asin is generall, flat' gentl, un/ulating with sloes ranging fro 1E to "E e?cet in a few

ulan/s where sloes are aout 1#E. ccor/ing to /u (1$6$!' the relief of the R is relate/ to the geolog,'

where a range of )iriian greenstone hills rising u to 4"H aoe sea leel /oinate north of )aw7u an/eilla along the or/er with )ur7ina <aso an/ in the southwest along the hite &olta Rier (&R!. he

granite areas are generall, of low' gentl, rolling relief ranging fro 122 to 26# aoe sea leel. he relief





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

3

un/er &oltain roc7s has siilar characteristics to granites' with few escarents rising aoe "18 near the

or/er with ogo in the east. he ean eleation for the area is 1$H aoe sea leel (Diee' 2##2!.

2.5 Geological setting

hree forations of the )iriian /oain can e /istinguishe/ in the stu/, area (<igure 2! fro the geological

a 1912"'###' sheets Narongo (&an /en )erg et al., 1$63! an/ uarungo (@urra, an/ @itchell' 1$6#!. hese

are9 )iriian etase/ientsK +ranitoi/s (grano/iorites' granite an/ gneiss! associate/ with the )iriianKIntrusie )ongo granite. Paleorotero;oic granitoi/s consisting of hornlen/e - iotite grano/iorite' iotite

granite an/ iotite gneiss a7e u the largest art of the stu/, area an/ for the slightl, un/ulating south-

western art of the tan7wi/i su-asin. )iriian etase/ients a/e u of h,llite' schist an/ >uart;ite are

foun/ in sall atches aong the granitoi/s.

<igure 2. +eological an/ /rainage a of the stu/, area.

%# &aterials and &ethods

+roun/water sales were collecte/ fro 4# wells in @arch 2##$ for aFor an/ inor ions anal,ses. Saling

rotocols accor/ing to oo/ (1$81!' 5laasen (1$82!' an/ )arcelona et al (1$8"! were followe/. he a ofgroun/water saling oints is shown in <igure 3. ater sales accor/ing to stan/ar/s were collecte/ after

uing the well for aout " inutes in or/er to urge the well of stagnant water. he urging was /one to

staili;e/ teerature' = an/ electrical con/uctiit, rea/ings.<or etal anal,sis' sales were filtere/ through

#.4"L filters an/ resere/ with "l 6 N =N%3 in laorator, treate/ 1##l high /ensit, linear ol,eth,lene

ottles. =oweer' sales for anion anal,ses were without reseration. he niersal 5on/uctiit, @eter

@ultiline P4 set that ha/ an in-uilt teerature coensation roe was use/ to easure electrical con/uctiit,

an/ teerature siultaneousl,. <or the /eterination of total al7alinit, (as =5%3-!' fiel/ titration with 1.6 N

=2S%4 to = M4." using =5= 0igital @ulti Saler @o/el 16$# was /one.





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

4

<igure 3. @a of +roun/water saling locations5heical anal,ses for all aFor ions (Na

A' 5a

2' @g

2A' =5%3

-' 5l

-' S%4

2-! as well as soe inor ions (

A' N%3

-'

<-' P%4

2-! were carrie/ out with the 0ione? 0-12# ion chroatograh at the nironental 5heistr,

Daorator, at the ater Research Institute of +hana. @anganese (@n! an/ Iron (<e! were also /eterine/ with

ass sectroeter NI5@ 386 in the sae laorator,. In accor/ance with international stan/ar/s' results with

ionic alance ore than "E were reFecte/.

'# (esults and )iscussion

4.1P!sico"cemical #nal!sis of $ater sam%les

he results of h,sico-cheical anal,sis of groun/water sales fro the tan7wi/i su-asin are suarise/

in ale 1





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

"

ale 19 Suar, of h,sico-cheical water >ualit, araeters in the tan7wi/i su-asin

*arameter &inimum &a+imum &ean &edian S)

em

.

/0)S

SS

urb

Br$

0a

0l

12$

12%

*2'

S2'

1a

3.02%

0a.

&g.

&g

&n

3e

4n

26.4#

6.H3

1##.##"".##

1.##

1.H"

#.##

".6#

3.##

#.##1

#.##1

#.#1

4.##

H.8#

1.4

#.#312.2#

14.##

3.$#.$#

#.##"

#.#2

#.##"

34.##

H.$3

484.##266.2#

2$4.##

316

1.$8

4#.$

44.##

#.12

1#.1#

14.3#

84.##

H#.$#

2".3#

#.6"2"8.64

1#2.##

HH.818.$#

#.6"

13.1

#.#6

2$.$4

H.24

236.2"12$.$4

"".1$

6$.23

#.4H

1".2H

1"."4

#.#2

1.#6

3."2

23.42

24.H$

$.H6

#.3311H.$H

3H."6

26.$$6."H

#.12

2.2"

#.#2

2$.$#

H.21

21H."11$.63

31."#

36.2"

#.34

13.2

12.$#

#.#2

#.43

2.$"

2#.##

2#.1"

1#.6"

#.3"11H.12

33.1#

2".8"6.2"

#.#4

#.$$

#.#1

1.$2

#.33

$$.88"4.$3

6$.H$

81."3

#.4H

8.36

$.28

#.#3

1.8$

2.42

16.$"

16.16

".12

#.1862.$8

2#."1

14.6"3.36

#.18

3.##

#.#1

ll concentrations are easure/ in gOl' = in = unit' uri/it, in N' electrical con/uctiit, in LSOc an/

teerature ino5.

+enerall,' the cheical constituents of the groun/water sales are low as shown in <igure 4' with =5% 3- as

the re/oinant anion which is 7nown to e er, consistent with the cheistr, of ost natural waters in granitic

forations (<ree;e an/ 5herr,' 1$H$!. N%3- an/ <

- occur in inor concentrations coare/ with the other

anions. he /ecreasing or/er of cations in the groun/water sales is in or/er of Na A B 5a2A B A B @g2A B <e2A

an/ that of anions is =5%3- B S%4

2- B 5l

-B P%4

2- B N%3

-B <

-.

<igure 4. @e/ian concentration of cheical constituents in the tan7wi/i su-asin





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

6

4.2 &!drocemical facies of gro'nd(ater sam%les

=,/rocheical facies are /istinct ;ones that ossess cation an/ anion concentration categories (Sa/ashiaiah etal .' 2##8!. he cheical anal,sis results of the groun/water sales in the tan7wi/i su-asin has een

resente/ , lotting the on a Pier tri-linear /iagra (Pier' 1$44! in <igure " which reeals the analogies'

/issiilarities an/ /ifferent t,es of waters in the su-asin.

<igure ". Pier /iagra of groun/water sales fro the tan7wi/i su-asin

In the cation lot fiel/ (triangle on the left! of the Pier tri-linear /iagra' "#E of the groun/water sales lot

ainl, in the i//le which suggests i?e/ cations with no /oinant cation t,e whiles the other "#E of the

sales /eicts Na- as the re/oinant cation t,e. =oweer' in the anion lot fiel/ (triangle on the right!'

alost all the sales lotte/ are towar/s the =5%3- corner which again suggests =5%3

- as the re/oinant

anion.

he groun/water sales lotte/ in the 5a-@g-=5%3 /oinant of the /iaon/ fiel/ (section ! suggests actierecharge' short resi/ence tie an/ teorar, har/ness (ortatsi et al .' 2##8!. his t,e of waters usuall, has

cheical roerties which are /oinate/ , al7aline earths an/ wea7 aci/s (aranth' 1$$4!' an/ aarentl, not

associate/ with a articular geological foration (ortatsi et al .' 2##8! ut a, hae eanate/ fro either

/oloite (5a@g (5%3!2! or calcite (5a5%3! in roc7 atri?. Soe (3" E! of the groun/water sales (section )!

also showe/ i?e/ t,e of water with no cation-anion e?cee/ing "# E. his water secificall, is ore of the

Na-@g-5a-=5%3 i?e/ t,e of water.

4.3 )rrigation $ater *'alit!

he ealuation of groun/water >ualit, for irrigation in this stu/, was ase/ on the following factors9

i. Salinit, (total aount of /issole/ salts in water!'

ii. So/iu ha;ar/ (the aount of so/iu in the water coare/ to calciu lus agnesiu!'

iii. @agnesiu ha;ar/ (@=!' an/

i. = an/ total al7alinit,.

4.3.1 Salinit! &azardhe ost influential water >ualit, gui/eline on cro ro/uctiit, is the water salinit, ha;ar/ as easure/ ,

electrical con/uctance ()au/er et al .' 2##H!. =igh concentration of salinit, (electrical con/uctiit,! in irrigation





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

H

water affect cro ,iel/ through the inailit, of the lant to coete with ions in the soil solution for water

(osotic effect or h,siological /rought!. he seerit, of the osotic effect a, ar, with the lants growth

stage an/ in soe cases a, go unnotice/ ecause of a unifor ,iel/ /ecline oer the whole cro (+eorge'

1$H$!. ale 2 shows the classification of groun/water sales for irrigation water use ase/ uon electrical

con/uctiit,.

ale 29 5lassification of groun/water sales in tan7wi/i su-asin for Irrigation water use ase/ onelectrical con/uctiit, ()au/er et al ' 2##H!

1umber of

samles

*ercentage /lectrical 0onducti5ity

67S8cm9

0lasses of Water

26

14

#

#

#

6"

3"

#

#

#

2"#

2"# Q H"#

H"# Q 2###

2### Q 3###

3###

5lass 19 ?cellent

5lass 29 +oo/

5lass 39 Perissile

5lass 49 0outful

5lass "9 nsuitale

4.3.2 Sodi'm &azard

ccor/ing to aranth (1$$4!' e?cessie NaA content of irrigation water ren/ers it unsuitale for soils containing

e?changeale 5a2A

an/ @g2A

ions as the soil ta7e u NaA in e?change for 5a

2A an/ @g

2A causing /eflocculation

(/isersion! an/ iairent of the tilth an/ ereailit, of soils. he so/iu ha;ar/ is t,icall, e?resse/ asthe so/iu a/sortion ratio (SR!. he general classifications of groun/water sales in the stu/, area for

irrigation ase/ on SR alues accor/ing to )au/er et al ' (2##H! generall, showe/ low SR.

4.3.3 Classification of )rrigation $ater *'alit!

hen the salinit, an/ so/iu asortion ratio (SR! of water are 7nown' the classification of irrigation waters

can e /eterine/ , grahicall, lotting these alues on the ilco? /iagra (ilco? an/ 0uru' 1$6H!. he

/iagra e?resses the relationshi etween so/iu (SR! an/ salinit, (5! ha;ar/s' in other wor/s' it e?resses

the integrate/ effect of oth so/iu an/ salinit, ha;ar/s of irrigation waters. hat for the tan7wi/i su-asin

was therefore lotte/ as shown in <igure 6.

<igure 6. 5lassification of irrigation waters in the tan7wi/i su-asin

4.3.4 +agnesi'm &azard

@agnesiu is eliee/ to e inFurious to lants' ut the harful effect is greatl, re/uce/ , the resence of

calciu. he agnesiu ha;ar/ (@=! is /efine/ as 1##@g (5a A @g!-1

with the cheical constituents

e?resse/ as e>Ol. he classification of groun/water sales accor/ing to S;aolcs an/ 0ara (1$64! ase/ on

agnesiu ha;ar/ is shown in ale 3





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

8

ale 39 5lassification of groun/water sales in tan7wi/i su-asin ase/ on @agnesiu ha;ar/ (S;aolcs

an/ 0ara' 1$64!.

1umber of wells *ercentage &agnesium ha:ard

;"<<&g60a = &g9-"

>

Water classification

$?

""

H2."

2H."

"#

B"#

0esirale

n/esirale (/eleterious toost cros!

he groun/water sale/ ha/ 2H."E of the with @= aoe "# il,ing that' agnesiu ha;ar/ is a otential

role associate/ with the groun/water in the stu/, area shoul/ it e use/ for irrigation.

4.3.5 %& and #l,alinit!

l7alinit, is relate/ to =' ecause water with high al7alinit, has a high Tuffering caacit,U or caacit, for

neutralising a//e/ aci/s. he aFor cheicals resonsile for al7alinit, in water are the /issole/ caronates

an/ icaronates fro the geologic aterials of the a>uifer fro which the water is /rawn. he /issole/

caronates an/ icaronates increase the e/ia = oer tie , neutralising =A ions in the e/ia solution.

lthough there are no estalishe/ otiu or to?ic leels for al7alinit,' t,ical recoen/ations range fro

3H." Q 13# gOl 5a5%3 (ill an/ <aust' 1$$$!. he concentration of al7alinit, arie/ fro 1# Q 216 gOl with

the ean' e/ian an/ stan/ar/ /eiation of $6.H' $6 an/ "1.62 gOl resectiel,. 22."E of the total groun/water

sales ha/ their concentrations aoe this /esirale range roal, /ue to the relatiel, high concentrations of

icaronate (=5%3-! in the sales. Nonetheless' " E of the groun/water sales ha/ low al7alinit,

concentrations. Dow al7alinit, of irrigation water roi/es no uffering caacit, against = changes which lea/s

to the /ecline of e/ia solution = when aci/-resi/ue fertilisers are use/ (ill an/ <aust' 1$$$!.

4.3.- #ssessment of )rrigation (ater 'alit! /ased +& and 0otal #l,alinit!he irrigation water >ualit, was assesse/ ase/ on all the criteria use/ (SR' salinit, ha;ar/' agnesiu ha;ar/

an/ al7alinit,! to 7now the ercentage of groun/water sales that fell within the recoen/e/ ranges.

<igure H. ssessent of irrigation water >ualit, ase/ on @= an/ al7alinit,

<igure H shows the assessent of groun/water sales ase/ on oth agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ total al7alinit,.

Since all the groun/water sales fell within the recoen/e/ ranges of oth so/iu (SR! an/ salinit,

ha;ar/s at the sae tie' the onl, liitations will e fro agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ al7alinit,. herefore the

ercentages of sales that fall within the /esirale ranges of oth agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ al7alinit, at the saetie are consi/ere/ to e the ercentage of sales with asolutel, no liitation. ith this assution' the

ercentage of sales that fall within the recoen/e/ region of the <igure aoe is "2." E with 2" E an/

22." E of the sales with agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ al7alinit, roles resectiel,.

It is howeer worth entioning that the otential roles i/entifie/ were not area secific so far as the stu/,area is concern which literature suggests that' it a, /ue to the /ifferent recharge atterns of the a>uifer s,ste.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225

M a g n e s i u m H

a z a r d

Concentration of total Alalinit! "mg#l CaC$3% &ater sam'les

(o )uffering

ca'acit!

*esira)le

range *ou)tful

*esira)le

+ndesira)le





&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

$

@# 0onclusion

wo ain water t,es (5a-@g-=5%3 an/ Na-@g-5a-=5%3! hae een /elineate/ using the Pier /iagra.

<urtherore' the relatie aun/ance of cations in the groun/water is in the or/er of NaA B 5a

2A B

A B @g

2A B

<e2A

. =5%3- was howeer the re/oinant anion which also ha/ a /ecreasing or/er of =5% 3

- B S%4

2- B 5l

-B

P%42-

B N%3-B <

-. he suitailit, of groun/water for irrigation ealuate/ ase/ on so/iu (SR!' salinit, an/

agnesiu ha;ar/s' = an/ al7alinit, showe/ low SR an/ low to e/iu salinit, ha;ar/ an/ is thereforegoo/ for irrigation ut with soe otential agnesiu ha;ar/ an/ al7alinit, roles which artiall, liits its

use for irrigation , /eeloing so/ic soil con/itions with continuous use. 0ue to the agnesiu ha;ar/

roles that were recor/e/ in soe of the areas which also actuall, increase slightl, the otential effect of

so/iu on soils' soil con/itions shoul/ also e onitore/ with tie to ascertain an, role of so/icit, an/ if

necessar, leach the soil. +roun/water >ualit, in the su-asin shoul/ also e onitore/ regularl, to ensure earl,

/etection an/ interention of an, ollution or containation that a, occur /ue to the suscetiilit, of the

regional a>uifer s,ste to ollution (wee/ici/es' estici/es etc.!.

(eferences

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Institute' uasi' +hana' 1##

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2$ <..%. Roe.)arcelona' @.' +i' J. P.' =elfrich' J. . an/ +ars7e' . . (1$8"!. Practical gui/e for groun/water saling.Illinois State ater Sure, ISS contract reort 3H4' 5haaign.

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#."#6' 5olora/o State niersit,. 1-".

5lassen' =. 5. (1$82!. +ui/elines an/ techni>ues for otaining water sales that accuratel, reresent the

>ualit, of an a>uifer. . S. +eological Sure, oen file reort 82-1#24' Da7ewoo/' 4$.

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Seinar' P..0. est. ustralia No. 1$8#.

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(unofficial! Reort' ccra.

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21st centur, in +hana. JVrgensen N. %. WXa7o-)anoeg ). (e/! niersit, of +hana' Degon' ccra.ortatsi' ). .' n7u' X. S. . an/ nornu' +. . (2##8!. 5haracteri;ation an/ araisal of facets influencing

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+eolog, Journal. 0%I 1#.1##HOs##2"4-##8-1638-$.

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er ast Region of +hanaU. @aster thesis' <acult, of @atheatics an/ Natural Sciences' niersit, of )onn'

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ater Polic, "("O6!9 413-42H.

@ac/onal/' .' 0aies' J.' 5alow' R. an/ 5hilton' J. (2##"!. 0eeloing +roun/water9 gui/e for Rural ater

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@artin' N. (2##6!. T0eeloent of a water alance for the tan7wi/i catchent' est frica Q case stu/, of

groun/water recharge in a sei-ari/ cliateU. 0octoral thesis' niersit, of +Yttingen' +eran,.@urra, R. J. an/ @itchell' J. (1$6#!. +eological @a of uarungu 1912"'###. +hana +eological Sure, )ulletin'

2"' +eological Sure,' ccra.

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&ol.4' No.1"' 2#14

1#

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+roun/water Cualit, inu7ur alu7' arnata7a State' In/ia. Int. J. niron. Res. Pulic =ealth 2##8' "(3!

1"8-164

Schaefer' .I.' Rossiter' =.@..' %wusu' P..' Richar/s' ).S.' wuah' . (2##$!. Ph,sico-cheical water

>ualit, in +hana9 Prosects for water sul, technolog, ileentation. 0esalination Journal ### 1-13.

o//' 0.. (1$8#!. +roun/water h,/rolog,' 2n/ e/ition' ile,' New Xor7' "3".&an /en )erg' R.' Daughton 5.. an/ +ill S.. (1$63!. +eological @a of Narongo 1912"'###. +hana

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(e/s! Irrigation of agricultural lan/' agrono, onograh No. 11. erican Societ, of grono,' @a/ison'

1#4-122.ill' .' <aust' J. .' (1$$$!. Irrigation ater Cualit, for +reenhouse Pro/uction. gricultural ?tension

Serice' niersit, of ennessee. P)161H-1@-2O$$9 2-3.

oo/' . . (1$81!. +ui/elines for collection an/ fiel/ anal,sis of groun/water sales for selecte/ unstale

constituents. . S. +eological Sure, techni>ues of water resources inestigations oo7 1' ch 02. . S.

+oernent Printing %ffice' ashington 0. 5.orl/ )an7. (2###!. ttac7ing Poert,. orl/ 0eeloent Reort 2###O2##1. New Xor79 %?for/ niersit,Press.



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Assessment of the Quality of Shallow Groundwater for Irrigation in the Atankwidi Sub-Basin of the...

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