ASSESSMENT ON HOST PLANT OF RAFFLESIA
KERRI IN LOJING HIGHLANDS, KELANTAN,
MALAYSIA
NASIHAH BT MOKHTAR
MASTER OF SCIENCE
2016
Assessment on Host Plant of Rafflesia kerri in Lojing
Highlands, Kelantan, Malaysia
by
Nasihah Bt Mokhtar
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Faculty of Earth Science
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA KELANTAN
2016
THESIS DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is the result of the original research
and has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution.
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Act 1972)*
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where research was done)*
I acknowledge that Universiti Malaysia Kelantan reserves the right as follows.
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SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
I/C/PASSPORT NO. NAME OF SUPERVISOR
Date: Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BISMILLAHIRRAHMANIRRAHIM…In the name of Allah Taala, The Most Gracious,
with the God’s help and His amazing grace, I’m finally completing this dissertation after
going through the two years of challenging. This work has been in its present shape with
considerable professional, financial, and material inputs. Therefore, it is an amazing
excitement for me to come to this final point and to express my deepest gratitude to all
individuals and organizations who contributed directly or indirectly to my study and the
production of this thesis.
First and foremost, I thank my main supervisor, Mr. Zulhazman bin Hamzah for his
professional and endless support and patience well from the planning stage of the
research work to the production of this thesis. This thesis research was formulated with
his support and encouragement. My appreciation also goes to Ms Siti Munirah Mat
Yunoh from FRIM for reading the manuscript and for serving as my co- supervisor.
I would like to address my sincere thanks to Prof. Emeritus Dato' Dr. Abdul Latiff
Mohamad from UKM for sharing ideas and comments. Therefore, he inspired me to
study about Tetrastigma indeed. He also guided me during identification and
confirmation of Tetrastigma sp. My study would never been possible without his help as
he is interested in Vitaceae study. May Allah give him good health to keep on
contributing for documentation of flora in Malaysia.
My heartfelt thanks go to all staffs from UMK especially lab assistants for lab
equipments. Moreover, I also would like to thank all staffs from FRIM especially Dr.
Wan Rasidah, Pn Nurnida Mohd Kamal, Mohamad Aidil Noordin and En Kamarudin
Saleh for offering me all possible helps in many aspects during identification of trees
species, sketching of Tetrastigma, anatomical laboratory work and soil chemical
analysis. Apart from that, I want to express my appreciation to the District Officer of
Lojing, Tuan Nik Ab Rahman b. Nik Yusof for accommodation during data sampling.
Besides that, Adun bin Sayang, the Temiar who give his guide unlimited contribution
from site selection all the way up to sample collection and security in the study site.
Last but not least, my parents, siblings and nieces for prayers, love, endless
encouragement, concern, patience, strength and sacrifices to go to this level of
education. Fellow friends, Qayyum, Izzah, Ziela, Wani, Zeti and Ain, graduate students
at UMK, deserve special thanks for their valuable contributions and encouragement. I
really appreciated our precious moment together at Ayer Lanas, Jeli. Similarly, Wan
Nuur Fatiha from UNIMAS who kindly shared ideas, whenever required, is highly
appreciated.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
THESIS DECLARATION i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS ix
ABSTRAK x
ABSTRACT xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Objectives 4
1.3 Scope of Study 4
1.4 Justification 5
1.5 Research Questions 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Tetrastigma in General 7
2.1.1 Growth Strategies 9
2.2 Distribution of Tetrastigma 11
2.3 Host – Parasite Relationship 12
2.4 Economic Importance or Medicinal Value of Tetrastigma 15
2.5 An Overview of Tetrastigma Study in Malaysia 16
2.6 Description of Tetrastigma species in Peninsular Malaysia 17
2.6.1 Tetrastigma scortechinii (King) Gagnep. 17
2.6.2 Tetrastigma dubium (Laws.) Planch. 18
2.6.3 Tetrastigma cruciatum Craib & Gagnep 18
2.6.4 Tetrastigma latiffii Veldk. 19
2.6.5 Tetrastigma dichotomum (Blume) Planch. 19
2.6.6 Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. 20
2.6.7 Tetrastigma hookeri (Laws.) Planch. 21
2.6.8 Tetrastigma curtisii (Ridl.) Suesseng. 21
2.6.9 Tetrastigma pisicarpum (Miq.) Planch. 22
2.6.10 Tetrastigma pedunculare (Wall. ex Laws.) Planch. 22
2.6.11 Tetrastigma papillosum (Blume) Planch. 23
2.6.12 Tetrastigma pyriforme Gagnep. 24
2.7 Leaves of Tetrastigma 24
2.8 Growing Habit of Tetrastigma 25
2.9 Importance of Tetrastigma in Forest Ecosystem 26
2.9.1 Lianas and Gap Dynamics 26
2.9.2 Leaf litter Production by Lianas 27
2.9.3 Liana and Rainforest 28
2.10 Soil of the Humid Tropics 29
2.10.1 Soil Chemical Properties 30
2.10.2 Soil Texture 36
2.11 Anatomy of Tetrastigma 39
2.12 Effect of Parasitism on Host Plants 40
2.13 Rafflesia Eco-tourism 42
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 45
3.1 Study Area 45
3.2 Plot Set-Up 48
3.3 Identification of Tetrastigma 52
3.3.1 Sampling Procedures 52
3.3.2 Herbarium Specimens 52
3.3.3 Plant Anatomy 53
3.4 Ecology of Tetrastigma and its Relations with Soil Nutrients,
Soil Texture and Organic Matter
60
3.4.1 Soil Sampling 60
3.4.2 Soil Nutrient Analysis 61
3.4.3 Determination of Particle Size Distribution 69
3.4.4 Determination of Organic Matter Depth 72
3.4.5 Identification of Supporting Trees of Tetrastigma 73
3.4.6 Sampling Procedures 73
3.5 Data Analysis 74
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSSION 75
4.1 Morphology of Tetrastigma 75
4.1.1 Morphological Characteristics 75
4.1.2 Morphological Characteristics Differences between
Tetrastigma Species
83
4.2 Anatomy of Tetrastigma 84
4.2.1 Anatomy of T. rafflesiae 84
4.2.2 Anatomy of T. hookeri 89
4.2.3 Comparative leaf anatomy of the two species of Tetrastigma 92
4.3 Ecology of Tetrastigma 93
4.3.1 Growing Habit of Tetrastigma from Ecological Observations 94
4.3.2 Identification of Tree Association with Tetrastigma 94
4.4 Relations of Tetrastigma with Soil Nutrients, Soil Texture and
Organic Matter
96
4.4.1 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Soil Nutrient 96
4.4.2 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Soil Texture 98
4.4.3 Correlation between Tetrastigma and Organic Matter 100
4.5 Conservation of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands 102
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 104
REFERENCES 107
APPENDIX A 125
APPENDIX B 127
APPENDIX C 128
LIST OF TABLES
L
I
S
T
O
F
NO. PAGE
2.1 Presently Recorded Host Plant Species of Rafflesia 12
3.1 Duration for Clearing and Staining 56
3.2 Duration for Dehydration 58
3.3 Temperature and time for sample to settle down with a depth of
20 cm
70
3.4 Soil Size According to Texture 72
4.1 The Differences of Morphological Characteristics between T.
rafflesiae and T. hookeri 83
4.2 Differences and Similarity between Species 92
4.3 List of Tree Associated with Tetrastigma 95
4.4 Soil Nutrient in Relation with Elevation 97
LIST OF FIGURES
NO. PAGE
2.1 Texture Triangle of Soil 37
3.1 Flow chart of methodology 46
3.2 The location of the study area 47
3.3 The signboard marking number 1 Rafflesia population is
completed with date and population or plot number
49
3.4 Location of Hutan Simpan Sungai Brok (in green). The study
sites are located outside forest reserve
50
3.5 The topography map of the study area 51
3.6 The 2.5 cm auger was used to collect the soil samples at
different soil depth 61
3.7 Measuring tape was used to measure the organic matter depth 73
4.1 Tetrastigma rafflesiae, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 79
4.2 Tetrastigma hookeri, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 80
4.3 Habit of T. rafflesiae, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 81
4.4 Habit of T. hookeri with fruit, Lojing Highlands, Kelantan 82
4.5 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 85
4.6 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 87
4.7 Tetrastigma rafflesiae 88
4.8 Tetrastigma hookeri 89
4.9 Tetrastigma hookeri 90
4.10 Tetrastigma hookeri 91
4.11 The climbing habit of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands,
Kelantan
93
4.12a Correlation between elevation and sand contents (%) 99
4.12b Correlation between elevation and silt contents (%) 99
4.12c Correlation between elevation and clay contents (%) 100
4.13 The effect of elevation gain (ft) on depth (in) of the
O soil horizon 101
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
sp. Species
ha Hectare
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
pH Power of Hydrogen
K+ Potassium ion
TS Tranverse Section
NGOs A Non-Governmental Organization
DBH Diameter Breast Height
KCl Potassium Chloride
N Normality
F Frequency
CECt. Total Cation Exchange Capacity
UV Ultra Violet
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Science
Vol. Volume
LIST OF SYMBOLS
oc Degree Celcius
cm Centimetre
m Meter
Mha Millihectare
cmolc/kg centi-mol per kg
< Less than
> Greater than
o Degree
’ Minute
ml Mililiter
mm Milimeter
mg Miligram
ppm Part per million
g gram
µm Micrometer
” Second
Penilaian terhadap Perumah Rafflesia kerri di Tanah Tinggi Lojing, Kelantan,
Malaysia
ABSTRAK
Pengetahuan secara menyeluruh tentang Tetrastigma sp., iaitu perumah bagi Rafflesia
kerri Meijer di Tanah Tinggi Lojing adalah penting untuk pengurusan dan
pemuliharaan spesis. Tetrastigma membekalkan makanan dan air kepada Rafflesia
untuk hidup di dalam hutan. Walau bagaimanapun, aktiviti semasa seperti pembukaan
tanah untuk pertanian, pembalakan dan lain-lain boleh memberi kesan kepada habitat
semulajadi Tetrastigma yang membawa kepada kajian ini dijalankan. Objektif kajian
adalah seperti berikut; (i) mengenalpasti perumah R. kerri Meijer dan (ii) menilai
ekologi perumah R. kerri. Dalam mengenalpasti spesis, ciri-ciri morfologi tumbuhan
dikenalpasti dengan menggunakan artikel Tetrastigma di Semenanjung Malaysia oleh
Latiff (1983). Kaedah Keratan Rentas Daun telah digunakan untuk menilai anatomi
tumbuhan. Manakala, Kaedah Pentitratan Laju Walkley dan Black (1934) telah
digunakan untuk menilai nutrisi tanah dan Kaedah BS1377:1975 Test 7 (B) telah
digunakan untuk menilai tekstur tanah. Berdasarkan ciri morfologi dan anatomi daun,
dua spesies Tetrastigma telah dikenalpasti, iaitu Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch.
dan T. hookeri (Laws.) Planch. Selain itu, purata pH tanah untuk dua species tersebut
untuk hidup ialah 4.58 ± 0.36. Ini menunjukkan wujud perbezaan keberkesanan yang
signifikan pada nilai pH antara ketinggian, pH (F2,0.42 = 8.37, p <0.05). Populasi tunas R. kerri tertinggi ialah pada ketinggian 1200 m dari paras laut dengan purata tunas
setiap bulan adalah 9 ± 5.86. Ini disebabkan oleh wujud perbezaan keberkesanan yang
signifikan antara tunas dengan ketinggian, (t41 = 2.573, p <0.05, r = 0.59). Hasil
dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan jenis pertumbuhan Tetrastigma ialah memanjat. Di
samping itu, Myrtaceae and Ebenaceae adalah dua famili yang biasa didapati sebagai
pokok penyokong Tetrastigma di kawasan kajian. Kesimpulannya, kajian ini berjaya
merekodkan perumah baru T. hookeri, bagi R. kerri. Hasil dapatan kajian ini akan
berguna kepada agensi berkaitan untuk menguruskan kawasan pemuliharaan Rafflesia
yang telah diwartakan seluas 1000 hektar di Tanah Tinggi Lojing.
Assessment on Host Plant of Rafflesia kerri in Lojing Highlands, Kelantan,
Malaysia
ABSTRACT
A comprehensive information on Tetrastigma sp., the host plant of Rafflesia kerri
Meijer in Lojing highlands is crucial for the management and conservation of the
species. Tetrastigma supplies nutrients and water to Rafflesia for survive in the forest.
However, the current activities such as land clearing for agricultural practices, logging
and others may affect the habitat of Tetrastigma which lead this study to be conducted.
The objectives of the study are as follows; (i) to identify the host plant of R. kerri Meijer
and (ii) to assess the ecology of host plant of R. kerri. In order to identify the species,
morphological characteristics of plant was recognized using the article on Tetrastigma
in Peninsular Malaysia by Latiff (1983). Leaf Transverse Section Method was used to
assess the plant anatomy. Meanwhile, Walkley and Black’s (1934) Rapid Titration
Method was applied to evaluate soil nutrients and BS1377:1975 Test 7 (B) Method was
applied to evaluate soil texture. In this study, two species of Tetrastigma were identified,
these are, Tetrastigma rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. and T. hookeri (Laws.) Planch. The
mean soil pH range of these two Tetrastigma is 4.58 ± 0.36. It shows the significant
differences found on pH at different elevation, pH (F2,0.42 = 8.37, p <0.05). The highest
number of bud populations is at 1200 m a. s. l with mean bud per month is 9 ± 5.86.
There is significant different between bud and elevation, (t41 = 2.573, p <0.05, r = 0.59).
The result also shows that the growing habit of Tetrastigma is climbing. In addition,
Myrtaceae and Ebenaceae are two common families as the host of Tetrastigma. As a
conclusion, this study was successfully recorded a new host plant T. hookeri, for R.
kerri. The results from this study will be useful to related agencies in order to manage
the gazetted 1000 ha of the Rafflesia Conservation Area in Lojing Highlands.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Tetrastigma is a woody climber and usually polygamo-dioecious (Hui
& Wen, 2007). Old stems of Tetrastigma are usually terete; however, flattened
woody stems are frequently observed (Chen, 2009). Tetrastigma was first
described by Miquel (1861) as a section of Vitis, but was later recognized as a
genus by Planchon (1887) for its 4-lobed stigma (Yeo et al., 2012). The genus
is a well-supported clade with close affinity to Cayratia (Ren et al., 2011).
Tetrastigma belongs to the family Vitaceae (the grape family) which
represents the earliest diverging lineage within the rosids (Lu et al., 2013;
Wang et al., 2009). The Vitaceae consists of 14 genera and approximately 900
species primarily distributed in tropical regions (Wen, 2007; Wen et al., 2007).
According to Latiff et al. (1995), the family is one of the best represented at
the generic and species level besides Annonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and
Rubiaceae in the tropical forests of Malaysia. The family is economically
important as the source for grapes, wine and raisins (Vitis vinifera L.); several
ornamentals (e.g. Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., P. tricuspidata
Planch. and Tetrastigma planicaule Gagnep.); and local medicines (e.g.,
Ampelopsis japonica Makino, Cissus quadrangularis L. and T. hemsleyanum
Diels & Gilg) (Wen, 2007). All the members of Vitaceae except Leea climb by
means of tendrils (Latiff, 1983).
Tendrils are unbranched or bifurcate, sometimes they are palmately
branched. Leaves of Tetrastigma are usually palmately 3– to 5-foliolate or
pedately 5– to 7-foliolate and they are rarely simple. The stems are striate and
terete when young and later they either remain terete as in T. pedunculare and
T. pyriforme or become flattened as in T. latiffii and T. cruciatum (Latiff,
1983). Another important feature is the production of lateral runners which are
also present to varying extents in a number of other Tetrastigma species, e. g.
T. quadrangulum Craib & Gagnep., T. obovatum Gagnep., T. laoticum, T.
rafflesiae, T. curtisii, T. hookeri, as well as other lianas such as Parvatia
brunoniana Decne. (Lardizabalaceae) (Banziger, 1995; Banziger, 1991).
Inflorescence is a polychasium, an umbel, or a compound cyme and its flowers
are described as 4-merous with its petals spreading free, usually hooded or
galeate and sometimes corniculate. The stamens are short and abortive in
female flowers whilst the disk is well developed in male flowers, but
inconspicuous in female flowers. Style is conspicuous or inconspicuous;
however, the stigma is usually 4-lobed and rarely irregularly divided. Berries
are globose, ellipsoid or obovoid and 1– or 4-seeded. The seeds are elliptic,
obovoid-elliptic, or obtriangular and have an abaxial surface with a linear to
orbicular chalazal knot, or have an adaxial surface with a linear raphe. The
cross-section of endosperm is T- or M-shaped.
Rafflesia is an endophyte holoparasitic plant that grows completely
embedded within its host and relies entirely on its host for all their nutrients
(Sofiyanti et al., 2008; Barkman et al., 2004). Parasitic plants can be classified
as hemiparasites, which are photosynthetic or holoparasites, which are
completely devoid of chlorophyll and thus obligately dependent on their host
plants for their nutrition (Thorogood et al., 2009). There are four major types
of parasitic plants based on whether they can photosynthesize (hemiparasite) or
not (holoparasite); and whether the parasite is attached to the host plant above
ground or below-ground (Goro & Masatsugu, 2012; Heide-Jorgensen, 2008).
Rafflesia and Tetrastigma are linked through haustorium-like structures
(Nais, 2001). Its specialized structures are produced from short branches,
which penetrate the phloem of their host (Rabeler, 2007). Haustoria may have
evolved from roots, serving similar functions such as absorption, anchorage
and storage (Nais, 2001). According to Pelser et al. (2013), it certainly seems
plausible that ants, attracted to a nutritious elaiosome, would transport these
seeds to their nest before infection occurred. Elaiosomes are characteristic oily
appendages on seeds of myrmecochorous plants, such as arils, crests, etc. that
offer food bodies to ants (Pelser et al., 2013; Jackson, 1960). This is obvious
after removing some of the decaying wall of Rafflesia, numerous ants were
seen amongst the disintegrating tissue. To our knowledge, direct observations
of seed dispersers were a squirrel and treeshrew (Pelser et al., 2013; Emmons
et al., 1991).
Effects of parasitism on the host is generally seen when the parasites
with strong negative effects on host fecundity tend to reduce their host
population densities and are more likely to cause host extinctions than are
parasites with little effect on host fecundity (Ebert et al., 2000). Somehow, for
Rafflesia, there are at least five possible effects of Rafflesia’s parasitism on the
host, that is, competition for water, competition for organic and inorganic
nutrients, disruption of host metabolism, disruption of the reproductive
potential of the host and loss of health of the host (Nais, 2001).
1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this study are as follows:-
i. To identify the host plant of Rafflesia kerri Meijer in Lojing Highlands,
Kelantan.
ii. To assess the ecology of Tetrastigma species that is host to Rafflesia
kerri.
1.3 Scope of Study
The study was conducted in Lojing Highlands, Gua Musang, Kelantan
where R. kerri occurs in high density within the area or hotspot. A hotspot is
defined as a specific site of R. kerri population that consists of blooming
flowers or buds and noticeable Tetrastigma host vines. The position of each
hotspot was taken by using Global Positioning System (GPS). Other physical
parameters also were measured such as elevation and slope gradients of the
hotspots. Then, the specimens of the possible host were collected for species
identification. Two biological parameters were also analysed, namely, soil
nutrients and soil texture. Each individual of Tetrastigma species was tagged
and numbered. The stem diameter of Tetrastigma species was also measured.
For soil analysis, the soil samples were used for various analyses including
total organic matter (OM), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), as
well as the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable cations. All the
parameters taken from the soil nutrients and soil texture measurement were
analysed using excel and SPSS version 16.0.
1.4 Justification
To date, no study has been done on the taxonomy and ecology of the
Tetrastigma species in Lojing Highlands, Kelantan. However, studies on
Tetrastigma in Malaysia were intensively done by Latiff (1983) and Nais (2001,
2004). The current proliferation of the Tetrastigma species in the Lojing area
that influences the survival of R. kerri prompted this study to be conducted. The
morphological and ecological characteristics that indicated the health of
Tetrastigma species are assumed to play an important role on the survival of
Rafflesia buds. The possibility of R. kerri buds to grow may decrease if there is
insufficiency of nutrient uptake due to the competition between the host and the
parasitic plant. The nutrient uptake rate of the R. kerri bud is affected by the
morphology and ecology of the Tetrastigma species.
In Kelantan, a total of 865,017 ha or 57.60 % of the total land is still
covered with forests. From this, a total of 623,849 ha has been categorized as
permanent reserved forests and managed for the purpose of maximizing
economic, social and ecological benefits. Approximately 477,508 ha or 76.54 %
of the permanent reserved forests are production forest, with the remaining
146,341 ha or 23.46 % is for forest protection. In Lojing Highlands, the
permanent reserved forest which is 13,063 ha or 5.58 % is located in south
Kelantan. In Lojing, approximately 49.80 % or 116,584 ha of forest is under
protection as forest reserves (Anon., 2011b).
1.5 Research Questions
1) Is there any distinctive leaf anatomical similarity and difference between
T. rafflesiae and T. hookeri?
2) Is there any distinctive morphological characteristics between T.
rafflesiae and T. hookeri?
3) Do the soil properties and altitude affect the productivity of T.
rafflesiae and T. hookeri?
4) What is the dominant species of Tetrastigma in Lojing Highlands?
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tetrastigma in General
Rafflesia is a parasitic angiosperm with a specific host, Tetrastigma.
Consequently, Rafflesia is exclusively dependent on the host vine plant for its
protection and survival (Adam et al., 2013). According to Stamford Raffles
and Joseph Arnold, when Rafflesia arnoldii was encountered by them in 1818,
it was not thought to be a parasite. Rather, it was suspected to be the flower of
the liana, or even a type of giant fungus. It was not until the specimen was
shipped to Britain, dissected, and studied with the aid of William Jack’s field
notes and assertions that Robert Brown recognized it as a flowering plant, the
parasite of a vine (Nais, 2001). It is now known that these Southeast Asian
endemic holoparasites rely entirely on their host plants (exclusively species of
Tetrastigma, Vitaceae) (Barkman et al., 2004; Nais, 2001).
The diverse range of host species known so far include Tetrastigma
rafflesiae, T. diepenhorstii and T. quadrangulum. The main host for many
Rafflesia species is T. rafflesiae. The name for the common host of Rafflesias
in Malesia became confused when the name T. leucostaphylum had been
accepted though misapplied to the Indo-Malesian species, formerly named T.
lanceolarium. The nomenclatural confusion began when Mabberly (1977)
believed that both Cissus leucostaphyla and C. lanceolaria were conspecific,
as both were based on Vallia-tsjori-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab. 7 (1688): t. 8,
and hence proposed a new combination for it, T. leucostaphylum (Latiff,
2001). The discussion was followed by Shetty and Singh (1988, 1989) and
Nicolson et al. (1988). According to Latiff (2001), after a careful study of van
Rheede’s Hort. Malab. and the specimens at Kew and Leiden, he believed that
C. leucostaphyla (basionym for T. leucostaphylum) and C. lanceolaria Roxb.
non auct. (basionym for T. lanceolarium) are not conspecific. This also
happened in India when the C. leucostaphyla (basionym for T.
leucostaphylum) is a superfluous name misapplied to T. nilagiricum (Miq.) B.
V. Shetty, a south Indian-Sri Lanka species (Shetty & Singh, 2000). Latiff
(2001) regarded these as synonymous. He tried to clarify in his paper that the
right nomenclature for the species should be T. tuberculatum (Blume) Latiff
(Veldkamp, 2008).
Rafflesia (and Rhizanthes), however are exception in infecting only a
few species of Tetrastigma (Nais, 2001). Rafflesia is non-photosynthetic
holoparasite (Arunachalam et al., 2004). Establishing the identity of a Rafflesia
host plant can be difficult and past records need to be treated with caution. The
hosts plant for R. kerri from previous studies are erroneously identified as T.
lanceolarium (Roxb.) Planch., T. papillosum (Blume) Planch. and T.
quadrangulum Gagnep. & Craib (Nais, 2001).
Tetrastigma is a vine or liana (Nais, 2001) and lianas are woody
climbing plants that rely on other plants for mechanical support. Their stems
have reduced amounts of supporting tissue and they are highly light
demanding (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000). Recent investigations have shown
that lianas are a prominent component of tropical forests, where they play an
important role in ecosystem processes, including foliage and fruit production
and carbon sequestration (Parthasarathy et al., 2015).
Lianas are a conspicuous and characteristic life-form in tropical rain
forests and their high abundance is an important physiognomic feature
differentiating tropical from temperate forests (Oduoye & Ogundipe, 2013;
Gentry, 1991). There is an average ten-fold difference in liana density between
temperate and lowland tropical forests, with a three-fold difference between
the most liana rich temperate forests and the most liana-poor lowland tropical
ones (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000; Gentry, 1982). Forest locality and type
appear to influence the distribution of lianas (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000;
Balfour & Bond, 1993). Variations in reproduction, dispersal, climbing
methods or phenology strategies help in sharing gaps and permit efficient
resource partitioning between the liana species (Padaki & Parthasarathy, 2000;
Oldeman, 1990).
2.1.1 Growth Strategies
The Vitaceae, commonly known as the wild grape family which can be
found in the primary forests, at forest edges, river banks, secondary forests and
other exposed areas in Malaysia (Latiff & El-Taguri, 2013). Some genera of
lianas mainly consist of lianas (e.g., Vitaceae) whereas others include lianas as
well as shrubs and trees (e.g., Bauhinia, Embelia). Because lianas are favoured
by forest disturbances and are more diverse in warmer environments, human-
induced disturbances and global warming are likely to promote liana
abundance. These environmental modifications are already responsible for the
reported increase in the growth rates and abundance of large diameter lianas in
tropical forests (Cai, 2007; Wright et al., 2004), although more data are needed
to evaluate this trend and its possible causes. Furthermore, they have height
growth rates than can be seven times faster than trees (Cai et al., 2007;
Schnitzer, 2005). Centre stems of Tetrastigma have the fastest growth rate
compared to the basal part and the terminal end of Tetrastigma species (Lianah
et al., 2011). The inclusion of Tetrastigma or lianas in forest studies may yield
important new information on forest dynamics, which are crucial for a
comprehensive understanding of tropical forest ecology and the formulation of
effective management practices (Schnitzer et al., 2008; Perez-Salicrup et al.,
2004). However, the high growth rate of Tetrastigma nitens and its ability to
propagate vegetatively are a potential threat – for example trees can be shaded
out and branches broken. In addition, the vines grow from the ground and high
into trees, suggesting that they could act as a fire ladder and allow ground fires
to become tree crown fires (Morisawa, 1999).
2.2 Distribution of Tetrastigma
The genus Tetrastigma Planch. comprises of about 95 species
distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, primarily in Southeast Asia, and
extending to Australia, (Kochaiphat et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2011; Latiff,
1983). Tetrastigma is much more widely distributed than Rafflesia, and there
seems to be no relationship between the distribution of the host plant and
Rafflesia (Nais, 2001).
In Malesia there are a total of 35 species of Tetrastigma (Latiff, pers.
comm., June 24, 2015). The Malesian region, defined as the floristic region
incorporating the nation states of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the
Philippines and Papua New Guinea, has long been recognised as a region of
great biogeographic interest (Gower et al., 2012; Wallace, 1869).
According to Latiff (1983), there are 12 species of Tetrastigma in
Peninsular Malaysia, while T. voinierianum is a rapidly growing vine endemic
to Vietnam (Morisawa, 1999). In Australia, Tetrastigma nitens is distributed
from northern New South Wales to North Queensland (Morisawa, 1999).
According to Laidlaw et al. (2011), Tetrastigma nitens is found in the
Lamington National Park, south-east Queensland at 700 m a. s. l.
2.3 Host – Parasite Relationship
Previous studies recorded 8 species of Tetrastigma (Vitaceae) that are
associated with Rafflesia, as shown in Table 2.1. These species are T.
diepenhorstii (Miq.) Latiff, T. rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch., T. papillosum (Blume)
Planch., T. quadrangulum Gagnep. & Craib, T. loheri Planch., T. pisicarpum
(Miq.) Planch., T. coriaceum (DC.) Gagnep. and T. harmandii Planch.. All
Rafflesia host species are from the South-east Asian region. Only two Rafflesia
host plants, T. rafflesiae (Miq.) Planch. and T. diepenhorstii Miq. are found in
Malaysia.
Table 2.1: Presently Recorded Host Plant Species of Rafflesia
No Tetrastigma sp. Host plant for
Rafflesia
Region Site References
1 T. rafflesiae
(Miq.) Planch.
[= T.
leucostaphylum
(Dennst.) Alston
ex Mabb.]
R. pricei Borneo Sabah Nais, 1997
R. tengku-adlinii Borneo Sabah Nais, 1997
R. kerri Peninsular
Malaysia
Gunung
Chamah
Qayyum et.
al., 2013
R. arnoldii &
R. atjehensis
Sumatra Mount
Leuser
Nais, 1997
R. manillana &
R. cumingii
Luzon Mount
Leuser
Nais, 1997