REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINESPOLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

Global climate change affects: Temperature

Temperatureis an objective comparative measure of hot or cold. It is measured by athermometer, which may work through the bulk behavior of a thermometric material, detection ofthermal radiation, or particlekinetic energy. Severalscales and unitsexist for measuring temperature, the most common beingCelsius(denoted C; formerly calledcentigrade),Fahrenheit(denoted F), and, especially in science,Kelvin(denoted K).

The coldest theoretical temperature isabsolute zero, at which thethermal motionin matter would be zero. However, an actual physical system or object can never attain a temperature of absolute zero. Absolute zero is denoted as 0K on the Kelvin scale, 273.15C on the Celsius scale, and 459.67F on the Fahrenheit scale.

Thekinetic theoryoffers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic systems. It indicates the absolute temperatureas proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of their constituent microscopic particles such as electrons, atoms, and molecules.

Temperature is important in all fields of natural science, including physics, geology, chemistry,atmospheric sciences,medicine, and biologyas well as most aspects of daily life.

Sea Level

Sea levelis generally used to refer tomean sea level(MSL),an averagelevel for the surface of one or more ofEarth's oceansfrom which heights such as elevationsmay be measured. MSL is a type ofvertical datum a standardizedgeodetic reference point that is used, for example, as achart datumincartographyandmarine navigation, or, inaviation, as the standard sea levelat whichatmospheric pressureis measured in order to calibrate altitudeand, consequently, aircraftflight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between amean low and mean high tideat a particular location.

Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly overgeological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoingclimate change, andthe current rise in sea levelshas been widely quoted as proof of ongoingglobal warming.

The termabove sea levelgenerally refers actually toabove mean sea level(AMSL).

Precipitation

Inmeteorology,precipitationis any product of the condensation ofatmosphericwater vapourthat falls under gravity.The main forms of precipitation includedrizzle,rain,sleet,snow,graupelandhail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapour, so that the water condenses and "precipitates". Thus,fogandmistare not precipitation but suspensions because the water vapour does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Generally, precipitation will fall to the surface; an exception isvirgawhich evaporates before reaching the surface. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within acloud. Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small spheres for smaller drops. Unlike raindrops, snowflakes grow in a variety of different shapes and patterns, determined by thetemperature andhumiditycharacteristics of the air the snowflake moves through on its way to the ground. While snow and ice pellets require temperatures close to the ground to be near or below freezing, hail can occur during much warmer temperature regimes due to the process of its formation.

Moisture overriding associated withweather frontsis an overall major method of precipitation production. If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such ascumulonimbusand can organize into narrowrain bands. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes,lake-effect snowfallbecomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the coldcyclonicflow around the backside ofextratropical cyclones. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy.Thunder snowis possible within a cyclone's comma headand within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized withinwindwardsides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of themonsoon trough, orinter tropical convergence zone, bringsrainy seasonstosavannahclimes.

Precipitation is a major component of thewater cycle, and is responsible for depositing thefresh wateron theplanet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000cumi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000cumi) of it over theoceansand 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000cumi) over land.[2]Given theEarth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres (28.1 in). Climate classification systems such as theKppen climate classificationsystem use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.

Theurban heat islandeffect may lead to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities.Global warmingis also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally.

Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.Effects:

Storms and Flooding

Astorm surgeis acoastal floodortsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated withlow pressureweather systems (such astropical cyclonesand strongextra tropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the timing oftides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges.

The two mainmeteorologicalfactors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetchof winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center. The second effect is responsible for destructivemeteotsunamisassociated with the most intense tropical systems. A warmer atmosphere holds more moisture Evidence of heavier rainfall in the past is limited, but growing Attributing specific events to climate change is tricky, and flooding is no exception Scientists predict that heavy rainfall will increase in the future Flooding isn't just about rainfall; other human factors contribute tooRising sea level inundates low-lying areas, converts wetlands to open water, erodes beaches, exacerbates flooding, and increases the salinity of estuaries and aquifers.Sea level rise can exacerbate all of the causes of coastal flooding.

During hurricanes and severe northeasters, intense winds and low pressure cause water to pile up higher than normal; causing what is known as a storm surge. These surges are generally the source of the worst flooding. Rising sea level provides a higher base upon which storm surges build, and thereby increases the risk of severe flooding. Moreover, loss of wetlands from sea level rise can remove a storm surge buffer.

Along the ocean coast, storm waves can destroy homes even if they are elevated above the storm water level. Sea level rise increases the risk of damaging storm waves for two reasons: the higher water level provides a higher base for the waves so they are able to strike structures that might otherwise be elevated above the waves; and shore erosion causes by sea level rise allows the waves to strike farther inland

Extreme high tides during new and full moons can flood areas that are above the normal high tide. Rising sea level elevates all of the tides, allowing spring tide flooding to reach farther inland.

Low-lying coastal areas often flood during severe thunderstorms because they drain very slowly. Rising sea level further slows the rate at which low-lying areas flood. Heat

Inphysics,heatisenergyin transfer other than asworkor by transfer of matter. When there is a suitable physical pathway, heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one. The transfer results in a net increase inentropy. The pathway can be direct, as inconductionandradiation, or indirect, as inconvective circulation.

Heat refers to aprocessof transfer between two systems, thesystem of interest, and its surroundings considered as a system, not to astate or propertyof a single system. If heat transfer is slow and continuous, so that thetemperatureof the system of interest remains well defined, it can be described by aprocess function.

Kinetic theoryexplains heat as amacroscopicmanifestation of the motions and interactions of microscopic constituents such asmoleculesandphotons.

Incalorimetry,sensible heatis defined with respect to a particularstate variableof the system; it causes change of temperature, leaving that particular state variable unchanged. Heat transfer that occurs with the system at constant temperature and that changes that particular state variable is calledlatent heatwith respect to that variable. For infinitesimal changes, the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat increments. This is a basic paradigm for thermodynamics, and was important in the historical development of the subject.

The quantity of energy transferred as heat is ascalarexpressed in an energy unit such as thejoule(J) (SI), with a sign that is customarily positive when a transfer adds to the energy of a system. It can be measured bycalorimetry, or determined by calculations based on other quantities, relying on thefirst law of thermodynamics.Heat energy is most intense in substances whose molecules are moving rapidly in a very disorderly way. Such a substance will give up some of its heat to another substance whose molecules are less agitated. When this happens, the heat is said to flow from one substance to another (or from one body to another). The energy transfer is indicated by a change in temperature.

Temperature, therefore, is not the same thing as heatalthough the two words are often used interchangeably. Temperature can be defined as the degree of intensity of hotness or coldness. Hotness and coldness, however, are comparative terms. A flame, for example, is hot when compared with ice but cold when compared with the sun. This definition of temperature, therefore, is vague and unscientific, although it does convey the correct impression that temperature is a measure of relative intensity rather than of quantity.

A more specific definition is: temperature is the ability of one body to give up heat energy to another body. A hot body becomes cooler, and a cold body becomes warmer, as long as heat is flowing from one to the other. The hot body has a greater ability to give up heat and therefore has a higher temperature. After a time the two bodies may reach a condition of heat equilibrium, or balance of heat intensity. Then, heat flow ceases. At the point of equilibrium both bodies can be said to be at the same temperature.

Measurement of Temperature

Absolute Zero

High Temperatures

Measurement of HeatSea level rise reveals a lot about our changing climate. A rise in the mean sea level can be caused by decreases in ocean density, mostly reflecting an increase in ocean temperature this isstericsea level rise. It can also be caused by an increase in ocean mass, reflecting a gain of fresh water from land. A third, and smaller, contribution to mean sea level is from glacial isotactic adjustment. The contribution of glacial isotactic adjustment, while small, has a range of possible values and can be a significant source of uncertainty in sea level budgets. Over recent decades, very roughly half of the observed mean sea level rise is owing to changes in ocean density with the other half owing to the increased in ocean mass, mostly from melting glaciers and polar ice sheets. The exact proportion has been difficult to pin down with great certainty.Precipitation hardening, also calledage hardening, is aheat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleablematerials, including most structural alloys ofaluminum,magnesium,nickel,titanium, and somestainless steels. In super alloys, it is known to causeyield strength anomalyproviding excellent high-temperature strength.

Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solidsolubilitywithtemperatureto produce fine particles of an impurityphase, which impede the movement ofdislocations, or defects in acrystal'slattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers ofplasticity, this serves to harden the material. The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced compositematerials. Just as the formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere,precipitationin solids can produce many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinarytempering, alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take place. This time delay is called "aging". Solution treatment and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in metalsspecsandcerts.

Note that two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a material: solution heat treating and precipitation heat treating.Solid solution strengtheninginvolves formation of a single-phase solid solution via quenching. Precipitation heat treating involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a material's strength.

Vector Biology

Inmolecular cloning, avectoris a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell, where it can be replicated and/or expressed. A vector containing foreign DNA is termedrecombinant DNA. The four major types of vectors areplasmids,viral vectors,cosmids, andartificial chromosomes. Of these, the most commonly used vectors are plasmids. Common to all engineered vectors are anorigin of replication, amulti cloning site, and aselectable marker.

The vector itself is generally aDNAsequence that consists of an insert (transgene) and a larger sequence that serves as the "backbone" of the vector. The purpose of a vector which transfers genetic information to another cell is typically to isolate, multiply, or express the insert in the target cell. Vectors calledexpression vectors(expression constructs) specifically are for the expression of the transgene in the target cell, and generally have apromotersequence that drives expression of the transgene. Simpler vectors called transcription vectors are only capable of being transcribed but not translated: they can be replicated in a target cell but not expressed, unlike expression vectors. Transcription vectors are used to amplify their insert.

Insertion of a vector into the target cell is usually calledtransformationfor bacterial cells,transfectionforeukaryotic cells, although insertion of a viral vector is often calledtransduction. Air Pollutants

Air pollutionis the introduction ofparticulates,biological molecules, or other harmful materials intoEarth's atmosphere, causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or thenaturalorbuilt environment. Air pollution may come fromanthropogenicor natural sources.

The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planetEarth.Stratosphericozone depletiondue to air pollution has been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Food Supply

Food supply, however, is not only a function of production, but also of energy efficiency. Food energy efficiency is our ability to minimize the loss of energy in food from harvest potential through processing to actual consumption and recycling. By optimizing this chain, food supply can increase with much less damage to the environment, similar to improvements in efficiency in the traditional energy sector. However, unlike the traditional energy sector, food energy efficiency has received little attention. Civil Conflict

Acivil waris awarbetween organized groups within the samestateor country,or, less commonly, between two countries created from formerly united states.The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region or to change government policies.The term is acalqueof the Latinbellum civilewhich was used to refer to the variouscivil wars of the Roman Republicin the 1st century BC.

A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involvingregular armed forces, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers ofcasualtiesand the consumption of significant resources.

ASSIGNMENT #3