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Astronomers Royal

ContentsArticlesOverview 1

Astronomer Royal 1Royal Observatory, Greenwich 2

Similar positions 7

Astronomer Royal for Scotland 7Royal Astronomer of Ireland 8

Astronomers Royal 9

John Flamsteed 9Edmond Halley 12James Bradley 17Nathaniel Bliss 20Nevil Maskelyne 21John Pond 25George Biddell Airy 27William Christie 35Frank Watson Dyson 37Harold Spencer Jones 40Richard van der Riet Woolley 41Martin Ryle 43Francis Graham-Smith 46Arnold Wolfendale 47Martin Rees 49

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 53Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 55

Article LicensesLicense 56

1

Overview

Astronomer RoyalAstronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Household of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. There are twoofficers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 1675; the second is the Astronomer Royal forScotland dating from 1834.King Charles II, who founded the Royal Observatory Greenwich in 1675 instructed the first Astronomer Royal JohnFlamsteed, "... forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying the tables of themotions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much desired longitude of places forthe perfecting the art of navigation."[1]

From that time until 1972 the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As AstronomerRoyal he receives a stipend of 100 GBP per year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the generalauthority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has beenlargely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters,and the office is of great prestige.There was also formerly a Royal Astronomer of Ireland.

Astronomers Royal• 1675–1719 John Flamsteed• 1720–1742 Edmond Halley• 1742–1762 James Bradley• 1762–1764 Nathaniel Bliss• 1765–1811 Nevil Maskelyne• 1811–1835 John Pond• 1835–1881 Sir George Biddell Airy• 1881–1910 Sir William Christie• 1910–1933 Sir Frank Dyson• 1933–1955 Sir Harold Spencer Jones• 1956–1971 Richard van der Riet Woolley• 1972–1982 Sir Martin Ryle• 1982–1990 Sir Francis Graham-Smith• 1991–1995 Sir Arnold Wolfendale• 1995–present Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow

References[1] F Baily, "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed", reprinted in vol.28,at p.293 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&

pg=PA293). "The Museum of foreign literature, science and art", R Walsh et al., publ. E Litell, 1836.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich 2

Royal Observatory, Greenwich

Royal Observatory, Greenwich. A time ball sitsatop the Octagon Room

Flamsteed House in 1824

Royal Observatory, Greenwich c. 1902 asdepicted on a postcard

The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (formerly the Royal GreenwichObservatory or RGO), in London, England played a major role in thehistory of astronomy and navigation, and is best known as the locationof the prime meridian. It is situated on a hill in Greenwich Park,overlooking the River Thames.

The observatory was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II, withthe foundation stone being laid on 10 August.[1] At this time the kingalso created the position of Astronomer Royal (initially filled by JohnFlamsteed), to serve as the director of the observatory and to "applyhimself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of thetables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars,so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for theperfecting of the art of navigation." The building was completed in thesummer of 1676.[2] The building was often given the title "FlamsteedHouse".

The scientific work of the observatory was relocated elsewhere instages in the first half of the 20th century, and the Greenwich site isnow maintained as a tourist attraction.

History

There had been significant buildings on this land since the reign ofEdward I.[3] Greenwich Palace, next to the site of the present-dayObservatory was the birthplace of Henry VIII and the Tudors usedGreenwich Castle, which was built on the land that the Observatorynow stands on. Greenwich Castle was apparently a favourite place forHenry VIII to house his mistresses, so that he could easily travel fromthe Palace to see them.[4]

The establishment of a Royal Observatory was proposed in 1674 by SirJonas Moore who, in his role as Surveyor General at the OrdnanceOffice, persuaded King Charles II that the Observatory might be builtwith Flamsteed employed in it.[5] The Ordnance Office was givenresponsibility for building the Observatory, with Moore providing thekey instruments and equipment for the observatory at his own personalcost. Flamsteed House, the original part of the Observatory, wasdesigned by Sir Christopher Wren probably with the assistance ofRobert Hooke and was the first purpose-built scientific research facilityin Britain. It was built for a cost of £520 (£20 over budget) out of largely recycled materials on the foundations ofDuke Humphrey's Tower, which resulted in the alignment being 13 degrees away from true North, somewhat toFlamsteed's chagrin.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich 3

Laser projected from the observatory marking thePrime Meridian line

It not only housed the scientific instruments to be used by Flamsteed inhis work on stellar tables, but over time also incorporated a number ofadditional responsibilities such as the keeping of time and later HerMajesty's Nautical Almanac Office.

Moore donated two clocks, built by Thomas Tompion, which wereinstalled in the 20 foot high Octagon Room, the principal room of thebuilding. They were of unusual design, each with a pendulum 13 feet(3.96 metres) in length mounted above the clock face, giving a periodof four seconds and an accuracy, then unparalleled, of seven secondsper day.

Prime MeridianBritish astronomers have long used the Royal Observatory as a basis for measurement: four separate meridians havebeen drawn through the building. The basis of longitude, the Prime Meridian, established in 1851 and adopted at aninternational conference in 1884, passes through the Airy transit circle of the observatory. It was long marked by abrass strip in the courtyard, now upgraded to stainless steel, and, since 16 December 1999, has been marked by apowerful green laser shining north across the London night sky.This old astronomical prime meridian has been replaced by a more modern prime meridian. When Greenwich was anactive observatory, geographical coordinates were referred to a local oblate spheroid called a datum, whose surfaceclosely matched local mean sea level, called the geoid. Several datums were in use around the world, all usingdifferent spheroids, because mean sea level undulates by as much as 100 metres worldwide. Modern geodeticreference systems, such as the World Geodetic System and the International Terrestrial Reference Frame, use asingle Earth-centered oblate spheroid. The shift from several spheroids to one worldwide spheroid caused allgeographical coordinates to shift by many metres, sometimes as much as several hundred metres. The PrimeMeridian of these modern reference systems is 102.5 metres east of the Greenwich astronomical meridianrepresented by the stainless steel strip. Thus the strip is now 5.31 arcseconds West. The modern location of the AiryTransit is 51°28′40.1247″N 0°0′5.3101″W[6]

Greenwich Mean TimeGreenwich Mean Time (GMT) was at one time based on the time observations made at Greenwich (until 1954).Thereafter, GMT was calculated from observations made at other observatories which were still active. GMT is nowoften called Universal Time, which is now calculated from observations of extra-galactic radio sources, and thenconverted into several forms, including UT0 (UT at the remote observatory), UT1 (UT corrected for polar motion),and UTC (UT in discrete SI seconds within 0.9 s of UT1). To help others synchronise their clocks to GMT, a timeball was installed by Astronomer Royal John Pond in 1833. It still drops daily to mark the exact moment of 1 pm(13:00) year round (GMT during winter and BST during summer).[7]

Royal Observatory, Greenwich 4

Bomb attack of 1894The Observatory underwent an attempted bombing in 1894. This was possibly the first 'international terrorist'incident in Britain. The bomb was detonated by a 26-year-old French anarchist named Martial Bourdin. It is notknown why he chose the observatory, or whether the detonation was intended to occur elsewhere. The incident wasused as inspiration by Joseph Conrad in his novel The Secret Agent.[8]

The Shepherd gate 24-hour clock

Former Royal Greenwich Observatory,Herstmonceux, East Sussex

Observatory today

Today the buildings include a museum of astronomical andnavigational tools, which is part of the National Maritime Museum,notably including John Harrison's prize-winning longitude marinechronometer, H4, and its three predecessors, although all four are theproperty of the Ministry of Defence. Several additional horologicalartefacts are also displayed, documenting the history of precisiontimekeeping for navigational and astronomical purposes, including themid 20th century Russian-made F.M. Fedchenko clock (the mostaccurate pendulum clock ever built in multiple copies). It is also hometo the 28-inch Grubb refracting telescope of 1893, the largest of itskind in the UK. The Shepherd Clock outside the observatory gate is anearly example of an electric slave clock. In February 2005 constructionwork began on a £15 million redevelopment project to provide a newplanetarium and additional display galleries and educational facilities.The 120 seat Peter Harrison Planetarium officially opened on 25 May2007.[9]

Standard lengths on the wall of the RoyalObservatory, Greenwich, London – 1 yard (3feet), 2 feet, 1 foot, 6 inches (1/2 foot), and 3

inches. The separation of the inside faces of themarkers is exact at an ambient temperature of 60

°F (16 °C) and a rod of the correct measure,resting on the pins, will fit snugly between

them.[10] [11]

Royal Observatory, Greenwich vs. RoyalGreenwich Observatory

During much of the twentieth century, the Royal GreenwichObservatory was not at Greenwich. The last time that all departmentswere there was 1924: in that year electrification of the railwaysaffected the readings of the Magnetic and Meteorological Departmentand forced its move to Abinger. Indeed prior to this, the observatoryhad to insist that all the electric trams in the vicinity could not use anearth return for the traction current. In 1939, during World War II,many departments were evacuated, along with the rest of London, tothe countryside (Abinger, Bradford, and Bath) and activities inGreenwich were reduced to the bare minimum.

After the War, in 1947, the decision was made to move toHerstmonceux Castle and 320 adjacent acres (1.3 km²), 70 kmsouth-southeast of Greenwich near Hailsham in East Sussex, due to

light pollution in London. Although the Astronomer Royal Harold Spencer Jones moved to the castle in 1948, the scientific staff could not move until the completion of new observatory buildings in 1957. Shortly thereafter, other

Royal Observatory, Greenwich 5

far flung departments were reintegrated at Herstmonceux.The Isaac Newton Telescope was built at Herstmonceux in 1967, but was moved to Roque de los MuchachosObservatory in Spain's Canary Islands in 1979. In 1990 the RGO moved again, to Cambridge. Following a decisionof the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council, it closed in 1998. Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Officewas transferred to the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory after the closure. Other work went to the UK AstronomyTechnology Centre in Edinburgh. The castle grounds are now the home of the International Study Centre of Queen'sUniversity, Kingston, Canada and The Observatory Science Centre which is operated by an educational charityScience Projects.

Royal Observatory, Greenwich

One of the hyper-accurate chronometers at theobservatory

Chronology

• 1675 Royal Observatory, Greenwich founded.• 1714 Longitude Act establishes the Board of Longitude and the

Longitude prize• 1924 Hourly time signals (Greenwich Time Signal) from the Royal

Observatory, Greenwich were first broadcast on 5 February.• 1948 Astronomer Royal moves to Herstmonceux.• 1957 Royal Observatory completes its move to Herstmonceux,

becoming the Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO). TheGreenwich site becomes the Old Royal Observatory.

• 1990 RGO moves to Cambridge.• 1998 RGO closes. Greenwich site becomes the Royal Observatory,

Greenwich again, and is part of the National Maritime Museum.

References[1] The History Channel: This day in history (http:/ / www. thehistorychannel. co. uk/

site/ this_day_in_history/ this_day_August_10. php)[2] Robert Chambers, Book of Days[3] John Timbs' Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales[4] Hart, Kelly (2010), The Mistresses of Henry VIII, The History Press, p. 73,

ISBN 9780752454962[5] http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ public/ dnb/ 19137. html Sir Jonas Moore[6] Calvert, Carl (1999). "The Greenwich Meridian in the Space Age" (http:/ /

gpsinformation. net/ main/ greenwich. htm). . Retrieved 7 July 2011.[7] Greenwich time ball (http:/ / wwp. greenwichmeantime. com/ info/ timeball. htm)[8] Propaganda by Deed – the Greenwich Observatory Bomb of 1894 (http:/ / www.

nmm. ac. uk/ server/ show/ conWebDoc. 413)[9] Reopening of the new Royal Observatory, Greenwich (http:/ / www. nmm. ac. uk/

server/ show/ ConWebDoc. 21720)

[10] Bennett, Keith (2004), Bucher, Jay L., ed., The Metrology Handbook, Milwaukee, WI: American Society for Quality Measurement, p. 8,ISBN 978-0-87389-620-7.

[11] Walford, Edward (1878), Old and New London (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ report. aspx?compid=45276), VI, .

Royal Observatory, Greenwich 6

Further reading• Greenwich Observatory: ... the Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux, 1675–1975. London: Taylor

& Francis, 1975 3v. (Vol. 1. Origins and early history (1675–1835), by Eric G. Forbes. ISBN 0-85066-093-9;Vol. 2. Recent history (1836–1975), by A.J. Meadows. ISBN 0-85066-094-7; Vol. 3. The buildings andinstruments by Derek Howse. ISBN 0-85066-095-5).

• Greenwich Time and the Longitude. London: Philip Wilson, 1997, by Derek Howse. ISBN 0-85667-468-0.

External links• Online catalogue of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives (held at Cambridge University Library) (http:/ /

janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180)• The Royal Greenwich Observatory Legacy Website (http:/ / www. royalgreenwichastro. co. uk/ )• "Where the Earth's surface begins—and ends" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qOIDAAAAMBAJ&

pg=PA927), Popular Mechanics, December 1930• HM Nautical Almanac Office (http:/ / www. nao. rl. ac. uk/ )• The Royal Observatory, Greenwich, now part of the Mational Maritime Museum (http:/ / www. nmm. ac. uk/

places/ royal-observatory/ )• Aerial View of The Royal Observatory, Greenwich at Google Maps (http:/ / maps. google. co. uk/ maps?f=q&

hl=en& q=Greenwich& ie=UTF8& t=k& om=1& z=19& ll=51. 477815,-0. 001556& spn=0. 00073,0. 002438&iwloc=A)

• The National Maritime Museum (http:/ / www. nmm. ac. uk/ )• Castle in the sky – The story of the Royal Greenwich Observatory at Herstmonceux (http:/ / www. ing. iac. es/

PR/ int_info/ history. htm)• A Personal History of the Royal Greenwich Observatory at Herstmonceux Castle, 1948–1990 by George Wilkins,

a former member of staff (http:/ / www. lib. cam. ac. uk/ deptserv/ manuscripts/ RGO_history/ )• The Observatory Science Centre (http:/ / www. the-observatory. org/ )• Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes (http:/ / www. ing. iac. es)• A pictorial catalogue of meridian markers (http:/ / www. thegreenwichmeridian. org/ )

7

Similar positions

Astronomer Royal for ScotlandAstronomer Royal for Scotland was the title of the director of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh until 1995.[1] Ithas since been an honorary title.[2]

The following have served as Astronomers Royal for Scotland:• 1834–1844 Thomas Henderson• 1846–1888 Charles Piazzi Smyth• 1889–1905 Ralph Copeland• 1905–1910 Sir Frank Watson Dyson• 1910–1937 Ralph Allen Sampson• 1938–1955 William Michael Herbert Greaves• 1957–1975 Hermann Brück• 1975–1980 Vincent Cartledge Reddish• 1980–1990 Malcolm Longair• 1991–1995 In abeyance• 1995–present John Campbell Brown

References[1] "The Royal observatory, Edinburgh: Astronomer Royal for Scotland" (http:/ / www. roe. ac. uk/ roe/ library/ astroyal. html). Roe.ac.uk. .

Retrieved 2010-06-16.[2] Shân Ross (2010-04-01). "Interview: Professor John Brown - Astronomer Royal for Scotland" (http:/ / news. scotsman. com/ scitech/

Interview-Professor-John-Brown-. 6191876. jp). news.scotsman.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-16.

Royal Astronomer of Ireland 8

Royal Astronomer of IrelandThe Royal Astronomer of Ireland was a title attached to the Andrews Professorship of astronomy in TrinityCollege Dublin and the directorship of its astronomical observatory at Dunsink, near Dublin. The eight title-holdersincluded Charles Jasper Joly, Professor Sir Robert Stawell Ball, Professor Sir William Rowan Hamilton, andProfessor John Brinkley. The title of Royal Astronomer of Ireland was introduced by Letters Patent of George III in1792 so John Brinkley was the first Royal Astronomer.• 1783–1792 Henry Ussher• 1792–1827 John Brinkley• 1827–1865 Sir William Rowan Hamilton• 1865–1874 Franz Friedrich Ernst Brünnow• 1874–1892 Sir Robert Stawell Ball• 1892–1897 Arthur Alcock Rambaut• 1897–1906 Charles Jasper Joly• 1906–1912 Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker• 1912–1921 Henry Crozier Keating Plummer

External links• Trinity College Dublin's Astrophysics Research Group [1] website.

References[1] http:/ / www. physics. tcd. ie/ Astrophysics/ andrews-profs. php

9

Astronomers Royal

John Flamsteed

John Flamsteed

Born 19 August 1646Denby, Derbyshire, England

Died 31 December 1719 (aged73)Burstow, Surrey, England

Nationality English

Fields Astronomy

Alma mater Jesus College, Cambridge

Known for First Astronomer Royal

Influenced Joseph CrosthwaitAbraham Sharp

Sir John Flamsteed FRS (19 August 1646 – 31 December 1719) was an English astronomer and the firstAstronomer Royal. He catalogued over 3000 stars.[1]

LifeFlamsteed was born in Denby, Derbyshire, England, the only son of Stephen Flamsteed. He was educated at the freeschool of Derby, and was educated at Derby School, in St Peter's Churchyard, Derby, near where his father carriedon a malting business. At that time, most masters of the school were Puritans. Flamsteed had a solid knowledge ofLatin, essential for reading the literature of the day, and a love of history, leaving the school in May, 1662.[2] :3–4

His progress to Jesus College, Cambridge, recommended by the Master of Derby School, was delayed by some years of chronic ill health. During those years, Flamsteed gave his father some help in his business, and from his father learnt arithmetic and the use of fractions, but he also used those years to develop a keen interest in mathematics and astronomy. In July 1662, he was fascinated by the thirteenth century work of Johannes de Sacrobosco, De sphaera mundi, and on 12 September 1662 observed his first partial solar eclipse. Early in 1663, he read Thomas Fale's The Art of Dialling, which set off an interest in sundials. In the summer of 1663, he read Wingate's Canon, William Oughtred's Canon, and Thomas Stirrup's Art of Dialling. At about the same time, he acquired Thomas Street's Astronomia Carolina, or A New Theory of the Celestial Motions (Caroline Tables). He associated himself with local

John Flamsteed 10

gentlemen interested in astronomy, including William Litchford, whose library included the work of the astrologerJohn Gadbury which included astronomical tables by Jeremiah Horrocks, who had died in 1641 at the age oftwenty-three. Flamsteed was greatly impressed (as Isaac Newton had been) by the work of Horrocks.[2] :8–11

In August 1665, at the age of nineteen and as a gift for his friend Litchford, Flamsteed wrote his first paper onastronomy, entitled Mathematical Essays, concerning the design, use and construction of an astronomer's quadrant,including tables for the latitude of Derby.[2] :11

In September 1670, Flamsteed visited Cambridge and entered his name as an undergraduate at Jesus College.[3]

While it seems he never took up full residence, he was there for two months in 1674, and had the opportunity to hearIsaac Newton's Lucasian Lectures.[2] :26

Ordained a deacon, he was preparing to take up a living in Derbyshire when he was invited to London. On 4 March1675 he was appointed by royal warrant "The King's Astronomical Observator" — the first British AstronomerRoyal, with an allowance of £100 a year. In June 1675, another royal warrant provided for the founding of the RoyalGreenwich Observatory, and Flamsteed laid the foundation stone in August. In February 1676, he was admitted aFellow of the Royal Society, and in July, he moved into the Observatory where he lived until 1684, when he wasfinally appointed priest to the parish of Burstow, Surrey. He held that office, as well as that of Astronomer Royal,until his death. He is buried at Burstow.

Scientific work

Bust of John Flamsteed in the Museum of theRoyal Greenwich Observatory

Flamsteed accurately calculated the solar eclipses of 1666 and 1668.He was responsible for several of the earliest recorded sightings of theplanet Uranus, which he mistook for a star and catalogued as '34 Tauri'.The first of these was in December 1690, which remains the earliestknown sighting of Uranus by an astronomer.

On 16 August 1680 Flamsteed catalogued a star, 3 Cassiopeiae, thatlater astronomers were unable to corroborate. Three hundred yearslater, the American astronomical historian William Ashworthsuggested that what Flamsteed may have seen was the most recentsupernova in the galaxy's history, an event which would leave as itsremnant the strongest radio source outside of the solar system, knownin the third Cambridge (3C) catalogue as 3C 461 and commonly calledCassiopeia A by astronomers. Because the position of "3 Cassiopeiae"does not precisely match that of Cassiopeia A, and because theexpansion wave associated with the explosion has been workedbackward to the year 1667 and not 1680, some historians feel that allFlamsteed may have done was incorrectly note the position of a staralready known.

As Astronomer Royal, Flamsteed spent some forty years observing andmaking meticulous records for his star catalogue, which would eventually triple the number of entries in TychoBrahe's sky atlas. Unwilling to risk his reputation by releasing unverified data, he kept the incomplete records underseal at Greenwich. In 1712, Isaac Newton, then President of the Royal Society, and Edmund Halley obtained the dataand published a pirated star catalogue. Flamsteed managed to gather three hundred of the four hundred printings andburned them. "If Sir I.N. would be sensible of it, I have done both him and Dr. Halley a great kindness," he wrote tohis assistant Abraham Sharp.[4]

In 1725 Flamsteed's own version of Historia Coelestis Britannica was published posthumously, edited by his wife, Margaret. This contained Flamsteed's observations, and included a catalogue of 2,935 stars to much greater accuracy

John Flamsteed 11

than any prior work. It was considered the first significant contribution of the Greenwich Observatory, and thenumerical Flamsteed designations for stars that were added subsequently to a French edition are still in use. In 1729his wife published his Atlas Coelestis, assisted by Joseph Crosthwait and Abraham Sharp, who were responsible forthe technical side.

Honours• Fellow of the Royal Society (1676)• The crater Flamsteed on the Moon is named after him.• The asteroid (4987) Flamsteed is named in his honour.• Numerous schools and colleges in Derbyshire have been named after him. The science block at John Port School

is named Flamsteed in recognition of his work for science. John Flamsteed Community School in Denby carrieshis name. Flamsteed House at the Ecclesbourne School in Duffield is also named after him.

Notes[1] Robert Chambers, Book of Days[2] Birks, John L., John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal (London, Avon Books, 1999)[3] John Flamsteed (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=FLMT670J&

sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.[4] Sobel, Dava (1995). Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time. New York: Walker

& Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1529-6.

Further reading• The correspondence of John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal compiled and edited by Eric G. Forbes, ...

Lesley Murdin and Frances Willmoth. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing, 1995-2002 ISBN 0750301473 (v.1); ISBN 0-7503-0391-3 (v. 2) ; ISBN 0-7503-0763-3 (v.3)

• The Gresham lectures of John Flamsteed, edited and introduced by Eric G. Forbes. London: Mansell, 1975 ISBN0-7201-0518-8

• Newton's Tyranny: The Suppressed Scientific Discoveries of Stephen Gray and John Flamsteed, David H. Clark& Stephen H.P. Clark. W. H. Freeman, 2001 ISBN 0-7167-4701-4

External links• Online catalogue of Flamsteed's working and personal papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives

held at Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO1)

• John Flamsteed Biography (SEDS) (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ xtra/ Bios/ flamsteed. html)• Rare book collection at the Vienna Institute of Astronomy (http:/ / www. univie. ac. at/ hwastro)• Flamsteed in the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ John_Flamsteed)• Flamsteed biography (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Flamsteed. html)• Flamsteed's 1729 Atlas Coelestis (http:/ / lhldigital. lindahall. org/ cdm4/ document. php?CISOROOT=/

astro_atlas& CISOPTR=1200& REC=14) scanned book, Linda Hall Library.• Atlas coelestis, Londra Edizione del 1753 da www.atlascoelestis.com (http:/ / www. atlascoelestis. com/ 9. htm)• Atlas coelestis, Londra Edizione del 1753 colorata a mano da www.atlascoelestis.com (http:/ / www.

atlascoelestis. com/ 10. htm)

Edmond Halley 12

Edmond Halley

Edmond Halley

Portrait by Thomas Murray, c. 1687

Born 8 November 1656Haggerston, Shoreditch, London, England

Died 14 January 1742 (aged 85)Greenwich, London, England

Nationality English, British Post 1707

Fields Astronomy, geophysics, mathematics, meteorology, physics, cartography

Institutions University of OxfordRoyal Observatory, Greenwich

Alma mater University of Oxford

Known for Halley's Comet

Edmond Halley FRS (English pronunciation: /ˈɛdmənd ˈhæli/;[1] [2] 8 November 1656 – 14 January 1742) was anEnglish astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist who is best known for computing theorbit of the eponymous Halley's Comet. He was the second Astronomer Royal in Britain, following in the footstepsof John Flamsteed.

Biography and careerHalley was born in Haggerston, Shoreditch, England. His father, Edmond Halley Sr., came from a Derbyshire familyand was a wealthy soap-maker in London. As a child, Halley was very interested in mathematics. He studied at StPaul's School, and then, from 1673, at The Queen's College, Oxford. While an undergraduate, Halley publishedpapers on the Solar System and sunspots.On leaving Oxford, in 1676, Halley visited the south Atlantic island of Saint Helena and set up an observatory with a24-foot-long (7.3 m) aerial telescope with the intention of studying stars from the Southern Hemisphere.[3] Hereturned to England in November 1678. In the following year he went to Danzig (Gdańsk) on behalf of the RoyalSociety to help resolve a dispute. Because astronomer Johannes Hevelius did not use a telescope, his observationshad been questioned by Robert Hooke. Halley stayed with Hevelius and he observed and verified the quality ofHevelius' observations. The same year Halley published Catalogus Stellarum Australium which included details of341 southern stars. These additions to present-day star maps earned him comparison with Tycho Brahe. Halley wasawarded his M.A. degree at Oxford and elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Edmond Halley 13

Bust of Halley (Royal Observatory,Greenwich)

In 1686 Halley published the second part of the results from his Helenianexpedition, being a paper and chart on trade winds and monsoons. In this heidentified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. He also establishedthe relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. Hischarts were an important contribution to the emerging field of informationvisualization.

Halley married Mary Tooke in 1682 and settled in Islington. The couple hadthree children. He spent most of his time on lunar observations, but was alsointerested in the problems of gravity. One problem that attracted his attentionwas the proof of Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In August 1684 he went toCambridge to discuss this with Sir Isaac Newton, only to find that Newton hadsolved the problem, but published nothing. Halley convinced him to write thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), which was published atHalley's expense.

In 1691, Halley built a diving bell, a device in which the atmosphere wasreplenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface.[4] In a demonstration, Halley and fivecompanions dived to 60 feet in the River Thames, and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell wasof little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, laterextending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours.[5] Halley suffered one of the earliest recorded cases ofmiddle ear barotrauma.[4] That same year, at a meeting of the Royal Society, Halley introduced a rudimentaryworking model of a magnetic compass using a liquid-filled housing to damp the swing and wobble of the magnetizedneedle.[6]

In 1691 Halley sought the post of Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, but, due to his well-known atheism,was opposed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Tillotson and Bishop Stillingfleet. The post went instead toDavid Gregory, who had the support of Isaac Newton.[7]

A 1702 printing of Halley's chart

In 1692, Halley put forth the idea of a hollow Earth consisting of a shell about500 miles (800 km) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core,about the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury.[8] He suggestedthat atmospheres separated these shells, and that each shell had its own magneticpoles, with each sphere rotating at a different speed. Halley proposed this schemein order to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged each inner regionas having an atmosphere and being luminous (and possibly inhabited), andspeculated that escaping gas caused the Aurora Borealis.[9]

In 1693 Halley published an article on life annuities, which featured an analysisof age-at-death on the basis of the Breslau statistics Caspar Neumann had beenable to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuitiesat an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work stronglyinfluenced the development of actuarial science. The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed moreprimitive work by John Graunt, is now seen as a major event in the history of demography.

Edmond Halley 14

ExplorationIn 1698, Halley was given the command of the Paramour, a 52-foot pink, so that he could carry out investigations inthe South Atlantic into the laws governing the variation of the compass. On 19 August 1698, he took command ofthe ship and, in November 1698, sailed on what was the first purely scientific voyage by an English naval vessel.Unfortunately problems of insubordination arose, allegedly by officers resentful of being under a civilian'scommand. The Paramour returned to England in July 1699. Halley thereupon received a commission as a temporaryCaptain in the Royal Navy, recommissioned the Paramour on 24 August 1699 and sailed again in September 1699 tomake extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in a secondAtlantic voyage which lasted until 6 September 1700, and extended from 52 degrees north to 52 degrees south. Theresults were published in General Chart of the Variation of the Compass (1701). This was the first such chart to bepublished and the first on which isogonic, or Halleyan, lines appeared.

Plaque in South Cloister of Westminster Abbey

The preface to Awnsham and John Churchill’s collection of Voyageand travels (1704), perhaps by John Locke or by Edmond Halley, madethe link.“Natural and moral history is embellished with the mostbeneficial increase of so many thousands of plants it had never beforereceived, so many drugs and spices, such unaccountable diversity.Trade is raised to highest pitch, and this not in a niggard and scantymanner as when the Venetians served all Europe ... the empire ofEurope is now extended to the utmost bounds of the Earth.”

In November 1703 Halley was appointed Savilian Professor ofGeometry at the University of Oxford, his theological enemies, John Tillotson and Bishop Stillingfleet having died,and received an honorary degree of doctor of laws in 1710. In 1705, applying historical astronomy methods, hepublished Synopsis Astronomia Cometicae, which stated his belief that the comet sightings of 1456, 1531, 1607, and1682 related to the same comet, which he predicted would return in 1758. Halley did not live to witness the comet'sreturn, but when it did, the comet became generally known as Halley's Comet.

Grave of Edmond Halley

In 1716 Halley suggested a high-precision measurement of the distancebetween the Earth and the Sun by timing the transit of Venus. In doingso he was following the method described by James Gregory in OpticaPromota (in which the design of the Gregorian telescope is alsodescribed). It is reasonable to assume Halley possessed and had readthis book given that the Gregorian design was the principal telescopedesign used in astronomy in Halley's day. It is not to Halley's creditthat he failed to acknowledge Gregory's priority in this matter. In 1718he discovered the proper motion of the "fixed" stars by comparing hisastrometric measurements with those given in Ptolemy's Almagest.Arcturus and Sirius were two noted to have moved significantly, the latter having progressed 30 arc minutes (aboutthe diameter of the moon) southwards in 1800 years.[10]

In 1720, together with his friend the antiquarian William Stukeley, Halley participated in the first attempt toscientifically date Stonehenge. Assuming that the monument had been laid out using a magnetic compass, Stukeleyand Halley attempted to calculate the perceived deviation introducing corrections from existing magnetic records,and suggested three dates (AD 920, AD 220 and 460 BC), the earliest being the one accepted. These dates werewrong by thousands of years, but the idea that scientific methods could be used to date ancient monuments wasrevolutionary in its day.[11]

Halley succeeded John Flamsteed in 1720 as Astronomer Royal, a position Halley held until his death in 1742 at the age of 85. Halley was buried in the graveyard of the old church of St. Margaret, (now ruined) at Lee, South London .

Edmond Halley 15

In the same vault is Astronomer Royal John Pond; the unmarked grave of Astronomer Royal Nathaniel Bliss isnearby.[12]

Halley's map of the path of the Solareclipse of May 3, 1715 across

England

Named after Halley

• Halley's Comet (orbital period 76 years)• Halley (lunar crater)• Halley (Martian crater)• Halley Research Station, Antarctica• Halley's method, for the numerical solution of equations• Halley Street, in Blackburn, Victoria, Australia• Edmund Halley Road, Oxford Science Park, Oxford, OX4 4DQ UK• Edmund Halley Drive, Reston, Virginia, USA• Halley Ward, surgical ward at Homerton Hospital East London• Halley's Mount, Saint Helena (680m high)• Halley Drive, Hackensack, NJ. Intersects with Comet Way on the campus of

Hackensack High School, the home of The Comets• Rue Edmund Halley, Avignon, France

PronunciationThere are three pronunciations of the surname Halley. The most common, both in Great Britain[1] and in the UnitedStates,[2] is English pronunciation: /ˈhæli/, rhyming with valley. This is the personal pronunciation used by most Halleysliving in London today.[13] The alternative English pronunciation: /ˈheɪli/, rhyming with daily, is often preferred for theman and the comet by those who grew up with rock and roll singer Bill Haley, who called his backing band his"Comets" after the common pronunciation of Halley's Comet in the United States at the time.[14] Colin Ronan, one ofHalley's biographers, preferred English pronunciation: /ˈhɔːli/, as in hall or haul. Contemporary accounts spell his nameHailey, Hayley, Haley, Haly, Halley, Hawley and Hawly, and presumably pronunciations varied similarly.[15]

As for his given name, although the spelling "Edmund" is quite common, "Edmond" is what Halley himself used.[16]

Notes and references[1] Jones, Daniel; Gimson, Alfred C. (1977) [1917]. Everyman's English Pronunciation Dictionary. Everyman's Reference Library (14 ed.).

London: J. M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 0-460-03029-9.[2] Kenyon, John S.; Knott, Thomas A. (1953). A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc..

ISBN 0-87779-047-7.[3] Gazetteer - p. 7. MONUMENTS IN FRANCE - page 338 (http:/ / www. g4g4. com/ pMyCD5/ HISTORY/ GAZ2. DOC)[4] Edmonds, Carl; Lowry, C; Pennefather, John. "History of diving." (http:/ / archive. rubicon-foundation. org/ 5894). South Pacific Underwater

Medicine Society Journal 5 (2). . Retrieved 2009-03-17.[5] "History: Edmond Halley" (http:/ / www. londondivingchamber. co. uk/ index. php?id=history& page=4). London Diving Chamber. .

Retrieved 2006-12-06.[6] Gubbins, David, Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism, Springer Press (2007), ISBN 1-4020-3992-1, 9781402039928, p. 67[7] Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook, ISBN 0-7102-0279-2, pg 250[8] Halley, E. (1692). "An account of the cause of the change of the variation of the magnetic needle; with an hyphothesis of the structure of the

internal parts of the earth" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ philosophicaltra03royarich). Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society ofLondon 16 (179–191): 563–578. doi:10.1098/rstl.1686.0107. .

[9] Carroll, Robert Todd (2006-02-13). "hollow Earth" (http:/ / skepdic. com/ hollowearth. html). The Skeptic's Dictionary. . Retrieved2006-07-23.

Edmond Halley 16

[10] Holberg, JB (2007). Sirius:Brightest Diamond in the Night Sky. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing. pp. 41–42. ISBN 0-387-48941-X.[11] Johnson, Anthony, Solving Stonehenge, The New Key to an Ancient Enigma(Thames & Hudson 2008) ISBN 978-0-500-05155-9[12] Halley's gravesite is in a cemetery at the junction of Lee Terrace and Brandram Road, across from the Victorian Parish Church of St.

Margaret. The cemetery is a 30-minute walk from the Greenwich Observatory.[13] Ian Ridpath. "Saying Hallo to Halley" (http:/ / www. ianridpath. com/ halley/ halley3. htm#hallo). . Retrieved 2011-11-08.[14] "Guide Profile: Bill Haley" (http:/ / oldies. about. com/ od/ rockabill1/ p/ billhaley. htm). Oldies.about.com. . Retrieved 2011-11-08.[15] "Science: Q&A" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1985/ 05/ 14/ science/ q-a-237647. html. + 1985). Nytimes.com. 1985-05-14. . Retrieved

2011-11-08.[16] The Times (London) Notes and Queries No. 254, 8 November 1902 p.36

Further reading• Armitage, Angus (1966). Edmond Halley. London: Nelson.• Coley, Noel (1986). "Halley and Post-Restoration Science" (http:/ / www. historytoday. com/ MainArticle.

aspx?m=12983& amid=12983). History Today 36 (September): 10–16.• Cook, Alan H. (1998). Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas. Oxford: Clarendon Press.• Ronan, Colin A. (1969). Edmond Halley, Genius in Eclipse. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company.• Seyour, Ian (1996). "Edmond Halley - explorer" (http:/ / www. questia. com/ googleScholar.

qst?docId=5000361197). History Today 46 (June): 39–44.• Sarah Irving (2008). "Natural science and the origins of the British empire (London,1704), 92–93". A collection

of voyages and travels 3 (June): 92–93.

External links• Edmond Halley Biography (SEDS) (http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ xtra/ Bios/ halley. html)• A Halley Odyssey (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ athens/ olympus/

6745/ OdysseyI. htm& date=2009-10-25+ 12:53:46)• The National Portrait Gallery (London) has several portraits of Halley: Search the collection (http:/ / www. npg.

org. uk/ live/ search/ )• Halley, Edmond, An Estimate of the Degrees of the Mortality of Mankind (1693) (http:/ / www. pierre-marteau.

com/ editions/ 1693-mortality. html)• Material on Halley's life table for Breslau on the Life & Work of Statisticians site: Halley, Edmond (http:/ / www.

york. ac. uk/ depts/ maths/ histstat/ lifework. htm#h)• Halley, Edmund, Considerations on the Changes of the Latitudes of Some of the Principal Fixed Stars (1718)

(http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-bib_query?bibcode=1942ASPL. . . . 4. . 103A) - Reprinted in R. G.Aitken, Edmund Halley and Stellar Proper Motions (1942)

• Halley, Edmund, A Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets (1715) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/books?id=GPR3vEzN694C& printsec=frontcover& dq=gregory+ "the+ elements+ of+ astronomy"& source=bl&ots=fYun1nz2j-& sig=Izv7muK4AkjlaWdOilPnOTs0LN4& hl=en& ei=9x42TcRYiZHhBqf9ibcK& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false) annexed on pages 881to 905 of volume 2 of The Elements of Astronomy by David Gregory

• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Edmond Halley" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/Biographies/ Halley. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.

• Online catalogue of Halley's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held atCambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 2)

James Bradley 17

James Bradley

James Bradley

Born March 1693Sherborne, nr Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, England

Died 13 July 1762 (aged 69)Skiveralls House, Chalford, Gloucestershire, England

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Institutions University of OxfordAshmolean Museum

Alma mater Balliol College, Oxford

Known for Aberration of lightAstronomer Royal

Notable awards Copley Medal, 1748

James Bradley FRS (March 1693 – 13 July 1762) was an English astronomer and served as Astronomer Royal from1742, succeeding Edmund Halley. He is best known for two fundamental discoveries in astronomy, the aberration oflight (1725–1728), and the nutation of the Earth's axis (1728–1748). These discoveries were called "the mostbrilliant and useful of the century" by Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, historian of astronomy, mathematicalastronomer and director of the Paris Observatory, in his history of astronomy in the 18th century (1821), because "Itis to these two discoveries by Bradley that we owe the exactness of modern astronomy. .... This double serviceassures to their discoverer the most distinguished place (after Hipparchus and Kepler) above the greatest astronomersof all ages and all countries."[1]

BiographyBradley was born at Sherborne, near Cheltenham in Gloucestershire, in March 1693. He entered Balliol College,Oxford, on 15 March 1711, and took degrees of B.A. and M.A. in 1714 and 1717 respectively. His earlyobservations were made at the rectory of Wanstead in Essex, under the tutelage of the Rev. James Pound, his uncleand a skilled astronomer. Bradley was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 6 November 1718.He took orders on becoming vicar of Bridstow in the following year, and a small sinecure living in Wales was alsoprocured for him by his friend Samuel Molyneux. He resigned his ecclesiastical preferments in 1721, whenappointed to the Savilian chair of astronomy at Oxford, while as reader on experimental philosophy from 1729 to1760, he delivered 79 courses of lectures at the Ashmolean Museum.In 1722 Bradley measured the diameter of Venus with a large aerial telescope with an objective focal length of 212 ft(65 m).[2]

James Bradley 18

Bradley's discovery of the aberration of light was made while attempting to detect stellar parallax.[3] Bradley workedwith Samuel Molyneux until Molyneux's death in 1728 trying to measure the parallax of Gamma Draconis.This stellar parallax ought to have shown up, if it existed at all, as a small annual cyclical motion of the apparentposition of the star. However, while Bradley and Molyneux did not find the expected apparent motion due toparallax, they found instead a different and unexplained annual cyclical motion. Shortly after Molyneux's death,Bradley realized that this was caused by what is now known as the aberration of light.[3] [4] The basis on whichBradley distinguished the annual motion actually observed from the expected motion due to parallax, was that itsannual timetable was different.Calculation showed that if there had been any appreciable motion due to parallax, then the star should have reachedits most southerly apparent position in December, and its most northerly apparent position in June. What Bradleyfound instead was an apparent motion that reached its most southerly point in March, and its most northerly point inSeptember; and that could not be accounted for by parallax: the cause of a motion with the pattern actually seen wasat first obscure.A story has often been told, that the solution to the problem eventually occurred to Bradley while he was in asailing-boat on the River Thames. He noticed that when the boat turned about, a little flag at the top of the mastchanged its direction, even though the wind had not changed; the only thing that had changed was the direction andspeed of the boat. Bradley worked out the consequences of supposing that the direction and speed of the earth in itsorbit, combined with a consistent speed of light from the star, might cause the apparent changes of stellar positionthat he observed. He found that this fitted the observations well, and also gave an estimate for the speed of light, andshowed that the stellar parallax, if any, with extremes in June and December, was far too small to measure at theprecision available to Bradley. (The smallness of any parallax, compared with expectations, also showed that thestars must be many times more distant from the Earth than anybody had previously believed.)This discovery of what became known as the aberration of light was, for all realistic purposes, conclusive evidencefor the movement of the Earth, and hence for the correctness of Aristarchus' and Kepler's theories; it was announcedto the Royal Society in January 1729 (Phil. Trans. xxxv. 637). The theory of the aberration also gave Bradley ameans to improve on the accuracy of the previous estimate of the speed of light, which had previously been shown tobe finite by the work of Ole Rømer and others.[3]

The earliest observations upon which the discovery of the aberration was founded were made at Molyneux's houseon Kew Green, and were continued at the house of Bradley's uncle James Pound in Wanstead, Essex. Afterpublication of his work on the aberration, Bradley continued to observe, to develop and check his second majordiscovery, the nutation of the Earth's axis, but he did not announce this in print until 14 February 1748 (Phil. Trans.xlv. I), when he had tested its reality by minute observations during an entire revolution (18.6 years) of the moon'snodes.In 1742, Bradley had been appointed to succeed Edmund Halley as Astronomer Royal; his enhanced reputationenabled him to apply successfully for a set of instruments costing GB£1,000; and with an 8-foot quadrant completedfor him in 1750 by John Bird, he accumulated at Greenwich in ten years materials of inestimable value for thereform of astronomy. A crown pension of GB£250 a year was conferred upon him in 1752.Bradley retired in broken health, nine years later, to the Cotswold village of Chalford in Gloucestershire, where hedied at Skiveralls House on 13 July 1762.[5] The publication of his observations was delayed by disputes about theirownership; but they were finally issued by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in two folio volumes (1798, 1805). Theinsight and industry of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel were, however, needed for the development of their fundamentalimportance.

James Bradley 19

References[1] J B Delambre, Histoire de l'astronomie au dix-huitième siècle (edited by Claude-Louis Mathieu, and published by Bachelier, Paris, 1827) (at

pp.xvii, 413 and 420)[2] This paragraph is adapted from the 1888 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.[3] Hirshfeld, Alan (2001). Parallax:The Race to Measure the Cosmos. New York, New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-7133-4.[4] Bradley's new discovery was communicated in a correspondence with Dr. Edmond Halley[5] Bradley was buried at the parish church in Minchinhampton, Gloucestershire. See Stratford, Joseph (1887). Gloucestershire Biographical

Notes (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NfIgAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA109& dq=James+ Bradley+ buried+ astronomer). Gloucester.p. 109. .

Further reading• Rigaud's Memoir, prefixed to Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence of James Bradley, D.D. (Oxford, 1832),• New and General Biographical Dictionary, xii. 54 (1767)• Biog. Brit. (Kippis)• Fouchy's Eloge, Paris Memoirs (1762), p. 231 (Histoire)• Delambre's Hist. de l’astronomie au 18e siècle, p. 413.

External links• Online catalogue of Bradley's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 3)This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Nathaniel Bliss 20

Nathaniel Bliss

Nathaniel Bliss

Reverend Nathaniel Bliss

Born 28 November 1700Bisley, Gloucestershire, England

Died 2 September 1764 (aged 63)Oxford, Oxfordshire, England

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy, mathematics

Institutions Oxford University

The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss (28 November 1700 – 2 September 1764) was an English astronomer of the 18thcentury, serving as Britain's fourth Astronomer Royal between 1762 and 1764.Bliss was born in the Cotswolds village of Bisley in Gloucestershire and studied at Pembroke College, Oxford. Hegraduated B.A. in 1720 and M.A. in 1723.Rector of St Ebb's church in Oxford, he succeeded Edmond Halley as professor of geometry at Oxford University in1742 and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society the same year. He succeeded James Bradley to become thefourth Astronomer Royal in 1762, but held the post for too short a period to make a significant impact.[1]

He died in Oxford, but was buried close to Halley in St Margaret's churchyard in Lee in south-east London.

References[1] Maunder, Edward Walter (1900). The Royal observatory, Greenwich: A glance at its history and work (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=bRE6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA83#v=onepage& q=& f=false). The Religious tract society. p. 85. . Retrieved 2010-02-28.

Further reading• Maunder, E. W. (1900). The Royal Observatory, Greenwich: A Glance at its History and Work (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=bRE6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA82& dq=Nathaniel+ Bliss+ astronomers#PPA3,M2).London: The Religious Tract Society.

External links• Online catalogue of Bliss' working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at Cambridge

University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 3)

Nevil Maskelyne 21

Nevil Maskelyne

Rev. Dr Nevil Maskelyne

Born 6 October 1732London, England

Died 9 February 1811 (aged 78)Greenwich, England

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Institutions Fellow of the Royal Society, 1758Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1784

Known for Astronomer Royal

Notable awards Royal Society Copley Medal, 1775

The Reverend Dr Nevil Maskelyne FRS (6 October 1732 – 9 February 1811) was the fifth English AstronomerRoyal. He held the office from 1765 to 1811.

BiographyMaskelyne was born in London, the third son of Edmund Maskelyne of Purton, Wiltshire. Maskelyne's father diedwhen he was 12, leaving the family in reduced circumstances. Maskelyne attended Westminster School and was stilla pupil there when his mother died in 1748. His interest in astronomy had begun while at Westminster School,shortly after the eclipse of 25 July 1748.Maskelyne entered St Catharine's College, Cambridge in 1749, graduating as seventh wrangler in 1754.[1] Ordainedas a minister in 1755, he became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge in 1756.About 1785 Maskelyne married Sophia Rose of Cotterstock, Northamptonshire. Their only child, Margaret(1786–1858), was the mother of Mervyn Herbert Nevil Story-Maskelyne (1823–1911) professor of mineralogy atOxford (1856–95). Maskelyne's sister, Margaret, married Robert Clive.Nevil Maskelyne is buried in the churchyard of St Mary the Virgin, the parish church of the village of Purton,Wiltshire, England.[2]

Nevil Maskelyne 22

Career

Measurement of longitudeIn 1758 Maskelyne was admitted to the Royal Society, which in 1761 despatched him to the island of St. Helena toobserve the transit of Venus. This was an important observation since accurate measurements would allow theaccurate calculation of Earth's distance from the Sun, which would in turn allow the scale of the solar system to becalculated.Bad weather prevented any useful observations, however Maskelyne used his journey to develop a method ofdetermining longitude using the position of the moon, which became known as the lunar distance method. Hereturned to England, resuming his position as curate at Chipping Barnet in 1761, and began work on a book,publishing the lunar distance method of longitude calculation in 1763 in The British Mariner's Guide, whichincluded the suggestion that to facilitate the finding of longitude at sea, lunar distances should be calculatedbeforehand for each year and published in a form accessible to navigators. This proposal, the germ of the NauticalAlmanac, was approved by the government, and under the care of Maskelyne the Nautical Almanac for 1767 waspublished in 1766. He further induced the government to print his observations annually.Despite a possible conflict of interests, Maskelyne being an advocate of the lunar distance method of determininglongitude, the Board of Longitude sent him to Barbados in 1763 to calculate the longitude of the capital, Bridgetownby observation of Jupiter's satellites, and also to test his lunar distance method and compare its accuracy to JohnHarrison's chronometer, the No. 4 timekeeper. Even after a successful trial in Barbados in 1764 observed byMaskelyne, Harrison was required to produce detailed drawings and build two more chronometers, one of which waseventually tested by King George III himself.The results of the voyage were made public at a meeting of the Board of Longitude in early 1765, where it wasdisclosed that Harrison's chronometer had produced Bridgetown's longitude with an error of less than ten miles aftera sea voyage of more than 5,000 miles. Maskelyne's method on the other hand showed an error of 30 miles.However, four of the naval officers present stated that their calculations had been performed to Maskelyne'sinstructions and were therefore subject to their inexperience. Also, since the lunar distance method relied on tablesthat only Maskelyne was capable of calculating, the method was not yet in a position to take the prize.However, two Astronomers Royal had recently died in quick succession and Maskelyne was appointed to theposition soon after his return to England. The position automatically made him an ex-officio member of the Board ofLongitude and it was not long before a negative report was made on Harrison's chronometer, Maskelyne refusing toallow for the known rate at which Harrison's chronometer gained or lost time and thus dismissing it as inaccurate.[3]

[4] [5] He was not alone in his position on lunar distances; other members of the Board of Longitude and the RoyalSociety were also strongly biased toward lunars, as they saw the scientific solution being conceptually andintellectually superior to the mechanic's solution. When eventually Harrison was paid the money owing to him, itwas by a special Act of Parliament rather than the Board of Longitude.Nonetheless, while chronometers were indeed more accurate, the lunar distance method was cheaper and was thepredominant method used well into the 19th century. Since Maskelyne's observations and calculations were made atthe Royal Greenwich Observatory, the Greenwich meridian eventually became a common base for longitudeworldwide and was adopted internationally as the Prime Meridian in 1884.[6]

Nevil Maskelyne 23

Measurement of latitudeMaskelyne took a great interest in various geodetical operations, notably the measurement of the length of a degreeof latitude in Maryland and Pennsylvania,[7] executed by Mason and Dixon in 1766 – 1768, and later thedetermination of the relative longitude of Greenwich and Paris.[8] On the French side the work was conducted byCount Cassini, Legendre, and Méchain; on the English side by General Roy. This triangulation was the beginning ofthe great trigonometrical survey which was subsequently extended all over Britain. His observations appeared in fourlarge folio volumes from 1776–1811, some of them being reprinted in Samuel Vince's Elements of Astronomy.[9]

Schiehallion experimentIn 1772 Maskelyne proposed to the Royal Society what was to become known as the Schiehallion experiment(named after the mountain on which it was performed), for the determination of the Earth’s density using a plumbline. He was not the first to suggest this, Pierre Bouguer and Charles-Marie de la Condamine having attempted thesame experiment in 1738.Maskelyne performed his experiment in 1774 on Schiehallion in Perthshire, Scotland,[10] the mountain being chosendue to its regular conical shape which permitted a reasonably accurate determination of its volume. The apparentdifference of latitude between two stations on opposite sides of the mountain were compared with the real differenceof latitude obtained by triangulation.From Maskelyne’s observations Charles Hutton deduced a density for the earth 4.5 times that of water (the modernvalue is 5.515).

Other workMaskelyne’s first contribution to astronomical literature was A Proposal for Discovering the Annual Parallax ofSirius, published in 1760.[11] Subsequent contributions to the Transactions contained his observations of the transitsof Venus (1761 and 1769), on the tides at Saint Helena (1762), and on various astronomical phenomena at SaintHelena (1764) and at Barbados (1764).Maskelyne also introduced several practical improvements, such as the measurement of time to tenths of a second;and prevailed upon the government to replace Bird’s mural quadrant by a repeating circle 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter.The new instrument was constructed by Edward Troughton but Maskelyne did not live to see it completed.

Maskelyne in literature and the arts• Maskelyne features prominently in Dava Sobel's 1995 book, Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who

Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time, as well as the A&E miniseries based on the same.• Maskelyne is a supporting character in Mason & Dixon by Thomas Pynchon.• Maskelyne is portrayed as "Dr. Vickery" in Kate Grenville's semi-historical novel The Lieutenant.

Honours• 1775 – Awarded the Royal Society's Copley medal• The lunar crater Maskelyne is named for him.

Nevil Maskelyne 24

References[1] Nevil Maskelyne (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=MSKN749N&

sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.[2] Maskelyne's grave can be seen by going through the church gates and veering to the right, against the right outside wall of the church.[3] Sobel, Dava, Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time, Walker and Company,

New York, 1995 ISBN 0-8027-1312-2[4] Landes, David S., Revolution in Time, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1983, ISBN 0-674-76800-0[5] Gould, Rupert T. The Marine Chronometer. Its History and Development London: J. D. Potter, 1923, ISBN 0-907462-05-7[6] (JR Wills The Royal Society)[7] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. lviii. 323[8] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. lxxvii. 151[9] Vince, Samuel (1811). The Elements of Astronomy: Designed for the Use of Students in the University. J. Smith.[10] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 1. 495[11] Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. ii. 889

• W. W. Rouse Ball, A History of the Study of Mathematics at Cambridge University, 1889, repr. CambridgeUniversity Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1-108-00207-3, p. 108

Further reading• Howse, Derek (1989). Nevil Maskelyne: The Seaman's Astronomer. Cambridge University Press.

External links• Online catalogue of Maskelyne's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 4)This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

John Pond 25

John Pond

John Pond

Born 1767London, England

Died 7 September 1836 (aged 69)Blackheath, London, England

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge

Known for Astronomer Royal

John Pond FRS (1767 – 7 September 1836) was a renowned English astronomer who became the sixth AstronomerRoyal, serving from 1811 to 1835.

BiographyPond was born in London and, although the year of his birth is known, the records indicating the day and month havebeen lost to posterity. Pond's father made a fortune as a London merchant, enabling young John to enter TrinityCollege, Cambridge in 1784 at the age of sixteen.[1] He took no degree, however, as his course was being interruptedby severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a long residence abroad. He was admitted to the Inner Temple in1794, but his poor health prompted him to withdraw.[1]

WorkIn 1800 Pond settled at Westbury near Bristol, and began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuthcircle of 2½ feet (750 mm) in diameter by Edward Troughton. His demonstration in 1806 of a change of form in theGreenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astronomical circles at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and tohis own appointment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on 26 February 1807. That same yearhe married and set up residence in London.In 1811 Pond succeeded Nevil Maskelyne as Astronomer Royal. During an administration of nearly twenty-five years, he effected a reform of practical astronomy in England comparable to that brought about by Friedrich Bessel in Germany. In 1821 he began to employ the method of observation by reflection and in 1825 devised means of combining two mural circles in the determination of the place of a single object, the one serving for direct and the other for reflected vision. Under his auspices the instrumental equipment at Greenwich was completely changed and the number of assistants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his determinations was attested by Seth Carlo Chandler's 1894 discussion of them in the course of his researches into the variation of latitude. Between 1810 and 1824 he persistently controverted the reality of Ireland's Astronomer Royal John Brinkley's imaginary

John Pond 26

star-parallaxes. During the 1829-31 period, he briefly served as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. Delicacy ofhealth obliged his retirement in the autumn of 1835.Among his honors were the Lalande Prize, conferred in 1817 by the French Academy of Sciences of which he was acorresponding member, and the Copley Medal, presented in 1823. He published eight folio volumes of GreenwichObservations, translated Pierre-Simon Laplace's Système du monde and contributed thirty-one papers to scientificcollections. His 1833 catalogue of positions of 1112 stars was of great value and displayed an accuracy which hadpreviously never been achieved.As Astronomer Royal, Pond was responsible for a substantial modernisation of the Observatory at Greenwich,extending from equipment improvements to new working practices. Perhaps his most noticeable addition was the1833 installation of the time ball on the roof of the Observatory. Arguably, the first public time signal in the UK, theoccurs daily at 1:00 p.m. and was intended to aid mariners on the Thames to synchronise their marine chronometers.John Pond died in Blackheath, London in the year of his 69th birthday and was buried beside and near fellowAstronomers Royal Edmond Halley and Nathaniel Bliss, respectively, in the churchyard of St Margaret's in nearbyLee.

References[1] John Pond (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=PNT784J& sye=&

eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links• Online catalogue of Pond's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 5)

George Biddell Airy 27

George Biddell Airy

George Biddell Airy

Born 27 July 1801Alnwick, Northumberland, England

Died 2 January 1892 (aged 90)Greenwich, London, England

Nationality British

Fields Astronomy, mathematics

Institutions University of CambridgeRoyal Society

Alma mater Colchester Royal Grammar SchoolTrinity College, Cambridge

Academic advisors George Peacock

Notable students Pierce MortonWilliam Sealy Gosset

Known for Astronomer Royal

Notable awards RAS Gold Medal, Copley Medal

Sir George Biddell Airy PRS KCB (27 July 1801 – 2 January 1892) was an English mathematician and astronomer,Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on planetary orbits, measuring themean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics and, in his role asAstronomer Royal, establishing Greenwich as the location of the prime meridian. His reputation has been tarnishedby allegations that, through his inaction, Britain lost the opportunity of priority in the discovery of Neptune.

BiographyAiry was born at Alnwick, one of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a family of the same nameresiding at Kentmere, in Westmorland, in the 14th century. The branch to which he belonged, having suffered in theEnglish Civil War, moved to Lincolnshire and became farmers. Airy was educated first at elementary schools inHereford, and afterwards at Colchester Royal Grammar School.[1] An introverted child, Airy gained popularity withhis schoolmates through his great skill in the construction of peashooters.[2]

From the age of 13, Airy stayed frequently with his uncle, Arthur Biddell at Playford, Suffolk. Biddell introduced Airy to his friend Thomas Clarkson, the slave trade abolitionist who lived at Playford Hall. Clarkson had an MA in mathematics from Cambridge, and examined Airy in classics and then subsequently arranged for him to be examined by a Fellow from Trinity College, Cambridge on his knowledge of mathematics.[3] [4] As a result he entered Trinity in 1819, as a sizar, meaning that he paid a reduced fee but essentially worked as a servant to make good the fee

George Biddell Airy 28

reduction.[5] Here he had a brilliant career, and seems to have been almost immediately recognised as the leadingman of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wranglerand obtained first Smith's prize. On 1 October 1824 he was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 wasappointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more thana year, being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the new CambridgeObservatory. In 1836 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1840, a foreign member of the RoyalSwedish Academy of Sciences.

Research

Sketch of Airy as it appeared in the 1891 PopularScience

Some idea of his activity as a writer on mathematical and physicalsubjects during these early years may be gathered from the fact thatprevious to this appointment he had contributed no less than threeimportant memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. At theCambridge observatory Airy soon showed his power of organisation.The only telescope in the establishment when he took charge was thetransit instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By theadoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduction,he was able to keep his observations up to date, and published themannually with a punctuality which astonished his contemporaries.Before long a mural circle was installed, and regular observations wereinstituted with it in 1833. In the same year the Duke ofNorthumberland presented the Cambridge observatory with a fineobject-glass of 12-inch aperture, which was mounted according toAiry's designs and under his superintendence, although constructionwas not completed until after he moved to Greenwich in 1835.

Airy's writings during this time are divided between mathematical physics and astronomy. The former are for themost part concerned with questions relating to the theory of light arising out of his professorial lectures, amongwhich may be specially mentioned his paper On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Circular Aperture, and hisenunciation of the complete theory of the rainbow. In 1831 the Copley Medal of the Royal Society was awarded tohim for these researches. Of his astronomical writings during this period the most important are his investigation ofthe mass of Jupiter, his report to the British Association on the progress of astronomy during the 19th century, andhis work On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the Earth and Venus.

One of the sections of his able and instructive report was devoted to "A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy inEngland with that in other Countries," very much to the disadvantage of England. This reproach was subsequently toa great extent removed by his own labours.

Planetary inequalities

Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus and the Earth is in some respects his most remarkable achievement. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their constructor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain; eight times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only a small fraction of the Earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, receives in the integration of the differential equations a multiplier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans. cxxii. 67). The investigation was probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific

George Biddell Airy 29

improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the establishment of the theory of gravitation. Inrecognition of this work the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1833 (he wouldwin it again in 1846).

Astronomer Royal

In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succession to John Pond, and began his long career at thenational observatory which constitutes his chief title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of hisappointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first Lord of the Admiralty, considered that "it ought to be clearedout," while Airy admitted that "it was in a queer state." With his usual energy he set to work at once to reorganise thewhole management. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the library on a proper footing, mounted thenew (Sheepshanks) equatorial and organised a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 an altazimuth was erected,designed by Airy to enable observations of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but whenever it might bevisible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed. At the end of1850 the great transit circle of 203 mm (8 inch) aperture and 3.5 m (11 ft 6 in) focal length was erected, and is stillthe principal instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1859 of an equatorial of 330 mm (13 inch)aperture evoked the comment in his journal for that year, "There is not now a single person employed or instrumentused in the observatory which was there in Mr Pond's time"; and the transformation was completed by theinauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photographic registration of sunspots in 1873.

Prime Meridian in Greenwich

The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated planetaryobservations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 was already inprogress under Airy's supervision when he became Astronomer Royal.Shortly afterwards he undertook the further laborious task of reducingthe enormous mass of observations of the moon made at Greenwichduring the same period under the direction, successively, of JamesBradley, Nathaniel Bliss, Nevil Maskelyne and John Pond, to defraythe expense of which a large sum of money was allotted by theTreasury. As a result, no less than 8,000 lunar observations wererescued from oblivion, and were, in 1846, placed at the disposal ofastronomers in such a form that they could be used directly forcomparison with the theory and for the improvement of the tables ofthe moon's motion.

For this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the RoyalAstronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by PeterAndreas Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion. Aftercompleting these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before engaging in

any theoretical investigation in connection with them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the subject,and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to thedeath of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he appliedto the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His request was immediately granted, and thus it cameabout that Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute Amirauté de sa Majesté la Reine de laGrande Bretagne et d'Irlande.

In 1851 Airy established a new Prime Meridian at Greenwich. This line, the fourth "Greenwich Meridian," becamethe definitive internationally recognised line in 1884.

George Biddell Airy 30

Search for Neptune

George Biddell Airy caricatured by Spy in VanityFair Nov 1875

In June 1846, Airy started corresponding with French astronomerUrbain Le Verrier over the latter's prediction that irregularities in themotion of Uranus were due to a so-far unobserved body. Aware thatCambridge Astronomer John Couch Adams had suggested that he hadmade similar predictions, on 9 July Airy entreated James Challis toundertake a systematic search in the hope of securing the triumph ofdiscovery for Britain. Ultimately, a rival search in Berlin by JohannGottfried Galle, instigated by Le Verrier, won the race for priority.[6]

Though Airy was "abused most savagely both by English andFrench"[7] for his failure to act on Adams's suggestions more promptly,there have also been claims that Adams's communications had beenvague and dilatory[6] and further that the search for a new planet wasnot the responsibility of the Astronomer Royal.[8]

Mean density of the Earth

One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his determinationof the mean density of the Earth. In 1826, the idea occurred to him ofattacking this problem by means of pendulum experiments at the topand bottom of a deep mine. His first attempt, made in the same year, atthe Dolcoath mine in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident toone of the pendulums. A second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding of the mine, and many years elapsedbefore another opportunity presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the Harton pit near SouthShields in 1854. Their immediate result was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded that at the topby 1/19286 of its amount, the depth being 383 m (1,256 ft) From this he was led to the final value of Earth's specificdensity of 6.566.[9] This value, although considerably in excess of that previously found by different methods, washeld by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the observations were carried out and discussed, to be"entitled to compete with the others on, at least, equal terms." (The currently accepted value for Earth's density is5.5153 g/cm³.)

Ether drag test

By means of a water-filled telescope, Airy in 1871 looked for a change in stellar aberration through the refractingwater due to an ether drag.[10] Like in all other aether drift experiments, he obtained a negative result.

Lunar theory

In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarkedon the prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description of his method will be found in the MonthlyNotices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv, No. 3. It consisted essentially in the adoption ofCharles-Eugène Delaunay's final numerical expressions for longitude, latitude, and parallax, with a symbolic termattached to each number, the value of which was to be determined by substitution in the equations of motion.In this mode of treating the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though the amount of labour is such asmight well have deterred a younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it might be entrusted to "amere computer". (Note that at the time that this was written, the term "computer" referred to a human being whoperformed calculating work, either manually or with mechanical aids).The work was published in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some little time previously hehad been harassed by a suspicion that certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly he addressed

George Biddell Airy 31

himself to the task of revision. But his powers were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to examinesufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps, andpathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was broken, and I have never heartily proceeded with it since."

Engineering mechanics

Stress function method

In 1862, Airy presented a new technique to determine the strain and stress field within a beam.[11] This technique,sometimes called the Airy stress function method, can be used to find solutions to many two-dimensional problemsin solid mechanics (see Wikiversity). For example, it was used by H. M. Westergaard[12] to determine the stress andstrain field around a crack tip and thereby this method contributed to the development of fracture mechanics.

Tay Bridge Disaster

Original Tay Bridge from the north

Destruction of the Tay Bridge

Airy was consulted about wind speeds andpressures likely to be encountered on theproposed Forth suspension bridge beingdesigned by Thomas Bouch for the NorthBritish Railway in the late 1870s. Hethought that pressures no greater than about10 pounds per square foot could beexpected, a comment Bouch took to meanalso applied to the first Tay railway bridgethen being built. Much greater pressureshowever, can be expected in severe storms.Airy was called to give evidence before theOfficial Inquiry into the Tay Bridge disaster,and was criticised for his advice. However,little was known about the problems of windresistance of large structures, and a RoyalCommission on Wind Pressure was asked toconduct research into the problem.[13]

George Biddell Airy 32

Private life

Picture of George Biddell Airy 1896

In July 1824, Airy met Richarda Smith (1804–1875), "a great beauty",on a walking tour of Derbyshire. He later wrote, "Our eyes met ... andmy fate was sealed ... I felt irresistibly that we must be united," andAiry proposed two days later. Richarda's father, the Revd RichardSmith, felt that Airy lacked the financial resources to marry hisdaughter. Only in 1830, with Airy established in his Cambridgeposition, was permission for the marriage granted.[6] [14]

The Airys had nine children, the eldest three dying in childhood. Theeldest survivor, Wilfrid Airy, was the designer and engineer for"Colonel" George Tomline's Orwell Park observatory.[15] [16] Wilfrid'sdaughter was the artist Anna Airy.[16]

Their eldest daughter, Hilda (1840–1916), married Edward Routh in1864.[17]

Airy retired in 1881, living with his two married daughters at Croom'sHill near Greenwich. In 1891, he suffered a fall and an internal injury. He survived the consequential surgery only afew days. His wealth at death was £27,713. Airy and his wife and three pre-deceased children are buried at St.Mary's Church in Playford, Suffolk.[6] A cottage owned by Airy still stands, adjacent to the church and now inprivate hands.[18]

Legacy and honours• He was elected president of the Royal Astronomical Society four times.• Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1832)[19]

• The Martian crater Airy is named for him.[20] Within that crater lies another smaller crater called Airy-0 whoselocation defines the prime meridian of that planet, as does the location of Airy's 1850 telescope for Earth.[21]

• winner of the Lalande Prize for astronomy from the French Academy of Sciences, 1834• There is also a lunar crater Airy named in his honour.[22]

• Airy wave theory is the linear theory for the propagation of gravity waves on the surface of a fluid.[23]

BibliographyBy AiryA complete list of Airy's 518 printed papers is in Airy (1896). Among the most important are:• Airy, G. B. (1826) Mathematical Tracts on Physical Astronomy;• (1828) On the Lunar Theory, The Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of Variations, to

which, in the second edition of 1828, were added tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory ofLight;

• (1839) Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose of discovering a correction for the deviation ofthe Compass produced-by the Iron of the Ships; and

• (1861) On the Algebraic and Numerical Theory of Errors of Observations and the Combination of Observations.About Airy• Airy, George Biddell; Airy, Wilfrid (1896). The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy [24]. Cambridge

University Press. OCLC 13130558. Retrieved 24 February 2008.• "Sir George Biddell Airy" [25]. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1911.

OCLC 70608430. Retrieved 24 February 2008.

George Biddell Airy 33

• Cannon, W.F. (November 1964). "Scientists and broad churchmen: an early Victorian intellectual network". TheJournal of British Studies 4 (1): 65–88. doi:10.1086/385492. JSTOR 175122. PMID 19588590.

• Chapman, Allan (January 1998). "The Female Touch". Astronomy Now 12: 43–47.• Chapman, Allan (June 2003). "Porters, watchmen, and the crime of William Sayers: the non-scientific staff of the

Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in Victorian times". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage (James CookUniversity) 6 (1): 27. Bibcode 2003JAHH....6...27C.

• British Academy (2006). Airy "Sir George Biddell (1801–1892)" [26]. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography(Online ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 56568095. Retrieved 24 February 2008.Subscription or UK public library membership [27] required

• Goward, K.J. (2005). "G B Airy's Country Retreat" [28]. Institute of Astronomy. University of Cambridge.Archived from the original [29] on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2007.

• "Founding of Orwell Park Observatory" [30]. Institute of Astronomy. University of Cambridge. 2006. Archivedfrom the original [31] on 15 November 2007. Retrieved 16 December 2007.

• Lewis, P.R. (2004). Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879.London: NPI Media Group. ISBN 0752431609.

• Satterthwaite, G. E. (2003). "Airy's zenith telescopes and "the Birth-Star of Modern Astronomy"". Journal ofAstronomical History and Heritage (James Cook University) 6 (1): 13. Bibcode 2003JAHH....6...13S.

• Winterburn, E. (2002). "The Airy Transit Circle" [32]. British History – Victorians. BBC. Retrieved 9 September2007.

References• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).

Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.[1] "Sir George Biddell Airy" (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Sir_George_Biddell_Airy). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. 1911. OCLC 70608430. . Retrieved 24 February 2008.[2] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "George Biddell Airy" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Airy. html),

MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, .[3] Autobiography of Sir George Biddel Airy (see Google books)[4] Sir George Biddell Airy KCB. Leaflet available from Playford church[5] Airy, George Biddell (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all&

tex=ARY819GB& sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols,1922–1958.

[6] Chapman (2006)[7] Airy, George Biddell; Airy, Wilfrid (1896). The Autobiography of Sir George Biddell Airy (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=-mUSAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA342& dq=edward+ maunder+ astronomer). Cambridge University Press. OCLC 13130558. . Retrieved 24February 2008.

[8] Hutchins, R. (2004). "Adams, John Couch (1819–1892)" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 123). Oxford Dictionary of NationalBiography (Online ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 56568095. . Retrieved 24 February 2008. Subscription or UKpublic library membership (http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) requiredSubscription or required

[9] Airy, G. B. (1856) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 146:343–355 (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k55951k/ f359.table)

[10] George Biddell Airy, “On the Supposed Alteration in the Amount of Astronomical Aberration of Light, Produced by the Passage of the Lightthrough a Considerable Thickness of Refracting Medium,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, V20, pp. 35–39 (1871–1872). (http:/ /gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k56114d/ f79. table)

[11] Airy, G. B. (1863) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 153:49–80 (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k559580/ f66. table)[12] Westergaard, H. M. (1939). "Bearing Pressures and Cracks". Journal of Applied Mechanics 6: 49–53.[13] Lewis (2004) pp115–116[14] Chapman (1998) and (2003)[15] Goward (2005)[16] Goward (2006)[17] Fuller, A. T. (2004) " Routh, Edward John (1831–1907) (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 35850)", Oxford Dictionary of

National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 9 September 2007 Subscription or UK public library membership (http:/ / www. oup.com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/ ) required

George Biddell Airy 34

[18] A description and images of Airy's Suffolk cottage and church are found in Goward (2005)[19] "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (http:/ / www. amacad. org/ publications/ BookofMembers/ ChapterA. pdf). American

Academy of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 6 April 2011.[20] "Mars Nomenclature: Crater, craters" (http:/ / planetarynames. wr. usgs. gov/ jsp/ FeatureTypesData2. jsp?systemID=4& bodyID=8&

typeID=9& system=Mars& body=Mars& type=Crater, craters& sort=AName& show=Fname& show=Lat& show=Long& show=Diam&show=Stat& show=Orig). Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS: Astrogeology Research Program. . Retrieved 16 August 2007.

[21] Morton, Oliver (2002). Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination, and the Birth of a World. New York: Picador USA. pp. 22–23.ISBN 0312245513.

[22] Cocks, E. E. & Cocks, J. C. (1995). Who's Who on the Moon: A Biographical Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature. Tudor Publishers.ISBN 0936389273.

[23] Holthuijsen, Leo H. (2007). Waves in oceanic and coastal waters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521860288, p. 106.[24] http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-mUSAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA342& dq=edward+ maunder+ astronomer[25] http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Sir_George_Biddell_Airy[26] http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 251[27] http:/ / www. oup. com/ oxforddnb/ info/ freeodnb/ libraries/[28] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070807120343/ http:/ / www. ast. cam. ac. uk/ ~ipswich/ History/ Airys_Country_Retreat. htm[29] http:/ / www. ast. cam. ac. uk/ ~ipswich/ History/ Airys_Country_Retreat. htm[30] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071115140710/ http:/ / www. ast. cam. ac. uk/ ~ipswich/ Observatory/ Founding. htm[31] http:/ / www. ast. cam. ac. uk/ ~ipswich/ Observatory/ Founding. htm[32] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ british/ victorians/ airy_george_01. shtml

External links• "  Sketch of Sir G B Airy" Popular Science Monthly 3 D. Appleton & Company. Wikisource May 1873

ISSN 0161-7370• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "George Biddell Airy" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/

Biographies/ Airy. html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.• Works by George Biddell Airy (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ George_Biddell_Airy) at Project Gutenberg• Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS 2 (1833) 159 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ MNRAS/

0002/ / 0000159. 000. html)• Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS 7 (1846) 64 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ MNRAS/

0007/ / 0000064. 000. html)• Weisstein, Eric W., Airy, George (1801–1892) (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ Airy. html) from

ScienceWorld.• Mathematical Tracts on the Lunar and Planetary Theories 4th edition (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=zMQEAAAAYAAJ) (London, McMillan, 1858)• Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque

nationale de France (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr)• Archival material relating to George Biddell Airy (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/ nra/ searches/

subjectView. asp?ID=P269) listed at the UK National Register of Archives

Obituaries• E. J. R., Proceedings of the Royal Society, 51 (1892), i–xii• The Times, 5 January 1892• East Anglian Daily Times, 11 January 1892• Suffolk Chronicle, 9 January 1892• Daily Times, 5 January 1892• "Obituary – Sir George Biddell Airy" (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ MNRAS/ 0052/ / 0000212. 000.

html). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 52: 212–229. 1892. Bibcode 1892MNRAS..52..212..• Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 108 (1891–2), 391–394• Astronomical Journal 11 (1892) 96 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ AJ. . . / 0011/ / 0000096. 000. html)

George Biddell Airy 35

• Astronomische Nachrichten 129 (1892) 33/34 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ AN. . . / 0129/ / 0000021.000. html)

• The Observatory 15 (1892) 73 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ Obs. . / 0015/ / 0000073. 000. html)

William Christie

William Christie

Born 1 October 1845

Died 22 January 1922 (aged 76)At sea near Gibraltar

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Alma mater King's College LondonTrinity College, Cambridge

Known for Astronomer Royal

Sir William Henry Mahoney Christie FRS (1 October 1845 – 22 January 1922) was a British astronomer.He was born in Woolwich, London, the son of Samuel Hunter Christie and educated at King's College London, andat Trinity College, Cambridge. He was fourth wrangler in 1868 and elected a fellow of Trinity in 1869.[1]

Having been Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich from 1870 to 1881, he was appointed to replaceGeorge Airy as Astronomer Royal in 1881 and remained in office until 1910. He was made a Knight Commander ofthe Order of the Bath in 1904. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June, 1881. [2] He was president ofthe Royal Astronomical Society from 1882 to 1885.The first Astronomer Royal to retire at 65 (all previous incumbents bar Airy and John Pond had died in office; JohnPond had been forced by poor health to resign in 1835, while Airy retired aged 81), Christie died and was buried atsea near Gibraltar in 1922. He had married in 1881 Mary Violette, daughter of Sir Alfred Hickman.

William Christie 36

References[1] Christie, William Henry Mahoney (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all&

tex=CHRY863WH& sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10vols, 1922–1958.

[2] "Library and Archive Catalogue" (http:/ / www2. royalsociety. org/ DServe/ dserve. exe?dsqIni=Dserve. ini& dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show. tcl& dsqDb=Persons& dsqPos=2& dsqSearch=(Surname='christie')). Royal Society. . Retrieved 30 December 2010.

• Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 83 (1923) 233 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/MNRAS/ 0083/ / 0000233. 000. html)

• The Observatory 45 (1922) 77 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ Obs. . / 0045/ / 0000077. 000. html)• Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 34 (1922) 138 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/

PASP. / 0034/ / 0000138. 000. html)

External links• Online catalogue of Christie's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 7)

Frank Watson Dyson 37

Frank Watson Dyson

Sir Frank Watson Dyson

Born Measham, nr Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, England

Died 25 May 1939 (aged 71)At sea

Nationality British

Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge

Known for Astronomer Royal

Signature

Sir Frank Watson Dyson, KBE, FRS[1] (8 January 1868 – 25 May 1939) was an English astronomer andAstronomer Royal who is remembered today largely for introducing time signals ("pips") from Greenwich, England,and for the role he played in testing Einstein's theory of general relativity.

BiographyDyson was born in Measham, near Ashby-de-la-Zouch, England. He attended Heath Grammar School, Halifax, andsubsequently won scholarships to Bradford Grammar School and Trinity College, Cambridge University, where hestudied mathematics and astronomy, being placed Second Wrangler in 1889.[2] He was Astronomer Royal forScotland from 1905 to 1910, and Astronomer Royal (and director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory) from 1910to 1933. In 1928, he introduced a new free-pendulum clock in the Observatory. This wireless transmission meantthat Greenwich Mean Time was more accurate. He also invented the "six pips", in 1924.Dyson was noted for his study of solar eclipses and was an authority on the spectrum of the corona and on thechromosphere. He is credited with organizing expeditions to observe the 1919 solar eclipse at Brazil and Principe,observations from which confirmed Einstein's theory of the effect of gravity on light.Dyson died while traveling from Australia to England in 1939, and was buried at sea

Frank Watson Dyson 38

Honors and Awards• Fellow of the Royal Society - 1901[1]

• President, Royal Astronomical Society - 1911–1913• Knighted - 1915• President, British Astronomical Association, 1916–1918• Royal Medal of the Royal Society - 1921• Bruce Medal - 1922• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society - 1925• Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire - 1926• Between 1894–1906, Dyson lived at 6 Vanbrugh Hill, Blackheath, London SE3, in a house now marked by a blue

plaque.• The crater Dyson on the Moon is named after him, as is the asteroid 1241 Dysona.

Eclipse photograph from 1919expedition[3]

Frank Dyson and Freeman Dyson

Frank Dyson and theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson are not related.However, the latter does credit Sir Frank with sparking his interest inastronomy; because they shared the same last name, Sir Frank's achievementswere discussed by Freeman Dyson's family when he was a young boy.Inspired, Dyson's first attempt at writing was a 1931 piece of juveniliaentitled "Sir Phillip Robert's Erolunar Collision" — Sir Philip being a thinlydisguised version of Sir Frank.

Selected writings

• Astronomy [4], Frank Dyson, London, Dent, 1910

References[1] Eddington, A. S. (1940). "Sir Frank Watson Dyson. 1868-1939". Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (8): 159–126.

doi:10.1098/rsbm.1940.0015.[2] Frank Watson Dyson (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all&

tex=DY886FW& sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols,1922–1958.

[3] Dyson, F. W.; Eddington, A. S.; Davidson, C. (1920). "A Determination of the Deflection of Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field, fromObservations Made at the Total Eclipse of May 29, 1919". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical andEngineering Sciences 220 (571–581): 291. doi:10.1098/rsta.1920.0009.

[4] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ astronomy00dysouoft

Frank Watson Dyson 39

External links• Online catalogue of Dyson's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 8)• Bruce Medal page (http:/ / www. phys-astro. sonoma. edu/ BruceMedalists/ Dyson/ index. html)• Awarding of Bruce Medal: PASP 34 (1922) 2 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ PASP. / 0034/ / 0000002.

000. html)• Awarding of RAS gold medal: MNRAS 85 (1925) 672 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ MNRAS/ 0085/ /

0000672. 000. html)• Astronomische Nachrichten 268 (1939) 395/396 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ AN. . . / 0268/ /

0000207. 000. html) (one line)• Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 100 (1940) 238 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/

MNRAS/ 0100/ / 0000238. 000. html)• The Observatory 62 (1939) 179 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ Obs. . / 0062/ / 0000179. 000. html)• Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 51 (1939) 336 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/

PASP. / 0051/ / 0000336. 000. html)

Harold Spencer Jones 40

Harold Spencer Jones

Sir Harold Spencer JonesBorn 29 March 1890

Kensington, London, England

Died 3 November 1960 (aged 70)

Known for Astronomer RoyalQuote: "Space travel is bunk"

Sir Harold Spencer Jones KBE FRS[1] (29 March 1890 Kensington, London – 3 November 1960)[2] was anEnglish astronomer. Although born "Jones", his surname became "Spencer Jones".[3]

In 1913 he became Chief Assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. In 1933 he became Astronomer Royal. Hewas president of the International Astronomical Union from 1945 to 1948.He determined the solar parallax from observations of 433 Eros during its close approach in 1930–1931.Spencer Jones's successor as Astronomer Royal was Richard Woolley, who on taking up the position in 1956responded to a question from the press by saying "Space travel is utter bilge".[4] Similarly, it is often stated thatSpencer Jones himself had a strong disbelief in the practicalities of space flight, and that he famously said "spacetravel is bunk" only two weeks before the Sputnik launch in October 1957. However, there is no evidence that he didin fact say this, then or at any other time..

Honours and awardsAwards

• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1943)• Royal Medal (1943)• Bruce Medal (1949)Named after him

• The crater Spencer Jones on the Moon• The crater Jones on Mars• Asteroid 3282 Spencer Jones

References[1] Woolley, R. V. D. R. (1961). "Harold Spencer Jones. 1890-1960". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 7: 136–126.

doi:10.1098/rsbm.1961.0011.[2] GRO Register of Births: JUN 1890 1a 111 KENSINGTON - Harold Spencer Jones (forenames = Harold Spencer, surname = Jones)[3] Smart, W.M. (June 1961). "Sir Harold Spencer Jones, 1890-1960" (http:/ / adsbit. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-iarticle_query?1961JRASC. . 55.

. 117S). Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada 55 (3): 117. Bibcode 1961JRASC..55..117S. Bibl code:1961JRASC..55..117S. .Retrieved 2008-02-24.

[4] Morgan, C. and Langford D.: Facts and Fallacies, Webb & Bower, 1981

Harold Spencer Jones 41

External links• Online catalogue of Spencer Jones' working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 9)

Richard van der Riet Woolley

Richard van der RietWoolley

Born 24 April 1906Weymouth, Dorset, England

Died 24 December 1986 (aged 80)Somerset West, South Africa

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Alma mater University of Cape TownUniversity of Cambridge

Known for Astronomer Royal

Richard van der Riet Woolley (24 April 1906 – 24 December 1986)[1] was an English astronomer who becameAstronomer Royal. His mother's maiden name was Van der Riet.Woolley was born in Weymouth, Dorset and attended Allhallows College then in Honiton for about 18 months, butthen moved with his parents to South Africa upon their retirement. There he attended and received his degree fromthe University of Cape Town. Woolley returned to the United Kingdom and studied at University of Cambridge.After two years at Mount Wilson Observatory he again returned to the United Kingdom in 1931.From 1937 to 1939 he was Senior Assistant Observer and John Couch Adams Astronomer at the CambridgeObservatory.[2]

Woolley specialized in solar astronomy and in 1939 he was appointed director of the Commonwealth SolarObservatory in Canberra, Australia. He later returned to the United Kingdom to take up his appointment asAstronomer Royal from 1956 to 1971.Woolley won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1971. From 1972 to 1976 he was director of thenew South African Astronomical Observatory. He retired in the late 1970s and spent most of his retirement in SouthAfrica.Woolley is known for his initial disbelief in the practicalities of space flight, a notion he shared with Sir HaroldSpencer Jones, his predecessor as Astronomer Royal. In a 1936 book review of P.E. Cleator's Rockets ThroughSpace,[3] Woolley wrote:

"The whole procedure [of shooting rockets into space]...presents difficulties of so fundamental a nature,that we are forced to dismiss the notion as essentially impracticable, in spite of the author's insistentappeal to put aside prejudice and to recollect the supposed impossibility of heavier-than-air flight beforeit was actually accomplished" [4]

On appointment as Astronomer Royal, he reiterated his long-held view that "space travel is utter bilge". Speaking toTime in 1956, Woolley noted

"It's utter bilge. I don't think anybody will ever put up enough money to do such a thing . . . What good would it do us? If we spent the same amount of money on preparing first-class astronomical equipment

Richard van der Riet Woolley 42

we would learn much more about the universe . . . It is all rather rot" [5]

Woolley's protestations came just one year prior to the launch of Sputnik, five years before launch of the ApolloProgram, and thirteen years before the first landing on the moon.In a 1995 letter to New Scientist, J.A. Terry and John Rudge pointed out that the quotation ascribed to Woolley isactually a misquotation of what he actually said (as they had heard themselves on Radio Newsreel), which was "Allthis talk about space travel is utter bilge, really.". Woolley went on to say: "It would cost as much as a major war justto put a man on the moon." Terry and Rudge assert that Woolley's latter prediction turned out to be quite accurate,and state that the deletion of the first four words of the quotation by newspaper editors was in reaction to the fact thatit was those self-same newspaper's hyperbolic articles, talking about space travel, that Woolley was criticising."Anyone", said Terry and Rudge, "who had seen the flamboyant articles about space travel and the imminentcolonisation of the moon and planets that were splashed all over the newspapers in 1956, with science fiction-styleillustrations, must have been immediately aware of what the new Astronomer Royal was riled about.".[6]

References[1] GRO Register of Births: JUN 1906 5a 296 WEYMOUTH - Richard Van der Riet Woolley[2] Stratton, F.J.M. "The History of the Cambridge Observatories" Annals of the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge (1949)[3] Cleator, P.E. (1936). Rockets Through Space; or, The Dawn of Interplanetary Travel. London: G.Allen & Unwin, ltd.. OCLC 123158265.[4] Woolley, Richard (1936). "Book Review: Rockets in Space, by P.E. Cleator". Nature 137 (3463): 417–470. Bibcode 1936Natur.137..417..

doi:10.1038/137417a0.[5] Staff writers (16 January 1956). "Utter Bilge?" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,861825,00. html). Time. . Retrieved

2008-02-24.[6] J.A. Terry and John Rudge (1995-09-16). "Current affairs" (http:/ / newscientist. com/ article/ mg14719956. 100). New Scientist. .

External links• Australian Academy of Science (http:/ / www. asap. unimelb. edu. au/ bsparcs/ aasmemoirs/ woolley. htm)• Online catalogue of Woolley's working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO 10)

Martin Ryle 43

Martin Ryle

Martin RyleBorn 27 September 1918

Brighton, England

Died 14 October 1984 (aged 66)Cambridge, England

Nationality United Kingdom

Fields Astronomy

Doctoral advisor J. A. Ratcliffe

Known for Radio astronomy

Notable awards Hughes Medal (1954)RAS Gold Medal (1964)Henry Draper Medal (1965)Royal Medal (1973)Bruce Medal (1974)Nobel Prize in Physics (1974)

Sir Martin Ryle (27 September 1918 – 14 October 1984) was an English radio astronomer who developedrevolutionary radio telescope systems (see e.g. aperture synthesis) and used them for accurate location and imagingof weak radio sources. In 1946 Ryle and Vonberg were the first people to publish interferometric astronomicalmeasurements at radio wavelengths, although it is claimed that Joseph Pawsey from the University of Sydney hadactually made interferometric measurements earlier in the same year. With improved equipment, Ryle observed themost distant known galaxies in the universe at that time. He was the first Professor of Radio Astronomy at theUniversity of Cambridge, and founding director of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory. He was AstronomerRoyal from 1972 to 1982.Ryle and Antony Hewish shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974, the first Nobel prize awarded in recognition ofastronomical research.

BiographyHe was born in Brighton, the son of Professor John Alfred Ryle and Miriam (née Scully) Ryle. He is also the nephewof the famous Oxford University Professor of Philosophy Gilbert Ryle (Gilbert Ryle and John Alfred Ryle werebrothers).After earning a physics degree at the University of Oxford in 1939, Ryle worked with the TelecommunicationsResearch Establishment on the design of antennas for airborne radar equipment during World War II. After the warhe received a fellowship at the Cavendish Laboratory.The focus of early work in Cambridge was on radio waves from the Sun. Ryle's interest quickly shifted to otherareas, however, and to explore those he decided early on that the Cambridge group should develop new observingtechniques. As a result, Ryle was the driving force in the creation and improvement of astronomical interferometryand aperture synthesis, which have contributed immensely to upgrading the quality of radio astronomical data. In1946 he built the first multi-element astronomical radio interferometer.He guided the Cambridge radio astronomy group in the production of several important radio source catalogues. Forexample, the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources (3C) 1959 helped lead to the discovery of the firstquasi-stellar object (quasar).

Martin Ryle 44

While serving as university lecturer in physics at Cambridge from 1948 to 1959, Ryle became director of theMullard Radio Astronomy Observatory 1957, and professor of radio astronomy in 1959. He was elected a fellow ofthe Royal Society in 1952, was knighted in 1966, and succeeded Sir Richard Woolley as Astronomer Royal(1972–82). Ryle and Antony Hewish shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974, the first Nobel prize awarded inrecognition of astronomical research. In 1968 he served as professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London.Sir Martin Ryle died on 14 October 1984, in Cambridge. He had married Rowena Palmer in 1947.

AstronomyMartin Ryle was undoubtedly one of the great astronomers of the 20th Century. He was sometimes considereddifficult to work with - in fact he often worked in an office at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory to avoiddisturbances from other members of the Cavendish Laboratory and to avoid getting into heated arguments, as Rylehad a hot temper. Ryle worried that Cambridge would lose its standing in the radio astronomy community as otherradio astronomy groups had much better funding, so he encouraged a certain amount of secrecy about his aperturesynthesis methods in order to keep an advantage for the Cambridge group.Ryle had a famous heated argument with Fred Hoyle of the Institute of Astronomy about Hoyle's Steady StateUniverse (see also the note on the 2C source survey), which somewhat restricted collaboration between theCavendish Radio Astronomy Group and the Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s.Ryle also authored a couple of short books on Nuclear Proliferation ('Politics of Nuclear Disarmament') where heargues that the only way to save the planet Earth from complete nuclear annihilation is to ban the use of any nucleardevices indefinitely. Ryle was a Amateur radio operator[1] and held the GB-Callsign G3CY.

Honours and awards• Hughes Medal (1954)• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1964)[2]

• Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences (1965)[3]

• Albert A. Michelson Medal of the Franklin Institute (1971)[4]

• Royal Medal (1973)• Bruce Medal (1974)[5]

• Nobel Prize in Physics (1974)• Ryle Telescope at Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory

References[1] http:/ / www. bath. ac. uk/ ncuacs/ AHRC%20pdf/ Ryle. pdf[2] "Winners of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society" (http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ awards-and-grants/ awards/ 268). Royal

Astronomical Society. . Retrieved 24 February 2011.[3] "Henry Draper Medal" (http:/ / www. nasonline. org/ site/ PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_draper). National Academy of Sciences. .

Retrieved 24 February 2011.[4] "Franklin Laureate Database - Albert A. Michelson Medal Laureates" (http:/ / www. fi. edu/ winners/ show_results. faw?gs=& ln=& fn=&

keyword=& subject=& award=MICH+ & sy=1967& ey=1997& name=Submit). Franklin Institute. . Retrieved June 14, 2011.[5] "Past Winners of the Catherine Wolfe Bruce Gold Medal" (http:/ / astrosociety. org/ membership/ awards/ pastbruce. html). Astronomical

Society of the Pacific. . Retrieved 24 February 2011.

M. Ryle, D. Vonberg, Solar radiation on 175Mc/s, Nature 158 pp 339 (September 1946) - Observations from thefirst multi-element astronomical radio interferometer

Martin Ryle 45

External links• About Sir Martin Ryle (http:/ / www. nobel-winners. com/ Physics/ sir_martin_ryle. html)• Press release about Martin Ryle's Nobel Prize. (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ physics/ laureates/ 1974/ press. html)• Obs 104 (1984) 283 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ Obs. . / 0104/ / 0000283. 000. html)• QJRAS 26 (1985) 358 (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ / full/ seri/ QJRAS/ 0026/ / 0000358. 000. html)

Francis Graham-Smith 46

Francis Graham-Smith

Sir FrancisGraham-Smith

in 2009

Born 25 April 1923

Known for Astronomer Royal

Sir Francis Graham-Smith (born 25 April 1923) is a British astronomer. He was the thirteenth Astronomer Royalfrom 1982 to 1990.He was educated at Rossall School, Lancashire, England. In the late 1940s he worked at the University of Cambridgeon the Long Michelson Interferometer.In 1964 he was appointed Professor of Radio Astronomy at Manchester and in 1981 director of the Royal AstronomyLaboratory. He was also director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory from 1975 to 1981.He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1970 [1] and was awarded their Royal Medal in 1987. He waspresident of the Royal Astronomical Society from 1975 to 1977.Sir Francis Graham-Smith is a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association and is a patron ofMansfield and Sutton Astronomical Society.

References[1] "Fellows" (http:/ / royalsociety. org/ about-us/ fellowship/ fellows/ ). Royal Society. . Retrieved 30 December 2010.

External links• Scienceworld biography (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ SmithGraham. html)• Online catalogue of F. Graham Smith's working papers as director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory (held at

Cambridge University Library) (http:/ / janus. lib. cam. ac. uk/ db/ node. xsp?id=EAD/ GBR/ 0180/ RGO **)

Arnold Wolfendale 47

Arnold Wolfendale

Sir Arnold Wolfendale

Born 25 June 1927Rugby, Warwickshire

Residence Durham

Nationality British

Fields Physics

Alma mater University of Manchester

Known for Astronomer Royal

Sir Arnold Whittaker Wolfendale FRS (born 25 June 1927, Rugby, Warwickshire [1] ) is a British astronomer whoserved as Astronomer Royal from 1991 to 1995.

Early lifeHis family moved to Flixton when he was 18 months. He attended Stretford Grammar School in Manchester.Wolfendale was graduated with a BSc in physics from the University of Manchester in 1948, followed by a PhD in1953 and a DSc in 1970.

CareerDuring his career he held academic posts at the universities of Manchester (1951–6), Durham (1956–92), Ceylonand Hong Kong, and was head of department at Durham where he remains an emeritus professor. He was Professorof Physics at Durham from 1965–92.

RecognitionHe was elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1973, and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1977. Heretired from teaching in 1992 and was knighted in 1995. In 1996 he became Professor of Experimental Physics withthe Royal Institution of Great Britain. A lecture theatre in Durham University's new Calman Learning Centre hasbeen named in his honour.

Personal lifeHe married Audrey Darby in 1951. They had twin sons. His wife died in 2007.

Arnold Wolfendale 48

References[1] GRO Register of Births: SEP 1927 6d 1198a RUGBY – Arnold W. Wolfendale, mmn = Hoyle

External links• Durham University Staff Profile: Prof Sir AW Wolfendale (http:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/ physics/ staff/ profiles/

?username=dph6aww)

Martin Rees 49

Martin Rees

The Lord Rees of Ludlow

Jodrell Bank in 2007

Born 23 June 1942York, UK

Fields Astronomy and Astrophysics

Institutions Trinity College, CambridgeUniversity of Sussex

Alma mater Trinity College, Cambridge

Doctoral advisor Dennis Sciama

Doctoral students Roger Blandford,Craig Hogan,Priyamvada Natarajan

Known for Cosmic microwave background radiation,quasars,Astronomer Royal

Notable awards Balzan Prize (1989),Bower Award (1998),Gruber Prize in Cosmology (2001),Michael Faraday Prize (2004),Crafoord Prize (2005)Templeton Prize (2011)

Spouse Caroline Humphrey

Martin John Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow, OM, FRS (born 23 June 1942 in York[1] ) is a British cosmologist andastrophysicist. He has been Astronomer Royal since 1995 and Master of Trinity College, Cambridge since 2004. Hewas President of the Royal Society between 2005 and 2010.

Martin Rees 50

EducationRees was educated at Shrewsbury School and Trinity College, Cambridge (where he attained a First Class degree inmathematics), and completed his doctorate under Dennis Sciama at Cambridge.

Scientific careerAfter holding post-doctoral research positions in the United Kingdom and the United States, he taught at SussexUniversity and the University of Cambridge, where he was the Plumian Professor until 1991, and the director of theInstitute of Astronomy. From 1992 to 2003, he was Royal Society Research Professor, and from 2003 Professor ofCosmology and Astrophysics. He was Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College, London, in 1975 and became aFellow of the Royal Society in 1979. He also holds Visiting Professorships at Imperial College London and at theUniversity of Leicester and is an Honorary Fellow of Darwin College, Cambridge. He has received honorary degreesfrom a number of universities including Sussex, Uppsala, Toronto, Durham, Oxford, Yale and Melbourne. Hebelongs to several foreign academies, including the US National Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy ofSciences and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He has been President of the Royal Astronomical Society (1992-4)and the British Association (1995-6) and was a Member of Council of the Royal Institution of Great Britain until2010. Rees is the author of more than 500 research papers, and he has made important contributions to the origin ofcosmic microwave background radiation, as well as to galaxy clustering and formation. His studies of thedistribution of quasars led to final disproof of Steady State theory. He was also one of the first to propose thatenormous black holes power quasars [2] , and that superluminal astronomical observations can be explained as anoptical illusion caused by an object moving partly in the direction of the observer.[3] In recent years he has workedon gamma-ray bursts, especially in collaboration with Peter Mészáros, and on how the “cosmic dark ages” endedwhen the first stars formed. In a more speculative vein, he has (from the 1970s onwards) been interested in anthropicreasoning, and the possibility that our visible universe is part of a vaster “multiverse”.He is also a well-respected author of books on astronomy and science intended for the lay public and gives manypublic lectures and broadcasts. In 2010 he was chosen to deliver the Reith Lectures for the BBC[4] , now published as"From Here to Infinity: Scientific Horizons". Rees believes the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence is worthwhile,even though the chance of success is small.[5]

In 2005, Rees was elevated to a life peerage, sitting as a crossbencher in the House of Lords as Baron Rees ofLudlow, of Ludlow in the County of Shropshire.[6] In 2005, he was awarded the Crafoord Prize.[7] He becamePresident of the Royal Society on 1 December 2005[8] [9] and continued in this role until the end of the Society's350th Anniversary Celebrations in 2010. In 2011, he was awarded the Templeton Prize.[10] As well as expanding hisscientific interests, Rees has written and spoken extensively about the problems and challenges of the 21st century,and the interfaces between science, ethics and politics.[11] [12] He is a member of the Board of the Princeton Institutefor Advanced Study, the IPPR, the Oxford Martin School and the Gates Cambridge Trust. He has formerly been aTrustee of the British Museum and the Science Museum.

Martin Rees 51

HonoursAwards

• Heineman Prize (1984)• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1987)• Balzan Prize (1989) for High Energy Astrophysics• Knight Bachelor (1992)• Bruce Medal (1993)• Bruno Rossi Prize (2000)• Gruber Prize in Cosmology (2001)• Henry Norris Russell Lectureship of the American Astronomical Society (2004)• Lifeboat Foundation's Guardian Award [13] (2004)• Royal Society's Michael Faraday Prize for science communication (2004)• Life Peerage (2005)• Crafoord Prize, with James Gunn and James Peebles (2005)• Order of Merit-the personal gift of The Queen (2007)• Caird Medal of the National Maritime Museum (2007)• Templeton Prize (2011)Named after him

• Asteroid 4587 Rees

Publications• Cosmic Coincidences: Dark Matter, Mankind, and Anthropic Cosmology (coauthor John Gribbin), 1989, Bantam,

ISBN 0-553-34740-3• New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology, 1995, ISBN 0-521-64544-1• Gravity's Fatal Attraction: Black Holes in the Universe, 1995, ISBN 0-7167-6029-0, 2nd edition 2009, ISBN

0-521-71793-0• Before the Beginning - Our Universe and Others, 1997, ISBN 0-7382-0033-6• Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape the Universe, 2000, ISBN 0-465-03673-2• Our Cosmic Habitat, 2001, ISBN 0-691-11477-3• Our Final Hour: A Scientist's Warning: How Terror, Error, and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind's

Future In This Century—On Earth and Beyond (UK title: Our Final Century: Will the Human Race Survive theTwenty-first Century?), 2003, ISBN 0-465-06862-6

• ['What We Still Don't Know' ISBN 978-0713998214] yet to be published.• From Here to Inifinity: Scientific Horizons, 2011, ISN 978 1 84668 5033

Martin Rees 52

References[1] GRO Register of Births: SEP 1942 9c 1465 YORK - Martin J. Rees, mmn = Bett[2] Rees, M. J. (1984). "Black Hole Models for Active Galactic Nuclei". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 22: 471–506.

doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.22.090184.002351.[3] Rees, M. J. (1966). "Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources". Nature 211 (5048): 468–470. Bibcode 1966Natur.211..468R.

doi:10.1038/211468a0.[4] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ b00sj9lh The Reith Lectures 2010: The Scientific Citizen by Martin Rees[5] Interview with Paul Broks in Prospect magazine (http:/ / www. prospectmagazine. co. uk/ 2010/ 02/ cosmic-man/ ), March 2010[6] Sir Martin Rees appointed to Lords (http:/ / www. admin. cam. ac. uk/ news/ dp/ 2005080101) (1 August 2005)[7] Professor Sir Martin Rees wins Crafoord Prize (http:/ / www. admin. cam. ac. uk/ news/ dp/ 2005020801) (10 February 2005)[8] Martin Rees tipped to head Royal Society (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4391243. stm) (29 March 2005)[9] Martin Rees nomination for new President of the Royal Society (http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk/ news. asp?id=3022) (29 March 2005)[10] Martin Rees wins controversial Templeton Prize (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2011/ apr/ 06/ martin-rees-templeton-prize) (6

April 2011)[11] Dark Materials: The legacy of Joseph Rotblat (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ comment/ story/ 0,,1794321,00. html) 2006-06-10[12] Podcast of Lecture "The World in 2050" (http:/ / www. 21school. ox. ac. uk/ downloads/ podcasts/ 200902_rees. mp3) given at the James

Martin 21st Century School, University of Oxford, February 2009[13] http:/ / lifeboat. com/ ex/ guardian2004

External links• Faculty webpage (http:/ / www. ast. cam. ac. uk/ ~mjr/ )• Master of Trinity College, Cambridge page (http:/ / www. trin. cam. ac. uk/ index. php?pageid=172)• Royal Society (http:/ / royalsociety. org)• TED profile (http:/ / www. ted. com/ speakers/ sir_martin_rees. html) 2005 talk: Is this our final century?• Interviews (http:/ / www. charlierose. com/ guest/ view/ 1729) with Charlie Rose 2003 and 2008• New Statesman Interviews Martin Rees (http:/ / www. newstatesman. com/ ideas/ 2010/ 04/

interview-science-climate) This interview was originally published on 6 April 2010 of New Statesman

Article Sources and Contributors 53

Article Sources and ContributorsAstronomer Royal  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454841840  Contributors: Al Lemos, Bailrigg, Bluap, Cgingold, Colenso, Conversion script, Craigy144, Curps, Cyan22,DarbyAsh, Deb, Dirac1933, DrFrench, DynamoDegsy, Eldumpo, Emerson7, FeanorStar7, Friman, Gabbe, Headbomb, Ie.elliott, Jpbowen, Karol Langner, Lightmouse, Looxix, Moroboshi,Nomet, Oliver Pereira, Palnatoke, Pharos, Pmanderson, Qwertyu63, RjLesch, SimonP, Stoive, Terry0051, Trilobite, XJamRastafire, ZapThunderstrike, Zundark, 19 anonymous edits

Royal Observatory, Greenwich  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456817013  Contributors: 9258fahsflkh917fas, A2Kafir, Abberley2, Acalamari, Adrian.benko, Alaniaris,Alkivar, Amakuru, AmiDaniel, Amirae, Astronautics, Bevo, Bhoesicol, Bobblewik, Boleyn3, CalJW, Camfordwiki, Cantus, CarolSpears, Cavie78, Cbustapeck, Choalbaton, Chris the speller,CommonsDelinker, Cormullion, Cyan22, DavidLevinson, Deror avi, Digilee, Dogears, Dontdoit, Download, Dubidub, Duja, Eilthireach, Everyking, Expitheta, France3470, Freakmighty, Gabbe,Gandalf61, Ghepeu, Ghirlandajo, GilbertoSilvaFan, GoingBatty, Grafen, Greclevoir, H2g2bob, Hairy Dude, Happysailor, Headbomb, Horology, Howcheng, Isidore, IvanLanin, JaT,Jackehammond, Jc3s5h, Jcfrye, Jheald, Jllm06, Joe Kress, Kafziel, Kbthompson, Kdkeller, Kent Wang, KjellG, Kjetilbjornsrud, Lilac Soul, MRSC, Mais oui!, Mark Wheaver, MarkMLl,Markhamilton, Marrante, Mashford, Maury Markowitz, Mazadillon, Mike Peel, Modster, MrWeeble, Murtasa, Neddyseagoon, Neutrality, Nick Cooper, NickBush24, Nitwitpicker, Nunh-huh,PFHLai, Paul Koning, Paul W, Pbadams, Pcpcpc, Petri Krohn, Pigsonthewing, Pne, Radoslaw Ziomber, Rayc, Rich Farmbrough, Richhoncho, RickBeton, Rnt20, Ryulong, Saihtam,SallyForth123, Samwb123, Shadegan(goru), Shizhao, Solipsist, Sophia, Sparky, Split, SpookyMulder, Stephencdickson, Stepheng3, Stevenj, Taelus, Tagishsimon, TheVixenZozo, Tim!,Tomhannen, Tony Corsini, Ttrack, Ucanlookitup, Vanished user 03, Vegaswikian, Warofdreams, Wikisux, XJamRastafire, XalD, Xhienne, Yamara, Zygonjon, Zzyzx11, 92 anonymous edits

Astronomer Royal for Scotland  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=448778769  Contributors: AN(Ger), Bailrigg, Chi And H, Craigy144, Curps, G1076, Headbomb, Ie.elliott,Jaraalbe, Karol Langner, Mais oui!, Man vyi, Martarius, Oliver Chettle, Pharos, Pmanderson, Primaler, Vanished User 1004, Vclaw, 7 anonymous edits

Royal Astronomer of Ireland  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=448778028  Contributors: Carcharoth, Charles Matthews, Gallagpt, Hohenloh, Ie.elliott, Jaraalbe, KarolLangner, Lightmouse, MatthewMain, Ncox, Neier, Pmanderson, Stijenor, Sverigekillen, Ysogo, 7 anonymous edits

John Flamsteed  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462165042  Contributors: Afasmit, Al Lemos, Algorithme, Allen234, Anger22, Arcturus, Arturo 7, Astrochemist, Bluap,Bryan Derksen, CALR, CFLeon, CanisRufus, Charles Matthews, Cnyborg, Coemgenus, CooterMcSpankking, Courcelles, CrazyChemGuy, Curps, D6, Dartford Warbler, Dr. Submillimeter,Dsp13, EdH, Eilthireach, Ekotkie, Emerson7, Enirac Sum, Etacar11, Etrigan, FocalPoint, Fountainofinfiniteknowledge, Gdr, Giftlite, Gombang, Howcheng, Icairns, IronCrow, J JMesserly,Jan1nad, Jaraalbe, Joseaperez, Juliancolton, Kdkeller, Krscal, Lowe4091, Magnus Manske, MaryBowser, Maxx, Modeha, Nicke Lilltroll, Nightkey, Nine9s, Nk, Nono64, Oerjan, Olivier,OneVeryBadMan, Parkywiki, Pasachoff, Pibwl, Piniricc65, QueenAdelaide, RJHall, RandomCritic, Rastro, Rcsprinter123, Renata, Rnt20, Rothorpe, Rursus, Sbodenmann, Skeptic2, Smallweed,Spaceelve, Spooky, Spshu, Stephencdickson, T. Anthony, Taliesin717, The Twelfth Doctor, TheVixenZozo, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Twang, Wasoxygen, Wknight94, XJamRastafire, Xn4,YUL89YYZ, 59 anonymous edits

Edmond Halley  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462049737  Contributors: AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alcoved id, Ancheta Wis, Anclation, Andrwsc,AndySimpson, Anonymous editor, Antzervos, Arithmonic, Astrochemist, Astudent, Attilios, Avjoska, Ayla, BaronLarf, BarretBonden, Basketdove, Bazonka, Bearcat, Benea, Big iron,Black85ball, Bluap, Bluerasberry, Bobo192, Bogey97, Bornintheguz, Breno, Brion VIBBER, Brookie, CIreland, CWHughes, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canthusus, Capricorn42,Carlwev, Carnby, Casliber, Cdc, Chris the speller, Cmichael, CommonsDelinker, Connormah, Craigy144, Crohnie, Cst17, Curps, Cwoyte, D6, DVdm, Danger, Daniel Stringer, Deflective,Deineka, Diatarn_iv, Dirac1933, Diverman, Doug butler, Dpaajones, Dr. Submillimeter, Dricherby, Dungodung, Dyw1969, Eastfrisian, EdH, Egmontaz, Eliyak, Emerson7, Emijrp, EoGuy,Evolauxia, Felix505, Filanca, FileMaster, Finavon, Fluffernutter, FlyingToaster, Fredrik, Frenchyjesse, Gene Hobbs, George The Dragon, Giants27, Giftlite, Goolies flock, Gracenotes, Gtrmp,Hair Commodore, Headbomb, Hersfold tool account, Hi-Toro, Homagetocatalonia, INkubusse, Icairns, Igoldste, ItsZippy, JPKos, Jan.Kamenicek, Japo, Jaraalbe, Jcw69, Jeandré du Toit, Jengod,Jeronimo, Jheald, Jklin, Jmangrum, John, Joyous!, Jpbowen, Jturner87, Jusdafax, KaptKos, Kbthompson, Kdkeller, Kelisi, Keplerslab, Kessy628, Kingleonidas1, Kingliam3, Krscal,Kungfuadam, Kuralyov, Kwamikagami, Larsobrien, Leeney79, Lesnail, Leuko, Little Mountain 5, Loonquawl, Lumos3, M3tainfo, MD1937, Magnus Manske, Mahlum, Mardochaios,Mark.murphy, MarkSG, Masterofhogets, Mcasey666, Megaboz, Michael C Price, Michael Daly, Michbich, Mike s, Mikenorton, Modeha, Mr mo31, MrJones, Mschlindwein, NSH001,Necrothesp, Never give in, Nk, Nomist, NotFromUtrecht, Nwsmith, Ohnoitsjamie, Olaf Simons, Omassey, Omcnew, Onebravemonkey, OohBunnies!, Oosoom, Oracleofottawa, Patar knight,Paul Drye, Paul W, Paul the alien, Phantomsteve, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, Pietersz, Pizza Puzzle, Postglock, QueenAdelaide, RJHall, Ragemanchoo, Rakiko12, RandomCritic,Rannpháirtí anaithnid, Rawling, RedWolf, RexxS, Rfl, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Richardfabi, Ricky81682, Rif Winfield, Ripleyscool, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, RogDel, Rogerluo18,Roodog2k, Rrburke, Rufous, SGGH, Satori, ScottSteiner, Scoutersig, Sebastian&kimberly=4ever, Sebesta, Shirulashem, Sitehut, Skarebo, Skeptic2, Smallweed, Smartblondeami,SockPuppetForTomruen, Space Cadet, Stephencdickson, Stephenlee, Strib, Studerby, Subhamsudipto, Swenster101, TEB728, Taliesin717, Tanaats, Tarquin, Tarquin Binary, Tasty monster, TheFont, The Singing Badger, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheLeopard, TheVixenZozo, Thony C., Tim!, Timeineurope, Tobby72, Tom harrison, Totalnerduk, Tpbradbury, Trilobite, Tyrenius,Urhixidur, Vegaswikian, Vfp15, Vssun, West.andrew.g, Will Beback Auto, William Avery, Willsmith, Woohookitty, Writ Keeper, XJamRastafire, YellowMonkey, Yidle, Yurik, ZooFari,Zundark, 449 anonymous edits

James Bradley  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454229133  Contributors: Adrian.benko, Ameliorate!, Arizonasqueeze, Astrochemist, Bill3490, Bluap, Bogdangiusca, Brewsohare, Carbuncle, ClamDip, Colonies Chris, Curps, D6, DanielRigal, Dcoetzee, Deb, Dimadick, DéRahier, Earl Andrew, Emerson7, Flapdragon, Gaius Cornelius, Gdr, Headbomb, Icairns,J.delanoy, Jaraalbe, Jatosado, Jauerback, Jerzy, Johan1298, JohnBlackburne, JoshuaZ, Kam Solusar, Karol Langner, Ketiltrout, Khetu, Knight1993, Looxix, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mschlindwein,NebraskaDontAsk, Optokinetics, Oxymoron83, Paul W, Phe, Rbraunwa, Rds5445, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rl, Rsabbatini, Samwb123, Steinsky, Stephencdickson, Sunderland06, Superborsuk,T. Anthony, TOO, Tcncv, Terry0051, TheVixenZozo, Thingg, Trilobite, Twang, Wrp103, XJamRastafire, YUL89YYZ, Yearslec, Æthelwold, 33 anonymous edits

Nathaniel Bliss  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=459619479  Contributors: Alai, Astrochemist, Avalon, BD2412, Bluap, Curps, D6, DShamen, Emerson7, Headbomb, Icairns,Jaraalbe, JonC, Lesnail, Magere Hein, MarmadukePercy, Njaelkies Lea, Paul W, Pgg7, Phe, RJHall, Saga City, Scapler, Secretlondon, Starmaker it, Stephencdickson, T. Anthony, TheVixenZozo,Trilobite, Waacstats, XJamRastafire, YUL89YYZ, 3 anonymous edits

Nevil Maskelyne  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457768625  Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, A2Kafir, Ameliorate!, Asfarer, Astrochemist, Bernfarr, BillC, Bluap, CALR,Charles Matthews, Colenso, Curps, D6, DAEaton, Deineka, Dimadick, Dsp13, Dvyost, Ed g2s, Emerson7, Ettrig, Euyyn, Fys, Goatasaur, GraemeL, GrahamHardy, Grahamec, Guthrie,Hammersoft, Harlock81, Headbomb, Henrygb, Highpriest16, Icairns, Illexsquid, Iridescent, Jaraalbe, Ketiltrout, Kf4bdy, Kittybrewster, KjellG, Krscal, Looxix, Magioladitis, Magnus Manske,Michael Daly, Neddyseagoon, Ohconfucius, Omassey, Pclive, Petri Krohn, Phe, Pigslop, Quotient group, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Richerman, Ruszewski, Salmanazar, Sam Hocevar,Smallweed, T. Anthony, Tassedethe, TheVixenZozo, Trilobite, UtherSRG, Vancouveriensis, Vinsci, Vsmith, Waldir, XJamRastafire, 36 anonymous edits

John Pond  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=459619560  Contributors: Aaron Einstein, Amarkov, Ameliorate!, Astrochemist, Bender235, Bluap, Bobby Bouldersssss!, Bobbythe Lordgod, CambridgeBayWeather, Cryptic, Curps, D6, Dimadick, Dsp13, EileenFlammable, Emerson7, Erechtheus, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Giftlite, Headbomb, Icairns, Jaraalbe, JavierMC,Ketiltrout, Lockley, Magere Hein, Omar35880, Paul Koning, Paul W, Phe, RJHall, RadioKirk, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Roman Spinner, Smallweed, T. Anthony, TheVixenZozo,Trilobite, XJamRastafire, 10 anonymous edits

George Biddell Airy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=460959305  Contributors: Adrian.benko, Ameliorate!, Angela, Animum, Anthony, Aofrancis, Asfarer, Astrochemist,Auntof6, Barticus88, Bashereyre, Bethpage89, Bobo192, Brownout, Ceancata, Charles Matthews, Chicheley, CommonsDelinker, Computerhistory, Craigy144, Crowsnest, Curps, Cutler, D.H,D6, Dcoetzee, Deb, DialUp, Dirac1933, Docjudith, Dsp13, DuncanHill, Emerson7, Eras-mus, Erebus Morgaine, FeanorStar7, Flux.books, G716, Gandalf61, GcSwRhIc, Gdr, Gidonet, Giftlite,Grand Edgemaster, GregVolk, Hannes Eder, Headbomb, Hughsonj, Icairns, Inductiveload, Ironholds, JackofOz, Jan.Kamenicek, Jaraalbe, Jarry1250, John K, Just plain Bill, Kakoui, Ketiltrout,Krscal, Laszlovszky András, Lesnail, Lockley, Looxix, Magnus Manske, Mais oui!, MarkHurn, Mayumashu, MessinaRagazza, Missmarple, Moverton, Mpaa, Mrh30, Mwanner, Necrothesp,Netoholic, Nhyty, Nicke Lilltroll, Novangelis, Occuli, Ohconfucius, Olessi, Penfold, Perelaar, Peruvianllama, Peterlewis, Phil Holmes, Phoe, Pigman, Plucas58, Proofreader, Pwqn, Quadell,RJHall, Rbs, Richard75, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Rsabbatini, Ruzulo, Scrabbler, Sherurcij, Simetrical, SimonArlott, Smallweed, Tagishsimon, The Anome, The wub, Thejerm, Tobias Bergemann,Tomas e, TonyW, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Vanish2, Walter Breitzke, Wgungfu, WilliamKF, Womble, XJamRastafire, YUL89YYZ, 霧木諒二, 57 anonymous edits

William Christie  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441895415  Contributors: Alai, Americus55, Astrochemist, Bluap, Curps, D6, Dsp13, Emerson7, Flaming Ferrari,GravySpasm, Icairns, Jaraalbe, Kernel Saunters, Mike s, Mwng, Phe, Plucas58, Roundhouse0, Tagishsimon, TheVixenZozo, Trilobite, Waacstats, Whouk, XJamRastafire, YUL89YYZ, 9anonymous edits

Frank Watson Dyson  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=449364388  Contributors: A. Carty, Americus55, Angela, Astrochemist, Bluap, Curps, D6, DShamen, Dirac1933,Duncan.Hull, Emerson7, Epbr123, Headbomb, Icairns, Ironholds, Irregulargalaxies, J JMesserly, Jaraalbe, Khcf6971, Magere Hein, Mike s, MrBoo, Occuli, Oosoom, Paul Drye, Paul W, Phe,Piniricc65, Plucas58, Rjstott, Rjwilmsi, SandyGeorgia, Skeptic2, Spiritllama, Tabularius, Tagishsimon, Timrollpickering, Tothwolf, Trilobite, Vernon39, XJamRastafire, YUL89YYZ, Zoicon5,11 anonymous edits

Harold Spencer Jones  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=451328798  Contributors: Bluap, Chris the speller, Craigy144, Curps, Cyan22, D6, Deineka, Dthomsen8, Duncan.Hull, Emerson7, Etacar11, Friman, Gargletheape, Giftlite, Icairns, Ironholds, Island, Jaraalbe, John Vandenberg, Mwng, Novangelis, Perkeleperkele, RJHall, Sidhu Jyatha, Skeptic2,

Article Sources and Contributors 54

Tagishsimon, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Wizardman, 5 anonymous edits

Richard van der Riet Woolley  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=452726882  Contributors: Alai, Aspencerjones, Awolf002, Bastin, Bender235, Bluap, Caerwine, Cazo3788,Curps, Cyan22, D6, Deineka, Delirium, Emerson7, Etacar11, Headbomb, Icairns, JackyR, Jaraalbe, Koavf, MarkHurn, Markaci, Martyman, Oxxo, PDH, Rjwilmsi, Runcorn, Skyandfocus,TheVixenZozo, Timrollpickering, Top Jim, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Una Smith, Uncle G, Urhixidur, Wizardman, XJamRastafire, 8 anonymous edits

Martin Ryle  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438586208  Contributors: Alexdoroti, Andrei Stroe, Aris Katsaris, Bluap, CALR, Curps, D6, DAJF, Dangshei, Deirdre,Demophon, Dl1oli, Emerson7, Etacar11, Eustress, Everyking, Fuhghettaboutit, GcSwRhIc, Gcm, Gloriamarie, H falcon, Headbomb, HennessyC, Hephaestos, Icairns, Ironholds, JackyR, Jaraalbe,JoeWiki, Ksnow, Kummi, Lemeza Kosugi, Linuxlad, Maximus Rex, Mentifisto, MessinaRagazza, Mic, Michael Hardy, Mnmngb, NSH001, Nasa-verve, Nine9s, Omicronpersei8, Pakaran,Plucas58, RJHall, Rich Farmbrough, Rnt20, Samitton, SchreyP, Septuagent, Srbauer, Srleffler, Tanthalas39, Tassedethe, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Utternutter, Vegaswikian, Wizardman,XJamRastafire, Xioxox, 33 anonymous edits

Francis Graham-Smith  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=438595648  Contributors: Amikake3, Angusw2, BHA, Bluap, Carcharoth, CommonsDelinker, Curps, D6,Dabomb87, Demophon, Duncharris, Emerson7, Etacar11, General Wesc, Icairns, Ironholds, Jaraalbe, Linuxlad, Mike Peel, Necron5555, Nigosh, Plucas58, Proteus, RJHall, Rnt20, Stumps,Taxman, TheVixenZozo, Trilobite, Vantey, Vegaswikian, Viriditas, Waacstats, Wouterhagens, XJamRastafire, Yodatheoak, 8 anonymous edits

Arnold Wolfendale  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442334245  Contributors: Alai, Average Earthman, Billlion, Bluap, Caerwine, Curps, DinosaursLoveExistence, Edward,Emerson7, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, Jaraalbe, Jim Cornmell, Khcf6971, Malleus Fatuorum, Maudemiller, Necrothesp, Paulleake, Postdlf, Proteus, Rjwilmsi, RogDel, Runcorn, THJames,Timrollpickering, Trilobite, Tuesdaily, Urhixidur, Waacstats, XJamRastafire, 4 anonymous edits

Martin Rees  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=459356714  Contributors: Abyssadventurer, Alison, Amillar, Andeggs, Anonymous Dissident, Arentath8, Arrowsmithy,Astudent, Auntof6, BBC Cookoo, Bellhalla, Blainster, Bluap, Brian0918, Bunzil, Bwithh, Charles Matthews, Cloudtwenty, Coemgenus, Courcelles, Craigy144, Crosbiesmith, Curps, D6,Darkwind6000, Demophon, Diodecimus, Djdjdjdjb, Donarreiskoffer, Duffy2032, Duncan.Hull, ELApro, Ecemaml, Emerson7, EoGuy, Etacar11, Euty, Everyking, Fondazionebalzanpremio,Gabbe, Gareth E Kegg, Gareth Jones, Geschichte, Giftlite, GrahamHardy, Headbomb, HexaChord, Ibagli, Icairns, Intelligent Mr Toad, Irismac, JRawle, JackyR, Jamesfranklingresham,Jamestown, Jaraalbe, Jblogs, Jetman, Jfmantis, Jlush2, Joan kingston, JonathanMcDowell, Jpbowen, Jwise77, KTC, KYPark, Khamosh, Lemeza Kosugi, Linuxlad, Lord.lucan, Mais oui!,MarkHurn, Masterpiece2000, Mhkay, Michelle Roberts, Mitteldorf, NBeale, Nathan Johnson, NawlinWiki, OneVeryBadMan, P0LARIS, Peter Hornby, Phe, PhilHibbs, Phoe, Pjmc, Poccil,Proteus, Quadell, Qwfp, RJHall, Raghavsuryadev, Reader34, RetiredUser2, Rex the first, Richie, Rnt20, Robminchin, Rogwan, Ross UK, Sdouglass5, Seanjacksontc, Skeptic2, Smb1001,Snowolf, SqueakBox, Stevenscollege, Stevew2022, SuperGirl, Sussexonian, Tedster212, The Rambling Man, Timrollpickering, Timwi, Trilobite, UBeR, UnitedStatesian, VanishedUser314159,Vernon39, Vojvodaen, Vrghs jacob, WadeSimMiser, Wsiegmund, XJamRastafire, Xioxox, АлександрВв, 118 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 55

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Royal observatory greenwich.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_observatory_greenwich.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:CarolSpears, IP 84.5, Nachoman-au, ShizhaoImage:RoyalObservatoryShepherd1824 edited.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RoyalObservatoryShepherd1824_edited.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AdamBMorgan, Infrogmation, Kdkeller, MerchbowImage:Royal Greenwich Observatory Postcard c1902.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Greenwich_Observatory_Postcard_c1902.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Tony Corsini, WayneRayImage:Greenwich observatory laser.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greenwich_observatory_laser.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Markhamilton at en.wikipediaImage:24 Hour Clock.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:24_Hour_Clock.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Jcfrye at en.wikipediaImage:RGO-Herstmonceux.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RGO-Herstmonceux.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Billinghurst, JaT, 1anonymous editsImage:Britanski merki za dalzhina Grinuich 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Britanski_merki_za_dalzhina_Grinuich_2005.jpg  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: 32bitmaschine, Bggoldie, FordPrefect42, Mattes, RanveigImage:Royalobs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royalobs.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Kjetil BjørnsrudImage:GreenwichChronometer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GreenwichChronometer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alkivar, 1 anonymous editsFile:John_Flamsteed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Flamsteed.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Sfan00 IMG, TbcImage:John Flamsteed Royal Greenwich Observatory Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observatory_Museum.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Klaus-Dieter Keller, GermanyFile:Edmund Halley.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edmund_Halley.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Lumos3 at en.wikipediaImage:Edmond Halley Royal Greenwich Observatory Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edmond_Halley_Royal_Greenwich_Observatory_Museum.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Klaus-Dieter Keller, GermanyImage:Halley compass variations 1702.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Halley_compass_variations_1702.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Edmond HalleyImage:Edmond Halley plaque in Westminster Abbey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edmond_Halley_plaque_in_Westminster_Abbey.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: User:OosoomImage:Halley Edmund grave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Halley_Edmund_grave.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AstrochemistFile:Solar eclipse 1715May03 Halley map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Solar_eclipse_1715May03_Halley_map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Public domainFile:James Bradley by Thomas Hudson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Bradley_by_Thomas_Hudson.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:DcoetzeeFile:The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Reverend_Nathaniel_Bliss.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MarmadukePercyFile:Maskelyne Nevil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maskelyne_Nevil.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Edward Scriven, 1775-1841, printerFile:John Pond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Pond.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E. W. MaunderFile:George Biddell Airy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Biddell_Airy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jodo, Madmedea, Sfu, Wutsje, 霧木諒二

File:PSM V03 D008 George Biddell Airy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PSM_V03_D008_George_Biddell_Airy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ineuw,Kilom691File:Prime meridian.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prime_meridian.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Oxyman, Red devil 666, ÆvarArnfjörð BjarmasonFile:George Biddell Airy by Spy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Biddell_Airy_by_Spy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sir Leslie Ward ("Spy")File:Original Tay Bridge before the 1879 collapse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Original_Tay_Bridge_before_the_1879_collapse.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Bdk, Immanuel Giel, Kilom691, Svajcr, 2 anonymous editsFile:Tay bridge down.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tay_bridge_down.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bdk, Bukk, Immanuel Giel, Ragesoss,Ronaldino, SvajcrFile:Airy George Biddell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Airy_George_Biddell.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George Biddell AiryFile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas MoreauFile:William H M Christie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_H_M_Christie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E. W. MaunderFile:Frank Watson Dyson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_Watson_Dyson.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bain News ServiceFile:Dyson Frank signature.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dyson_Frank_signature.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AstrochemistImage:1919 eclipse positive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1919_eclipse_positive.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ComputerHotline, EugeneZelenko,Fastfission, Infrogmation, Quasipalm, Quibik, 3 anonymous editsFile:Francis Graham Smith.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francis_Graham_Smith.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: YodatheoakFile:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jim CornmellFile:Martin_Rees_at_Jodrell_Bank_in_2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Martin_Rees_at_Jodrell_Bank_in_2007.jpg  License: GNU Free DocumentationLicense  Contributors: en:User:Robminchin (self-confirmed here at a later date)

License 56

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/