Atmosphere Short Compendium

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Contents

Articles

International Standard Atmosphere 1

U.S. Standard Atmosphere 3

Standard conditions for temperature and pressure 5

Sea level 10

Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics 18

List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical abbreviations 28

Avionics 37

Density of air 41

Troposphere 44

Tropopause 50

Stratosphere 51

Stratopause 54

Mesosphere 55

Mesopause 57

References

Article Sources and Contributors 58

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 60

Article Licenses

License 61


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International Standard Atmosphere

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of how the pressure, temperature, density,

and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes. It consists of tables of values at

various altitudes, plus some formulae by which those values were derived. The International Organization for

Standardization (ISO), publishes the ISA as an international standard, ISO 2533:1975.[1] Other standards

organizations, such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the United States Government,

publish extensions or subsets of the same atmospheric model under their own standards-making authority.

Description

The ISA model divides the atmosphere into layers with linear temperature distributions.[2]

The other values are

computed from basic physical constants and relationships. Thus the standard consists of a table of values at various

altitudes, plus some formulas by which those values were derived. For example, at sea level the standard gives a

pressure of 1013.25 hPa (1 atm) and a temperature of 15 C, and an initial lapse rate of 6.5 C/km (2 C/1,000 ft).

The tabulation continues to 11 km where the pressure has fallen to 22.632 kPa and the temperature to 56.5 C.Between 11 km and 20 km the temperature remains constant.

[3][4]

Layers in the ISA

Layer Level

Name

Base

Geopotential

Height

h (in km)

Base

Geometric

Height

z (in km)

Lapse

Rate

(in C/km)

Base

Temperature

T (in C)

Base

Atmospheric

Pressure

p (in Pa)

0 Troposphere 0.0 0.0 6.5 +15.0 101,325

1 Tropopause 11.000 11.019 +0.0 56.5 22,632

2 Stratosphere 20.000 20.063 +1.0 56.5 5,474.9

3 Stratosphere 32.000 32.162 +2.8 44.5 868.02

4 Stratopause 47.000 47.350 +0.0 2.5 110.91

5 Mesosphere 51.000 51.413 2.8 2.5 66.939

6 Mesosphere 71.000 71.802 2.0 58.5 3.9564

7 Mesopause 84.852 86.000 86.2 0.3734

|+ Standard Atmosphere 1976

In the above table, geopotential height is calculated from a mathematical model in which the acceleration due to

gravity is assumed constant. Geometric height results from the (more accurate) assumption that gravity obeys an

inverse square law.

The ISA model is based on average conditions at mid latitudes, as determined by ISO's TC 20/SC 6 technical

committee. It has been revised from time to time since the middle of the 20th century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lapse_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmosphere_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HPahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Civil_Aviation_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standards_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standards_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_models


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ICAO Standard Atmosphere

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) published their "ICAO Standard Atmosphere" as Doc

7488-CD in 1993. It has the same model as the ISA, but extends the altitude coverage to 80 kilometres (262,500

feet).[5]

The ICAO Standard Atmosphere does not contain water vapour

Some of the values defined by ICAO are:

ICAO Standard Atmosphere

Height km & ft Temperature C Pressure hPa Lapse Rate C/1000 ft

0 km MSL 15.0 1013.25 1.98 (Tropospheric)

11 km 36,000 ft 56.5 226.00 0.00 (Stratospheric)

20 km 65,000 ft 56.5 54.70 1.00 (Stratospheric)

32 km 105,000 ft 44.5 8.68

As this is a Standard, you will not always encounter these conditions outside of a laboratory, but many Aviation

standards and flying rules are based on this, altimetry being a major one. The standard is very useful in Meteorology

for comparing against actual values.

Other standard atmospheres

The U.S. Standard Atmosphere is a set of models that define values for atmospheric temperature, density, pressure

and other properties over a wide range of altitudes. The first model, based on an existing international standard, was

published in 1958 by the U.S. Committee on Extension to the Standard Atmosphere,[6]

and was updated in 1962,[7]

1966,[8]

and 1976.[9]

The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, International Standard Atmosphere and WMO (World

Meteorological Organization) standard atmospheres are the same as the ISO International Standard Atmosphere for

altitudes up to 32 km.[10]

[11]

NRLMSISE-00 is an empirical, global model of the Earth's atmosphere from ground to space. It models the

temperatures and densities of the atmosphere's components. A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of

satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag.

The standard conditions for temperature and pressure are a model of gas temperature and pressure used in chemistry.

References

[1] International Organization for Standardization, Standard Atmosphere(http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.

CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=7472&

ICS1=49&

ICS2=20&

ICS3=), ISO 2533:1975, 1975.[2] Gyatt, Graham (2006-01-14): "The Standard Atmosphere" (http://www.atmosculator.com/The Standard Atmosphere. html). A

mathematical model of the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

[3] Auld, D.J.; Srinivas, K. (2008). "Properties of the Atmosphere" (http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu. au/aero/atmosphere/). . Retrieved

2008-03-13

[4] Batchelor, G. K.,An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1967.

[5] International Civil Aviation Organization,Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet)) , Doc

7488-CD, Third Edition, 1993, ISBN 92-9194-004-6.

[6] U.S. Extension to the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1958

[7] U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1962

[8] U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements, 1966, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1966

[9] U.S. Standard Atmosphere (http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs. nasa.gov/19770009539_1977009539. pdf), 1976, U.S.

Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976 (Linked file is 17 MB)

[10] NASA, "U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1976" (http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.html)
http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASAhttp://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770009539_1977009539.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Civil_Aviation_Organizationhttp://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/atmosphere/http://www.atmosculator.com/The%20Standard%20Atmosphere.htmlhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=7472&ICS1=49&ICS2=20&ICS3=http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=7472&ICS1=49&ICS2=20&ICS3=http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Organization_for_Standardizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_draghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mathematical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Empiricalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NRLMSISE-00http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Civil_Aviation_Organization


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[11] Tomasi, C.; Vitake, V.; De Santis, L.V. (1998). "Relative optical mass functions for air, water vapour, ozone and nitrogen dioxide in

atmospheric models presenting different latitudinal and seasonal conditions" (http://www.springerlink.com/index/Q4V134P888772M26.

pdf).Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics65 (1): 1130. Bibcode 1998MAP....65...11T. doi:10.1007/BF01030266. . Retrieved 2007-12-31.

"the ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation) Standard Atmosphere, 1972. This model is identical to the present Standard

Atmospheres of ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) and WMO (World Meteorological Organization) up to a height of 32 km".

Davies, Mark (2003). The Standard Handbook for Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineers. New York:

McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071362290. NASA JPL Reference Notes (http://mtp.jpl. nasa.gov/notes/altitude/ReferenceAtmospheres.html)

ICAO,Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet)), Doc 7488-CD,

Third Edition, 1993, ISBN 92-9194-004-6.

External links

NewByte standard atmosphere calculator and speed converter (http://www.newbyte.co.il/calc.html)

ICAO atmosphere calculator (http://www.aviation.ch/tools-atmosphere.asp)

ICAO Standards (http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m_anb.pl?icao/en/anb/mais/index.html)

U.S. Standard Atmosphere

The U.S. Standard Atmosphere is a series of models that define values for atmospheric temperature, density,

pressure and other properties over a wide range of altitudes. The first model, based on an existing international

standard, was published in 1958 by the U.S. Committee on Extension to the Standard Atmosphere, and was updated

in 1962, 1966, and 1976.

1962 version

The basic assumptions made for the 1962 version were:[1]

air is a clean, dry, perfect gas mixture (cp/cv = 1.40)

molecular weight to 90 km of 28.9644 (C-12 scale)

principal sea-level constituents are assumed to be:

N278.084%

O220.9476%

Ar0.934%

CO20.0314%

Ne0.001818%

He0.000524% CH

40.0002%.

assigned mean conditions at sea level are as follows :

P = 101325 Pa = 0.1013250 MN/m2

= 2116.22 psf = 14.696 psi

T = 288.15 K = 15 C = 59 F

= 1.225 0 kg/m3

= 0.0764734 lbm/ft3

g = 9.80665 m/s2

= 32.174 1 ft/s2

R = 8.31432 J/mol-K = 1545.31 ft lb/lbmol-R.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pounds_per_square_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molecular_weighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perfect_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_atmospherehttp://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m_anb.pl?icao/en/anb/mais/index.htmlhttp://www.aviation.ch/tools-atmosphere.asphttp://www.newbyte.co.il/calc.htmlhttp://mtp.jpl.nasa.gov/notes/altitude/ReferenceAtmospheres.htmlhttp://www.springerlink.com/index/Q4V134P888772M26.pdfhttp://www.springerlink.com/index/Q4V134P888772M26.pdf


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1976 Version

This is the most recent version and differs from previous versions only above 32km:

Subscriptb Height Above Sea Level Static Pressure Standard

Temperature

(K)

Temperature Lapse Rate

(m) (ft) (pascals) (inHg) (K/m) (K/ft)

0 0 0 101325 29.92126 288.15 -0.0065 -0.0019812

1 11,000 36,089 22632.1 6.683245 216.65 0.0 0.0

2 20,000 65,617 5474.89 1.616734 216.65 0.001 0.0003048

3 32,000 104,987 868.019 0.2563258 228.65 0.0028 0.00085344

4 47,000 154,199 110.906 0.0327506 270.65 0.0 0.0

5 51,000 167,323 66.9389 0.01976704 270.65 -0.0028 -0.00085344

6 71,000 232,940 3.95642 0.00116833 214.65 -0.002 -0.0006096

References

U.S. Extension to the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1958.

U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1962.

U.S. Standard Atmosphere Supplements, 1966, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1966. U.S. Standard Atmosphere

[2], 1976, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1976 (Linked file is 17

MiB).

[1] Tuve, George Lewis; Bolz, Ray E. (1973). CRC handbook of tables for applied engineering science. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

ISBN 0-8493-0252-8.

[2] http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770009539_1977009539. pdf
http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770009539_1977009539.pdfhttp://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770009539_1977009539.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Us_standard_atmosphere_model.png


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External links

NASA GSFC ModelWeb (http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.html)

A mathematical model of the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere (http://www.atmosculator.com/The Standard

Atmosphere.html?)

Online 1976 US Standard Atmosphere calculator and table generator (http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/

)

NewByte standard atmosphere calculator and speed converter (http://www.newbyte.co.il/calc.html)

Calculate 28 properties of 1976 Standard Atmosphere (http://www.luizmonteiro.com/StdAtm.aspx)

Standard conditions for temperature and

pressure

In chemistry, standard condition for temperature and pressure (informally abbreviated as STP) are standard sets

of conditions for experimental measurements, to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data. Themost used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), although these are not universally accepted standards. Other

organizations have established a variety of alternative definitions for their standard reference conditions. The current

version of IUPAC's standard is a temperature of 0 C (273.15 K, 32 F) and an absolute pressure of 100 kPa (14.504

psi, 0.986 atm),[1]

while NIST's version is a temperature of 20 C (293.15 K, 68 F) and an absolute pressure of

101.325 kPa (14.696 psi, 1 atm). International Standard Metric Conditions for natural gas and similar fluids[2]

is

288.15 Kelvin and 101.325 kPa.

In industry and commerce, standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary to define the

standard reference conditions to express the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of

volumetric flow (the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure). However many technical

publications (books, journals, advertisements for equipment and machinery) simply state "standard conditions"

without specifying them, often leading to confusion and errors. Good practice is to incorporate the reference

conditions wherever ambiguity is possible i.e. V(273.15K, 101.325kPa)m3.

Definitions

Past use

In the last five to six decades, professionals and scientists using the metric system of units defined the standard

reference conditions of temperature and pressure for expressing gas volumes as being 0 C (273.15 K; 32.00 F) and

101.325 kPa (1 atm or 760 Torr). During those same years, the most commonly used standard reference conditions

for people using the imperial or U.S. customary systems was 60 F (15.56 C; 288.71 K) and 14.696 psi (1 atm)

because it was almost universally used by the oil and gas industries worldwide. However, the above two definitions

are no longer the most commonly used in either system of units.

Current use

Many different definitions of standard reference conditions are currently being used by organizations all over the

world. The table below lists a few of them, but there are more. Some of these organizations used other standards in

the past, such as IUPAC which currently defines standard reference conditions as being 0 C and 100 kPa (1 bar) of

pressure rather since 1982, in contrast to their old standard of 0 C and 101.325 kPa (1 atm).[3]

Another example isfrom the oil industry. While a standard of 60 F and 14.696 psi was used in the past, the current usage (particularly in
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pound-force_per_square_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_customary_unitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imperial_unitshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Torrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmosphere_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=KPahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volumetric_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pound-force_per_square_inchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=KPahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Absolute_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technical_standardhttp://www.luizmonteiro.com/StdAtm.aspxhttp://www.newbyte.co.il/calc.htmlhttp://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/http://www.digitaldutch.com/atmoscalc/http://www.atmosculator.com/The%20Standard%20Atmosphere.html?http://www.atmosculator.com/The%20Standard%20Atmosphere.html?http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.html


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North America) is predominantly of 60 F and 14.73 psi.

Natural gas companies in Europe and South America have adopted 15 C (59 F) and 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi) as

their standard gas volume reference conditions.[4]

[5]

[6]

Also, the International Organization for Standardization

(ISO), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) each have more than one definition of standard reference conditions in their various standards

and regulations.In Russia, State Standard GOST 2939-63 sets the following standard conditions: 20 C (293.15 K), 760 mmHg

(101325 N/m2) and zero humidity.[7]

The SATP used for presenting chemical thermodynamic properties (such as those published by the National Bureau

of Standards) is standardized at 100 kPa (1 bar) but the temperature may vary and usually needs to be specified

separately if complete information is desired (see standard state). Some standards are specified at certain humidity

level.

Standard reference conditions in current use

Temperature Absolute pressure Relative humidity Publishing or establishing entity

C kPa % RH

0 100.000IUPAC (present definition)

[1]

0 101.325NIST,

[8]ISO 10780,

[9]formerly IUPAC

[1]

15 101.3250

[10][11]

ICAO's ISA,[10]

ISO 13443,[11]

EEA,[12]

EGIA[13]

20 101.325EPA,

[14]NIST

[15]

25 101.325EPA

[16]

25 100.000

SATP

[17]

20 100.000 0CAGI

[18]

15 100.000SPE

[19]

20 101.3 50ISO 5011

[20]

F psi % RH

60 14.696SPE,

[19]U.S. OSHA,

[21]SCAQMD

[22]

60 14.73EGIA,

[13]OPEC,

[23]U.S. EIA

[24]

59 14.503 78U.S. Army Standard Metro

[25][26]

59 14.696 60ISO 2314, ISO 3977-2

[27]

F in Hg % RH

70 29.92 0AMCA,

[28][29]

air density = 0.075 lbm/ft. This AMCA standard applies only to air.

59 (15c) 29.92 (1013.25 hPa)FAA, FAA's Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Chapter 3

[30]

Notes:

EGIA: Electricity and Gas Inspection Act (of Canada)

SATP: Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Aviation_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Movement_and_Control_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energy_Information_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organization_of_Petroleum_Exporting_Countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SCAQMDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Society_of_Petroleum_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Compressed_Air_and_Gas_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Environment_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ICAOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_humidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relative_humidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Bureau_of_Standardshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Bureau_of_Standardshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermodynamic_propertieshttp://www.docload.ru/standart/Pages_gost/27361.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Organization_for_Standardization


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International Standard Atmosphere

In aeronautics and fluid dynamics the "International Standard Atmosphere" (ISA) is a specification of pressure,

temperature, density, and speed of sound at each altitude. The International Standard Atmosphere is representative of

atmospheric conditions at mid latitudes. In the USA this information is specified the U.S. Standard Atmosphere

which is identical to the "International Standard Atmosphere" at all altitudes up to 65,000 feet above sea level.

Standard laboratory conditions

Due to the fact that many definitions of standard temperature and pressure differ in temperature significantly from

standard laboratory temperatures (e.g., 0 C vs. ~25 C), reference is often made to "standard laboratory conditions"

(a term deliberately chosen to be different from the term "standard conditions for temperature and pressure", despite

its semantic near identity when interpreted literally). However, what is a "standard" laboratory temperature and

pressure is inevitably culture-bound, given that different parts of the world differ in climate, altitude and the degree

of use of heat/cooling in the workplace. For example, schools in New South Wales, Australia use 25 C at 100 kPa

for standard laboratory conditions.[31]

ASTM International has published Standard ASTM E41- Terminology Relating to Conditioning and hundreds ofspecial conditions for particular materials and test methods. Other standards organizations also have specialized

standard test conditions.

Molar volume of a gas

It is equally as important to indicate the applicable reference conditions of temperature and pressure when stating the

molar volume of a gas[32]

as it is when expressing a gas volume or volumetric flow rate. Stating the molar volume of

a gas without indicating the reference conditions of temperature and pressure has no meaning and it can cause

confusion.

The molar gas volumes can be calculated with an accuracy that is usually sufficient by using the universal gas lawfor ideal gases. The usual expression is:

which can be rearranged thus:

where (in SI metric units):

P = the absolute pressure of the gas, in Pa (pascal)

n = amount of substance, in mol

V= the volume of the gas, in m

3

T = the absolute temperature of the gas, in K

R= the universal gas law constant of 8.3145 m

3Pa/(molK)

or where (in customary USA units):
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mole_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amount_of_substancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pascal_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_gas_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standards_organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Test_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technical_standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ASTM_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_South_Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluid_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeronautics


10/63


P = the absolute pressure of the gas, in psi

n = number of moles, in lbmol

V= the volume of the gas, in ft

3/lbmol

T = the absolute temperature of the gas absolute, in R

R= the universal gas law constant of 10.7316 ft

3psi/(lbmolR)

The molar volume of any ideal gas may be calculated at various standard reference conditions as shown below:

V/n= 8.3145 273.15 / 101.325 = 22.414 m3/kmol at 0 C and 101.325 kPa

V/n= 8.3145 273.15 / 100.000 = 22.711 m3/kmol at 0 C and 100 kPa

V/n= 8.3145 298.15 / 101.325 = 24.466 m3/kmol at 25 C and 101.325 kPa

V/n= 8.3145 298.15 / 100.000 = 24.790 m3/kmol at 25 C and 100 kPa

V/n= 10.7316 519.67 / 14.696 = 379.48 ft3/lbmol at 60 F and 14.696 psi (or about 0.8366 ft

3/gram mole)

V/n= 10.7316 519.67 / 14.730 = 378.61 ft3/lbmol at 60 F and 14.73 psi

The technical literature can be confusing because many authors fail to explain whether they are using the universalgas law constant R, which applies to any ideal gas, or whether they are using the gas law constant R

s, which only

applies to a specific individual gas. The relationship between the two constants is Rs

= R / M, where M is the

molecular weight of the gas.

The US Standard Atmosphere uses 8.31432 m3Pa/(molK) as the value ofR for all calculations. (See Gas constant)

References

[1] A. D. McNaught, A. Wilkinson (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology, The Gold Book(http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05910.

pdf) (2nd ed.). Blackwell Science. ISBN 0865426848. . "Standard conditions for gases: Temperature, 273.15 K [...] and pressure of

105pascals. IUPAC recommends that the former use of the pressure of 1 atm as standard pressure (equivalent to 1.01325 10

5Pa) should be

discontinued."[2] ISO 13443

[3] A. D. McNaught, A. Wilkinson (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology, The Gold Book(http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05921.

pdf) (2nd ed.). Blackwell Science. ISBN 0865426848. . "Standard pressure: Chosen value of pressure denoted by po

or p. In 1982 IUPAC

recommended the value 105Pa, but prior to 1982 the value 101 325 Pa (= 1 atm) was usually used."

[4] Gassco. "Concepts Standard cubic meter (scm)" (http://www.gassco.no/sw3138.asp). . Retrieved 2008-07-25. "Scm: The usual

abbreviation for standard cubic metre a cubic metre of gas under a standard condition, defined as an atmospheric pressure of 1.01325 bar

and a temperature of 15C. This unit provides a measure for gas volume."

[5] Nord Stream (October 2007). "Status of the Nord Stream pipeline route in the Baltic Sea" (http://www.nord-stream. com/uploads/media/

Nord_Stream_Route_Status_ENGLISH.pdf). . Retrieved 2008-07-25. "bcm: Billion Cubic Meter (standard cubic metre a cubic metre of gas

under a standard condition, defined as an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 15 C.)"

[6] Metrogas (June 2004). "Natural gas purchase and sale agreement" (http://www.secinfo.com/dsD7y. 1a.7.htm). . Retrieved 2008-07-25.

"Natural gas at standard condition shall mean the quantity of natural gas, which at a temperature of fifteen (15) Celsius degrees and a pressure

of 101.325 kilopascals occupies the volume of one (1) cubic meter."

[7] http://www.docload.ru/standart/Pages_gost/27361. htm

[8] NIST (1989). "NIST Standard Reference Database 7 NIST Electron and Positron Stopping Powers of Materials Database" (http://www.

nist.gov/srd/WebGuide/nist7/07_2.htm). . Retrieved 08-07-25. "If you want the program to treat the material as an ideal gas, the density

will be assumed given by M/V, where M is the gram molecular weight of the gas and V is the mol volume of 22414 cm3at standard conditions

(0 deg C and 1 atm)."

[9] ISO (1994). "ISO 10780:1994 : Stationary source emissions - Measurement of velocity and volume flowrate of gas streams in ducts" (http://

www.iso. org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=18855).

[10] Robert C. Weast (Editor) (1975).Handbook of Physics and Chemistry(56th ed.). CRC Press. pp. F201F206. ISBN 0-87819-455-X.

[11] "Natural gas Standard reference conditions", ISO 13443, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland ISO

Standards Catalogue (http://www.iso. org/iso/iso_catalogue.htm)

[12] "Extraction, First Treatment and Loading of Liquid & Gaseous Fossil Fuels", Emission Inventory Guidebook B521, Activities 050201 -

050303, September 1999, European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark Emission Inventory Guidebook (http://reports.eea.eu.

int/EMEPCORINAIR3/en/B521vs3. 1.pdf)
http://reports.eea.eu.int/EMEPCORINAIR3/en/B521vs3.1.pdfhttp://reports.eea.eu.int/EMEPCORINAIR3/en/B521vs3.1.pdfhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue.htmhttp://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=18855http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=18855http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ISOhttp://www.nist.gov/srd/WebGuide/nist7/07_2.htmhttp://www.nist.gov/srd/WebGuide/nist7/07_2.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NISThttp://www.docload.ru/standart/Pages_gost/27361.htmhttp://www.secinfo.com/dsD7y.1a.7.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrogashttp://www.nord-stream.com/uploads/media/Nord_Stream_Route_Status_ENGLISH.pdfhttp://www.nord-stream.com/uploads/media/Nord_Stream_Route_Status_ENGLISH.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nord_Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bar_%28unit%29http://www.gassco.no/sw3138.asphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gasscohttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05921.pdfhttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05921.pdfhttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05910.pdfhttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05910.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gas_constant%23US_Standard_Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=US_Standard_Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rankine_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mole_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pound-force_per_square_inch


11/63


[13] "Electricity and Gas Inspection Act", SOR/86-131 (defines a set of standard conditions for Imperial units and a different set for metric units)

Canadian Laws (http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/E-4/SOR-86-131/95708. html)

[14] "Standards of Performance for New Sources", 40 CFR--Protection of the Environment, Chapter I, Part 60, Section 60.2, 1990 New Source

Performance Standards (http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo. gov/cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/

40cfr60. 2.pdf)

[15] "Design and Uncertainty for a PVTt Gas Flow Standard", Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Vol.108, Number 1, 2003 NIST Journal (http://www.cstl.nist.gov/div836/836. 01/PDFs/2003/j80wri.pdf)

[16] "National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards", 40 CFR--Protection of the Environment, Chapter I, Part 50, Section

50.3, 1998 National Ambient Air Standards (http://a257. g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo. gov/

cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/40cfr50. 3.pdf)

[17] "Table of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties", National Bureau of Standards (NBS), Journal of Physics and Chemical Reference Data,

1982, Vol. 11, Supplement 2.

[18] "Glossary", 2002, Compressed Air and Gas Institute, Cleveland, OH, USA Glossary (http://www.cagi.org/toolbox/glossary.htm)

[19] The SI Metric System of Units and SPE Metric Standard (http://www.spe. org/spe-site/spe/spe/papers/authors/Metric_Standard.pdf)

(Notes for Table 2.3, on PDF page 25 of 42 PDF pages, define two different sets of reference conditions, one for the standard cubic foot and

one for the standard cubic meter)

[20] "Air Intake Filters", ISO 5011:2002, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland ISO (http://www.iso. org/iso/

en/prods-services/ISOstore/store.html)

[21] "Storage and Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases" and "Storage and Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia", 29 CFR--Labor, Chapter

XVII--Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Part 1910, Sect. 1910.110 and 1910.111, 1993 Storage/Handling of LPG (http:/

/

ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=f169acd0f57a17565c9984fa0f57d285& rgn=div8& view=text&node=29:5. 1.1.1.8.8.33.

10&idno=29)

[22] "Rule 102, Definition of Terms (Standard Conditions)", Amended December 2004, South Coast Air Quality Management District, Los

Angeles, California, USA SCAQMD Rule 102 (http://www.aqmd.gov/rules/reg/reg01/r102. pdf)

[23] "Annual Statistical Bulletin", 2004, Editor-in-chief: Dr. Omar Ibrahim, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, Vienna, Austria

OPEC Statistical Bulletin (http://www.opec.org/library/Annual Statistical Bulletin/pdf/ASB2004. pdf)

[24] "Natural Gas Annual 2004", DOE/EIA-0131(04), December 2005, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration,

Washington, D.C., USA Natural Gas Annual 2004 (http://tonto.eia.doe. gov/FTPROOT/natgas/013104. pdf)

[25] Sierra Bullets L.P.. "Chapter 3 Effects of Altitude and Atmospheric Conditions" (http://www.exteriorballistics.com/ebexplained/5th/

31.cfm).Rifle and Handgun Reloading Manual, 5th Edition. ."Effects of Altitude and Atmospheric Conditions", Exterior Ballistics Section,

Sierra's "Rifle and Handgun Reloading Manual, 5th Edition", Sedalia, MO, USA

[26] The pressure is specified as 750 mmHg. However, the mmHg is temperature dependant, as mercury expands as temperature goes up. Here

the values for the 0-20C range are given.

[27] "Gas turbines Procurement Part 2: Standard reference conditions and ratings", ISO 3977-2:1997 and "Gas turbines - Acceptance tests",

ISO 2314:1989, Edition 2, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland ISO (http://www.iso.org/iso/en/

prods-services/ISOstore/store.html)

[28] ANSI/AMCA Standard 210, "Laboratory Methods Of Testing Fans for Aerodynamic Performance Rating", as implied here: http://www.

greenheck.com/pdf/centrifugal/Plug.pdf when accessed on October 17, 2007

[29] The standard is given as 29.92 inHg at an unspecified temperature. This most likely corresponds to a standard pressure of 101.325 kPa,

converted into ~29.921 inHg at 32 F)

[30] (http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK - Chapter 03.pdf)

[31] Peter Gribbon (2001).Excel HSC Chemistry Pocket Book Years 11-12. Pascal Press. ISBN 1-74020-303-8.

[32] Fundamental Physical Properties: Molar Volumes (http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Results?search_for=volume+molar) (CODATA

values for ideal gases as listed on a NIST website page)

External links

"Standard conditions for gases" (http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05910.pdf) from the IUPAC Gold Book.

"Standard pressure" (http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05921.pdf) from the IUPAC Gold Book.

"STP" (http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S06036.pdf) from the IUPAC Gold Book.

"Standard state" (http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05925.pdf) from the IUPAC Gold Book.

[[sh:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05925.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S06036.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05921.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IUPAChttp://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05910.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NISThttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CODATAhttp://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Results?search_for=volume+molarhttp://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK%20-%20Chapter%2003.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=InHghttp://www.greenheck.com/pdf/centrifugal/Plug.pdfhttp://www.greenheck.com/pdf/centrifugal/Plug.pdfhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/ISOstore/store.htmlhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/ISOstore/store.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MmHghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MmHghttp://www.exteriorballistics.com/ebexplained/5th/31.cfmhttp://www.exteriorballistics.com/ebexplained/5th/31.cfmhttp://tonto.eia.doe.gov/FTPROOT/natgas/013104.pdfhttp://www.opec.org/library/Annual%20Statistical%20Bulletin/pdf/ASB2004.pdfhttp://www.aqmd.gov/rules/reg/reg01/r102.pdfhttp://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=f169acd0f57a17565c9984fa0f57d285&rgn=div8&view=text&node=29:5.1.1.1.8.8.33.10&idno=29http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=f169acd0f57a17565c9984fa0f57d285&rgn=div8&view=text&node=29:5.1.1.1.8.8.33.10&idno=29http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=f169acd0f57a17565c9984fa0f57d285&rgn=div8&view=text&node=29:5.1.1.1.8.8.33.10&idno=29http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/ISOstore/store.htmlhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/ISOstore/store.htmlhttp://www.spe.org/spe-site/spe/spe/papers/authors/Metric_Standard.pdfhttp://www.cagi.org/toolbox/glossary.htmhttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/40cfr50.3.pdfhttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/40cfr50.3.pdfhttp://www.cstl.nist.gov/div836/836.01/PDFs/2003/j80wri.pdfhttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/40cfr60.2.pdfhttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/08aug20051500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2005/julqtr/pdf/40cfr60.2.pdfhttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/E-4/SOR-86-131/95708.html


12/63

Sea level 10

Sea level

This marker indicating the sea level is placed on the path from Jerusalem to the

Dead Sea.

Mean sea level (MSL) is a measure of the

average height of the ocean's surface (such

as the halfway point between the mean high

tide and the mean low tide); used as a

standard in reckoning land elevation.[1]

MSL also plays an extremely important role

in aviation, where standard sea level

pressure is used as the measurement datum

of altitude at flight levels.

Measurement

Sea level measurements from 23 long tide gauge records in

geologically stable environments show a rise of around 200

millimetres (8 inches) during the 20th century (2 mm/year).

To an operator of a tide gauge, MSL means the "still

water level"the level of the sea with motions such as

wind waves averaged outaveraged over a period of

time such that changes in sea level, e.g., due to the

tides, also get averaged out. One measures the values of

MSL in respect to the land. Hence a change in MSL

can result from a real change in sea level, or from a

change in the height of the land on which the tide

gauge operates.

In the UK, mean sea level has been measured at

Newlyn in Cornwall and Liverpool for decades, by tide

gauges to provide Ordnance Datum for thezero metres

height on UK maps.

Satellite altimeters have been making precisemeasurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES,

TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001 and the Ocean Surface Topography Mission on the Jason-2

satellite in 2008.

Difficulties in utilization

To extend this definition far from the sea means comparing the local height of the mean sea surface with a "level"

reference surface, or datum, called the geoid. In a state of rest or absence of external forces, the mean sea level

would coincide with this geoid surface, being an equipotential surface of the Earth's gravitational field. In reality,

due to currents, air pressure variations, temperature and salinity variations, etc., this does not occur, not even as along term average. The location-dependent, but persistent in time, separation between mean sea level and the geoid

is referred to as (stationary) ocean surface topography. It varies globally in a range of 2 m.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_surface_topographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_surface_topographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Datum_%28geodesy%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_Surface_Topography_Missionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jason-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CNEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NASAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOPEX/Poseidonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ordnance_Datum_Newlynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liverpoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Newlynhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UKhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tide_gaugehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millimetrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tide_gaugehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flight_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Israel_Sea_Level_BW_1.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dead_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerusalem


13/63

Sea level 11

Traditionally, one had to process sea-level measurements to take into account the effect of the 228-month Metonic

cycle and the 223-month eclipse cycle on the tides. Mean sea level is not constant over the surface of the Earth. For

instance, mean sea level at the Pacific end of the Panama Canal stands 20 cm (7.9 in) higher than at the Atlantic end.

MOS:DASH

Sea level and dry land

Sea level sign (2/3 of the way up the cliff face)

above Badwater Basin, Death Valley National

Park, USA

Several terms are used to describe the changing relationships between

sea level and dry land. When the term "relative" is used, it means

change relative to a fixed point in the sediment pile. The term

"eustatic" refers to global changes in sea level relative to a fixed point,

such as the centre of the earth, for example as a result of melting

ice-caps. The term "steric" refers to global changes in sea level due to

thermal expansion and salinity variations. The term "isostatic" refers to

changes in the level of the land relative to a fixed point in the earth,

possibly due to thermal buoyancy or tectonic effects; it implies no

change in the volume of water in the oceans. The melting of glaciers at

the end of ice ages is one example of eustatic sea level rise. The

subsidence of land due to the withdrawal of groundwater is an isostatic

cause of relative sea level rise. Paleoclimatologists can track sea level

by examining the rocks deposited along coasts that are very

tectonically stable, like the east coast of North America. Areas like

volcanic islands are experiencing relative sea level rise as a result of

isostatic cooling of the rock which causes the land to sink.

On other planets that lack a liquid ocean, planetologists can calculate a

"mean altitude" by averaging the heights of all points on the surface. This altitude, sometimes referred to as a "sea

level", serves equivalently as a reference for the height of planetary features.

Sea level change

Local and eustatic sea level

Water cycles between ocean, atmosphere, and

glaciers.

Local mean sea level (LMSL) is defined as the height of the sea with

respect to a land benchmark, averaged over a period of time (such as a

month or a year) long enough that fluctuations caused by waves and

tides are smoothed out. One must adjust perceived changes in LMSL toaccount for vertical movements of the land, which can be of the same

order (mm/yr) as sea level changes. Some land movements occur

because of isostatic adjustment of the mantle to the melting of ice

sheets at the end of the last ice age. The weight of the ice sheet

depresses the underlying land, and when the ice melts away the land

slowly rebounds. Changes in ground-based ice volume also affect local

and regional sea levels by the readjustment of the geoid and true polar wander. Atmospheric pressure, ocean currents

and local ocean temperature changes can affect LMSL as well.

Eustatic change (as opposed to local change) results in an alteration to the global sea levels due to changes in either

the volume of water in the world oceans or net changes in the volume of the ocean basins.[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=True_polar_wanderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Post-glacial_reboundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Post-glacial_reboundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mantle_%28geology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isostasyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ocean_surface_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mass_balance_atmospheric_circulation.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glacierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Planetologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleoclimatologisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glacierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BadwaterSL.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Death_Valley_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Death_Valley_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Badwater_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MOS:DASHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Panama_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eclipse_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metonic_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metonic_cycle


14/63

Sea level 12

Short term and periodic changes

There are many factors which can produce short-term (a few minutes to 14 months) changes in sea level.

Periodic sea level changes

Diurnal and semidiurnal astronomical tides 1224 h P 0.210+ m

Long-period tides

Rotational variations (Chandler wobble) 14 month P

Meteorological and oceanographic fluctuations

Atmospheric pressure Hours to months 0.7 to 1.3 m

Winds (storm surges) 15 days Up to 5 m

Evaporation and precipitation (may also follow long-term pattern) Days to weeks

Ocean surface topography (changes in water density and currents) Days to weeks Up to 1 m

El Nio/southern oscillation 6 mo every 510 yr Up to 0.6 m

Seasonal variations

Seasonal water balance among oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian)

Seasonal variations in slope of water surface

River runoff/floods 2 months 1 m

Seasonal water density changes (temperature and salinity) 6 months 0.2 m

Seiches

Seiches (standing waves) Minutes to hours Up to 2 m

Earthquakes

Tsunamis (generate catastrophic long-period waves) Hours Up to 10 m

Abrupt change in land level Minutes Up to 10 m

Long term changes

Sea-level changes and relative temperatures

Various factors affect the volume or mass of

the ocean, leading to long-term changes in

eustatic sea level. The two primary

influences are temperature (because the

volume of water depends on temperature),

and the mass of water locked up on land and

sea as fresh water in rivers, lakes, glaciers,

polar ice caps, and sea ice. Over much

longer geological timescales, changes in the

shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea

distribution will affect sea level.

Observational and modelling studies of

mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate

a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to

0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geological_timescalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polar_ice_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fresh_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sea_level_temp_140ky.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earthquakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Floodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precipitation_%28meteorology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Storm_surgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chandler_wobble


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Sea level 13

Glaciers and ice caps

Each year about 8 mm (0.3 inch) of water from the entire surface of the oceans falls into the Antarctica and

Greenland ice sheets as snowfall. If no ice returned to the oceans, sea level would drop 8 mm every year. To a first

approximation, the same amount of water appeared to return to the ocean in icebergs and from ice melting at the

edges. Scientists previously had estimated which is greater, ice going in or coming out, called the mass balance,

important because it causes changes in global sea level. High-precision gravimetry from satellites in low-noise flighthas since determined Greenland is losing billions of tons per year, in accordance with loss estimates from ground

measurement.

Ice shelves float on the surface of the sea and, if they melt, to first order they do not change sea level. Likewise, the

melting of the northern polar ice cap which is composed of floating pack ice would not significantly contribute to

rising sea levels. Because they are lower in salinity, however, their melting would cause a very small increase in sea

levels, so small that it is generally neglected.

Scientists previously lacked knowledge of changes in terrestrial storage of water. Surveying of water retention by

soil absorption and by reservoirs outright ("impoundment") at just under the volume of Lake Superior agreed with

a dam-building peak in the 1930s-1970s timespan. Such impoundment masked tens of millimetres of sea level

rise in that span. (Impact of Artificial Reservoir Water Impoundment on Global Sea Level. B. F. Chao,* Y. H.

Wu, Y. S. Li).

If small glaciers and polar ice caps on the margins of Greenland and the Antarctic Peninsula melt, the projected

rise in sea level will be around 0.5 m. Melting of the Greenland ice sheet would produce 7.2 m of sea-level rise,

and melting of the Antarctic ice sheet would produce 61.1 m of sea level rise.[3]

The collapse of the grounded

interior reservoir of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet would raise sea level by 56 m.[4]

The snowline altitude is the altitude of the lowest elevation interval in which minimum annual snow cover

exceeds 50%. This ranges from about 5,500 metres above sea-level at the equator down to sea level at about 70

N&S latitude, depending on regional temperature amelioration effects. Permafrost then appears at sea level and

extends deeper below sea level polewards.

As most of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets lie above the snowline and/or base of the permafrost zone, they

cannot melt in a timeframe much less than several millennia; therefore it is likely that they will not, through

melting, contribute significantly to sea level rise in the coming century. They can, however, do so through

acceleration in flow and enhanced iceberg calving.

Climate changes during the 20th century are estimated from modelling studies to have led to contributions of

between0.2 and 0.0 mm/yr from Antarctica (the results of increasing precipitation) and 0.0 to 0.1 mm/yr from

Greenland (from changes in both precipitation and runoff).

Estimates suggest that Greenland and Antarctica have contributed 0.0 to 0.5 mm/yr over the 20th century as a

result of long-term adjustment to the end of the last ice age.

The current rise in sea level observed from tide gauges, of about 1.8 mm/yr, is within the estimate range from thecombination of factors above

[5]but active research continues in this field. The terrestrial storage term, thought to be

highly uncertain, is no longer positive, and shown to be quite large.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_calvinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millenniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permafrosthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elevationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antarctic_ice_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greenland_ice_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antarctic_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polar_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glacierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millimetrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_Superiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pack_icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_polehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gravimetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glacier_mass_balancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iceberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowfallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geography_of_Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antarctica


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Sea level 14

Geological influences

Comparison of two sea level reconstructions during the last 500 Ma. The scale of

change during the last glacial/interglacial transition is indicated with a black bar.Note that over most of geologic history, long-term average sea level has been

significantly higher than today.

At times during Earth's long history, the

configuration of the continents and seafloor

have changed due to plate tectonics. This

affects global sea level by determining the

depths of the ocean basins and howglacial-interglacial cycles distribute ice

across the Earth.

The depth of the ocean basins is a function

of the age of oceanic lithosphere: as

lithosphere becomes older, it becomes

denser and sinks. Therefore, a configuration

with many small oceanic plates that rapidly

recycle lithosphere will produce shallower

ocean basins and (all other things being

equal) higher sea levels. A configuration

with fewer plates and more cold, dense

oceanic lithosphere, on the other hand, will

result in deeper ocean basins and lower sea levels.

When there were large amounts of continental crust near the poles, the rock record shows unusually low sea levels

during ice ages, because there was lots of polar land mass upon which snow and ice could accumulate. During times

when the land masses clustered around the equator, ice ages had much less effect on sea level.

Over most of geologic time, long-term sea level has been higher than today (see graph above). Only at the

Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was long-term sea level lower than today. Long term changes in

sea level are the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long

term.[6]

During the glacial/interglacial cycles over the past few million years, sea level has varied by somewhat more than a

hundred metres. This is primarily due to the growth and decay of ice sheets (mostly in the northern hemisphere) with

water evaporated from the sea.

The Mediterranean Basin's gradual growth as the Neotethys basin, begun in the Jurassic, did not suddenly affect

ocean levels. While the Mediterranean was forming during the past 100 million years, the average ocean level was

generally 200 metres above current levels. However, the largest known example of marine flooding was when the

Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar at the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis about 5.2 million years ago. This

restored Mediterranean sea levels at the sudden end of the period when that basin had dried up, apparently due togeologic forces in the area of the Strait.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Messinian_Salinity_Crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strait_of_Gibraltarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jurassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mediterranean_Basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continental_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oceanic_lithospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plate_tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phanerozoic_Sea_Level.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea-level_curve


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Sea level 15

Long-term causes Range of

effect

Vertical effect

Change in volume of ocean basins

Plate tectonics and seafloor spreading (plate divergence/convergence) and change in seafloor elevation

(mid-ocean volcanism)

Eustatic 0.01 mm/yr

Marine sedimentation Eustatic < 0.01 mm/yr

Change in mass of ocean water

Melting or accumulation of continental ice Eustatic 10 mm/yr

Climate changes during the 20th century

Antarctica (the results of increasing precipitation) Eustatic -0.2 to

0.0 mm/yr

Greenland (from changes in both precipitation and runoff) Eustatic 0.0 to 0.1 mm/yr

Long-term adjustment to the end of the last ice age

Greenland and Antarctica contribution over 20th century Eustatic 0.0 to 0.5 mm/yr

Release of water from earth's interior Eustatic

Release or accumulation of continental hydrologic reservoirs Eustatic

Uplift or subsidence of Earth's surface (Isostasy)

Thermal-isostasy (temperature/density changes in earth's interior) Local effect

Glacio-isostasy (loading or unloading of ice) Local effect 10 mm/yr

Hydro-isostasy (loading or unloading of water) Local effect

Volcano-isostasy (magmatic extrusions) Local effect

Sediment-isostasy (deposition and erosion of sediments) Local effect < 4 mm/yr

Tectonic uplift/subsidence

Vertical and horizontal motions of crust (in response to fault motions) Local effect 13 mm/yr

Sediment compaction

Sediment compression into denser matrix (particularly significant in and near river deltas) Local effect

Loss of interstitial fluids (withdrawal of groundwater or oil) Local effect 55 mm/yr

Earthquake-induced vibration Local effect

Departure from geoid

Shifts in hydrosphere, aesthenosphere, core-mantle interface Local effect

Shifts in earth's rotation, axis of spin, and precession of equinox Eustatic

External gravitational changes Eustatic

Evaporation and precipitation (if due to a long-term pattern) Local effect
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equinoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_rotationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aesthenospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=River_deltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Isostasyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seafloor_spreadinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plate_tectonics


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Sea level 16

Changes through geologic time

Comparison of two sea level reconstructions during the last 500 Ma.

The scale of change during the last glacial/interglacial transition is

indicated with a black bar. Note that over most of geologic history

long-term average sea level has been significantly higher than today.

Sea level change since the end of the last glacial episode. Changes

displayed in metres.

Sea level has changed over geologic time. As the graph

shows, sea level today is very near the lowest level ever

attained (the lowest level occurred at the

Permian-Triassic boundary about 250 million years

ago).

During the most recent ice age (at its maximum about

20,000 years ago) the world's sea level was about

130 m lower than today, due to the large amount of sea

water that had evaporated and been deposited as snow

and ice, mostly in the Laurentide ice sheet. The

majority of this had melted by about 10,000 years ago.

Hundreds of similar glacial cycles have occurred

throughout the Earth's history. Geologists who study

the positions of coastal sediment deposits through timehave noted dozens of similar basinward shifts of

shorelines associated with a later recovery. This results

in sedimentary cycles which in some cases can be

correlated around the world with great confidence. This

relatively new branch of geological science linking

eustatic sea level to sedimentary deposits is called

sequence stratigraphy.

The most up-to-date chronology of sea level change

during the Phanerozoic shows the following long term

trends:[7]

Gradually rising sea level through the Cambrian

Relatively stable sea level in the Ordovician, with a

large drop associated with the end-Ordovician

glaciation

Relative stability at the lower level during the Silurian

A gradual fall through the Devonian, continuing through the Mississippian to long-term low at the

Mississippian/Pennsylvanian boundary

A gradual rise until the start of the Permian, followed by a gentle decrease lasting until the Mesozoic.

Recent changes

For at least the last 100 years, sea level has been rising at an average rate of about 1.8 mm per year.[8]

The majority

of this rise can be attributed to the increase in temperature of the sea and the resulting thermal expansion of sea

water. Additional contributions come from water sources on land such as melting snow and glaciers (see global

warming).[9]

Aviation

Using pressure to measure altitude results in two other types of altitude. Distance above true orMSL (mean sea level)

is the next best measurement to absolute. MSL altitude is the distance above where sea level would be if there wereno land. If one knows the elevation of terrain, the distance above the ground is calculated by a simple subtraction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth%27s_surfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phanerozoichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sequence_stratigraphyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sedimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laurentide_ice_sheethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triassichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geologic_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Post-Glacial_Sea_Level.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phanerozoic_Sea_Level.png


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Sea level 17

An MSL altitudecalled pressure altitude by pilotsis useful for predicting physiological responses in

unpressurized aircraft (see hypoxia). It also correlates with engine, propeller, and wing performance, which all

decrease in thinner air.

Pilots can estimate height above terrain with an altimeter set to a defined barometric pressure. Generally, the

pressure used to set the altimeter is the barometric pressure that would exist at MSL in the region being flown over.

This pressure is referred to as either QNH or "altimeter" and is transmitted to the pilot by radio from air trafficcontrol (ATC) or an Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). Since the terrain elevation is also referenced

to MSL, the pilot can estimate height above ground by subtracting the terrain altitude from the altimeter reading.

Aviation charts are divided into boxes and the maximum terrain altitude from MSL in each box is clearly indicated.

Once above the transition altitude (see below), the altimeter is set to the international standard atmosphere (ISA)

pressure at MSL which is 1013.2 HPa or 29.92 inHg.[10]

Flight level

MSL is useful for aircraft to avoid terrain, but at high enough altitudes, there is no terrain to avoid. Above that level,

pilots are primarily interested in avoiding each other, so adjust their altimeter to standard temperature and pressure

conditions (average sea level pressure and temperature) and disregard actual barometric pressureuntil descending

below transition level. To distinguish from MSL, such altitudes are called flight levels. Standard pilot shorthand is to

express flight level as hundreds of feet, so FL 240 is 24000 feet (7300 m). Pilots use the international standard

pressure setting of 1013.25 hPa (29.92 inHg) when referring to Flight Levels. The altitude at which aircraft are

mandated to set their altimeter to flight levels is called "transition altitude". It varies from country to country. For

example in the U.S. it is 18,000 feet, in many European countries it is 3,000 or 5,000 feet.

Notes

[1] What is "Mean Sea Level"?(http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/148/what-is-sea-level#1) Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory

[2] "Eustatic sea level" (http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=eustatic sea level). Oilfield Glossary. Schlumberger

Limited. . Retrieved 10 June 2011.

[3] "Some physical characteristics of ice on Earth" (http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/412. htm#tab113). Climate Change 2001:

The Scientific Basis. .

[4] Geologic Contral on Fast Ice Flow - West Antarctic Ice Sheet (http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~mstuding/wais.html). by Michael

Studinger, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

[5] GRID-Arendal. "Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis" (http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/428. htm). . Retrieved

2005-12-19.

[6] Mller, R. Dietmar; et al. (2008-03-07). "Long-Term Sea-Level Fluctuations Driven by Ocean Basin Dynamics". Science319 (5868):

13571362. doi:10.1126/science.1151540. PMID 18323446.

[7] Haq, B. U.; Schutter, SR (2008). "A Chronology of Paleozoic Sea-Level Changes" (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/322/

5898/64). Science322 (5898): 648. doi:10.1126/science.1161648. PMID 18832639. .

[8] Bruce C. Douglas (1997). "Global Sea Rise: A Redetermination". Surveys in Geophysics18: 279292. doi:10.1023/A:1006544227856.

[9] Bindoff, N.L.; Willebrand, J.; Artale, V.; Cazenave, A.; Gregory, J.; Gulev, S.; Hanawa, K.; Le Qur, C. et al. (2007). "Observations:Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level" (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter5.pdf). In Solomon, S.;

Qin, D.; Manning, M. et al.. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. .

[10] US Federal Aviation Administration, Code of Federal Regulations Sec. 91.121 (http://rgl. faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/

rgFar.nsf/3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocument)
http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFar.nsf/3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocumenthttp://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFar.nsf/3276afbe72d00920852566c700670189/da37f1d83828491d852566cf00615210!OpenDocumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Aviation_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cambridge_University_Presshttp://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter5.pdfhttp://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/322/5898/64http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/322/5898/64http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_%28journal%29http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/428.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UNEP/GRID-Arendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lamont-Doherty_Earth_Observatoryhttp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~mstuding/wais.htmlhttp://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/412.htm#tab113http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=eustatic%20sea%20levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proudman_Oceanographic_Laboratoryhttp://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/148/what-is-sea-level#1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flight_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_standard_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Terminal_Information_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_traffic_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_traffic_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=QNHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altimeterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypoxia_%28medical%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_altitude


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Sea level 18

External links

Sea Level Rise:Understanding the past - Improving projections for the future (http://www.cmar.csiro.au/

sealevel)

Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (http://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/)

Global sea level change: Determination and interpretation (http://www.agu.org/revgeophys/dougla01/

dougla01.html)

Environment Protection Agency Sea level rise reports (http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/

content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.html)

Properties of isostasy and eustasy (http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/index.

htm)

Measuring Sea Level from Space (http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/)

Rising Tide Video: Scripps Institution of Oceanography (http://www.scivee.tv/node/8324)

Sea Levels Online: National Ocean Service (CO-OPS) (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends.

shtml)

Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics

Here is a catalog of Acronyms and abbreviations used in avionics.

A

ACARS: Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System.

ACAS: Airborne Collision Avoidance System.

ACP: Audio Control Panel.

ACS: Audio Control System. A/D: Analog-to-digital converter.

ADAHRS: Air Data and Attitude Heading Reference System.

AD: Air Data

ADC: Air Data Computer.

ADF: Automatic Direction Finder.

ADI: Attitude Director Indicator.

ADIRS: Air Data Inertial Reference System.

ADIRU: Air Data Inertial Reference Unit.

ADM: Air Data Module.

ADS: Either; Automatic Dependant Surveillance or Air Data System. ADS-A: Automatic Dependant Surveillance /Address.

ADS-B: Automatic Dependant Surveillance-Broadcast.

ADSEL: Address Selective.

ADSP: Automatic Dependant Surveillance Panel.

AET: Aircraft Electronics Technician (A NCATT certified technician).

AFCS: Automatic Flight Control System.

AFD: Autopilot Flight Director.

AFDC: Autopilot Flight Director Computer.

AFDS: Autopilot Flight Director System.

AFIS: Either; Automatic Flight Information Service or Airborne Flight Information System. AGACS: Automatic Ground-Air Communications System, is also known as ATCSS or data link.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Ground-Air_Communications_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AGACShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airborne_Flight_Information_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Flight_Information_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Flight_Director_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AFDShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Flight_Director_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Flight_Director_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Flight_Directorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Flight_Control_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_Electronics_Technicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_Electronics_Technicianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Dependant_Surveillance_Panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADSPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Address_Selectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADSELhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_dependent_surveillance-broadcasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADS-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Dependant_Surveillance_/Addresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADS-Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Dependant_Surveillancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_Modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_Inertial_Reference_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADIRUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_Inertial_Reference_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADIRShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attitude_Director_Indicatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Direction_Finderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_data_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Data_and_Attitude_Heading_Reference_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ADAHRShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analog-to-digital_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A/Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_Control_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_Control_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_Control_Panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio_Control_Panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airborne_Collision_Avoidance_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airborne_Collision_Avoidance_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_Communications_Addressing_and_Reporting_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ACARShttp://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends.shtmlhttp://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/sltrends.shtmlhttp://www.scivee.tv/node/8324http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/index.htmhttp://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/index.htmhttp://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.htmlhttp://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.htmlhttp://www.agu.org/revgeophys/dougla01/dougla01.htmlhttp://www.agu.org/revgeophys/dougla01/dougla01.htmlhttp://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevelhttp://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel


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Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics 19

AGC: Automatic Gain Control.

AHC: Attitude Heading Control.

AHRS: Attitude and Heading Reference Systems.

ALC: Automatic Level Control.

ALT: Either; Altimeter or Altitude.

ALT Hold: Altitude Hold Mode.

ALTS: Altitude Select.

AMLCD: Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display.

ANC: Active Noise Cancellation.

ANN: Annunciator- caution warning system normally containing visual and audio alerts to the pilot.

ANR: Active Noise Reduction.

ANT: Antenna.

A/P: Autopilot.

APC: Autopilot Computer.

APS: Autopilot System.

ASD: Aircraft Situation Display. ASDL: Aeronautical Satellite Data Link.

ASR: Airport Surveillance Radar.

ARINC: Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC)

ASU: Avionics Switching Unit.

ATCRBS: Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System.

ATCSS: Air Traffic Control Signaling System.

ATI: Unit of measure for instrument size, a standard 3 cutout is a 3ATI.

ATM: Automated Tailor Machine.

ATT: Attitude.

Avionics: Aviation electronics. AWG: American Wire Gauge.

B

B RNAV: Basic Area Navigation.

BARO: Barometric indication, setting or pressure.

BCRS: Back Course.

BDI: Bearing Distance Indicator.

BGAN: Broadcast Global Area Network.

C

CAI: Caution Annunciator Indicator.

CAT I: Operational performance Category 1.

CAT I Enhanced. Allows for lower minimums than CAT I in some cases to CAT 2 minimums.

CAT II: Operational performance Category II.

CAT IIIa: Operational performance Category IIIa.

CAT IIIb: Operational performance Category IIIb.

CAT IIIc: Operational performance Category IIIc.

CODEC: Coder/Decoder.

CDI: Course Deviation Indicator.

CFIT: Controlled Flight Into Terrain.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Controlled_Flight_Into_Terrainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CFIThttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Course_Deviation_Indicatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coder/Decoderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CODEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational_performance_Category_IIIchttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational_performance_Category_IIIbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational_performance_Category_IIIahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational_performance_Category_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_I_Enhancedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operational_performance_Category_1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CAT_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Caution_Annunciator_Indicatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_Global_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Broadcast_Global_Area_Networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bearing_Distance_Indicatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Instrument_Landing_System%23Localizer_backcoursehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BCRShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barometric_indicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BAROhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basic_Area_Navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B_RNAVhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_wire_gaugehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviation_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_attitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_Tailor_Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_teller_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Traffic_Control_Signaling_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATCSShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Traffic_Control_Radar_Beacon_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ATCRBShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avionics_Switching_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeronautical_Radio%2C_Incorporated_%28ARINC%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARINChttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airport_Surveillance_Radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airport_surveillance_radarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeronautical_Satellite_Data_Linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeronautical_Satellite_Data_Linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_Situation_Displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aircraft_Situation_Displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilot_Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autopilothttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A/Phttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antenna_%28radio%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_Noise_Reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_noise_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Annunciatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_Noise_Cancellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_Noise_Cancellationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_Matrix_Liquid_Crystal_Displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AMLCDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altitude_Selecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ALTShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altitude_Hold_Modehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/in

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