RISCURI ŞI CATASTROFE, NR. XIV, VOL. 17, NR.2/2015

109

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS

IN THE PLOIEŞTI MUNICIPALITY

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

1

ABSTRACT.-Atmospheric environment conditions in the Ploieşti Municipality.

Since its beginnings Ploieşti has proved to be a city, a connection point between the

most important Romanian and European routes, a place where the old traditions of

the trade have been completed and developed perfectly at the same rhythm as the oil

history. The history of the oil industry being known on the European level, the

economy of Ploieşti has been closely connected to the oil resources of its

neighboring areas and to their refineries. Ploieşti has been considered as “the most

important oil refining center of SE Europe”. 150 years after the discovery of the first

oil field near Ploieşti, the city has remained anchored in this industry -

preponderantly the oil mining and processing industry and other industries related to

this branch (machine building, electric equipment, maintenance etc.). The city’s

population recorded a special increase until 1990, correlated with the intense

development of its economy, as follows: 45,107 inhabitants in 1889; 56,460 in 1912;

77,341 in 1930; 96,229 in 1948; 316,856 in 1992 and then it decreased down to

300,358 in 2002 and 210,000 in 2011, to these numbers being associated - in the last

decades - the metropolitan area, as well. At present, Ploieşti Municipality represents

a center of industrial, commercial, touristic and cultural-scientific junction. As the

economy developed and the population of Ploieşti Municipality and its surroundings

increased, the quality of the urban environment has changed because of the soil

pollution sources. Regarding the pollution of the atmospheric environment, some

conditions related to the geographic position - respectively the relief of the Plain of

Ploieşti and the climate - have had a somewhat favorable influence on the circulation

of the atmospheric emissions.

Key- words: urban environment, atmospheric pollution, current condition

1. Geographic position of the Ploieşti Municipality

Ploieşti Municipality, covering an area of over 50 km

2 (including the

suburban communes), is situated in the north of the Southern Romanian Plain,

namely in the Plain of Ploieşti, at an average altitude of 150 m and at a distance of

1 Ph Dr. student Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, e-mail mihaela.florina@yahoo.com

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

110

about 8 to 10 km from the Subcarpathians Hills. This geographic position where

the Prahova Valley opens towards the Southern Romanian Plain has the function of

morphological contact between the hills and the plain, with certain favorable

economic-polarizing characteristics, but also favorable climatic aspects, such as an

active circulation of the air masses, atmospheric calm and moderate temperature

inversions.

Hydrographically, Ploieşti city lies on the Dâmbu River, which springs

from Băicoi Hills and goes through Ploieşti City, has canals and receives the

sewage waters of the city, discharged into it at the exit from the city and flows in

the Teleajen River near Râfov locality. Also, not far from Ploieşti, two important

rivers cross the Plain of Ploieşti, namely Prahova River, towards south-west,

slightly touching the municipality through the suburban commune Brazi, and

Teleajen River, a tributary of the former (Figures 1, 2).

Figure 1. Ploieşti Plain, geomorpho- Figure 2. Târgovişte-Ploieşti Plain

logic sketch : 1.piedmont plain; 1, 2 fluvial terraces; 3 meadows; 4 isolate hills; 5

anticlines (Geografia României/ Romanian Geography, vol. V, 2005)

2. Physico-geographic features of the Ploieşti Plain

Relief. Regarding the hypsometric aspect, the relief of this plain lies between

the altitude of 285 m (at the contact between the Subcarpathians of Prahova with

the Plain of Ploieşti) and 56 m, at the confluence between the Prahova and the

Ialomiţa rivers, and its average altitude is 220.5 m.

In the Plain of Ploieşti one can find the lowest values of the relief density. Yet,

one can note the presence of areas of higher density, namely between 1 and 1.25

km/km2, due, on the one hand, to the high meandering index of the main water

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111

courses which determines important lengths of the hydrographic network per unit of

surface and, on the other hand, to the existence of hydrographic convergence areas.

The values of the relief energy oscillate between 1 and 40 m and highlight

the low intensity of the linear erosion. In the piedmont sector of the plain, the relief

energy has values between 20 and 40 m, and in the subsidence areas, in the

divagation plain, the relief fragmentation depth remains under 20 m.

Prahova Valley has, in the Plain of Ploieşti, a minor river bed of about 1,000

m in certain areas, steep banks between 2 and 6 m high and a pronounced degree of

unplaiting on the alluvial deposits of its own alluvial cone, but also numerous isles,

islets and sand banks, as well, so that on the highest and oldest, exceeding the

thalweg by 1-2 m, rarely affected by high floods, a permanent water meadow

vegetation has settled in.

The very gentle longitudinal slope of the minor river bed (0.5 m/km²) favors

the appearance of meanders, which have a complex divagating character. Evolving,

these river meanders turn into elongated hills, secondary branches (abandoned

meanders), which are in different evolution stages.

In the Plain of Ploieşti, the minor river bed of Teleajen widens up to 300-500

m and displays a pronounced degree of unplaiting of the waters. The Teleajen

meadow is well highlighted in the high zone of the plain, where it is delimited by

high bourrlet de rive of 2-6 m.

The most recent relief forms are terraces, caused by lateral and linear

erosion. Over the deposits of rough fluvial gravels about 25 m thick, lies a cover of

finer materials, of about 6-8 m, where there are horizons of fertile soils and loess

deposits. Towards the plain, the terraces disappear one by one, having a

longitudinal profile shaped like a pair of scissors.

The position of the older terraces under the newer ones is closely related to

the recent subsidence movements. In a profile from north to south, in the plain, it

has been noticed that, up to the south of Ploiesti, the piedmont plain goes under

increasingly younger plains covering older plains.

The Plain of Ploieşti is strongly marked by the anthropic presence, this fact

being visible in the mounds “gorgan” to which one can add recent forms such as:

mounds, holes, dams, canals, bank terraces, cenotes, excavations etc.

Climate. Due to its geographic position, the climate is a temperate

continental of transition, with moderate oceanic sub-Mediterranean influences, yet

with significant continental influences.

The annual average temperature is constant, over 10ºC, and the record

maximum temperature of the 20th century for Prahova County was +39.4ºC,

registered on August 10, 1945, determined by an invasion of tropical air, whereas

the absolute minimum temperature of -30ºC was recorded on the January 25, 1942,

during the coldest winter of the 20th century.

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

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The trend of the average monthly temperatures indicates an increase from

January until July and a continuous decrease from July until December. Thus, the

lowest values of the multiannual average temperature are recorded in December

and January and are under 0ºC. As the solar radiation increases in spring, the yearly

average temperature recorded by the weather station of Ploiesti is 10.7ºC.

In summer, the values of the monthly and multiannual average temperatures

vary between 20.5ºC in June and 21.9ºC in August. Autumn, from the perspective

of the temperature, is close to spring, being warmer by 0.5ºC. The air cooling is

done more slowly in autumn, due to the pronounced warming of the soil and of

waters during the summertime, which allows the accumulation of a high amount of

heat which it gradually cedes to the air ( Table 1).

Table 1. Monthly and multiannual average air temperature

(2000-2007)

Month

Station

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Ave

rage

Ploieşti -0.1 0.4 4.5 10.7 16.3 20.5 22.4 21.9 16.2 11.2 4.2 -0.9 10.5

Due to the solar radiation combined with the circulation of the air masses

and with the active surface features, in the plain some extremely high absolute

temperatures have been recorded.

The absolute maximum temperatures were: 41.2ºC on July 5, 2000, at the

weather station of Ploieşti. Such temperatures are the consequence of the extension

of anticyclones from E Europe or N Africa, which leads both to the advection of

warm and dry air from south and east and also to excessive warming, favored by

the prevalence of a cloudless weather and marked dryness of the air. The

maximum monthly and multiannual temperatures, recorded by the weather station

of Ploiesti, according to the above-mentioned data (table 2), were of 29ºC table 2).

Table 2. Air temperature: maximum monthly and multiannual values

(2000-2007)

Month

Station

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII An

nual

Ploieşti 7.3 6.4 10.8 7.1 22.9 26.8 29 28.9 23.1 17.3 9.5 3.4 15.7

The absolute minimum temperature of the air in the Plain of Ploieşti was -

24ºC on January 26, 2000, recorded by the weather station of Ploieşti. The

variation of these temperatures is given in table 4, where one can note their

continuous increase from January until June (table 3).

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113

Table 3. Air temperature: minimum monthly multiannual value

(2000-2007)

Month

Station I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

An

nual

Ploieşti -4 -4.2 -0.1 5.2 9.9 12.7 15.9 15.6 10.8 6.2 0.3 -3.7 5.4

The amount of water vapors in the atmosphere represents the air humidity.

The water vapors from the atmosphere trigger the appearance of clouds, which are

the main supply of the ground and underground waters.

On the Plain of Ploieşti, the humidity changes with the air temperature so

that the annual average value is of 78.1% (the relative humidity is maximum in

winter, namely 85.9%, and minimum in summer, that is 69.9%). In 24 hours, the

highest percentages are recorded at night, for example in July 69-73% between 4

and 6 a.m. and 45% between 2 and 4 p.m.. In the cold season, the relative value

increases up to 85% in the morning and decreases down to 75% at noon (table 4).

Table 4. Relative humidity of the air (%): average multiannual monthly values

(2000-2007)

Month

Station I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Ploieşti 85.9 80.8 76.6 74.4 70 70.5 69.9 78.6 78 81.7 84 87.4

An important climate factor is the precipitations regime, where one can note

a decrease of the average annual values from west (550-600 mm) to east (500-550

mm). Also, the annual amount of precipitations was higher in the years

characterized by an intense cyclonic activity, namely 915.4 mm, whereas in the

years characterized by an anti-cyclonic regime these values were almost half of the

annual average, namely 305.3 mm. In the hot semester of the year, about 300 ml

precipitations are recorded, while the rest of about 250 ml are recorded in the cold

season.

Analyzing the precipitations variations between 2000 and 2007, one can

notice that the average multiannual value is 617 mm, being influenced by the

frequency and development degree of the baric systems, and by the features of the

subjacent surface (Table 5).

Table 5. Atmospheric precipitations (mm) (2000-2007)

Month

Station I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

An

nual

Ploieşti 30.4 24.5 39.6 48.1 64.7 87.8 76.7 68.1 53.2 43.8 36.7 43.6 617.3

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

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A climatic feature of this plain is the wind frequency and direction, and

there dominate the north-eastern and south-western winds, with a frequency

decreasing from the south to the north of Ploieşti (by -15.8%). In the eastern part of

the plain, dominant are the north-east and south-west winds, whose frequency

decreases from south to north. Due to the valley corridors crossing the eastern area

of the Plain of Ploieşti, the north wind occurs more frequently.

Beside the dominant winds, across the Plain of Ploieşti there also appear

local winds, caused by the temperature perturbations produced by the general

circulation of the atmosphere through the influence of the active surface. Due to the

sheltering conditions of the plain in relation to the circulation of the air masses, the

atmospheric calm is of 32% ( Table 6).

Table.6. Wind: average frequency on directions (%)

(2000-2007)

Month

Station

N NE E SE S SV V NV Calm

Ploieşti 14.6 16.0 9.5 2.8 2.5 7.8 9.2 2.3 32.0

Other climatic phenomena. Throughout the year, on the surface of the Plain

of Ploiesti there also occur other atmospheric phenomena such as: fog, dew,

hoarfrost, glaze and others.

Fog represents the suspension in the lower air layer of small water drops, fine

ice crystals, reducing visibility on the earth surface. This atmospheric phenomenon is

produced at the end of autumn and at the beginning of spring. Thus, the weather

station of Ploiesti has recorded, on average, 24 foggy days per year.

Hailstone represents precipitations under the form of ice particles. It appears

in the hot season during thunderstorms.

Dew consists of water drop deposits formed on objects whose surface is

cooled enough to cause the direct condensation of the water vapors. As a rule, it

occurs on the herbaceous vegetation, during the early hours of the summer

mornings. The average number of days when dew is present is 107 days, recorded

by the weather station of Ploiesti.

White frost, glaze, small hail and hoarfrost are climatic phenomena which

occur during the cold season. The annual average number of days with white frost

is 3 days, and with glaze is 4 days, recorded by the weather station of Ploiesti.

3. Air quality in Ploieşti Municipality

The atmosphere is one of the most fragile subsystems of the environment

due to its limited capacity to absorb and neutralize the substances produced

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS IN THE PLOIEŞTI MUNICIPALITY

115

continuously by the activities carried out by man. The atmospheric components

have changed as a result of human activity, causing severe environment problems

such as: urban pollution, acid rains or climate change.

The atmospheric condition is characterized by the following aspects: impact

pollution by different NOx; quality of the atmospheric precipitations; situation of

the atmospheric ozone; dynamics of the gas emissions with greenhouse effect;

some manifestations of the climate changes.

In the urban area, air pollution represents one of the most important issues

related to the protection of the health of the population and of the natural

environment.

The development of the air quality management system requires to prevent,

eliminate and limit the damage, and improve the air quality.

The Air Quality Monitoring System has as goals: planning the air quality,

monitoring the environmental quality, checking the level of conformity with the

environmental norms and the conditions stipulated by different regulations for each

pollutant, applying air quality prevention, remedy and control actions, in order to

observe the scheduled objectives.

Between the sustainable development of the urban settlement and the air

quality there is a direct connection and correlation (Fig.8).

Figure 8. Model for the air quality management system.

The main pollution sources of Ploiesti Municipality are represented by the

economic companies whose activity does not observe the environmental

requirements and leads to situations in which the maximum allowed concentration

is exceeded, affecting the environmental factors. These companies belong to the oil

and petrochemical, metallurgical, chemical, food industry, and to the electricity-

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

116

and heat-producing industry. Also, a pollution source of major importance is the

road traffic and domestic activities.

Air quality in Ploiesti Municipality is monitored from a physico-chemical

perspective by means of a monitoring network (10 monitoring stations), established

according to the potential impact of the important economic agents on the

environment.

A.P.M. Prahova monitors the environmental air quality in 10 stations,

located as follows:

In the eastern area of Ploieşti Municipality there are located three stations:

MOL; Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital; POLISERV - which monitor

the activity of the units located in this zone (PETROTEL LUKOIL, DBW,

VEGA Refinery – north-eastern zone). Thus, samples are taken and

analyzed for the following indicators: SO2, H2S, HCHO, NH3, airborne

sulphates including sulphuric acid aerosols and particulate matter.

In the northern area of Ploieşti Municipality there are located the following stations: ICERP and RENEL - which monitor the activity carried

out by DERO-LEVER, BIANCA INTERNATIONAL, FRIGORIFER

Ploieşti and the road traffic (DN 1). Thus, samples are taken and the

following indicators are analyzed: NH3, NO2, SO2, HCHO, airborne

sulphates including sulphuric acid aerosols and particulate matter.

In the western area of Ploieşti Municipality there is located the A.P.M. Ploieşti station – the center which monitors the activity carried out by

AGROREB, ELECTROMETALICA units and the road traffic, samples are

taken and the following indicators are analyzed: SO2, H2S, HCHO, NH3,

CO, airborne sulphates including sulphuric acid aerosols, particulate matter

and phenols.

In the southern area of Ploieşti Municipality there are located the following stations: Corlăteşti, Fire Brigade No. 2 and Brazi, which monitor

the activity carried out by the: TIMKEN, UPETROM, Romanian Rail

Yard, Carriage Wash Station, PETROBRAZI petrochemical complex.

Samples are taken and the following indicators are analyzed: NH3, NO2,

SO2, H2S, HCHO, airborne sulphates including sulphuric acid aerosols and

particulate matter.

The city center is monitored by the Culture Palace station - a location chosen to monitor the dispersion of pollutants caused by industry and, particularly, by the four refineries processing oil products, situated around

the city. The sampled and analyzed indicators are: NH3, H2S, HCHO,

suspension sulphates including sulphuric acid aerosols and particulate

matter.

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The measured values of these pollutants represent values of emissions, to

which there contributes the economic activity from the area in which the

measurement devices are located. Temperature, humidity, pressure, air movement

and precipitations determine consistent modifications of the atmospheric pollution

level. Beside the economic activity, road traffic is also a determining factor for the

pollution level.

Since the year 2000, the Monitoring, Synthesis and Coordination

Department of the Environment Protection Inspectorate Ploieşti, (annex to

Ordinance 524/2000 and CORINAIR practice) has been inventorying the following

emissions: acidifiers (NH3, NOx, SOx); ozone precursors; greenhouse effect gases

(CO2, CH4, N2O); heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, Zn); persistent

organic pollutants (POP - Dioxin).

From the analysis of variation of the annual average concentrations between

2005 and 2006, we may notice that in all the sampling points, the annual average

concentration is higher than the limit value, indicating high pollution levels

determined by particulate matter (Fig.9).

Figure 9. Distribution of particulate matter in 2005, compared to 2006

(Source: APM PH – Environmental Protection Agency of Prahova County)

Following the analyses done between January and December 2007,

compared to January-December 2006, we may notice a decrease of the average

annual concentration (Fig.10).

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

118

Figure 10. Average annual variation of the absorbable particulate matter. (Source: APM PH)

4. Effects of the air pollution on the population’s health

Atmosphere pollution is defined as the presence in air of some substances

which – depending on their nature, concentration and time – affect health, cause

discomfort and/or harm the environment.

Pollutants are dangerous not only for the harmful effects on the health and

comfort of the living beings, as well as on the fauna and flora or assets, but also

because - once emitted - their lifetime is very long, particularly under special

conditions (Table 7).

Table 7. Lifetime of various pollutants,

(according to E. Lahmann, Luftreinhaltung, 1990)

Substance Lifetime Substance Lifetime

C11Hm days NH3 2-14 days

SO2 1-10 days CO2 2-4 years

H2S 0.5-2 days CO 0.1-0.8 years

NO 3-6 days CH4 1.5-7 years

NO2 5-7 days N2O 4-170 years

Pollution may be of chemical nature (determined by a large range of

chemical substances), of physical nature (radioactivity, caloric and ultraviolet

radiations, noise, vibrations) and biological nature (due to the airborne pathogen

germs, having ill or bearing people and animals as a source).

Natural and artificial (technological) pollution sources - combustions in fixed

installations, transport sources, different industrial processes eliminate into the

atmosphere a large range of irritating pollutants (non-toxic particulate matter, gases

and vapors like sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, ammonia etc., fibrosing

ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS IN THE PLOIEŞTI MUNICIPALITY

119

factors (silicon dioxide, iron, barium, cobalt oxides etc), suffocating pollutants

(carbon monoxide and sulphurous hydrogen), toxic-systemic pollutants (lead,

hydrargyrum, cadmium, manganese, vanadium, selenium, fluorine, phosphorus,

organophosphorus and organochlorinate pesticide), allergenic factors, carcinogenic

factors (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrozamin, asbestos, chrome etc.).

Sulphur oxides (emitted by a series of industries like the oil refineries or by

the small heating installations by the burning of the fossil fuel), nitrogen oxides

(also eliminated by the industrial or urban areas with heavy traffic), particulate

matter, all irritant pollutants can determine acute (immediate) or/and chronic (late)

effects on the health of the population.

Out of the acute effects, which occur at relatively high concentrations, we

can mention the functional respiratory modifications (translated by obstructive,

reversible phenomena), eye and respiratory irritations.

At extremely high concentrations there occur: acute intoxications,

characterized by conjunctival and cornea injuries, specific tracheobronchial

syndrome, and, in the most severe cases, toxic pulmonary edema.

At lower concentration levels of the irritating air-borne agents, compared to

the ones that cause acute intoxications, there appears an increase of the population

morbidity and death rate by pulmonary and cardio-vascular diseases, particularly

among the vulnerable age groups (extreme ages – children and old people) as well

as ill people (suffering from pulmonary and cardiovascular illnesses).

Also, - as immediate effect of the irritant pollution - there was noticed the

deterioration of the chronic bronchitis at the persons who suffer from this affection.

Out of the observed chronic effects, we can mention the increase of the

incidence and severity of the acute respiratory (bacteriological and viral) infections

(bronchopneumonia, flu etc.), as well as of the non-specific chronic

bronchopneumonia reuniting a number of diseases - not always intricate - such as:

chronic bronchitis, asthma and emphysema.

An important aspect that must be highlighted is the influence of the air

pollution on the infantile respiratory pathology (increase of morbidity by acute

bronchopulmonary diseases during the first or the second childhood stage by

repeated and long lasting infections of the respiratory system, triggering an

increase of their sensitivity and vulnerability to the action of the environmental

factors and the formation of the “bronchitic background”, which determines an

increased vulnerability to the adults’ chronic bronchitis).

Due to some complaints made by the local people of Mihai Bravu district of

Ploiesti Municipality, regarding the discomfort caused by the unpleasant smells

coming from the surrounding area, A.S.P. (The Agency for Public Health) of

Prahova County has required the Petrotel Lukoil company they that should carry

out a study regarding their impact on public health and on the environment, which study has been elaborated by the Public Health Institute Cluj-Napoca.

MIHAELA FLORINA ŢÂMPU

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The study highlighted that:

the population of Ploiesti City present some acute respiratory affections, positively correlated with the presence of some dangerous substances in

the atmosphere, but the relation does not present the same trend in the

case of the chronic respiratory affections;

the population living within the immediate vicinity of Lukoil refinery has not developed acute or chronic respiratory diseases significantly related

to the investigated risky substances;

there are no significant differences in the relation between the investigated dangerous substances and the adverse effects on health

monitored within the area from the immediate vicinity of Lukoil refinery

compared to a distant area from the respective company;

the presence of respiratory diseases associated with the exposure to the incriminated dangerous substances on the level of Ploiesti locality is not

associated with the fact that the population lives in the immediate

vicinity of Lukoil refinery but is caused by the exposure of the

population to concentrations pertaining to the local area (namely the

levels of the concentrations measured in different points of the locality).

Conclusions The analysis of the favorable geographic conditions, which have determined

the development of Ploiesti municipality, leads to an understanding of the spatial organization as an open system, with an exchange of matter, energy and information between them and environment and, particularly, of its transformation, in time, under the anthropic impact.

Due to its geographic position, Ploieşti is a city, a connection point between the most important Romanian and European routes, a place where the old traditions of the trade have been completed and developed perfectly at the same rhythm as the oil history.

The sustainable development of Ploiesti municipality requires awareness about the impact produced by the anthropic activities on the environment, and also the participation of the local community, of the nongovernmental organizations and of the economic agents in the solving of the problems coming from the urban ecosystem of Ploiesti city.

The emissions of the main pollutants decreased, generally, especially after 1989, as a result of the economic transformations. The significant decrease of the production from the main industrial areas and the closure of many polluting installations caused the decrease of the industrial emissions for many pollutants, between 1989 and 2000. However, many areas are still being strongly polluted by the industry and it is still necessary to take actions to improve the air quality.

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In the locations of the fixed stations for manual monitoring and in the direct determinations carried out during the year 2007, the values recorded were not higher than the Maximum Admissible Values foreseen by the regulations into force regarding the phenol and SO2 concentrations. In exchange, higher values were recorded for the following indicators: ammonia, formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, suspension sulphates, including sulphuric acid aerosols, sulphurous hydrogen, nitrogen dioxide, absorbable particulate matter and particulate matters.

To diminish the air pollution, the City Hall of Ploieşti Municipality intends

to take the following actions: increase the green areas/inhabitant, and, in this respect A.D.P.P. (The

Urban Management Services from Ploieşti) has elaborated a detailed action plan;

the realization of the Civitas Project – by which the traffic on a segment from the central zone of the municipality has been forbidden

and the traffic by non-polluting means of transport has been

stimulated, by the execution of a bicycle path along the Independentei

Boulevard and within the center of the city.

the provision of adequate infrastructure for the operation - under optimum conditions - of the public transport, by the following actions:

road reparations, the arrangement of modern bus stop areas, until 2009

and permanently, which shall contribute to the decrease of the

atmospheric emissions.

PLAM (the Urban Transport Master Plan) foresees the implementation of an emission monitoring network and a displaying of the pollutants

level caused by traffic.

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