ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTIONChapter 2112Donora Pennsylvania, Oct 26,1948
3Air-pollution essentials4Constituents of the atmosphereN278.08%
O2 20.95%
Ar 0.93%
CO2 0.03%
Water vapor 0 4%
40 trace gases (O3, He, H, NOx, SO2, Ne)
Aerosol, dust, C particles, pollen, sea salts, microorganisms
5Air pollutantsSubstances in the atmosphere that have harmful effects. Depends on:
Amount of pollutantAmount of spaceMechanism that removes the pollutant from air
6Atmospheric cleansingThree natural occurring cleansers:
Hydroxyl radical (OH)Sea saltsMicroorganisms7Atmospheric cleansing: hydroxyl radical (OH)
8Appearance of smogIndustrial smog: A combination of smoke and fogAn irritating grayish mixture of soot, sulfurous compounds and water vapor
9Appearance of smogPhotochemical smogBrownish irritating hazeProduced when several pollutants from automobile exhausts react with sunlight
10Temperature Inversions
11Impact of SmogLong term temperature inversions can produce a build up of pollutants to dangerous levels
Smog causes headaches, nausea, eye and throat irritation and aggravate preexisting respiratory conditions
Air pollution affects trees and plants
Accelerates metal corrosion and the deterioration of rubber, fabrics and other materials.
12Major air pollutants and their sources13Types of air pollutantsPrimary pollutantsCombustion of coal, gasoline, other liquid fuels and refuseCH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2 H2OEvaporation and strong winds
Secondary pollutants
14Primary PollutantsSymbolSuspended particulate matterPMVolatile organic compoundsVOCCarbon monoxideCONitrogen oxideNOxSulfur oxideSOxLeadPbAir toxicsVariousRadonRnSecondary PollutantsSymbolOzoneO3Peroxyacetyl nitratesPAN57815U.S. emissions of five primary air pollutants (2001)
16Clean Air Act impacts
17How ozone and other photochemical oxidants form?In the absence of VOCs
NO2 NO +O
O + O2 O3
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
18How ozone and other photochemical oxidants form?With VOCs
NO2 NO +O
O + O2 O3
NO + VOCs PANs
VOCs + O Aldehydes, ketones
Accumulation of ozone, VOCs, aldehydes and ketones
19Acid deposition
Acid precipitationAny precipitation that is more acidic than usual
Acid depositionCombination of precipitation and dry particle fallout20Acids and basespH: concentration of hydrogen ions
Acid: any chemical that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in waterHCl, H2SO4, HNO3, H2CO3
Base: any chemical that releases hydroxide ionsNaOH, Ca(OH)2, KOH, NH4OH
21Extent and potency of acid precipitationRainfall pH 5,6
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Acid precipitation pH 5,5 or less
SO2 + OH- H2SO4NOx + OH- HNO322Natural vs anthropogenic sourcesAnthropogenic sourcesIndustryTransportationFossil fuel and Coal burning electric utility plantsNatural sourcesSulfur dioxidesVolcanoesSea sprayMicrobial processesNitrogen oxidesLightingBurning biomassMicrobial processes
23Impacts of air pollutantsHealth and Environment24
Effects on human healthChronic effects:Long term exposure to SO2 bronchitisInhalation of ozone inflammation / fibrosis of lungsCO2 reduced capacity of the blood to carry oxygenCO heart diseaseNOx impairs lung function/ affects the immune systemParticulate matter respiratory and cardiovascular pathologies. Allergens and other compounds in polluted air AsthmaLead mental retardation, high blood pressure (banned on 1996)25Effects on human healthAcute effectsIn severe cases air pollution may cause deathAir pollution may increase pre-existing symptoms.
26Effects on human healthCarcinogenic effectsOne major source of carcinogens is diesel exhausts. SootBenzeneFound in motor fuels, manufacture of detergents, explosives and pharmaceuticals, tobacco smokeCauses leukemia and other blood disorders and damage to the immune system.
27Effects on the environmentCrop damage
Forest damage
28Effects on the environmentMaterials and aesthetics
Visibility
29Effects on the environmentAcid deposition in aquatic ecosystemsHigher organisms die offLeach aluminum and various heavy metals from the soil
30Buffering capacity of aquatic ecosystemsBuffer: a substance that, when present in a solution, has a large capacity to absorb hydrogen ions and thus maintain the pH at a relatively constant value.
31Bringing air pollution under control32Clean air act (1970)Law administered by the EPA
Foundation of U.S. air pollution control efforts
Calls for identifying the most widely spread pollutantsSetting ambient standardsEstablishing control methods and timetables to meet standards. 33National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)Standards for primary pollutants known as criteria pollutants
Primary standard is based on the presumed highest level that can be tolerated by humans without noticeable ill effects minus a 10% to 50% margin of safety
Short term standards are set to protect against acute effects
Long term standards are set to protect against chronic effects. 34National ambient air quality standards for criteria pollutantsPollutantAveraging timePrimary StandardPM10 particulates1 year24 hours50 ug/m3150 ug/m3PM2,5 particulates1 year24 hours15 ug/m365 ug/m3Sulfur dioxide1 year24 hours0.03 ppm0.14 ppmCarbon monoxide8 hours1 hour9 ppm35 ppmNitrogen oxides1 year0.053 ppmOzone8 hours1 hour0.08 ppm0.12 ppmLead3 months1.5 mg/m335National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs)Issued for eight toxic substancesArsenicAsbestosBenzeneBerylliumCoke-oven emissionsMercuryRadionuclidesVinyl chloride
The clean air act of 1990 extended this section naming 188 toxic air pollutants for the agency to track and regulate.36
Control strategiesCommand and control
Industry was given regulations to achieve a set of limits on each pollutant
A local government agency would be in control
Difficult to implement
Total air pollutants were reduced by 48%37
Control strategiesReducing particulates
The CAA mandated a phase-out of open burning of refuse and required that particulates from industrial stacks be reduced to no visible emissions
To reduce PM industries were required to install filters, electrostatic precipitators and other devices.
In 1997 the EPA added a new ambient air quality standard for particulates (PM2.5)
1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) target specific pollutants under the control of a State Implementation Plan (SIP). Polluters obtain a permit that identifies the type of pollutant released, quantities and steps taken to reduce pollution. Permit fees provide funds for States to use in their air-pollution control activities.
Under the CAAA, states that fail to attain the required levels must submit attainment plants based on reasonably available control technology (RACT) measures
38Limiting pollutants from motor vehiclesCAA mandated a 90% reduction of emissions by 1975
A new car emits today 75% less pollution that pre-1970 cars
39How are pollutants limited in motor vehicles?Reduction in the size of passenger vehiclesPollution control devicesCatalytic converter
40CAAA changes for motor vehiclesNew cars sold in 1994 and thereafter were required to emit 30% less VOCs and 60% less NOx that cars sold in 1990
Starting in 1992 in regions with continuing carbon monoxide problems, oxygen was to be added to gasoline
Initiate inspection and maintenance programs in metropolitan areas
41Managing ozoneThe best way to reduce ozone levels is to reduce the emissions of VOCsMotor Vehicles (50%)Point sources: industries (30%)Area sources: dry cleaners, print shops, household products (20%)
VOC emissions have declined 35%
A reduction of NOx levels should remove the ozone further.
42Controlling toxic chemicals in the airUnder the CAAA, 188 toxic pollutants were identified
EPA was in charge to identify sources and develop maximum achievable control technology (MACT) standards.Options for substituting nontoxic chemicalsGiving industry some flexibility to achieve goalsGiving the state and local authorities the responsibility of controlRequiring cleaner burning fuels in urban areas
43Coping with acid depositionPolitical developments
States where coal-burning power plants produced most of their electrical power blocked attempts to pass a legislation to take action on acid deposition
Other states, the scientific community and Canadas diplomacy put pressure toward a resolution.
44Coping with acid depositionPolitical developments
As a result the Title IV of the CAAA was passed
Mandates a reduction in both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide levels
Provides emission allowances regulated by the EPA
45Coping with acid depositionAccomplishments of Title IV
Many utilities are switching to low sulfur coal
Many utilities are adding scrubbers (liquid filters)
Many utilities are trading their emission allowances
46Unresolved issues47
Cost vs benefitMeasures taken to reduce air pollution carry an economic costThe Office of Management and Budget (OMB) found that the yearly benefits of environmental regulations ranged from $121 to $193 billion, while the costs ranged from $37 to $43 billion
New source reviewCAA requires all power plants and other polluting industrial facilities built after 1970 to incorporate best available pollution control technology.Political and economical disagreements arose.48Clear skies actAddresses three major pollutants simultaneously: SO2, NOx and mercuryApplies a cap and trade strategy:Cut SO2 emissions to a cap of 3 million tonsNO x emissions to a cap of 1.7 million tonsMercury to a cap of 15 tonsProposes to achieve goals by 2018
49Getting aroundHalf of the major air pollutants come from vehiclesRaising CAFE standards would help to address:Dependence on imported oil Health issues from smog and particulatesCarbon dioxide emissions and global climate changeAuto industry, fossil fuel industry and politicians continue to resist raising CAF mileage requirementsOptions considered to reduce automobile emissions includeEmission free vehicles: powered by electricityHybrid carsPartial zero-emission vehicle: uses super clean gasolineMass transit ridership
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