Atomos: Not to Be CutAtomos: Not to Be Cut

The History of Atomic TheoryThe History of Atomic Theory

Atomic ModelsAtomic Models A model uses familiar A model uses familiar

ideas to explain ideas to explain unfamiliar facts observed unfamiliar facts observed in nature.in nature.

A model can be changed A model can be changed as new information is as new information is collected.collected.

The atomic model The atomic model has changed has changed throughout the throughout the centuries, starting centuries, starting in 400 BC, when it in 400 BC, when it looked like looked like a a billiard ball billiard ball →→

DemocritusDemocritus

This is the Greek This is the Greek philosopher Democritus philosopher Democritus who began the search for who began the search for a description of matter a description of matter more than more than 24002400 years ago. years ago. He asked: Could matter He asked: Could matter

be divided into smaller be divided into smaller and smaller pieces and smaller pieces forever, or was there a forever, or was there a limitlimit to the number of to the number of times a piece of matter times a piece of matter could be could be divideddivided? ?

400 BC

AtomosAtomos

His theory: Matter could not His theory: Matter could not be divided into smaller and be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, smaller pieces forever, eventually the smallest eventually the smallest possible piece would be possible piece would be obtained.obtained.

This piece would be This piece would be indivisible.indivisible.

He named the smallest He named the smallest piece of matter “atomos,” piece of matter “atomos,” meaning “not to be cut.”meaning “not to be cut.”

AtomosAtomos

To Democritus, atoms To Democritus, atoms were were smallsmall, hard , hard particles that were all particles that were all made of the same made of the same material but were material but were differentdifferent shapes and shapes and sizes.sizes.

Atoms were Atoms were infiniteinfinite in in number, always number, always moving and capable of moving and capable of joining together.joining together.

This theory was This theory was ignored and forgotten ignored and forgotten for more than for more than 2000 2000 years!years!

Why?Why?The eminent The eminent

philosophers of philosophers of the time, the time, AristotleAristotle and and Plato, had a Plato, had a more respected, more respected, (and ultimately (and ultimately wrongwrong) theory.) theory.

Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air and water approach to the nature of matter. Their ideas held sway because of their eminence as philosophers. The atomos idea was buried for approximately 2000 years.

Dalton’s ModelDalton’s Model

In the early 1800s, In the early 1800s, the English the English Chemist John Chemist John Dalton Dalton performed a performed a number of number of experiments that experiments that eventually led to eventually led to the acceptance of the acceptance of the idea of atoms.the idea of atoms.

Dalton’s TheoryDalton’s Theory

All elements are made of tiny, All elements are made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.indivisible particles called atoms.

All atoms of the same element are All atoms of the same element are identical. All atoms of different identical. All atoms of different elements are different (unique).elements are different (unique).

Atoms combine with different Atoms combine with different atoms to form compounds. Atoms atoms to form compounds. Atoms unite in whole number ratios (Hunite in whole number ratios (H22O, O,

COCO22).). Atoms are not created or Atoms are not created or

destroyed, simply rearranged in destroyed, simply rearranged in chemical reactions.chemical reactions.

..

This theory This theory became one became one of the of the foundations foundations of modern of modern chemistry.chemistry.

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Thomson’s Plum Pudding ModelModel

In In 18971897, the , the English scientist English scientist J.J. Thomson J.J. Thomson provided the first provided the first hint that an atom hint that an atom is made of even is made of even smallersmaller particles. particles.

Thomson ModelThomson Model

Thomson studied Thomson studied the the passage passage of an of an electric current electric current through a gas.through a gas.

As the current As the current passed through passed through the gas, it gave off the gas, it gave off rays of rays of negatively negatively charged particles.charged particles.

Thomson ModelThomson Model He proposed a model He proposed a model

of the atom that is of the atom that is sometimes called the sometimes called the ““PlumPlum PuddingPudding” model. ” model.

Atoms were made from Atoms were made from a positively a positively chargedcharged substancesubstance with with negatively charged negatively charged electrons electrons scatteredscattered about, like raisins in a about, like raisins in a pudding.pudding.

Thomson ModelThomson Model

This surprised This surprised Thomson, Thomson, because the because the atoms of the gas atoms of the gas were uncharged. were uncharged. Where had the Where had the negative charges negative charges come from?come from?

Where did they come from?

Thomson concluded that the negative charges came from within the atom.

A particle smaller than an atom had to exist.

The atom was divisible!

Thomson called the negatively charged “corpuscles,” today known as electrons.

Since the gas was known to be neutral, having no charge, he reasoned that there must be positively charged particles in the atom.

But he could never find them.

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Rutherford’s Gold Foil ExperimentExperiment

In 1908, the English In 1908, the English physicist Ernest physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard Rutherford was hard at work on an at work on an experiment that experiment that seemed to have little seemed to have little to do with unraveling to do with unraveling the mysteries of the the mysteries of the atomic structure.atomic structure.

Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny a stream of tiny positively chargedpositively charged particles at a thin sheet of particles at a thin sheet of gold foilgold foil (2000 atoms thick)(2000 atoms thick)

MostMost of the positively of the positively charged “bullets” passed charged “bullets” passed right through the gold right through the gold atoms in the sheet of atoms in the sheet of gold gold foilfoil without changing without changing course at all.course at all.

SomeSome of the positively of the positively charged “bullets,” however, charged “bullets,” however, did bounce away from the did bounce away from the gold sheet as if they had hit gold sheet as if they had hit something something solidsolid. He knew . He knew that positive charges that positive charges repelrepel positive charges.positive charges.

http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/RUTHERFD/RUTHERFD.htmlRUTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html

http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/RUTHERFD/RUTHERFD.htmlRUTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html

This could only mean that the gold atoms in the This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly sheet were mostly open spaceopen space. Atoms were . Atoms were notnot a pudding filled with a positively charged a pudding filled with a positively charged material.material.

Rutherford concluded that an atom had a Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, small, dense, positively charged centerdense, positively charged center that that repelledrepelled his positively charged “bullets.”his positively charged “bullets.”

He called the center of the atom the “He called the center of the atom the “nucleusnucleus”” The nucleus is The nucleus is tiny tiny compared to the atom as a compared to the atom as a

whole. whole.

RutherfordRutherford

Rutherford reasoned Rutherford reasoned that all of an atom’s that all of an atom’s positively charged positively charged particles were particles were containedcontained in the in the nucleus. The nucleus. The negatively charged negatively charged particles were particles were scatteredscattered outside the outside the nucleus around the nucleus around the atom’s atom’s edgeedge..

Bohr ModelBohr ModelIn 1913, the Danish In 1913, the Danish

scientist Niels Bohr scientist Niels Bohr proposed an proposed an improvement. In his improvement. In his model, he placed model, he placed each electron in a each electron in a specificspecific energy energy level.level.

Bohr ModelBohr Model According to Bohr’s According to Bohr’s

atomic model, atomic model, electrons move in electrons move in definite definite orbitsorbits around around the nucleus, much the nucleus, much like planets circle the like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or sun. These orbits, or energy energy levelslevels, are , are located at certainlocated at certain distances from the distances from the nucleus.nucleus.

Wave Model

The Wave ModelThe Wave Model Today’s atomic Today’s atomic

model is based on model is based on the principles of the principles of wavewave mechanicsmechanics..

According to the According to the theory of wave theory of wave mechanics, electrons mechanics, electrons do not movedo not move about about an atom in a an atom in a definite definite path,path, like the planets like the planets around the sun.around the sun.

The Wave ModelThe Wave Model

In fact, it is In fact, it is impossibleimpossible to determine the exact to determine the exact location of an electron. The location of an electron. The probableprobable location of location of an electron is based on how much an electron is based on how much energyenergy the the electron has.electron has.

According to the modern atomic model, at atom According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a has a small positively charged nucleussmall positively charged nucleus surrounded by a large region in which there are surrounded by a large region in which there are enough electrons to make an atom neutral.enough electrons to make an atom neutral.

Electron Cloud:Electron Cloud: A space in which A space in which

electrons are likely to be electrons are likely to be found.found.

Electrons Electrons whirlwhirl about the about the nucleus billions of times nucleus billions of times in one secondin one second

They are not moving They are not moving around in around in randomrandom patterns.patterns.

Location of electrons Location of electrons depends upon how much depends upon how much energyenergy the electron has. the electron has.

Electron Cloud:Electron Cloud:

Depending on their energy they are locked into a Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the cloud.certain area in the cloud.

Electrons with the Electrons with the lowestlowest energy are found in energy are found in the energy level the energy level closestclosest to the nucleus to the nucleus

Electrons with the Electrons with the highesthighest energy are found energy are found in the in the outermostoutermost energy levels, farther from energy levels, farther from the nucleus.the nucleus.

IndivisibleIndivisible ElectronElectron NucleusNucleus OrbitOrbit Electron Electron CloudCloud

GreekGreek XX

DaltonDalton XX

ThomsonThomson XX

RutherfordRutherford XX XX

BohrBohr XX XX XX

WaveWave XX XX XX

The AtomThe Atom

CHAPTER 4, PART ICHAPTER 4, PART I

Relative SizesRelative Sizes

What is the relative distance from the What is the relative distance from the nucleus of an atom to the electrons? If the nucleus of an atom to the electrons? If the nucleus of an atom were the size of a nucleus of an atom were the size of a marble how far away would the first marble how far away would the first electron be?electron be?

AnswerAnswer

Subatomic ParticlesSubatomic Particles ProtonProton NeutronNeutron ElectronElectron

FYI:FYI:QuarksQuarks

Up / DownUp / DownCharm / StrangeCharm / StrangeTop / BottomTop / Bottom

ProtonProton

Symbol = PSymbol = P++ Charge = PositiveCharge = PositiveMass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)Location = In the nucleusLocation = In the nucleus

NeutronNeutron

Symbol = nSymbol = n00 Charge = NeutralCharge = NeutralMass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (amu)Location = In the nucleusLocation = In the nucleus

ElectronElectron

Symbol = eSymbol = e-- Charge = NegativeCharge = NegativeMass = 0 atomic mass unit (amu)Mass = 0 atomic mass unit (amu)Location = Orbiting the nucleusLocation = Orbiting the nucleus

Atomic Number, (Z)Atomic Number, (Z) = # of P = # of P++ in an in an atom’s nucleusatom’s nucleus

Mass Number, (A)Mass Number, (A) = Sum of the # of N = Sum of the # of N00 and # of Pand # of P++ in a given nucleus. in a given nucleus.

   AA

ZZ

A = mass #, Z = atomic #, X = symbolA = mass #, Z = atomic #, X = symbol

X

Atomic CalculationsAtomic Calculations1) Atomic Number = Number of Protons1) Atomic Number = Number of Protons

Z = Atomic Number = # pZ = Atomic Number = # p++

2) If neutral, then protons must equal electrons2) If neutral, then protons must equal electrons

3) Atomic Mass = Number of Protons + 3) Atomic Mass = Number of Protons + NeutronsNeutrons

A = Atomic MassA = Atomic Mass

A = Z + nA = Z + n00

Atomic Calculations GameAtomic Calculations Game

http://education.jlab.org/elementmath/http://education.jlab.org/elementmath/index.htmlindex.html

IsotopesIsotopes – atoms of the same element with – atoms of the same element with the same # of Pthe same # of P++, but different # of N, but different # of N00 and and different mass numbers.different mass numbers.Ex.Ex.

   NuclideNuclide – a particular atom containing a – a particular atom containing a

definite number of protons and neutrons.definite number of protons and neutrons.Ex. Carbon-12 Iron-56Ex. Carbon-12 Iron-56

NucleonsNucleons – particles that make up the atomic – particles that make up the atomic nucleusnucleusEx. protons and neutrons.Ex. protons and neutrons.

  

Atoms vs IonsAtoms vs Ions

C B-1 C+1

IonIon – an atom that has lost or gained – an atom that has lost or gained electrons and now has a chargeelectrons and now has a charge

  

Number of protons = Z (atomic number)Number of protons = Z (atomic number)

Number of neutrons = A – Z (atomic mass – Number of neutrons = A – Z (atomic mass – atomic number)atomic number)

Number of electrons = Number of Number of electrons = Number of protons - chargeprotons - charge

Average Atomic MassAverage Atomic Mass

AMU – atomic mass unit, 1/12 the mass of AMU – atomic mass unit, 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom.a carbon-12 atom.

Mass on periodic table is a weighted Mass on periodic table is a weighted average mass of all isotopes of an average mass of all isotopes of an element.element.

ExampleExample

Neon-12 relative abundance – 98%Neon-12 relative abundance – 98%

Carbon-14, relative abundance – 2%Carbon-14, relative abundance – 2%

0.98 (12 amu) + 0.02 (14 amu) = 12.04 amu0.98 (12 amu) + 0.02 (14 amu) = 12.04 amu

Example 2Example 2

What is the atomic mass of silicon if What is the atomic mass of silicon if 92.21% of its atoms have mass of 27.977 92.21% of its atoms have mass of 27.977 amu, 4.70% have mass of 28.976 amu, amu, 4.70% have mass of 28.976 amu, and 3.09% have a mass of 29.974 amu?and 3.09% have a mass of 29.974 amu?

28.09 amu28.09 amu