1

AttitudesAttitudes

Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.

Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

2

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance• Importance of elements creating dissonance

• Degree of individual influence over elements

• Rewards involved in dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance• Importance of elements creating dissonance

• Degree of individual influence over elements

• Rewards involved in dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance

Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

3

Measuring the A-B RelationshipMeasuring the A-B RelationshipRecent research indicates that attitudes (A) significantly predict behaviors (B) when moderating variables are taken into account.

Moderating Variables• Importance of the attitude

• Specificity of the attitude

• Accessibility of the attitude

• Social pressures on the individual

• Direct experience with the attitude

Moderating Variables• Importance of the attitude

• Specificity of the attitude

• Accessibility of the attitude

• Social pressures on the individual

• Direct experience with the attitude

4

Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes

Job InvolvementIdentifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth.

Organizational CommitmentIdentifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.

Job SatisfactionA collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.

5

Attitudes and Workforce DiversityAttitudes and Workforce DiversityTraining activities that can reshape employee attitudes concerning diversity:

Participating in diversity training that provides for self-evaluation and group discussions.

Volunteer work in community and social serve centers with individuals of diverse backgrounds.

Exploring print and visual media that recount and portray diversity issues.

6

Job SatisfactionJob SatisfactionMeasuring Job SatisfactionSingle global ratingSummation score

How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?Job satisfaction declined to 50.4% in 2002Decline attributed to:

• Pressures to increase productivity and meet tighter deadlines• Less control over work

7

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

Satisfaction and ProductivitySatisfied workers aren’t necessarily more productive.Worker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers.

Satisfaction and AbsenteeismSatisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

Satisfaction and TurnoverSatisfied employees are less likely to quit.Organizations take actions to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers.

8

Job Satisfaction and OCBJob Satisfaction and OCBSatisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.

9

Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction

Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:They are more friendly, upbeat, and responsive.They are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationships.They are experienced.

Dissatisfied customers increase employee job dissatisfaction.

10

MOTIVATION

31

Defining MotivationDefining Motivation

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

The story about the tiny frogs….

There once was a bunch of tiny frogs,...

… who arranged a running competition.

The goal was to reach the top of a very high tower.

A big crowd had gathered around the tower to see the race and cheer on the contestants...

The race began...

No one in crowd really believed that,

Honestly

the tiny frogs would reach the top of the tower...

You heard statements such as:"Oh, WAY too difficult!!

They will NEVER make it to the top."

or

"Not a chance that they will succeed. The tower is too high!"

The tiny frogs began collapsing. One by one...

... Except for those who in a fresh tempo were climbing higher and higher...

"It is too difficult!!! No one will make it!"

The crowd continued to yell

More tiny frogs got tired and gave up...

But ONE continued higher and higher and higher...

This one wouldn’t give up!

At the end everyone else had given up climbing the tower.

Except for the one tiny frog who after a big effort was the only one who reached the top!

THEN all of the other tiny frogs naturally wanted to know how this one frog managed to do it?

A contestant asked the tiny frog how the one who succeeded had found the strength to reach the goal?

It turned out...

That the winner was

DEAF!!!!

The wisdom of this story is:

Never listen to other people’s tendencies to be negative or pessimistic...

…cause, they take your most wonderful dreams and wishes away from you. The ones you have in your heart!

Because everything you hear and read will affect your actions!

Always think of the power which words have.

Therefore...

ALWAYS be…

POSITIVE!

And above all:

Be DEAF when people tell YOU that YOU can not fulfil YOUR dreams!

I can do this!

Always think:

64

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization

The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Maslow’sMaslow’sHierarchyHierarchyof Needsof Needs

SelfSelf

EsteemEsteem

SocialSocial

SafetySafety

PhysiologicalPhysiological

Source: Motivation and Personality, Second Edition, by A. H. Maslow, 1970. Reprinted by

permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

66

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

Theory XTheory XEmployeesEmployees

Dislike WorkDislike Work

Avoid ResponsibilityAvoid Responsibility

Little AmbitionLittle Ambition

Theory YTheory YEmployeesEmployees

Enjoy WorkEnjoy Work

Accept ResponsibilityAccept Responsibility

Self-DirectedSelf-Directed

68

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors

Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied.

69

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

ERG Theory

There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.

70

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Need for Achievement

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation

The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power

The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

71

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.

The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.

72

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Self-Efficacy

The individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

Factors influencing the goals–performance relationship:

Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture.

73

Goal Setting

GoalsSpecificDifficult

Accepted

Effects on PersonDirects attention

EnergisesEncourages persistency

New strategies developed

Feedback

Performance

74

Job Design TheoryJob Design Theory

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Characteristics:

1. Skill variety

2. Task identity

3. Task significance

4. Autonomy

5. Feedback

Job Characteristics Model

Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

75

Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Design Theory (cont’d)

Skill Variety

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities.

Task Identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task Significance

The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

76

Job Design Theory (cont’d)Job Design Theory (cont’d)

Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

77

Equity Theory

(Adams, 1963; Landy, 1989; Beehr, 1996)

78

Equity Theory

A version of discrepancy theory of job satisfaction focusing on the

discrepancies between what one has on the job and what one thinks

is fair - what one should have

79

Equity Theory

Inputs- factors considered by the individual

that contribute to their work - knowledge, skills and abilities Outcomes- factors considered by the individual to

have personal value - money, promotion, praise

80

Equity Theory

I/O < I/O (Underpay)5/10 10/10Inequity

I/O = I/O (Equity)10/10 = 10/10

I/O > I/O (Overpay 5/10 10/10 Inequity

Equity

81

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Referent Comparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

Referent Comparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

82

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

83

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

84

Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

Procedural Justice

The perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards.

85

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

86

Expectancy Theory(Vroom)

3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence

1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy

2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformance

PersonalGoals

OrganisationalRewards

1 2

3

87

Expectancy Theory Relationships

Expectancy Theory Relationships

Effort–Performance Relationship The probability that exerting a given amount of

effort will lead to performance. Performance–Reward Relationship

The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship The degree to which organizational rewards

satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

How Expectancy Theory Works

Expectancy

Effort - Performance Link

E=0

No matter how much effort

you put in, probably not possible

to memorise the text in 24 hours

Instrumentality

Performance - Rewards Link

I=0

Your tutor does not looklike someone who has £1 million

Valence

Rewards - Personal Goals Link

V=1

There are a lot of wonderful things you could do with £1 million

Your tutor offers you £1 million if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning.

Conclusion: Though you value the reward, you will not be motivated to do this task.