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AttitudesExpressions of inner feelings that reflect whether a
person is favorably or unfavorably predisposed to some object -- a brand, a brand name, a service, a service provider, a retail store, a company, an advertisement, in essence, any marketing stimuli.
OpinionsA large amount of questions in marketing research
are designed to measure attitudesMarketing managers want to understand consumers’
attitudes in order to influence their behavior
The ABCs of attitudes: The Affective Component (based on feelings or
overall evaluation) Feelings of like or dislike
The Behavioral Component (likely action toward object; e.g. from a consumer behavior point of view, the consumer’s intention to buy a product) Intentions to behave
The Cognitive Component (based on beliefs; what you think about a marketing stimulus) – Information possessed
Three Components of Attitudes
MeasurementTo collect data, you need to have something to measure
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or scores to characteristics or attributes of the objects or people people of interest
Variables• When we measure the attributes of an object, we
obtain a value that varies between objects. • For example consider the people in this class as
objects and their height as the attribute• The attribute height varies between objects, hence
attributes are more collectively known as variables• Variables can be measured on four different scales
Classifies data according to a category only.
E.g., which color people select.
Colors differ qualitatively not quantitatively.
A number could be assigned to each color, but it would not have any value.
The number serves only to identify the color.
No assumptions are made that any color has more or less value than any other color.
Nominal Scale
Assign subjects to groups or categories– Mutually exclusive
– Collectively exhaustive
No order or distance relationship No arithmetic origin Only count numbers in categories Only present percentages of categories Chi-square most often used test of statistical
significance
Nominal Scale
Sex Social status
Marital status Days of the week (months)
Geographic location Patrons per hour
Ethnic Group Types of restaurants
Brand choice Religion
Job Type: Executive, Technical, Clerical
Other Examples
Coded as “1”
Coded as “2”
Which of the following media influences your purchasing decisions the most?
–1 Television
–2 Radio
–3 Newspapers
–4 Magazines
Nominal Scale
classifies nominal data according to some order or rank E.g. names ordered alphabetically
With ordinal data, it is fair to say that one response is greater or less than another.
E.g. if people were asked to rate the hotness of 3 chili peppers, a scale of "hot", "hotter" and "hottest" could be used. Values of "1" for "hot", "2" for "hotter" and "3" for "hottest" could be assigned.
Ordinal Scale
The gap between the items is unspecified.
Can include opinion and preference scalesMedian but not mean No unique, arithmetic origin Means items cannot be added
In marketing research practice, ordinal scale variables are often treated as interval scale variables
Ordinal Scale
Rank Player Avg Pts
1.Woods 16.53
2. Els 9.26
3. Singh 9.19
4.Love-III 7.96
5. Furyk 7.57
6. Weir 7.46
7.Toms 5.92
8.Perry 5.68
9. Harrington 5.37
10. Goosen 5.18 As of Oct 19, 2003
GPA
Small medium large
Quality
Likert scales, rank on a scale of 1..5 your degree of satisfaction
Women’s dress sizes
Examples
Ordinal Scale
Please rank the news programs offered in following four networks based on your preference.(1 for most preferred, 4 for least preferred).
_____ CTV
_____ Global
_____ A Channel
_____ CBC
assumes that the measurements are made in equal units.
i.e. gaps between whole numbers on the scale are equal.
e.g. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales
an interval scale does not have to have a true zero. e.g. A temperature of "zero" does not mean that there is no temperature...it is just an arbitrary zero point.
Permissible statistics: count/frequencies, mode, median, mean, standard deviation
Interval Scale
How likely are you going to buy a new automobile within the next six months? (Please check the most appropriate category)
Definitely will not buy ___ 1
Probably will not buy ___ 2
May or may not buy ___ 3
Probably will buy ___ 4
Definitely will buy ___ 5
Interval Scale
similar to interval scales except that the ratio scale has a true zero value.
e.g. the time something takes
allows you to compare differences between numbers.
Permits full arithmetic operation.
If a train journey takes 2 hr and 35 min, then this is half as long as a journey which takes 5 hr and 10 min.
Ratio Scale
• Indicates actual amount of variable– Shows magnitude of differences between points on scale
– Shows proportions of differences
• All statistical techniques useable
• Most powerful with most meaningful answers
• Allows comparisons of absolute magnitudes
Ratio Scale
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Examplesheight, weight, age,
Length
time
Income
Market share
1.What is your annual income before taxes? $ _______
2. How far is your workplace
from home? _______ miles
Primary Scales of Measurement
4 81 9
Nominal Numbers Assigned to Runners
Ordinal Rank Order of Winners
Third Place
Second Place
First Place
Interval Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale
8.2 9.1 9.6
Ratio Time to Finish in Seconds 15.2 14.1 13.4
Comparison of Measurement Scales
Label Order Distance Origin
Nominal scale Yes No No No
Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No
Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes
Use of Measurement Scales
• Nominal– Used to categorize objects
• Ordinal– Used to define ordered relationships
• Interval– Used to rank objects such that the magnitude of the difference
between two objects can be determined
• Ratio– Same as interval scale but has an absolute zero point
Always use the most powerful scale possible
Adding Sophistication To Scales
• Concept: Desire to watch Star Wars movies
– If a Star Wars movie is on television will you watch it?• Yes _____ No _____
– How likely are you to watch a Star Wars movie shown on television?• Very Likely ____ Likely ____ Indifferent ___• Unlikely _____ Very Unlikely _____
Another way to describe variables
• Qualitative variables: have a nominal scale of measurement.
• Continuous variables: have an Ordinal, interval, or ratio variables scale of measurement.
• Quantitative variables: have an interval scale of measurement.
• Categorical variables: have a nominal or ordinal scale of measurement.
•A: Education is measured in number of years of schooling, and is therefore a discrete quantitative variable measured on an interval scale. (Or is it?)
•How could education be measure using…
–A nominal scale
–An ordinal scale
Practice describing variables
• Q: What kind of variable is educational attainment, and what scale is it measured in?
Paired Comparison
Rank Order
Constant Sum
Comparative Scales
Non-Comparative Scales
Continuous Rating Scales
Itemized Rating Scales
StapelSemantic
DifferentialLikert
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES
Others
Types of Scaling Techniques COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus objects.
• e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on sweetness
NONCOMPARATIVE SCALES
• Respondent scales each stimulus object independently of other objects
•e.g. How would you rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1 to 10
Paired Comparison Items
• A and B• A and C• A and D• B and C• B and D• C and D
If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have respondents compare
–Usually limited to N < 15
Paired ComparisonPlease indicate which of the following airlines you prefer
by circling your more preferred airline in each pair:
Air Canada WestJet
Air Transat Air Canada
Zip WestJet
WestJet Air Transat
Air Canada Zip
Zip Air Transat
COMPARATIVE SCALES
Constant Sum ScalesAllocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-drinks depending on how favorable you feel toward each; the more highly you think of each soft-drink, the more points you should allocate to it. (Please check that the allocated points add to 100.)
Coca-Cola _____ points
7-Up _____ points
Dr. Pepper _____ points
Tab _____ points
Pepsi-Cola _____ points
100 points
COMPARATIVE SCALES
Constant Sum Scale
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics so the division reflects the relative importance of each characteristic to you in the selection of a bank
Hours of service ________________
Friendliness _______________
Distance from home ________________
Investment vehicles ________________
Parking facilities __________________
Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst) according to your taste preference:
Coca-Cola _____
7-Up _____
Dr. Pepper _____
Pepsi-Cola _____
Mountain Dew _____
COMPARATIVE SCALES
Rank-Order Scales
–Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’
–Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’
Comparative Scales
Indicate your preferred type of music with a 1, your second favorite with a 2, and so on for each type of music:
____ Heavy Metal
____ Alternative
____ Urban Contemporary
____ Classical
____ Country
Rank Order Scale
InstructionsRank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred- brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
Brand Rank Order 1. Crest 2. Colgate 3. Aim 4. Mentadent 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite 7. Close Up 8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White
10. Stripe
COMPARATIVE SCALES
Compared to Chevrolet, Ford is:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
less about the moreinnovative same innovative
Continuous scale
Non comparative scale
• How would you rate Marketing Research to other courses this term
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
The worst The BestXX
Modern Store
Low prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Unsophisticated customers
Semantic Differential Scale Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe
K-Mart. For each statement tick ( X ) the box that best
describes your feelings about K-Mart.
Non-Comparative Scales
Semantic Differential Scale - Snake Diagram
Modern Store
Low prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Unsophisticated customers
X
X
X
X
X
Key :Sears
X K-Mart
Itemised Rating Scales
Old Fashioned
X
1 2 3 4 5
Modern
Cheap
1 2 3
X
4 5
Expensive
Friendly service 1 2
X
3 4 5
Unfriendly service
Semantic differential
Itemised Rating Scales
Likert scale
Strongly agree
disagree Neither agree nor disagree
agree Strongly agree
Market research is the most interesting subject known to man
1 2 3 4 5
•Strongly Agree •Agree •Undecided •Disagree •Strongly Disagree
•Agree Strongly •Agree Moderately •Agree Slightly •Disagree Slightly •Disagree Moderately •Disagree Strongly
•Agree •Disagree
•Agree •Undecided •Disagree
•Agree Very Strongly •Agree Strongly •Agree •Disagree •Disagree Strongly •Disagree Very Strongly
•Yes •No
•Completely Agree •Mostly Agree •Slightly Agree •Slightly Disagree •Mostly Disagree •Completely Disagree
•Disagree Strongly •Disagree •Tend to Disagree •Tend to Agree •Agree •Agree Strongly
AGREEMENT
•Very Frequently •Frequently •Occasionally •Rarely •Very Rarely •Never
•Always •Very Frequently •Occasionally •Rarely •Very Rarely •Never
•Always •Usually •About Half the Time •Seldom •Never
•Almost Always •To a Considerable Degree •Occasionally •Seldom
•A Great Deal •Much •Somewhat •Little •Never
•Often •Sometimes •Seldom •Never
•Always •Very Often •Sometimes •Rarely •Never
FREQUENCY
•Very Important •Important •Moderately Important •Of Little Importance •Unimportant
•Very Important •Moderately Important •Unimportant
•Very Good •Good •Barely Acceptable •Poor •Very Poor
•Extremely Poor •Below Average •Average •Above Average •Excellent
•Good •Fair •Poor
IMPORTANCE
QUALITY
•Like Me •Unlike Me
•To a Great Extent •Somewhat •Very Little •Not at All
•True •False
•Definitely •Very Probably •Probably •Possibly •Probably Not •Very Probably Not
•Almost Always True •Usually True •Often True •Occasionally True •Sometimes But Infrequently True •Usually Not True •Almost Never True
•True of Myself •Mostly True of Myself •About Halfway True of Myself •Slightly True Of Myself •Not at All True of Myself
LIKELIHOOD
Itemised Rating Scales
Staple scale
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
Poor service
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
+3 +2 +1 Wide Selection -1 -2 -3
Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. The more accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the larger the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.
A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image
The following questions concern your ratings of several suppliers that provide products for use in your store.
Staple ScaleStaple Scale
XYZPoor ProductSelection
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Costly Products -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Fast Service -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
High QualityProducts
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Innovative -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Some Basic Considerations When Selecting a Scale
Selecting a Rating, Ranking, Sorting, or Purchase Intent
Scale
Balanced Versus Non-balanced Alternatives
Number of Categories
Odd or Even Number of Scale Categories
Forced Versus Non-forced Choice
Odd
Strongly Agree _____
Agree _____
Neutral _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree_____
Even
Strongly Agree_____
Agree _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree___
Odd versus even
if neutral responses likely, use odd number
Balanced vs. Unbalanced
Balanced
Very good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______
Very Poor ______
Unbalanced
Excellent ______
Very Good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______
Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale
JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS
Extremely good
Very good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Extremely bad
Extremely good
Very good
Somewhat Good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Forced vs. Unforced
Forced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Unforced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Don’t know ___
Labeled vs. End Anchored
Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
End Anchored
Excellent __________
_____
_____
Poor _____
Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
Excellent _____
Very Good_____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
Intervals May Not Reflect the Semantic Meaning of the Adjectives
Intervals AreNot Equal
Intervals AreNot Equal
Number of Scale Points
5 Point
Excellent _____
_____
_____
_____
Poor _____
10 Point
Excellent __________________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________Poor
Choosing the Appropriate Scale
Attitude component
Itemized category
Rank order
Constant sum
Likert Semantic differential
Knowledge
Awareness A
Attribute beliefs A B B B A
Attribute importance
A B A B
Affect or Liking
Overall preferences
A B A B B
Specific attributes
A B B B A
Action
intentions A B A B
A = Very appropriate, B = Sometimes appropriate
Characteristics of Good Measurement Scales
1. Reliability• The degree to which a measure accurately captures an
individual’s true outcome without error; Accuracy • synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the
underlying concept; Fidelity3. Sensitivity
• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences between attitudes. The more categories the more sensitive (nut less reliable)
4. Generalizability• How easy is scale to administer and interpret
Validity and ReliabilityIf a measure is valid, then it is reliable
If it is not reliable, it can not be valid
If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid
Reliability can be more easily determined than validity
Example of low validity, high reliability
• Scale is perfectly accurate, but is capturing the wrong thing; for example, it measures consumers’ interest in creative writing rather than preference for kinds of stationery.
Example of modest validity, low reliability
• Scale genuinely measures consumers’ interest in kinds of stationery, but poorly worded items, sloppy administration, data entry errors lead to random errors in data
• Note that reliability sets an upper limit on validity -- a measure with a lot of errors is limited in how well it can capture a concept