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INSTITUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Auditory Subliminal Stimuli
Malihe Ilkhani
Master-degree examination !!"-!#
S$%er&isor' Pro(essor Ingegerd Carlsson
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Abstract
The aim )as to st$d* )hether stim$li that +annot ,e dete+ted +ons+io$sl* might ne&ertheless
in(l$en+e s$, e+t.s higher +ogniti&e ($n+tions/ and )hether s$+h an e((e+t di((ers inindi&id$als )ith di((erent le&els o( state-trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit* and 01e%ressor23
Parti+i%ants 4 N 5 678 listened to a +lassi+al %ie+e o( m$si+ in )hi+h s$,liminal messages )ere
em,edded3 These messages +o$ld ,e either %ositi&e 40I am +le&er28 or negati&e 40I am
)orthless283 9(ter listening to the m$si+ %arti+i%ant had to +om%lete the Standard Progressi&e
Matri+es test 41a&en/ Co$rt : 1a&en/ ;## 83 Le&els o( state and trait anxiet* and so+ial
desira,ilit* )ere e&al$ated ,* means o( and (inall* s$ggestions (or ($t$re
resear+h are re+ommended3
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Subject Register
PAGE
AbstractIntroduction 6
State ? Trait 9nxiet* ;!
1e%ressors ;;
So+ial =esira,ilit* ;
H*%othesis ;@
Method ;6
Pilot St$d* ;6S$, e+t ;A
Pro+ed$re ;"
Material !State- Trait 9nxiet* In&entor* !
Nor)egian short-(orm o( the Marlo)e-Cro)ne So+ial =esira,ilit* S+ale ;
Standard Progressi&e Matri+es 4SPM8
B$estion a,o$t m$si+ and B$estion a,o$t Matri+es Test @Result 6
9ge 6
S+ore 1a&en 4SPM8 6
Trait anxiet* 6
So+ial desira,ilit* 6
9NO 9S 7
S+ore 1a&en' Trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit* and s$,liminal messages 7
S+ore 1a&en' High so+ial desira,ilit* and Lo) trait anxiet* 01e%ressor2 A
S+ore 1a&en' So+ial desira,ilit* and s$,liminal messages A
S+ore 1a&en' Trait anxiet* and s$,liminal messages "
Discussion #The (irst/ se+ond : third h*%othesis/ in ,rie(/ s$ggestion (or +oming st$d*
References @7
9%%endix 092 D!9%%endix 0E2 D;
@
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9%%endix 0C2 D
9%%endix 0=2 D@
9%%endix 0 2 DD
9%%endix 0F2 D6
9%%endix 0G2 D7
D
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Introduction
The %resent st$d* examines s$,liminal %er+e%tion3 This +on+e%t has o(ten met o%%osition/ and
man* %eo%le a+t$all* )ant to ,elie&e that it does not exist at all3 9++ording to Hassin/ et al3
4 !!68 the (ear is that o$r o)n +ons+io$sness is not in +ontrol o( o$r ,eha&ior3 9lso it is
,elie&ed that +ons+io$s tho$ght sho$ld mediate e&er*thing )e do/ at least )ith regard to
im%ortant ,eha&ior and de+isions3 E$t do )e reall* al)a*s )ant +ons+io$s tho$ght to
%rod$+e/ or at least mediate/ o$r ($n+tioning in general 4Hassin> Uleman > Eargh/ !!68
In short )e +an state a,o$t the theor* ,ehind s$,liminal stim$li' Messages )hi+h are ,elo) a
%erson s a$dio le&el or &is$al le&el )ill ,e re+ei&ed dire+tl* ,* the $n+ons+io$s mind - thatis +ons+io$s e&al$ation is ,*-%assed3 9t theaudible le&el/ s$,liminal messages ma* +ontain
m$si+ or so$nds (rom nat$re3 In the %resent resear+h )e $sed the %ie+e o( Ea+h and it is +alled
the 0Sixth Eranden,$rg Con+erto23 Eelo) these a$di,le so$nds )ere &er,al messages that
are inaudible as (ar as +ons+io$s %er+e%tion +on+erns3 9++ording to the theor*/ the
s$,+ons+io$s mind )ill disting$ish theinaudible &er,al messages (rom theaudible ones/
res%ond to them/ and a+t $%on them3
In agreement )ith the initial st$d*J%ilot st$d*/ the de(inition o( 0Un+ons+io$sness2 %er+e%tion
is identi+al )ith the +on+e%t o( s$,liminal materialJmessages in the %resent st$d*3
The present theoretical understanding
Hassin/ et al3 4 !!68 states that the ne) $n+ons+io$s +on+e%t is m$+h more +on+erned )ith
a((e+t/ moti&ation/ and e&en +ontrol and meta-+ognition than )as the old +ogniti&e
$n+ons+io$s3 The ne) +on+e%t in+l$des the +a$ses o( the %henomenal ex%erien+e/ o( ha&ingintentions and (ree )ill/ o( attri,$ting these to onesel( and others3 4Hassin> Uleman > Eargh/
!!68
The existen+e o( the $n+ons+io$s has ,een do$,ted (or de+ades3 9 large amo$nt o( resear+h/
ho)e&er/ no) s$ggests that the existan+e o( $n+ons+io$s %ro+esses is no longer
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resear+h/ and the +on+e%t seems to ,e m$+h sim%ler than the so%histi+ated +on+e%ts that are
$sed in %s*+hoanal*ti+ theor*3 So/ at the moment attem%ts are made to sim%li(* the
$nderstanding o( the mental %ro+esses in&ol&ed in the $n+ons+io$s3 To %$t it in a sim%le
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9 third Ne) Look is )ell $nder )a* a++ording to Green)ald 4;## 8/ and the most
$nex%e+ted as%e+t here/ is thes$%%ort (or a sim%ler &ie) o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition than that o(
%s*+hoanal*ti+ theor*' Green)ald disting$ishes t)o meanings o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition' ;8
+ognition )itho$t attention/ and 8 &er,all* $nre%eata,le +ognition3 9++ording to him/ a
re+ent ,lossoming o( resear+h on these t)o t*%es o( $n+ons+io$s +ognition has esta,lished
se&eral %ro+ed$res that ha&e re%li+a,le (indings3 He %oints to resear+h on sele+ti&e attention
and s$,liminal a+ti&ation3 For exam%le/ Sil&erman : ein,erger 4;#"68 ha&e (o$nd e((e+ts
o( s$,liminal %resentations that res$lted in +ogniti&e e((e+ts o( m$lti)ord strings3 It is +alled
S$,liminal Ps*+hod*nami+ 9+ti&ation/ $sing 0Momm* and I are One2 as the text o( a
s$,liminal stim$l$s3
Sil&erman and ein,erger state/ the %hrase Momm* and I are one2 )orks ,e+a$se there are
%o)er($l $n+ons+io$s )ishes (or a state o( oneness )ith the good mother o( earl* +hildhood
and grati(i+ation o( these )ishes +an enhan+e ada%tation3 Sil&erman and ein,erger sa* that'
-Ne$tral s$,liminal messages/ s$+h as 0%eo%le are )alking2 ha&e no e((e+t on s$, e+ts3
-=ist$r,ing messages/ s$+h as =estro* Mother/ ha&e a negati&e e((e+t3 -In areas )here the
$s$al term (or mother is something di((erent/ s$+h as Mama rather than Momm* / the
%hrase Momm* and I are one has no e((e+t3 Some (ollo)-$% )ork has +laimed that in agame o( darts/ the %hrase It s OK to ,eat dad im%ro&ed s+ores3 Sil&erman/ L'H' :
ein,erger/ 3 4;#"683
There is strong e&iden+e (or the e((i+a+* o( the 0Momm* and I are one2 message3 Th$s t)o
meta-resear+hes )ere %$,lished in ;##! in ma or %eer re&ie)ed o$rnals 4Harda)a* in
Ps*+hologi+al E$lletin and ein,erger and Harda)a* in Clini+al Ps*+holog* 1e&ie)83 The
res$lts o( these meta-anal*ses indi+ated that the message did s$%%l* relia,le e((e+ts3 Themeta-anal*ses on 0Momm* and I are one2 indi+ated that the e((e+ts are relia,le/ o( reasona,le
si e/ did not de%end $%on )ho +ond$+ted the st$d*/ and )ere $nlikel* to ,e a res$lt o( ,iased
re%orting o( %ositi&e res$lts3 It a%%ears that something is ha%%ening )hen this message is
(lashed3
Ho)e&er/ this st$d* has ,een met )ith +onsidera,le ske%ti+ism in the s+ienti(i+ +omm$nit*'
Criti+al %oints o( &ie) re&eal that s$,liminal messages in general ha&e not ,een (o$nd to ,e
A
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so e((e+ti&e3 Momm* and I are one is a (airl* +om%li+ated %hrase that seems to re
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Green)ald and +olleag$es 4;## 8 also (o$nd a h$ge %la+e,o e((e+t3 9%%arent (rom this st$d*
is that ex%e+tan+* +an a++o$nt (or most o( the satis(a+tion ex%ressed ,* s$,liminal sel(-
im%ro&ement %atrons3
9 st$d* ,* Cheesman : Merikle 4;#"78 +ontains a good exam%le o( s$+h a disso+iation
e((e+ts3 The* make a distin+tion ,et)een an o, e+ti&e threshold and a s$, e+ti&e threshold3
9 s$, e+ti&e threshold re(ers to the le&el o( dis+riminati&e res%onding at )hi+h o,ser&ers
+laim not to ,e a,le to identi(* or re+ogni e %er+e%t$al in(ormation 4)hen (or+ed the* might
dete+t it at a ,etter than +han+e le&el o( %er(orman+e83 9nd an o, e+ti&e threshold is the le&el
o( dis+riminati&e res%onding +orres%onding to +han+e le&el %er(orman+e3
Chesman : Merikle 4;#"78 %oints o$t' i( one a++e%ts that s$, e+ti&e meas$res +an ,e &alid
indi+ators o( a)areness/ then there is +onsidera,le e&iden+e (or %er+e%tion )itho$t a)areness3
9++ording to Merikle/ it is relati&el* eas* to demonstrate that %er+e%tion o++$rs )hen
s$, e+ts do not ,elie&e that the* ha&e either seen or heard an ade
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on e&er*da* memor* tasks/ %rimaril* )hen the s$,liminal messages are s%e+i(i+all* related to
the %arti+$lar memor* +om%onent3
9 st$d* on %ersonalit* test ,* Meehl : Hatha)a* 4;#D78 and Cron,a+h 4;#D78 ha&e ,oth
+ogentl* des+ri,ed/ ho) %arti+i%ant &ario$s sel(-im%osed +an gi&e intr$de attit$de $%on
%ersonalit* tests3 More re+entl*/ d)ards 4;#6A8 has stressed the im%ortan+e o( So+ial
=esira,ilit* stereot*%es as a ,iasing (a+tor3 He seems to s$ggest that this %arti+$lar res%onse
set is so %er&asi&e that it im%airs the &alidit* o( most standard %ersonalit* in&entories3 For
d)ards/ the (or+ed +hoi+e te+hni the %airs
%res$ma,l* ha&e ,een e i3e3/ di((eren+es ,et)een %eo%le
in the tenden+* to %er+ei&e stress($l sit$ations as dangero$s or threatening and to res%ond to
s$+h sit$ations )ith ele&ations in the intensit* o( their state anxiety reactions. Persons )ith
high trait-anxiety exhi,it state-anxiety ele&ations more (re
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In the st$d* o( 1o,les/ Smith/ Car&er : ellens 4;#"A8 the ma or h*%othesis )as that
ex%os$re to negati&e stim$li )o$ld res$lt in higher le&els o( state anxiety and that ex%os$re to
%ositi&e stim$li )o$ld res$lt in lo)er le&els o( state anxiety / +om%ared )ith the ne$tral
+ondition3 9n additional %redi+tion )as that ex%os$re to the s$,liminal stim$li )o$ld ha&e no
e((e+t ontrait anxiety 3 The res$lts o( this st$d* are +onsistent )ith the h*%othesis that
in(ormation %resented o$tside +ons+io$s a)areness +an exert an in(l$en+e on s$, e+ti&e
emotional ex%erien+e3 S$, e+ts ex%osed to h$moro$s s$,liminal stim$li re%orted lo)er le&els
o( state anxiety than did the same +ontrol gro$%3 These e((e+ts )ere s%e+i(i+ to state anxiety /
)ith no s$+h di((eren+e emerging in sel(-ratings o(trait anxiety 3 41o,les/ Smith/ Car&er :
ellens/ ;#"A8
Repressors
The repressor concept has traditionall* ,een $sed to signi(* %eo%le )ith heightened
re+ognition thresholds (or anxiet*-%ro&oking stim$lation 4 ein,erger/ S+h)art / :
=a&idson/ ;#A#83 Repressors sho) an o,&io$s in+onsisten+* ,et)een ho) the* des+ri,e
themsel&es ? +alm/ ha%%*/ )ith high sel(-esteem and their o$ter a%%earan+e/ as others
%er+ei&e it3 Those )ith high on so+ial desira,ilit* and lo) on anxiet* )ere th$s termed
repressors / )hile other gro$%s )ere la,elled tr$e low anxious, high anxious / and de(ensi&e
high anxious 3 ein,erger et al3 4;#A#8 (o$nd that therepressors )ere more stressed4a++ording to three %h*siologi+al and three ,eha&io$ral meas$res8 then the tr$e lo)-anxio$s
%eo%le des%ite +laims o( lo)er trait anxiet*3 S$,se
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%arti+$lar denial o( +ogniti&e 4relati&e to somati+8 anxiet* and their re%orts o( de+reased trait
anxiet*/ (ollo)ing a stress($l ex%eriment3 Therepressors de(ensi&eness and %reo++$%ation
)ith a&oiding a)areness o( anxiet* o(ten ma* inter(ere )ith e((e+ti&e +o%ing and/
%aradoxi+all*/ %romote ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onses indi+ati&e o(high anxiety 3
9++ording to Ero)n : riksson/ repressors traditionall* de(ined as %ersons )ho mani(esting
heightened re+ognition to thresholds (or anxiet* %ro&oking stim$li/ and the* +onsistentl*
a&oid dist$r,ing +ognitions a+ross a &ariet* o( %er+e%t$al/ %ro e+ti&e/ and learning tasks
4Ero)n/ ;#7;> riksson/ ;#7783 Repressors de(ensi&eness and %reo++$%ation )ith a&oiding
a)areness o( anxiet* o(ten ma* inter(ere )ith e((e+ti&e +o%ing/ and %aradoxi+all*/ those
%romote ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onses/ )it+h indi+ati&e o( high anxiet*3
ein,erger/ S+h)art : =a&idson 4;#A#8/ )ith in a st$d* in&estigated the distin+tion
,et)een> a8 tr$l* lo) anxio$s s$, e+ts/ )ho re%ort lo) trait anxiet* on the Ta*lor s+ale and
lo) de(ensi&eness on the Marlo)e-Cro)ne s+ale and ,8 repressors )ho re%ort lo) anxiet*
,$t high de(ensi&eness3 1esear+h has s$%%orted the +laim that therepressor is not a so +alled
other de+ei&er/ i3e3 a+t$all* a)are o( his or her o)n (eelings ,$t aiming at making a good
im%ression on others 4=erakshan : *sen+k/ ;##"> ein,erger : =a&idson/ ;##D83
The %s*+hod*nami+ theor* o( an a+ti&e a&oidan+e o( +on(li+ting/ anxiet* aro$sing stim$lith$s seemed an a%%ro%riate (rame to therepressor +on+e%t3 hen it +ame to %arti+$lar
de(en+e me+hanisms it )as s$ggested that the me+hanism o( %ro e+tion )as rele&ant (or
repressors / sin+e it )o$ld seem a +on&enient strateg* to attend to negati&e material in others
)hen a&oiding it in onesel(/ em%iri+al s$%%ort (or this s$ggestion )as (o$nd ,* Ne)man/
=$(( : Ea$meister 4;##A83 F$rthermore %re&io$s resear+h has leaded $s to resem,ling a
s%e+i(i+ h*%othesis a,o$t 1e%ressor that +an ,e testing in statisti+al anal*ses3
Social Desirability
In %ro%ortion to en+*+lo%aedia o( %s*+holog*/Social Desirability )as des+ri,ed ,* d)ards
in ;#6A and has ,een long dis+$ssed )ithin %s*+hometri+s3 Holden 4;##D8 social desirability
,ias is the tenden+* (or indi&id$als to %ortra* themsel&es in a generall* (a&o$ra,le (ashion
and in a++ordan+e )ith 1$dmin 4;###8 this tenden+* &aries a+ross indi&id$als +ontexts and
ma* re
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9mongst esta,lished social desirability s+ales/ the Marlo)e Cro)ne S+ale is one o( the oldest
and most )idel* s+ales $sed 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7!83 It )as de&elo%ed to ,e a meas$re
o( ,ias to)ards a((irming so+ial norms and to ,e inde%endent o( %s*+ho%atholog*3 Holden :
Cro)n-Marlo)e (o$nd that this s+ale is inde%endent o( gender and has items (o+$sed on
inter%ersonal sensiti&it* and +onsiderateness3 Pa$lh$s 4;##;8/ in a (a+tor st$d* o( ten so+ial
desira,ilit* s+ales/ +on+l$ded that the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale is a meas$re o( im%ression
management and to a lesser degree/ sel(-de+e%tion 4Pa$lh$s/ ;##;8
Hypothesis
9(ter o$tlining some o( the resear+h done in the (ield o( the 4+ogniti&e8 $n+ons+io$s/ and
mentioning some o( the +ontro&ersies a,o$t the 4+ogniti&e8 $n+ons+io$s in the ongoingde,ate/ it is im%ortant to mention that this st$d* is ,ased on Pro(essor Ingegerd Carlssons
earlier resear+h3 E* ha&ing her earlier %ilot st$d* as a +ontrol-gro$% the stage )as set (or this
st$d*3
The general idea is that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal message )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on the
test o( logi+al-ind$+ti&e a,ilit*/ meas$red ,* theStandard Progressive atrices !SP " 3
S$, e+ts )ho got the negati&e message )o$ld ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$, e+ts )ho got the %ositi&e message3
The #irst hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal messages )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on
the test o( logi+al-ind$+ti&e a,ilit* as meas$red ,* the SPM3 S$, e+ts )ho got the negati&e
message )ere likel* to ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$, e+ts )ho got the %ositi&e message3
The second hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the negati&e s$,liminal message 40I am
)orthless28 )o$ld a((e+t the indi&id$als identi(ied as 01e%ressor2 4i3e3/ %eo%le )ith Highso+ial desira,ilit* s+ales and Lo) trait anxiet*83 The* are more a((e+ted than s$, e+ts )ith
Lo) so+ial desira,ilit* and high trait anxiet*3 This e((e+t )o$ld meas$re on the le&el o(
Standard Progressi&e Matri+es test 4SPM83
The third hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the negati&e or %ositi&e s$,liminal message
40I am )orthless28 and 40I am +le&er28 )o$ld a((e+t the s$, e+ts )ith High so+ial desira,ilit*
no matter ho) lo) or high the* are on trait anxiet*3
;@
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This +orrelation matrixta,le %ortra*s the design o(
the third h*%otheses and
relationshi% ,et)een high and lo) so+ial desira,ilit*/ negati&e and %ositi&e s$,liminal
messages/ on Standard Progressi&e Matri+es Test s+ores/ )hi+h are ,ased on the estimated
mean o( di((erent gro$%s3
Method
S$,liminalMessages
So+ial =esira,ilit*Lo) High
4 C 8Positi&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5
SPM - Test
Mean 5 @ 4 8negati&e
SPM ?Test
Mean 5
SPM -Test
Mean 5
;D
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Pilot Study
The %ilot st$d* mentioned a,o&e/ )as $ndertaken ,* Carlsson/ Erakel/ et al 4;###83 Their
%ilot st$d* ser&ed to +hoose the le&el o( the &oi+e on the ta%es (or this resear+h in order to
make s$re that masked s$,liminal messages )ere %ro%er or )ith in good &ol$me in dE3 In
this )a* a +orre+t threshold (or s$, e+ti&e s$,liminalit* +o$ld ,e esta,lished (or t)o
messages3
Cheesman and Merikle 4;#"78 introd$+ed a distin+tion ,et)eenob$ective threshold 4a le&el o(
stim$l$s %resentation at )hi+h (or+ed-+hoi+e res%onding indi+ates that a stim$l$s is
$ndete+ta,le8 4In (or+ed +hoi+e/ the s$, e+t is %resented )ith a n$m,er o( s%atial or tem%oral
alternati&es in ea+h trial/ in )hi+h the stim$l$s is %resented3 The s$, e+t is (or+ed to +hoose
the lo+ation or inter&al in )hi+h the stim$l$s o++$rred8 and sub$ective threshold 4a le&el o(greater d$ration/ energ*/ or signal/ noise ratio at )hi+h s$, e+ts re%ort a)areness o( stim$l$s
%resen+e8 that is a,o&e +han+e res%onding3
Initial +o$rse o( a+tion ,et)een So+ial =esira,ilit* and Trait 9nxiet* to this %oint essentiall*
s$%%orted ,* Ingegerd Carlsson methodi+al +on+e%t that +onstr$+ting on SPSS3 In the %resent
st$d*/ the ,o$ndar* ,et)een +ons+io$s and $n+ons+io$s %er+e%t$al %ro+esses )ill ,e e
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%erson might not ,elie&e that the* sa) an*thing and *et still sho) ,* their a,o&e +han+e
g$esses/ and ,* relia,le %riming/ that the in(ormation nonetheless a((e+ted their ,eha&io$r3
The st$d* here $ses t)o di((erent &er,al messages/ a %ositi&e and a negati&e3 The %ositi&e
message is 0I am +le&er2 4in S)edish' 0 ag Rr d$ktig283 The negati&e message is 0I am)orthless2 4in S)edish' 0 ag Rr &RrdelQs283 9 )oman is sa*ing the S)edish senten+es in an
a%%ro%riate tone o( &oi+e3
Ka%%as/ Hess : S+here 4;##;8 gi&e a s$mmar* o( the &o+al intonation (or di((erent emotions3
The a((e+ti&e state o( sadness-de e+tion 40I am )orthless28 is des+ri,ed ,* a de+rease in mean
F! 4($ndamental (re
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Next ste% )as to trans(er the em,edded &oi+e %l$s m$si+ to a ta%e3 Se&eral &ersions )ere
trans(erred $sing di((erentl* strong &ersions o( the &oi+e/ (rom a &er* )eak to a &er* lo$d
&oi+e3 The +om%$ter re+orded the +lassi+al %ie+e o( m$si+ at ;! dE and added the messages at
the (ollo)ing lo$dness in the (ollo)ing order' -A dE/ -A dE/ -D dE/ -D dE/ -; dE/ -; dE/ - dE/
dE/ 6 dE/ 6 dE/ " dE/ " dE/ ;! dE/ ;! dE3
There a(ter a +ohort o( 66 (emales listen to the ta%e/ and the* des+ri,e e&er*thing the* heard3
Most o( the )omen )ere st$dents 4N 5 DA8 and +ame (orm di((erent de%artments at the
Uni&ersit* o( L$nd 4S)eden83 These de%artments in+l$ded the te+hni+al/ medi+al/
h$manisti+/ %h*siolog* and (a+$lt*3 The other )omen 4N5 "8 )ere em%lo*edJ$nem%lo*ed3
Their ages ranged (orm ;" to D! 4mean 5 6 *ears> S= 5 D/ DD83
In the ,eginning o( de&elo%ing the method o( the %ilot st$d* the %arti+i%ating )omen )ere
instr$+ted as (ollo)s' 0Yo$ )ill listen to se&eral re%etitions o( a short %ie+e o( m$si+3
Eet)een ea+h re%etition I )ill sto% the ta%e re+order3 Please noti+e )hether the m$si+ so$nds
the same (orm on %ie+e to the next or that it is +hanging3 rite do)n an* +hange that *o$ are
a,le to o,ser&e23
From -A dE $% to -D dE none o( the )omen heard an*thing that )as +om%ara,le to a &oi+e/ atthe -; dE lo$dness le&el onl* one s$, e+t mentioned that she 0 +o$ld hear someone
s%eaking )eakl* in the ,a+kgro$nd 2 and (rom dE $% till ;!dE man* more )omen did
hear someone s%eaking3 For the message to ,e s$,liminal 4)ith a s$, e+ti&e threshold8 the
m$si+al %ie+e )as +hose to ,e re+orded at ;! dE and the &er,al message at -; dE3
9s a +ontrol to (ind o$t i( the messages 4I.m )orthlessJI.m +lea&er8 )ere s$,liminal/
%arti+i%ants (illed in a
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,a+kgro$nd3 Their ages ranged ,et)een ;" and D6 *ears 4mean age 5 6 *ears>SD 5 63"D8
and all had ade
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%arti+i%ant )ere $na)are o( the $se o( s$,liminal messages/ s$, e+ts had a %assi&e attit$de
to)ards the stim$l$s message in the m$si+3 The s$, e+ts )ere e
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State- Trait Anxiety Inventory
Pre&io$sl*/ mentioned in the introd$+tion the termanxiety is $sed to re(er to at least t)o
related/ *et logi+all*
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rest +oe((i+ients/ is relati&el* high (or theST'( trait anxiety scale and lo) (or the state
anxiety scale / as )o$ld ,e ex%e+ted (or a meas$re assessing +hange in anxiet* res$lting (orm
sit$ational stress3 The internal +onsisten+* (or ,oth the state anxiety and trait anxiety scales
are im%ortant to noti(* that the st$d* (ailed to
statisti+all* meas$re the di((eren+e on standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ores83
Nor e!ian short-"orm o" the #arlo e-$ro ne Social Desirability Scale
9n $n%$,lished Nor)egian translation o( S+h$essler s 4;#" 8 ;!-item nglish short-(orm o(
the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale )as made ,* i+hstrQm 4;##683 S+h$essler had sele+ted 6 %ositi&el* ke*ed and 6 negati&el* ke*ed items ,ased on highest item-total +orrelations
41$dmin F3 3 ;###83 He de&elo%ed a short (orm o( the Marlo)e ? Cro)neSocial
Desirability Scale 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7!83 Eesides aiming at a shorter &ersion/ another
goal )as to attain a ,etter ,alan+e ,et)een %ositi&e and negati&e items3 The res$lting
Nor)egian short (orm +onsisted o( ;! items instead o( @@/ and sho)ed ,etter inter-item
+orrelation means and a mean +loser to the mid-%oint o( the res%onse s+ale than the original
s+ale3
So+ial desira,ilit* in its extreme ho)e&er/ +an +a$se di((i+$lties in resear+h/ %arti+$larl* in
%s*+hologi+al and medi+al resear+h3 hen %arti+i%ants in resear+h %ro&ide so+iall* desira,le
ans)ers/ res$lts +an o(ten ,e +on(o$nded3 O( the esta,lished so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales/ the
Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale is one o( the oldest and most )idel* $sed 4Cro)ne : Marlo)e/
;#7!83 It )as de&elo%ed to ,e a meas$re o( ,ias to)ards a((irming so+ial norms and to ,e
inde%endent o( %s*+ho%atholog*3 Holden : Fekken 4;#"#8 (o$nd that this s+ale is
inde%endent o( gender and has items (o+$sed on inter%ersonal sensiti&it* and +onsiderateness3
;
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Pa$lh$s 4;##;8/ in a (a+tor st$d* o( so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales/ +on+l$ded that the Marlo)e-
Cro)ne S+ale is a meas$re o( im%ression management and to lesser degree/ sel(-de+e%tion3
T)o (a$lts )ith the Marlo)e-Cro)ne S+ale are 4;8 ex+essi&e length and 4 8 $n,alan+ed
%ositi&e and negati&e ke*ing3 Positi&el* and negati&el* ke*ed items sho$ld ,e e
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There are man* st$dies dealing )ith the relia,ilit* o( theStandard Progressive atrices and
some o( them ha&e ,een re%orted in the literat$re3 The* +o&er a &er* )ide age-range/ man*
+$lt$ral gro$%s/ and +lini+al as )ell as normal %o%$lations3 The general %i+t$re is o( good
relia,ilit*/ )hether in terms o( internal +onsisten+* or re-test relia,ilit*3 The +on+$rrent and
%redi+ti&e &alidities o( theS P , &ar* )ith the age/ %ossi,l* sex/ the homogeneit* o( the
sam%le/ and the +on+e%t$al rele&an+e o( the +riterion to )hi+h theSP )ill ,e related and the
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Result
Statisti+s data (or this ex%eriment sho)ed a normal distri,$tion3 Cron,a+h s al%ha sho)ed
high item al%ha ontrait-state %ortion o( theST'( 4 'lpha 5 3#;8/ high ontrait %ortion o( the
ST'( 4 'lpha 53 "#8/ )hile it )as rather lo) on So+ial =esira,ilit* 4 'lpha 5 36"83
A!e
The mean age (or the )hole gro$% )as 6 4SD 563"D83 The mean age (or the gro$% o(
s$, e+ts )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal message )as 637" 4SD 5 63 @8 and (or the gro$% o(
s$, e+ts )ho got negati&e s$,liminal message )as 73! 4SD 5 73DD8> )itht 46D8 5 -3 @ and
p 5 !3" 3 Th$s/ there )ere almost no di((eren+es in age amongst the %arti+i%ants in the t)o
ex%erimental gro$%s3
Score on Raven %SP#&
The mean s+ore on theSP test/ (or the gro$% o( s$, e+ts/ )ho got negati&e s$,liminal
message/ )ere 6#3A and the mean s+ore (or the gro$% o( s$, e+ts )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal
message )ere 6#3!@ and there )as no signi(i+ant di((eren+e (or age gro$%s on the res$lts on
SP 3
Trait anxiety
The mean s+ore on thetrait %ortion o( theST'( / (or the )hole gro$% )as D;37 4SD 5 #3 D83
For ,oth 4%ositi&e and negati&e s$,liminal messages8 ex%erimental gro$%s the mean s+ore on
the trait %ortion o( the ST9I )as D!3A/ )hile the negati&e s$,liminal message had aSD e
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Social desirability t 46D8 5 -3A6/ p53 D73
AN)*A+S
9 one-)a* 9NO 9 is em%lo*ed to test )hether there are signi(i+ant di((eren+es in the mean
s+ores o( the de%endent &aria,le a+ross the di&erse gro$%s3 The (ollo)ing anal*ses ha&e ,een
made3 The gro$%s o( s$, e+ts (irst had to ,e s%lit/ ,e(ore the anal*ses +o$ld ,e made3 For
exam%le/ s$, e+ts )ere ranked as 0highl* anxio$s2 a,o&e the median and as 0lo) anxio$s2
,elo) the median3 This )as done (or the (ollo)ing &aria,les' trait anxiet*/ so+ial desira,ilit*
and age on s+ore ra&en test 4SPM8 and t)o di((erent
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Score Raven, Hi!h social desirability and .o trait anxiety /Repressor0
For high so+ial desira,ilit* and the gro$% )ho got %ositi&e s$,liminal messages )ith a mean
e
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also tr$e (or the s$, e+ts )ith a lo) so+ial desira,ilit*> the di((eren+e ,et)een a&erage SPM ?
test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$, e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit*3
Score Raven, trait anxiety
and subliminal
messa!es
=ata thro$gho$t the s+ore on the SPM )ere anal* ed ,* 9NO 9 )ith the &aria,les o( the
trait anxiety
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Discussion
The "irst hypothesis )as that the +ontent o( the s$,liminal message )o$ld a((e+t the s+ore on
the test o( logi+al ind$+ti&e a,ilit* as meas$red ,* theSP 3 S$, e+ts )ho got the negati&emessage )ere likel* to ha&e a lo)er s+ore than s$, e+ts )ho got the %ositi&e message3 The
h*%othesis a,o$t %ro e+tion )as not s$%%orted/ and there are se&eral ex%lanations (or this
)hi+h are dis+$ssed in the (ollo)ing'
First/ Ma*er and Mer+kel,a+h 4;###8 %oint to %arametri+ resear+h on s$,liminal stim$lation
)ith res%e+t to the
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+ontri,$ted to the la+k o( stronger di((eren+es3 Ho)e&er statisti+al res$lt +o$ld sho) greatl*
higher le&el o( signi(i+an+e i( the re%ressors +o$ld ,e identi(ied ,e(ore the st$d*3 For instan+e/
,* examining indi&id$als thro$gho$t di((erent
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onl* semanti+ di((eren+e )as ,et)een one emotional signi(i+ant )ord in ea+h message/ this
single )ord ma* ha&e had eno$gh in(l$en+e ,* itsel(3
In ,rie(/ a,o$t (irst and se+ond h*%otheses' it is +lear (rom o$r dis+$ssion that there are the di((eren+e ,et)een
a&erage SPM ?test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$, e+ts )ith high so+ial
desira,ilit*3
9(ter %resentation o( the (irst man$s+ri%t/ at the ma or seminar* 4@!J@-!A8 some $nex%e+ted
res$lts on some o( the (i&e di((erent h*%otheses/ ,ro$ght too m$+h (o+$s on missing %oints/
and generated a kind o( +on($sion +on+erning the general idea and the nat$re o( s$,liminal
messages3 There(ore it )as de+ided to +on+entrate the anal*sis on this +$rrent h*%othesis3
The essen+e o( this h*%othesis is +hara+teri ed/ ,* Ingegerd Carlsson/ to sta,ili e trait anxiet*
and so+ial desira,ilit*/ )hi+h in(l$en+es the indi&id$al in +ertain sit$ations3 9s to the de,ateon the e((e+t o( s$,liminal stim$li/ this h*%othesis s$%%orts the %osition that the* do in (a+t
ha&e an e((e+t3 The original h*%otheses in this st$d*/ ,e(ore this +om%leted &ersion/ didn.t
gi&e s$++ess($ll* signi(i+ant res$lt3
Ho)e&er/ a+hie&ement o( the so+ial desira,ilit* h*%othesis is s$%%lementar* to the other
arg$ment/ )hi+h ha&e ,een %resented on the (irst and se+ond h*%otheses3 The arg$ments on
the +hara+ter o( s$,liminal messages and e((e+t o( %ositi&e and negati&e message is
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Thro$gho$t the matrix ta,le o( the o,tained meas$rements the third h*%othesis is +on(irmed
as to the e((e+t o( s$,liminal messages and so+ial desira,ilit*3 The e((e+t is meas$red ,*
means o( the a&erage standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ore/ and ,ased on the estimated
means o( the di((erent gro$%s3 Con(irmation is (or the gro$% o( %arti+i%ant )ho identi(* as
high so+ial desira,ilit*3 9&erage o( standard %rogressi&e matri+es test s+ore is higher on
%ositi&e s$,liminal message 4M56@36A8 than/ the a&erage o( standard %rogressi&e matri+es
test s+ore on negati&e s$,liminal message 4M56!3@"83 9ltho$gh this e((e+t is also tr$e (or the
s$, e+ts )ith a lo) so+ial desira,ilit*> the di((eren+e ,et)een a&erage %rogressi&e matri+es
test s+ores is less )ithin the latter gro$% +om%aring to s$, e+ts )ith high so+ial desira,ilit*3
In the %resent st$d* so+ial desira,ilit* s+ale +ontains ;! items/ ea+h re Cro)ne : Marlo)e/ ;#7D> d)ards/ ;#6A> Sei,old/ ;#""8the ex%ression o( so+ial desira,ilit* is +onsidered an inter(ering &aria,le that sho$ld ,e
+ontrolled in an* st$d*3 This a%%roa+h arg$es that so+ial desira,ilit* is a tenden+* to res%ond
+onsistentl* in )hat is seen as a so+iall* a++e%ta,le and desira,le )a* 4Sohl,erg/ ;#A78 and
that this tenden+* al)a*s +a$ses ,ias in %ersonalit* assessment3
In another a%%roa+h/ instead o( ,eing treated as an inter(ering &aria,le/ so+ial desira,ilit* is
seen as an indi+ator o( a +hara+teristi+ rea+tion %attern o( an indi&id$al in +ertain sit$ations4Sohl,erg/ ;#A7/ %3 @! 8> it re(le+ts a %ersonal trait that ,e+omes a meaning($l %ersonalit*
&aria,le and/ in t$rn/ +orrelates )ith di((erent kinds o( h$man ,eha&iors 4Elo+k/ ;#76>
Crandall/ Crandall/ : Katko&sk*/ ;#76> Crandall : Go ali/ ;#7#> Cron,a+h/ ;#A!> Cro)ne
: Marlo)e/ ;#7D> =i+ken/ ;#7@83
9s a %ersonalit* &aria,le/ so+ial desira,ilit* is +onsidered an indi&id$al tenden+* to %er(orm
so+iall* and +$lt$rall* a++e%ta,le and a%%ro&ed ,eha&io$rs3 Cro)ne : Marlo)e 4;#7D8+ond$+ted a series o( st$dies +on+erning the moti&ation o( indi&id$als seeking so+ial
@@
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a%%ro&al3 The* (o$nd that high so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als tended to ,e more +a$tio$s/
+on&entional/ and easier to %ers$ade than lo) so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als3 Moreo&er/
Cro)ne : Marlo)e 4;#7D8 (o$nd that indi&id$als )ith a higher degree o( so+ial desira,ilit*
)ere less %ro(i+ient in $sing lang$age/ sho)ed a lo) degree o( task %rod$+ti&it*/ tended to ,e
more de%endent on others (or +om%leting assignments/ and )ere less aggressi&e &er,all* and
%h*si+all* in intera+ting )ith others3 F$rthermore some resear+h sho)ed that high so+ial-
desira,ilit* indi&id$als ex%ressed signi(i+antl* less aggression/ es%e+iall* in sit$ations in
)here the intention o( the (r$strating so$r+e )as not s%e+i(ied3
These resear+hes in s$mmar*/ has indi+ated that high so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als 4at least
among 9meri+ans8 are less aggressi&e/ are less )illing to talk/ a&oid so+ial intera+tion/ and
are more +onstrained3 These (indings are &er* likel* related to the %resent %ro%osition )hi+h
aimed to examine the im%a+t o( so+ial desira,ilit* in relation to the +ontent o( s$,liminal
messages3
The most %rominent res$lts )ere (o$nd )ith regard to masked s$,liminal messages3 Higher
le&els o( so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als )ere asso+iated )ith a de+rease in relati&e to ne$tral
ele&ated le&els o( trait anxiet*3 This latter e((e+t )ere (o$nd to ,e more e((e+ted on the
+ontent o( the negati&e or %ositi&e s$,liminal messages/ ho)e&er these (inding mainl* seenamong %arti+i%ants )ho sim$ltaneo$sl* s+ored high on so+ial desira,ilit* )o$ld ,e
signi(i+antl* lo)er in trait anxiet* than lo) so+ial desira,ilit* indi&id$als3
In brie" this st$d* on the entire SPM %rod$+ed (airl* high degree o( +orrelation ,et)een
so+ial desira,ilit* rating and s$,liminal messages3 The %resent st$d* did +ontri,$te some o(
the %ositi&e res$lts in s$,liminal stim$lation st$dies3 ith res%e+t to the link ,et)een
s$,liminal stim$lation/ trait anxiet* and so+ial desira,ilit*/ a large +ontri,$tion anal*sis has ,een made thro$gh statisti+al examination/ 9NO 93
Some limitations o( this st$d* ha&e ,een %ointed o$t/ and there )as not strong e&iden+e o(
+orrelation ,et)een re%ressor and s$,liminal messages3 The signi(i+ant +orrelation ex%e+ted
did not a%%ear3
There ma* ,e some $n+ertainties/ )hi+h the resear+h did not gi&e attention to/ s$+h as the test %erson ma* ,e in(l$en+ed ,* (a+tors not kno)n to the resear+her3 The le&el o( 1a&en Matris
@D
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Test +an ha&e di((erent im%li+ations ,e+a$se o( di((erent learning ,a+kgro$nd or toleran+e
le&el or some other %ro+ed$ral +om%lexities or la+k o( eno$gh %arti+i%ants/ s$+h as 1e%ressor
in this st$d*3 In s%ite o( this/ signi(i+an+e ,et)een the so+ial desira,ilit*
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References
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Holden/ 13 13/ : Fekken/ G3 C3 4;#"#83 Three +ommon so+ial desira,ilit* s+ales' Friends/a+
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1$dmin Flo*d 3 4;###8 Nor)egian short-(orm o( the Marlo)e Cro)ne So+ial =esira,ilit*S+ale3Scandinavian . o# Psychology / D!' # ? @@
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Sohl,erg/ S3 C3 4;#A783 So+ial desira,ilit* res%onses in e)ish and 9ra, +hildren in Israel3o$rnal o( Cross-C$lt$ral Ps*+holog*/ A/ @!;-@;D3
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ein,erger/ =3 93/: =a&idson/ M3S3 4;##D83 St*les o( inhi,iting emotional ex%ression'=isting$ishing re%ressi&e +o%ing (rom im%ression management3 ournal o# Personality,7 '6"A ? 7!#3
ein,erger/ =393/ S+h)art / G3 3/ : =a&idson/ 3 3 4;#A#83 Lo)-anxio$s/ high-anxio$s/ andre%ressi&e +o%ing st*les' Ps*+hometri+ %atterns and ,eha&io$ral and %h*siologi+al res%onsesto stress3 ournal o# 'bnormal Psychology / ""/ @7#-@"!3
@#
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Appendi A
GE!ERA" I!#$RMATI$!
I )o$ld like *o$ to (ill in this (orm3 ith this in(ormation I +an +he+k )hether m* s$, e+tgro$%s are e
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Appendi %
A""M&! I!#$RMATI$!
FXr ag ,e dig (*lla i detta (orm$lRr3 =et ska an&Rndas (Qr att kolla/ att (QrsQks%ersonerna Rr Rm(Qr,ara i olika a&seenden3 9lla data ,ehandlas anon*mt/ o+h ,lanketter med namn %X(Qr&aras inlXsta3 =$ har rRtt att a&,r*ta med&erkan st$dien $tan att $%%ge nXgot skRl3 =$ (Xr*tterligare in(ormation e(ter att d$ har (*ll i (orm$lRren/ o+h d$ kan R&en dX ,esl$ta atta&,r*ta din med&erkan3
Under den (Ql ande timmen 4dr*gt8 kommer d$ att gQra (Ql ande saker'
Tre olika (rXge(orm$lRr om> h$r d$ kRnner dig/ o+h $%%(attar dig s Rl&/ i olikaa&seenden3
Kort m$sikst*+ke3 Matris-testet3 n (rXge(orm$lRr om> h$r d$ kRnner dig/ o+h $%%(attar dig s Rl&/ i olika a&seenden3 FrXge(orm$lRr om testet o+h m$siken3 9&sl$tande in(ormation3
Namn'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
lder'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9dress'--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tel3nr'---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Genomsnitts,et*g (rXn g*mnasiet'------------------------------------------------------------------------
S*sselsRttning'-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9nstRlld3 &ar ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
St$derande3 ar --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9nnat3 ad --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ag har lRst o+h a++e%terar att delta'
=at$m J !!7
Plats ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Namnte+kning'----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D;
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Appendi '
MUSIC INST1UCTION
No) *o$ are going to listen to some m$si+3 It )ill take a%%roximatel* 6 min$tes3 The m$si+
is di&ided into shorter %ie+es/ and the* are also se%arate ,* a %a$se3 &er*one gets another
%ie+e o( m$si+ and )e )ant to +he+k )hether di((erent kinds o( m$si+ ha&e a di((erent e((e+t
on %er(orman+e3 Tr* to relax )hile listening to the m$si+3 I )ill sto% the ta%e and then *o$
start making the Matri+es test *o$ $st %ra+tised3
D
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Appendi D
MUSIK INST1UKTION
N$ kommer d$ att (X l*ssna till klassisk m$sik3 =et tar +irka 6 min$ter3 M$siken s%elas $%% i
korta a&snitt med liten %a$s emellan3 Olika gr$%%er (Xr olika m$sik/ o+h &i &ill st$dera
in&erkan (rXn m$siken %X det man ska $t(Qra3 L*ssna till m$siken i ett a&s%Rnt lRge3 NRr ag
har stRngt a& m$siken/ (ortsRtter d$ med en gXng med Matris-Testet som d$ (i+k instr$ktioner
om (Qr$t3
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Appendi #
'23STI)N A4)2T #2SI$
;3 Ho) do *o$ des+ri,e the m$si+
Negati&e -- - ! [ [[ %ositi&e
3 =id *o$ hear an*thing like a &oi+e/ in m$si+
Yes No
I( *es/ %lease des+ri,e -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
'23STI)N A4)2T #ATRI$3S T3ST
;3 Ho) di((i+$lt the* (o$nd the matri+es test on a s+ale (orm 0eas*2 to 0di((i+$lt2
as* ; @ D 6 di((i+$lt
3 Ho) do *o$ think *o$ %er(ormed the test/ +om%aring )ith other %eo%le at *o$r age
Ead ; @ D 6 good
D6
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Appendi G
'oncluding infor,ation
Tank *o$ &er* m$+h (or *o$r %arti+i%ation3 No) I )ill gi&e *o$ some more in(ormation a,o$t
the %ro e+t3 The m$si+ *o$ ha&e ,een listening to )as the same (or e&er*one3 The onl*
di((eren+e )as the &er,al message it +ontained3 In ea+h small %ie+e o( m$si+ there )as hidden
message3 There )as a %ositi&e message and there )as a negati&e message/ I don.t kno)
)hi+h message *o$ got3 e )ant to +he+k )hether this message has had either a %ositi&e or a
negati&e e((e+t on *o$r %er(orman+e on the 1a&e Matri+es Test3 =on.t )orr*/ i( there is an*
e((e+t/ it is onl* short-li&ing/ and so it )on.t dist$r, *o$ an* moreZ The