Australia New Guinea Fishes Association Queensland Inc. · aquarium hobby and in particular,...

Volume 24 (Number 5) September/October 2015

Australia New Guinea Fishes Association Queensland Inc.

2 In-Stream : September/October 2015

Volume 24 No. 5 - September/October 2015 ISSN 1446-3830

In-Stream is published by the Australia New Guinea Fishes Association Queensland Inc. PO Box 8135 Woolloongabba, Australia 4102. Web Site: http://www.angfaqld.org.au This publication may not, in part or in whole, be copied, reproduced, translated or reduced to any electronic medium without the permission of ANGFA Queensland. While all reasonable care has been taken by the editor to ensure the accuracy of material contained in this publication, neither the editor nor ANGFA (Qld) or any of its participants, officers or contributors accepts any responsibility or liability for any lose or damage which may result from an inaccuracy or omission, or from the interpretation or use of information that is contained within this publication. Opinions expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of ANGFA Qld. Reference to named products or technologies does not imply endorsement by the publisher. Information contained within this document is subject to change without notice. Editorial contributions are welcome and will be selected on the basis of general interest in the freshwater life of Australia and New Guinea. Contributions on a wide range of topics are welcome. Any material submitted will be subject to editorial revision as is deemed necessary. Articles are due approximately two months prior to publication. Authors should submit articles as word attachments by email, formatted as Microsoft Word or Rich Text Format files. Do not submit your article in PDF format. Electronic submissions are preferred but mailed contributions will be accepted. The maximum acceptable file size is 5 MB (through email). Any files over 5 MB, can be submitted by CD disc and mailed. Authors are particularly encouraged to submit photographs and illustrations to make the articles more interesting. Images should be submitted as separate files. Do not embed images in text documents. All images submitted should be high-quality .jpg or .tiff files. Submit the original image files at the highest resolution as possible without watermark or text. In general, image files should have a minimum resolution of 300 dpi and dimensions of 680 pixels wide by 510 pixels deep.

In-Stream “Promoting the keeping and propagation of the native

fishes of Australia and New Guinea”

ANGFA (Qld) Committee

President: Steve Baines Email: [email protected] Vice President: Heidy Rubin Email: [email protected] Secretary: Peter Johnson Email: [email protected] Treasurer: Graeme Finsen Email: [email protected] Membership: Leo Lee Email: [email protected] Editor: Adrian Tappin Email: [email protected] Librarian: Kerry Holmes Email: [email protected] Website: Peter Johnson Email: [email protected] Club Shop: Michael Cocks Email: [email protected] Catering: George Brand Email: [email protected] Field Trip Coordinator: QFAS Representatives: Peter Johnson Peter Ford Steve Baines

Meetings ANGFA (Qld) meets on the second Friday of every second month from February: Meetings commence at 7.30 pm Bar Jai Hall 178 Alexandra Road Clayfield, Brisbane Next Meeting: Friday, October 9th. Cover Photo: Cooper Creek, Queensland


From the Editor...

4 The Ducie-Dulhunty Basin Queensland

13 Ulcer-forming Systemic Bacterial Infections

The aquarium hobby and ANGFA (Qld) have been a large part of my life for many years. I first started keeping aquarium fishes in 1967. In early 1983, the first meeting of what is now known as ANGFA (Qld) was held at my home and was attended by approximately six or seven people. It grew to have a membership in excess of 150 active members. In 1985 the first Queensland newsletter was produced. Then in January 2000, In-Stream was born. I have been the editor of In-Stream since October 2000. My editorial aspiration at the time was to provide members with as much scientifically based information as was available. I have always tried to provide information somewhere between the scientific journals and the mainstream hobby literature. I tried to provide the newest information about collecting, maintaining, and ultimately propagating the animals and plants that can be successfully maintained in aquariums and watergardens. I also tried to cover information on understanding and conserving the natural aquatic environment. My basic goal was to help all aquarists, new or old, to gain more knowledge about the aquarium hobby and in particular, rainbowfishes . I tried to include articles for new or inexperienced members, in an effort to help and encourage them, and also included articles for the more experienced members. Producing this newsletter has been an interesting challenge at times, and I am very grateful to those members that have supported the newsletter and sent in articles and photographs over the years that have helped make In-Stream the informative newsletter that it has been for our members. Nevertheless, time marches on as it inevitably does and its now time for me to retire as editor. This will be the last issue of In-Stream in its current form. I hope that you have all enjoyed the journey. Adrian Tappin [email protected]

Inside This Issue...

The Ducie-Dulhunty Basin occupies an area of 7050 km2 and is located on the far north-west coast of Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland. The main rivers in the basin are the Ducie, Dulhunty, Skardon, Jackson, Doughboy, MacDonald and Cotterell Rivers which all terminate in the Gulf of Carpentaria.

A variety of pathogens are known to be associated with ulcer-forming systemic infections in aquarium fishes. The most common group of pathogens include bacteria in the genera Flavobacterium Aeromonas, Edwardsiella, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium and Vibrio.

Choosing a filter can be a daunting task for the aquarium novice. One has to pick and choose between many technologies and options. Once you have chosen the type of filter there are still a tremendous number of variables to consider and make decisions about.

16 Breeding the Honey Blue Eye Pseudomugil mellis

26 Airlift Filters Low Tech Method of Filtration

Pseudomugil mellis is a small freshwater species endemic to Australia. They have a moderately compressed and elongated body; usually not exceeding 40 mm, but are more commonly found at lengths between 25 and 30 mm. Males are honey-coloured with the first two rays of the dorsal and anal fins black with creamy-brown centres and outer white margins. The body scales are lightly edged with black forming an attractive latticework pattern.

20 Water Changing The solution to pollution is dilution

Since time immemorial driftwood and rocks have been the typical natural materials for decorating freshwater aquaria. The addition of driftwood adds a special attractiveness or naturalness to the aquarium.

23 Drifting with Driftwood

26 Wilson's Mangrove Goby Mugilogobius wilsoni

The solution to pollution is dilution, is a dictum which summarises a traditional approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution was not considered harmful.


TT he Ducie-Dulhunty Basin occupies an area of 7050 km2 and is located on the far north-west coast of Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland. The

main rivers in the basin are the Ducie, Dulhunty, Skardon, Jackson, Doughboy, MacDonald and Cotterell Rivers which all terminate in the Gulf of Carpentaria. There are numerous small streams and creeks also. Namaleta Creek with a catchment size of about 48 km2 and length of 36.1 kilometres drains an east-west orientated swamp. The creek flows west and then at the Mapoon Plain, changes direction sharply to flow to the south through mangroves, to discharge at the Ducie River mouth to the north of Mapoon. The area is an isolated part of the State and as such there are no large population settlements. However, there are significant areas of Aboriginal reserves in the north and north-east of the basin. The Ducie River rises in the Great Dividing Range and flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria on the western side of Cape York Peninsula at Port Musgrave just north of Mapoon. The river is approximately 69 km long and has the following tributaries: South Palm Creek, Palm Creek, Bertiehaugh Creek, North Alice Creek, Catfish Creek, Packers Creek, Dulhunty River, Pargon Creek and Dulcie Creek. The Dulhunty River is approximately 76 km long and merges with the Ducie River. Tributaries include Cholmondeley Creek and Bertie Creek. The Jackson River (65 km) flows into the Gulf of Carpentaria. Cockatoo Creek (79 km) flows into the Jackson River. The following creeks flow into Cockatoo Creek: Sailor Creek, Gunshot Creek and McDonnell Creek.

The Skardon River is low lying, reaching an elevation of about 30 metres above sea level and dipping gently to the west, to a low scarp and coastal plain. Small escarpments are found at the eroding edges of the laterite plateaux and are marked by undulating country with numerous swampy depressions, sandy flats, creeks and clay pans. Most of these creeks flow only in the wet season, although there is perennial flow in some of the more deeply incised creeks due to discharge from the shallow aquifer system. Freshwater swamps are recharged by both surface and groundwater during and following high wet season rainfall and may continue to be maintained through the dry season by groundwater recharge. Apart from supporting aquatic life, these swamps are very important for migrating birds. River floodplains and intermittent shallow swamps form the basis of the Ducie-Dulhunty Basin. Low ridges divide the catchments from one another. Fauna is typical of the Cape York Peninsula but perhaps at lower levels due to the relatively poorer nature of habitats. Pastoral operations previously took place in the catchment of the Dulhunty River but stock has been withdrawn apart from the few animals run by Aboriginals. Whilst most of the area is within Aboriginal reserves, the only permanent Aboriginal settlements are found to the south and at Bamaga to the north-east of the area. Major development associated with bauxite mining at Weipa is to the south of the area. There is also a small area of mining development near Vrilya Point. Whilst mining and prospecting leases cover much of the area it is not likely that substantial mining development will take place.

DucieDucie--Dulhunty BasinDulhunty Basin QueenslandQueensland

Compiled by Adrian Tappin


▲▼ Ducie-Dulhunty Basin

►

Dulhunty River ▲Downstream ▼Upstream

▲Dulhunty River (Bertie Creek) ▼Dulhunty River (Unnamed Tributary)


Ducie River Water Quality Min-Max (3 sites) Water Temperature: 24 – 31°C pH: 3.8 – 8.3 Alkalinity: 1 – 42 mg/L CaCO3 Hardness: 1 – 41 mg/L CaCO3 Conductivity: 25 – 183 µS/cm Dulhunty River Water Quality Min-Max (1 site) Water Temperature: 20 – 30°C pH: 5.4 – 7.6 Alkalinity: 2 – 10 mg/L CaCO3 Hardness: 1 – 8 mg/L CaCO3 Conductivity: 30 – 89 µS/cm Fish Fauna The freshwater fishes of many of the catchments of northern Australia are relatively poorly known with few catchments having been adequately surveyed for their fish faunas or their habitats. Particular habitat types within the rivers systems have been under-represented in fish surveys (i.e., most surveys focus only on the main river channels. It should be borne in mind that the results of fish surveys are almost certainly an underestimation of the actual number of fish species. Single surveying techniques, even electrofishing, which is one of the more effective fish sampling methodologies, are invariably subject to a degree of sampling bias. The effectiveness of electrofishing for example varies over different species, with some species inherently more susceptible to galvanotaxis (stunning) than others. Environmental variables such as the time of day, season, water depth, temperature, conductivity and visibility are all additional factors that can substantially affect results. Fish species composition at particular locations can often vary considerably on a seasonal basis with results from a single survey basically giving a brief ‘snapshot’ of the species present at that moment in time. Sampling during or immediately after the wet season for example could yield a substantially different suite of species at many of the survey sites. Whereas any particular site may be populated by relatively few species (e.g. 5 to 15 species), the overall catchment may have a species diversity in excess of 50 species. It should also be recognised that many fish surveys are susceptible to inclusion of the occasional misidentified species. Accurate field identification for many Australian fish species can be challenging for even experienced field personnel. Ambassis elongatus - Elongate Glassfish Amniataba percoides - Barred Grunter Craterocephalus stercusmuscarum - Flyspecked Hardyhead Glossamia aprion - Mouth Almighty Glossogobius concavifrons - Concave Flathead Goby Glossogobius giuris - Flathead Goby Hephaestus carbo - Coal Grunter Hephaestus fuliginosus - Sooty Grunter Hypseleotris compressa - Empire Gudgeon Kuhlia rupestris - Jungle Perch Lates calcarifer - Barramundi Leiopotherapon unicolor - Spangled Perch

Megalops cyprinoides - Oxeye Herring Melanotaenia splendida inornata - Chequered Rainbowfish Melanotaenia trifasciata - Regal Rainbowfish Mogurnda mogurnda - Northern Purplespotted Gudgeon Neoarius graeffei - Blue Catfish Neoarius leptaspis - Boofhead Catfish Neosilurus ater - Black Catfish Neosilurus brevidorsalis - Shortfin Catfish Neosilurus hyrtlii - Hyrtl’s Catfish Oxyeleotris fimbriata - Fimbriate Gudgeon Oxyeleotris nullipora - Poreless Gudgeon Pingalla lorentzi - Lorentz’s Grunter Porochilus obbesi - Obbes’ Catfish Pseudomugil gertrudae - Spotted Blue Eye Scleropages jardinii - Northern Saratoga Scortum ogilbyi - Gulf Grunter Strongylura krefftii - Freshwater Longtom Synaptura salinarum - Saltpan Sole Aquatic Fauna Myuchelys latisternum - Common Sawshell Turtle Macrobrachium handschini - Handschin's River Prawn Macrobrachium spinipes - Giant River Prawn Note: Absence of other species reflects a lack of sampling rather than non-existence. Aquatic & Wetland Plants This definition extends beyond the more traditional definition of submerged and floating aquatic plants to include plants inhabiting the littoral zone (waters edge) or permanently saturated soil such as floodplains. The aquatic plants in the Ducie-Dulhunty Basin have not been adequately evaluated. As for most of Australia’s rivers and wetlands, there is a very large gap in our knowledge of what plant species are present and their distribution. Larger macrophytes such as reeds are fairly well known, but smaller vascular plants are in need of monitoring and taxonomic research. The total species list is considerably larger than that given below, with many species present at only one or two sites or in low abundance. The species composition of a site will be influenced by the size of the site, recent rainfall or drought conditions and by its disturbance history (including grazing, flooding, land clearing and pollution in the catchment). The number and relative abundance of species will change in time with flooding or significant rainfall, and may also change in response to changes in grazing regimes and land use in the catchment. At any one time, above-ground individuals of some species may be absent, but the species may be represented below ground in the soil seed banks or as dormant structures such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, rootstocks or lignotubers. However, the following species have been reported. Arthrostylis aphylla Baloskion tetraphyllum Centrolepis banksii Centrolepis exserta


Ceratopteris thalictroides Cyperus haspan Cyperus polystachyos Drosera peltata Echinochloa colona Eleocharis dulcis Gahnia sieberiana Halophila spinulosa Lepironia articulata Limnophila brownii Lycopodiella cernua Nymphoides exiliflora Nymphoides triangularis Panicum paludosum Philydrum lanuginosum Sacciolepis indica Schoenoplectus litoralis Selaginella sp. Sporobolus virginicus Trachystylis stradbrokensis Tricostularia undulata Utricularia bifida Utricularia caerulea Utricularia chrysantha Utricularia limosa Xyris complanata

Source of Information ACTFR (2008) Fish Atlas of North Australia. Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research, James Cook University Townsville, Queensland. Byron G. & D. Blake (1994) Distribution and abundance of freshwater fish on northern Cape York Peninsula. In, Cape York Expedition, special publication of the Royal Geographic Society of Queensland. Department of Natural Resources and Water (2008) Historical Streamflow Data. Environmental Protection Agency (2007) WildNet Database Environmental Protection Agency [Accessed: 23 November 2007] Georges A. & S. Thomson (2010) Diversity of Australasian freshwater turtles, with an annotated synonymy and keys to species. Zootaxa 2496: 1-37. Pusey B.J., M.J. Kennard and A.H. Arthington (2004) Freshwater Fishes of North-Eastern Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Victoria.

▼Melanotaenia trifasciata (Dulhunty River) photo: Neil Armstrong


Dulhunty River

▲Ducie Creek ▼Gunshot Creek

▲Cockatoo Creek ▼Namaleta Creek


Ulcer-forming Systemic Bacterial Infections

Adrian Tappin

A variety of pathogens are known to be associated with ulcer-forming systemic infections in aquarium fishes. The most common group of

pathogens include bacteria in the genera Flavobacterium Aeromonas, Edwardsiella, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium and Vibrio. Clinical signs of the above bacterial infections include lethargy, anorexia, swimming in an oblique position in the water column or spinning, haemorrhagic and ulcerative lesions on the skin, abdominal distension, ascites, exophthalmia (pop-eye), skin darkening, gill necrosis, and mortality. With gill involvement, respiratory signs such as increased opercular rate, gasping for air at the water surface and respiratory distress may be seen. Aeromonas Aeromonas hydrophila is the most common aeromonad isolated from freshwater fishes. It is almost always secondary to an underlying stressor and is most commonly found in conjunction with poor water quality conditions. Common clinical signs include cutaneous haemorrhages and ulcers that can be deep through the dermis to connective tissue and muscle, visceral haemorrhages, oedema, dropsy or ascites, and exophthalmia. This pathogen may be introduced to humans through open-wound exposure to aquarium water. Vibriosis Bacteria of the genus Vibrio are ubiquitous in the marine and estuarine environment and most commonly cause disease in marine, estuarine, and (occasionally) freshwater fishes. Vibriosis in aquarium and ornamental pond fishes is uncommon. Clinically, vibriosis is very similar to aeromonad infections and results in hemorrhagic septicaemia with cutaneous haemorrhages and ulcers. As with other bacterial infections, poor environmental conditions are often present. Edwardsiellosis Bacteria of the genus Edwardsiella is characterised by systemic hemorrhagic septicaemia, internal abscesses, and skin lesions (with or without ulceration) leading to mass mortality in both freshwater and marine species. The disease can occur as small cutaneous lesions that progress into large abscesses within the muscle. Edwardsiella tarda is found in both freshwater and brackish water environments. It is more common in the aquaculture industry than the aquarium hobby. Edwardsiella tarda is a broad-host range pathogen while Edwardsiella ictaluri is host-adapted to channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) causing intestinal septicaemia. Edwardsiella tarda is also associated with opportunistic infections in humans.

Streptococcosis Streptococcosis in fish is a systemic infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Streptococcus. Streptococcosis is another disease more commonly found in the aquaculture industry. Nevertheless, streptococcosis has also been reported in a variety of ornamental fish, including rainbow sharks, red-tailed black sharks, rosy barbs, danios, and some cichlids including Nimbochromis venustus and Pelvicachromis spp., plus several species of tetras. Streptococcosis infection in fish can cause high mortality rates (>50%) over a period of 3 to 7 days. Some outbreaks, however, are more chronic in nature and mortalities may extend over a period of several weeks, with only a few fish dying each day. Clinical signs include skin discolouration, exophthalmos, ascites, skin ulcerations and haemorrhages. Abnormal swimming behaviour such as spiralling or spinning is extremely common in fish with streptococcal infections. Streptococcus can cause granulomas in the kidney, spleen, or liver. In addition, streptococcosis is difficult to eradicate from aquaria or ponds. Streptococcus iniae can cause infection in humans after skin injuries during the handling of infected fishes. Pseudomonassis (Pseudomonadiasis) Most pseudomonas-associated cases in ornamental fish species are due to Pseudomonas fluorescens. Pseudomonas fluorescens can induce typical forms of acute septicaemia which is manifested by the appearance of severe fin rot, hemorrhagic ulcers, nervous manifestation and finally acute episodes of deaths in infected fishes. Infections are more common in warmer water temperatures and are typically secondary to environmental stressors. There is still disagreement among fish health specialists if Pseudomonas represents a primary or secondary pathogen or a non-pathogenic environmental contaminant. Pseudomonas septicaemia is one of the most prevalent fish diseases in aquaculture. Flavobacterium Flavobacterium-associated infections often give the appearance of white fungal growth on the fish but are actually bacterial infections. The first clinical signs of Flavobacterium columnare are small white spots on the body, head and gills surrounded by a reddish haemorrhagic zone. The bacteria attack external tissues and swarm over epithelial surfaces, but are capable of entering the blood stream, and are often isolated from the internal organs during the later stages of infection. A further erosion of the skin surface results in a necrotic ulcerative lesion and the exposure of the underlying muscle. Fish may die however, without any clinical symptoms. Flavobacterium columnare is usually transmitted by direct contact with infected fish or contaminated water.


Young fish are more susceptible than older fish, but healthy, older fish with a previous infection can be carriers of the disease. The infection can be expected to spread most rapidly if water conditions are less than ideal. Mycobacteriosis Mycobacteria are ubiquitous in the aquarium environment. A study in 2006 found 75% of water samples taken from home aquaria to be positive for mycobacteria species. Further studies of home aquaria found mycobacteria in 201 of 325 (61.8%) fish tested. Mycobacteria are slow-growing pathogens that cause systemic, chronic, granulomatous disease. There are often no external signs until advanced stages of the disease during which non-specific signs are present including emaciation, haemorrhagic and dermal lesions, swelling of the abdomen due to large amounts of ascites, lethargy and death. The chronic proliferative form of the disease is characterised by granulomas, while sub-acute forms of the disease are associated with necrosis and acid-fast bacilli scattered diffusely among affected tissues including the kidney, liver, spleen, and often all internal organs. Although considered typical of the mycobacteriosis disease, granulomas lesions do not develop in all cases and fish may die without any clinical symptoms. Occasionally, deep hemorrhagic skin lesions will be seen in addition to the more common superficial lesions.

In most instances, mycobacteriosis occurs in fish that are exposed to stressful conditions, such as high water temperature (>28°C), overcrowding, excessive handling, and poor water quality, especially high nitrate concentrations or increased organic waste in the aquarium water. Drug therapy for fish with mycobacteriosis is of limited value for this disease. Treatment will not eliminate the bacterium from affected fish colonies. Infection is only completely controlled by culling the affected fish population and disinfecting tanks and equipment associated with the infected fishes. Mycobacteriosis is also zoonotic and can cause “fish tank granuloma” in fishkeepers with skin injuries during the handling of infected fishes.

Treatment of Bacterial Infections Aquarium fishes are often kept in suboptimal conditions in aquarium systems with a restricted capacity to maintain adequate water quantity, and unlike natural fish populations; they cannot escape the potentially harmful environment. Even the best equipped aquarium, combined with meticulous water quality parameters, can never truly emulate the natural conditions found in the wild. Thus, the keeping of fish in aquaria often has a negative influence on the fish’s wellbeing.


In the wild, fish live in an environment that is full of disease causing organisms and parasites, and often have a low burden of a wide variety of pathogens when they are captured, but frequently show no signs of disease. Keeping aquarium systems pathogen-free is an impossible task, but reducing levels of pathogens to below infective levels, should decrease the chance of fish becoming clinically infected. In the aquarium outbreaks of disease are usually associated with environmental stresses such as overcrowding, high or sudden change of temperature, handling, aggressive interactions, inferior water quality and poor nutritional status. All these conditions contribute to physiological changes and heighten susceptibility to infection. These management problems must be corrected for successful, long-term control of infections. Avoidance of exposure to the disease is the primary method of prevention. Following any disease outbreak, infected fish should be immediately removed from the main aquarium and isolated in a quarantine or treatment tank. The identification and treatment of bacterial diseases of aquarium fishes is extremely difficult for the average aquarium hobbyist. Therefore, an experienced fish health professional should carry out treatment for all but the most common bacterial disease problems that your fish experience. However, even veterinarians with laboratory diagnostic experience cannot make an accurate diagnosis without microscopic examination of the fish and cultivation for bacteria. When faced with a bacterial disease outbreak, it may be better to just euthanise the infected stock and eliminate the responsible pathogens by sterilisation of ponds, tanks and equipment. Nevertheless, experienced aquarium hobbyists can and do make accurate, presumptive diagnoses based on examination and assessment of the clinical signs, and then apply affirmative control measures. However, economics and other factors will determine the appropriateness of the selected treatment. The cost of treatment may exceed the value of the fish in the aquarium or pond. An aquarist with a large-scale breeding facility stocked with valuable or rare and endangered fish, for example, would probably be wise to spend the money on a proper diagnose. On the other hand, if the loss only involved common species, then spending a lot of money for a fish health professional and treatment may not be economically sensible. In addition, there is little incentive for a hobbyist to undertake a detailed and expensive examination, where a positive diagnosis, in most cases, will result in the death of the fish rather than the implementation of a treatment plan that may or may not result in a cure. Treatment of ulcer-forming systemic bacterial infections in fish should always involve a thorough analysis of the environment, and improvement of any poor water or husbandry-related problems or other stressors. The mainstay of treatment for systemic or ulcerative disease in fish is antibiotics. However, antibiotics are only effective in treating bacterial diseases if treatment is applied very early during the course of the disease.

Antibiotics can be administered parenterally, orally, or as a bath treatment. Parenteral administration of antibiotics is the most effective method to achieve therapeutic levels that exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration for aquatic pathogens. Ideally, antibiotics should be selected based on culture and susceptibility tests as antibiotic resistance is common in aquatic bacterial pathogens. Nevertheless, there has been relatively little research related to the pharmacology for aquarium or ornamental pond fishes. Much of the literature dealing with antibiotic usage in aquarium fishes is empirical and anecdotal. Therefore, the use of antibiotics should be considered carefully before any application. The method most commonly used to treat bacterial diseases of aquarium fishes is to bathe the fish in a water-soluble antibacterial compound. Although few studies have directly compared drug levels attained by different routes of administration, practical experience suggests that therapeutic levels can rarely be attained by bathing fish in antibiotics. In fact, many antibiotics are not suitable, being ineffective for use in water against bacteria, because the antibiotics are not readily soluble in water. This is because the antibiotics are for human or animal oral ingestion, and remain insoluble until the internal organs do the dissolving. If the antibiotics are added to the water, many will only moderately dissolve. At best, for those antibiotics that do fully dissolve in the water, they will be effective for at most about an hour or less in the aquarium or pond water. Several antibiotics have been tried without success, but only kanamycin has been shown to reach therapeutic levels in fish when absorbed through water. Open ulcerated wounds can cause increased stress on the fish to maintain normal body water osmolality and homeostasis. To make the water more isotonic, 0.3% salt (3 grams per litre) can be added to the treatment tank. Epidermal damage not only provides access to infectious agents, but it also produces an osmotic stress that can be life threatening. Kanamycin has been used with some success to treat bacterial diseases of ornamental fish. It has also been reported that kanamycin is absorbed from the water by fishes. It can be administered orally at 20 mg/kg, by injection at 20 mg/kg, or in a bath at a concentration of 750 mg/L for 2 hours. Anorectic fish can be medicated with a bath treatment or by injection, repeated daily, until fish begin to eat, at which time the drug can be incorporated into the feed to complete the treatment period. Treatment should be continued for 7 days beyond the alleviation of clinical signs. Another reported treatment is the addition of 100 mg/L kanamycin to aquarium water so as to maintain a permanent bath of the antibiotic over a 5-day period or until complete remission of disease. It can also be mixed with food at 200–300 mg per 100 grams of food. Water changes of 40-50% should be undertaken every 48 hours to decrease the bacterial population and organic wastes load in the aquarium.w


Breeding the Honey Blue-Eye (Pseudomugil mellis)

Leo O'Reilly

T he Honey Blue-eye (Pseudomugil mellis) is an amazing fish. While they may bear some resemblance to the Pacific Blue-eye (Pseudomugil

signifer) they are totally unique. Their lovely orange (honey) coloured body, from which they take their name, and the striking fins with black and white edging, make them easy to distinguish. It takes my breath away every time I look at a tank full of them or when I watch the males sparing in an outdoor tub. The black and white margins on their fins are what really stand out when they are doing their crazy sparring dance in a sunlit tub. And the fact that they are a vulnerable or threatened species is also significant. My protective instinct kicks in and I just want to save them from extinction! This species is listed as Vulnerable in Queensland (Nature Conservation Act 1992) and nationally (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999). It is ranked as a critical priority under the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (DEHP). Under the Queensland legislation it is illegal to catch a threatened species in the wild and it is also illegal to buy or sell a threatened species in Queensland. You are allowed to breed and swap Honey Blue-eye in Queensland so long as you don't take them from the wild. According to the DEHP website Honey Blue-eye lives in slightly acidic, tannin-stained lakes and streams in coastal heath (wallum) areas in south-east Queensland. It prefers sheltered areas near emergent vegetation. Its distribution is almost exclusively between the Noosa and Caboolture rivers. There is a population on Fraser Island and further north at Shoalwater Bay. It is endemic to Queensland (meaning it only occurs there). Honey Blue-eye form schools of up to 30 individuals and move about emergent vegetation in search of food. They are generalist feeders, feeding on insect larvae, small crustaceans, and large quantities of desmids and diatoms (microscopic algae). Here are some technical details from Adrian Tappin's website: http://rainbowfish.angfaqld.org.au/Mellis.htm Spawning usually commences at around 10-12 months of age when water temperatures exceed 20°C and the fish are about 20 mm in size. Females spawn 1-15 eggs each day for about 7-9 days, with 1-4 eggs at a time being released amongst aquatic vegetation or spawning mops. A total of 42-125 eggs can be released over that period. Eggs have adhesive tendrils or filaments to attach them to the spawning material. Eggs hatch in 12-14 days at a water temperature of 24°C. I have been breeding Honey Blue-eye for more than 10 years now, and can offer the following observations and advice.

Tank Mates Honeys are best kept in a single species tank. If you must keep them with another fish, then I recommend that it be with another blue-eye species, or small peaceful fish such as hardyheads. The Ornate Rainbowfish (Rhadinocentrus ornatus) is the only rainbow that I would keep them with. Size of Breeding Colony You can breed with as little as a single pair. But a larger number will give you a larger gene pool and more eggs. I try to maintain colonies that have more females than males so that the females don't get harassed too much by the males. My smallest breeding colony is usually two males and three females. If I want a larger colony I use four males and six females. Tanks or Tubs The size of the tank for breeding will depend to some extent on the number of fish in the breeding colony. A two foot tank is perfect for breeding in most cases. However I've always found that I have more success breeding outdoors than I do breeding in tanks. To breed outdoors I use large, black, plastic tubs. The best ones originally came from Bunnings, but they don't appear to stock them anymore. The smallest tub I use is a 70 litre recycling tub. This size tub will only support 10 - 15 fish, so you will need to remove the fry at regular intervals. The largest I use is a 220 litre tub. There is also an intermediate sized 120 litre tub. Do not use white or clear containers as they break down rapidly in sunlight. Place the tubs somewhere that they will receive at least half-a-day of sunlight. I recommend drilling some overflow holes. I drill six holes of 10 mm diameter (in a group) roughly 2-3 cm below the lip of each tub. I then glue a piece of shade cloth over the holes using 'liquid nails'. This acts as a screen to prevent fish and eggs washing out when it rains. I don't filter or aerate my tubs. Each tub is full of plants. The ones I find useful are waterlilies (for shade and protection), Echinodorus (sword plants), Vallisneria, and hornwort. Any tub that you want to hatch fry in should contain greenwater. Often the fertiliser leaking out of the potted plants will create greenwater initially, but this will soon clear up. I make or maintain the greenwater by adding small amounts of fertiliser to the tub. Don't add too much fertiliser, or it will go a thick green soup. I do not have a formal technique for adding fertiliser, but if you add a teaspoon each week until it turns green you should be right. Honey Blue-eyes are generally quite good for not predating on their young. However I like to keep one tub for the brood stock, and a second tub (and if possible a third tub) for the fry. Each day during the breeding season I use a small brine shrimp net to catch the fry out of the breeding tub and put them into the tub next to it which I've set up for fry.

▲▼Pseudomugil mellis — photos: Gunther Schmida


Water Temperature They reportedly have a relatively wide temperature tolerance (10-38°C in some reports) although their preferred temperature range appears to be around 22-26°C. I find that mine will survive down to 10°C overnight during winter, but the tubs generally heat up during the day so they don't stay at that temperature for long. There have been some winters when we've had a prolonged bout of cold, cloudy weather and the tubs haven't heated up. On those occasions I have lost both honeys and rhads to the cold. Likewise I find that while the surface layers in the tubs can reach quite high temperatures, the lower layers of the tub are still cool and thus the fish don't have to sit in the extreme heat for extended periods. For breeding in tanks I recommend maintaining the temperature between 22-28°C. You may also wish to consider "cycling" the temperature of your tanks to provide a "winter spell" for a couple of months. Outdoors the tubs will form temperature gradients. The fish will find a temperature layer that suits them and spawn at that level. The Breeders I like Dave Wilson's principle of "breed them young and breed them often". In a tub situation they appear to live for several years and can grow to an impressive size. But if they are like other small native fish, their fertility is likely to decline as they age. Condition adult fish by feeding them well, preferably with lots of live food like brine shrimp and mozzie wrigglers. Live food equals more eggs and better fertility. Outdoors they will find plenty of algae; indoors you will also need to give them some vegetable flake food. There are three general techniques which work well for breeding. Option 1 - Maintain a breeding colony indoors in an aquarium, hatch fry in a separate tank or outdoor tub Ensure there are no plants or driftwood in the breeding tank for them to lay eggs on. Collect the eggs on floating mops or Java moss. Dark green and dark brown acrylic wool appear to work well. Place those mops in another tank or an outdoor tub to hatch. If you only have a small number of eggs and you want to pick them off the mop, you can use a small container like an ice-cream container or takeaway container to hatch them initially, and then transfer them into a larger tank when they are a couple of days old. Option 2 - Put the breeders into the spawning tank, remove them later, and see what hatches This technique works well in both aquariums and outdoor ponds. It's especially useful if you are having trouble collecting eggs on mops. Make sure the tank or tub is heavily planted so that the adults have lots of places to spawn. For this technique I fill the tank or tub 50-75% with a floating plant like Java moss or hornwort. Remove the adults two weeks later and see what hatches out.

Option 3 - Raise the fry with the parents I only use this technique in my outdoor tubs, and I only use it for blue-eyes and Ornate Rainbowfish (Rhadinocentrus ornatus). Make sure the tub is heavily planted so that the fry have lots of places to hide. Again, greenwater is highly recommended but check that your moss or hornwort doesn't get too heavily coated in algae. I feed the parents small amounts of floating flake food every second day. I believe that if they are well fed they will be less likely to eat the fry. You will need to be careful that they don't overpopulate and place too high a bio-load on your unfiltered tubs. If I see lots of fry, I leave the adults in there and scoop out the fry to grow out in a separate tub as I described previously. The fish in tubs will get some natural food (e.g. mozzie wrigglers) but I still feed them a couple of times a week. With supplemental feeding you will need to do water changes on the tubs. Fry foods Greenwater and infusoria are best. This means they are swimming in a food source and can snack at their leisure. You can supplement this with a powdered fry food. Blue-eye and rainbowfish fry generally swim on the surface so a powdered food such as Sera Micron is good. After a week you can start them on microworms, vinegar eels, and/or baby brine shrimp. Conserving Honey Blue-eye As a threatened species, I feel that anyone who keeps them has a responsibility to breed them and to share them around. Unfortunately their 'threatened status' also works against them in that respect. While it's all very well to lock up our vulnerable species in National Parks or by keeping them in nature with 'no-take' policies, that doesn't mean they will thrive and prosper. For example, there appears to be evidence that when the cane toad moved through Kakadu National Park, it led to the extermination of a number of reptile species which ate the toads and died. Unfortunately being locked up in a National Park didn't protect them!! Similarly if the Wallum habitat of the Honey Blue-eye is being threatened by urban encroachment, habitat and waterway degradation, pollution, and the introduction of feral fish, then what good will it do to simply impose a no-take policy on the fish? Shouldn't we be encouraging the breeding and sustainment of these fish outside their vulnerable habitat? One of the problems with the threatened species legislation is that the threatened species can't be bought or sold, which removes the opportunity for large scale commercial breeding. There were a number of fish farms that were breeding honeys up until the time they were classified as threatened. Now there is no point as they can't sell them. Which means that it's only individual breeders such as myself who are maintaining the captive populations. And the couple of hundred that I produce a year is nothing compared to the tens of thousands that a commercial operation could produce each year.


▲▼Pseudomugil mellis natural habitats


▲▼Pseudomugil mellis natural habitats


I'd prefer to see the use of the "Wollemi Pine" principle. The Wollemi Pine is one of the most endangered trees in the world. I believe that there are less than 100 trees in the wild. Yet they are being produced commercially, you can buy them from nurseries and anyone can plant one in their yard. The money from the sale of those pines is split between the seller, the grower, and maintaining the environment in which the wild ones live. It's a triple benefit and ensures that even if some catastrophe destroys the 100 wild trees, they will never be truly extinct. I don't see why we can't do this for fish like the Honey Blue-eye, the Red-finned Blue-eye, and the Oxleyan Pygmy Perch. Someone who buys these fish in a pet shop could be furnished with a certificate attesting to the fact that they are helping to prevent the extermination of a species, instructions on keeping and breeding, and connections to clubs like ANGFA where they can find help if they need it. And again the money can be split between breeders, sellers, and maintaining their natural environment. I guess that's what you can call the sustainable use of natural resources.

Conclusions The Honey Blue-eye is a fabulous fish to watch and a relatively easy fish to keep and breed. If you haven't kept blue-eyes before, I recommend you practice on something more accessible like Pacific Blue-eye before attempting to keep Honey Blue-eye. Remember that it is illegal to catch them from the wild, and heavy fines apply. I find that I have most success breeding them outdoors in large, heavily planted tubs. If those tubs contain greenwater, the problem of feeding them is also solved. As a threatened species, I feel that anyone who keeps them has a responsibility to breed them and thus I only share them with people who are also passionate about breeding them. Anyone who does propagate these amazing little fish will be more than pleased with their awesome displays!

▼Pseudomugil mellis natural habitat


Pseudomugil mellis outdoor tubs


▲Cracked white bin ▼pseudomugil mellis — showing 3 fins shapes


The Sound of Silence Noise Impact in the Aquarium

Adrian Tappin

M any fish are kept in captivity by hobbyists at home and by zoo keepers in public aquaria. Nevertheless, noisy conditions in fish tanks are

customarily not consciously controlled, but can be very high and unpredictable. Aquarium systems, particularly recirculating systems, utilise equipment such as aerators, air and water pumps, blowers and filtration systems that inadvertently increase noise levels in aquarium systems. Sound levels and frequencies measured within aquarium systems are within the range of fish hearing, but species-specific effects are not known. Field and laboratory studies have shown that fish behaviour and physiology can be negatively impacted by intense sound. Chronic exposure to noise could cause increased stress, affect growth, reproduction and immune response, and decreased survival. Loud sounds are known to induce such behavioural responses (i.e. startle or alarm responses) in fishes. This startle response starts with a rapid burst of erratic swimming followed by a general increased swimming activity. Behavioural changes related to artificial noise exposure may have detrimental effects by themselves but may also be associated with stress such as fear or anxiety. Anthropogenic (man-made) noise penetrates through all media and can potentially affect any animal capable of hearing (Slabbekoorn et al. 2010). Nevertheless, few studies have investigated the effects of noise on fish physiology, growth, and survival within aquarium systems; particularly recirculating systems that are known to produce relatively loud ambient sound levels. In natural aquatic environments, fish exposed to sounds that are significantly above ambient levels can move away from the sound source. However, aquarium fishes are confined to individual culture tanks where they cannot escape from areas with less than optimal sound conditions. Potential effects on fishes are likely to depend on the characteristics of the sound including level, duration and spectrum, as well as on the hearing abilities of the fish species. Therefore it is important for the well-being of aquarium fish to minimise noise levels. Many fish species are able to produce sounds via numerous sound generating mechanisms and communicate acoustically. In their natural environments, many fish species generate sounds to communicate inter- and intra-specifically, i.e. for mate attraction and territorial defence. Probably even more common is the use of hearing abilities to find prey or to detect predators. Furthermore, abiotic and biotic sound sources provide cues to fish for finding specific areas for migrating, feeding, hiding, or spawning. The majority of these biologically relevant sounds are relatively low in frequency, within the range of hearing sensitivity for most fish species. Therefore, the widespread occurrence of artificially elevated noise levels due to human activities has the potential to mask these biological sounds and affect the behaviour of many acoustically dependent fish.

Such impact is depending on the nature of fluctuations in the noise background and the nature of the noise. Sound is an important means of communication in aquatic environments because it can be distributed rapidly (five times faster than in air) over great distances and it is not reduced in strength as quickly as other signals such as light or chemical pheromones. Thus, it is not surprising that fishes make considerable use of sound for communication. Sound travels well underwater, and because water is so dense, fish tend to hear well. They have no external ear canals, eardrums, or middle ear bones; therefore, sound waves must reach the inner ear by travelling through the body. The innervated cilia that pick up the physical vibrations and transmit a nerve signal to the brain are located in inner ear sacs and have otoliths resting on them. The sound vibrations move the otoliths and the surrounding fish tissue differently. The cilia sense the relative motion and the brain interprets this as sound. Fish do not have a spiral cochlea and so they presumably cannot distinguish frequencies as well as humans can. The majority of freshwater fishes have a mechanical connection of connective tissue, muscle and bone between the swim bladder and the inner ear. This Weberian apparatus serves to amplify sound because the relative motion between the gas in the air bladder and the fish caused by sound waves is greater than between the fish and the otolith. The Weberian apparatus transmits this stronger vibration to the inner ear. However, juveniles and many other species without these specialised adaptations for hearing are more motion sensitive and will experience noise conditions differently. Particle motion is more difficult to assess than sound pressure and also a more complex feature of sound close to the source and in the confined area of a fish tank. While there haven’t been many studies of the effects of sounds on the behaviour of aquarium fishes. Several studies have demonstrated that sounds may affect the behaviour of at least a few different species of fish. Environmental conditions in aquariums can produce sound levels within the frequency range of fish hearing that are 20–50 dB higher than in natural habitats. In one study overall noise levels of 130–135 dB were measured in fish tanks. An even greater amount of noise is generated as the use of aquarium equipment increases. High frequency underwater noise is produced by aerators, water circulation, generators, air and filter equipment while low frequency noise is mainly generated by water flow, aquarium vibration and water pumps. Low frequency noise and vibrations can be transmitted to the aquarium via pipework or direct mounting of filters or air pumps to the tank structure. However, the effects of excess noise on fishes are poorly understood. The few studies that have examined the effects of sound levels on aquaculture species show that high levels of ambient sound can potentially be detrimental and resulted in reduced reproductive, growth and egg survival rates. Several research studies have been published on noise-induced stress responses, sound perception and auditory sensitivities in goldfish e.g. Smith et al., 2004 whose research showed that goldfish are susceptible to noise-induced stress and hearing loss.


Current data show that goldfish were heavily masked under artificial holding conditions and cannot exploit their excellent hearing abilities in environments with high noise levels. Aerators and other sources of sound in aquarium systems can be setup in such a way as to minimise the effects of sound e.g. the outflow of the filter outlet should be close to or below the water surface. The filter should not be in contact with the aquaria. If necessary it is advisable to place the filter below the aquaria on Styrofoam or other soft material rather than sitting it on or next to the aquaria to reduce the transmission of vibration energy. Unnecessary noise or vibration in the aquarium should be avoided where possible. As fish may become adapted to certain background noise and vibrations, it is important that any changes be kept to a minimum. Other research showed that all aquarium filters measured, created a high amount of low frequency noise while the water outflow above the surface created additional high frequency noise. Pond noise had no effect on the hearing threshold relative to quiet lab conditions. The results indicate that some hearing specialists are considerably masked under conditions found in aquaria but probably not in ponds. Thus, using a quieter filter setup with a quiet outflow might help to improve conditions in aquaria without compromising aeration of the water. Bart et al. (2001) observed higher and more complex noise ranges in filtered aquaria than in outdoor open ponds. Low frequency noise sources included water flow, pumps and vibrations transmitted to the tank walls, whereas high-frequency noise was probably due to aeration, and water pump action. Fibreglass tanks, which were used at a barramundi fish farm, were found to be noisier than concrete tanks. In aquaria, circulating water systems produce the most significant levels of background noise due to pumps and filter motors. This noise, together with the shape of the aquarium, choice of structural material, and substrate type determines the ambient noise level of these captive habitats. Animal welfare considerations for captive aquarium species include space requirements, water quality, light, ventilation, and ambient temperature, but rarely include the acoustic properties of the environment. Generally, the whole concept falls in the section of ‘‘environmental enrichment’’ that has been defined as an improvement in the biological functioning of captive animals resulting from modifications to their environment. Fish auditory sense is based on detection of sound pressure and involves the combined function of otolith organs, lateral line and swim bladder. Fish are able to detect, respond to and even produce a wide range of sounds and more importantly to discriminate between sounds of different frequencies and magnitudes, to determine the direction of a sound source (sound source localisation) and to detect a biologically relevant sound in the presence of other signals. While considerable effort has been made to optimise the health of captive aquarium species by manipulating many environmental parameters such as temperature, food quality, photoperiod, water chemistry and stocking density, little or

no concern has been directed to determining the appropriate acoustic environment for optimal growth and development. The natural behaviour of fish can be suppressed under aquarium conditions unless special measures are taken to provide a quiet and appropriate environment. However, we are most often ignorant of the potentially detrimental effects of noise on the well-being of our fishes. w Source of Information Bart A.N., J. Clark, J. Young and Y. Zohar (2001) Under-water ambient noise measurements in aquaculture systems: a survey. Aquacultural Engineering 25: 99–110. Gutscher M., L.E. Wysocki and F. Ladich (2011) Effects of aquarium and pond noise on hearing sensitivity in an otophysine fish. Bioacoustics 20(2): 117-136. Kratochvil H. & H. Schwammer (1997) Reducing acoustic disturbances by aquarium visitors. Zoo Biology 16(4): 349–353. Roberts H.E. (2010) Fundamentals of Ornamental Fish Health. Wiley-Blackwell 244 pp. Scheifele P.M., M. T. Johnson, L. Kretschmer, J. G. Clark, D. Kemper and G. Potty (2012) Ambient habitat noise and vibration at the Georgia Aquarium. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 132 (2): 88-94. Slabbekoorn H., N. Bouton, I. van Opzeeland, A. Coers, C. ten Cate, and A. N. Popper (2010) A noisy spring: the impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25: 419–427. Slabbekoorn H. (2012) Measuring Behavioural Changes to Assess Anthropogenic Noise Impact in Adult Zebrafish (Danio rerio). Proceedings of Measuring Behavior (Utrecht, The Netherlands, August 28-31, 2012) 244 Eds. A.J. Spink, F. Grieco, O.E. Krips, L.W.S. Loijens, L.P.J.J. Noldus, and P.H. Zimmerman. Smith M.E., A.S. Kane and A.N. Popper (2004) Noise-induced stress response and hearing loss in goldfish (Carassius auratus). The Journal of Experimental Biology 207: 427-435. Stummer M. (2008) Effects of aquaria- and pond noise on hearing sensitivity in fish. Universität Wein. Tavolga. W.N. (1971) Sound production and detection. pp. 135-205 in Fish Physiology, Volume 5, W.S. Hoar et al., eds. Academic Press. New York. Wysocki L.E. & F. Ladich (2005) Hearing in Fishes under Noise Conditions. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology 6: 28–36.


Airlift Filters - Low Tech Method of Filtration

Adrian Tappin

C hoosing a filter can be a daunting task for the aquarium novice. One has to pick and choose

between many technologies and options. Once you have chosen the type of filter there are still a tremendous number of variables to consider and make decisions about. Today, there are literally hundreds of different types of aquarium filters available from aquarium and pet stores. They can be classified into one of several groups, the groupings based primarily on how they operate. One of the most common types is the airlift filter, which uses the buoyancy produced by entrained air bubbles to circulate the water through the filter. Airlift filters are quite common and can incorporate aeration, particulate, chemical and biological filtration in their functionality. Airlift filters can perform these functions simultaneously, whereas separate component systems are usually required when power filters are used. All airlift filters function submerged in the aquarium water and rely on air, which is commonly supplied with an air pump or blower. Airlifts are a great way to move water and I think they are underutilised in the aquarium hobby. Airlift filters are not generally used for large aquarium systems as they are limited in the height that they can lift. When trying to lift water to a higher level, a power filter is simpler and more efficient than an airlift. Airlift filters lose efficiency (pump less water) the higher you lift the water compared to your total water depth at the airlift. They work best when you only lift water a small percentage higher than your total water depth. The deeper the water depth compared to the lift, the better. However, in most aquarium systems you only need to lift the water a few centimetres vertically so, in this case, an airlift is generally suitable. They become less efficient as the water is lifted higher above the surface. Airlift filters work by displacing water in the uplift pipe with air, making the total weight within the uplift pipe less than the weight outside the pipe. Since water seeks its own level by virtue of its weight and its fluid nature, it will get pushed up an airlift pipe because the weight is less (lower pressure). The direction of water flow will always be from high pressure to low pressure. Airlifts with large bubbles displace the most amount of water. The use of an airlift filter is substantially more energy efficient for moving water under low-head conditions than electrical power filters. Energy usage for airlift filters is generally less than one-third the cost of a conventional electrical power filter. Airlift filters also have some advantage over power filters for a number of reasons which include: lower initial cost, lower maintenance, easy installation, small space requirements, simplistic design and construction, and no moving parts, which mean they are versatile in many applications.

The principle of an airlift filter is simple. Air is introduced into a vertical pipe containing water. As the air rises, it imparts energy to the water and forces the water to move vertically up the pipe. Water flows into the top, sides or bottom vents of the filter, passes through layers of filter medium to perform particulate, chemical and biological filtration as it passes through it and is then returned to the aquarium. Many variations in the design of air-lift devices have been used, and equations have been developed for predicting their discharge. The airlift filters also create water circulation by lifting water from near the bottom and releasing it at the surface. Sponge and box filters are among the least expensive airlift filters to purchase, but because of their relatively small size, they are best suited for small breeding units and hatchery tanks. Sponge filters are especially useful for rearing fry where the sponge prevents the small fish from entering the filter. Sponge and box filters work by essentially the same mechanism. Both generally work by airlift, using air bubbles from an air pump rising in a tube to create flow. In a sponge filter, the inlet may only be covered by a simple open-cell block of foam. The primary role of a sponge filter is as a media for biological filtration. A box filter is slightly more complex. Box filters are a very simple system that utilises an air supply to create a slight vacuum to draw water into the filter. They are usually filled with filter wool or other special filter mediums. The filter will require a period of maturation before providing the full range of filtration methods. They also require frequent cleaning of the filtration media and can actually release dangerous contaminants back into the water if neglected for too long. The filter contents need to be changed when they become soiled. In addition, the design of the airlift filter does not maximise its performance capabilities. For instance, the flow rate is typically less than optimum because the lift is either too high or the pipe diameter-to-rise is too large. Box filters are often placed in the corner on the bottom of the aquarium. They are usually made of plastic and come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Box filters often comes complete with an air diffuser which is positioned in the air uplift. While an air diffuser is not a necessity it will help to produce a more consistent bubble flow with reduced filter movement and bubble noise. However, the hydraulic efficiency can also be reduced when obstructions such as air diffusers are placed in the airlift tubes. The stream of bubbles moving up a tube also provides aeration for the water. Although, as far as aeration is concerned, there is a frequent misconception that in an airlift, the bubbles mix with the water to create aeration. Aeration actually takes place at the surface. It is surface agitation that improves the aeration, not the mixing of the bubbles with the water.


The undergravel filter works on the same principle as an airlift filter. Undergravel filters consist of a porous plate which is placed beneath the gravel on the base of the aquarium and one, or more, uplift tubes. Air diffusers are placed at the base of uplift tubes which force water out of the uplift tube creating negative pressure beneath the undergravel filter plate. Water then percolates down through the gravel which itself is the filtration material. Greater flow rate of water through the gravel can be achieved via the use of a water pump (powerhead) rather than air displacement. Hobbyists who have never had the experience of using an airlift filter do not understanding just how effectively they can function as an aquarium filter, and are actually quite versatile. The one thing I do prefer is a large diameter lift tube for increased water flow. Even though airlift filters are very effective, power filters have become an enormously popular replacement for airlift filters because their effect is more readily observed. Although it isn’t always obvious to the viewer, an airlift filter is capable of moving very large quantities of water, and they are commonly used in ponds. If you are planning your system, I recommend looking into an airlift filter if you only need to lift the water a small amount. About 40-50 years ago nearly all outside ‘hang on the side’ filters were air-lift driven, until Supreme and Dynaflow came out with motor-driven units. The simplicity of airlift filters makes them a first choice for use in fishrooms with multiple tank systems. However, maintaining an even flow of air and water from multiple filters connected to a common air source can be a problem. The water flow is usually adjusted with a series of small valves which control air delivery to individual filters. In larger systems it can be difficult to properly balance air flow with a series of valves, but, systems properly designed with fixed orifices to regulate airflow will work reliably. In the end, you should select the best aquarium filter for your particular setup. One reason for choosing a power filter is that maintenance on airlift filters inside the aquarium is a little messier than on filters outside the aquarium. Nonetheless, keep in mind the maintenance required by the filtration system that you select; and make certain that you adhere to it. Even the best filters will fail if you do not perform the expected maintenance. As long as you understand the principals of aquarium filtration, it will be easier to select the best filter for your aquarium. w

Operating principals of the air-lift pump. Lift is the distance between the surface of the water and the discharge point or the vertical distance the water must be moved above the surface (1 to 2). Total lift is the distance between the air injection point and the water discharge point, or the total vertical distance that the water must be moved (1 to 3). Submergence is the distance between the water level and the air injection point (2 to 3). Submergence ratio is the ratio of the distance between the air injection point and the surface of the water (2 to 3) to total lift (1 to 3).


Water Changing – The Solution to Pollution is Dilution

Adrian Tappin

The solution to pollution is dilution, is a dictum which summarises a traditional approach to pollution management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution was not considered harmful. In the early 1900s, wastewater disposal practices were based on this premise. Dilution was considered the most economical means of wastewater disposal into running waters (primarily rivers) and thus good engineering practice. Highly polluted discharged water was viewed as acceptable because the theory prevailed that the stream or river would eventually purify itself. Probably a more accurate perception was that the discharged wastewater was “out of sight” and “out of mind”. However, this isn’t a practical solution when it comes to aquarium keeping. Anyone who has kept aquarium fishes knows what happens when the aquarium water becomes polluted. Keeping healthy fish is greatly affected by the water conditions within their aquarium. Aquarium fish are sensitive to the quality of their environmental, and a great deal of effort goes into their care and maintenance. Achieving proper maintenance requires, above all else, sufficient filtration (particulate and biological) and sufficient circulation (which aerates the water and reduces gradients in concentrations and temperature). Biological filtration in aquarium systems removes the waste products by biological degradation rather than physical straining as in the case of particulate filtration. The microbial growth (biofilm) attached to the filter media

converts the waste products in the aquarium water to less harmful matter as it flows through the filter system and ultimately back into the aquarium. A biofilm is commenced if the filter media is in contact with water containing the bacteria needed to establish the biofilm. It can take approximately 14 – 28 days to develop a biofilm. The biofilm is constituted by extracellular polymeric substances holding together a diverse range of microorganisms, whose composition reflects the bacterial composition of the aquarium water. Bacteria are critical to the ecological function of aquarium systems carrying out a broad array of essential chemical transformations. Bacteria are the most important decomposers of organic matter. Bacteria also transform many other abundant and not so abundant elements in aquarium systems. They are nature’s ultimate cyclers and recyclers. Whilst biofiltration converts the harmful into the harmless, the end point is a build-up of nutrients within aquarium systems, principally consisting of nitrates and phosphates. The amount of nitrates and phosphates produced in an aquarium system is directly proportional to the density of aquarium inhabitants and the amount and protein content of the food supplied. Nitrates and phosphates are typically removed from aquarium systems by regular replacement with fresh water. Nevertheless, most aquarium systems are operated at very low water exchange rates.


The outstanding characteristic of a freshwater aquarium is its long-term stability. Once a newly established aquarium has passed though its nitrogen cycle and has settled down, so to speak, it appears to thrive best on a somewhat paradoxical combination of watchful observation with minimal physical disturbance, and the longer it continues to function, the less care it seems to require; in theory anyway. When pioneering aquarists of the nineteenth century first became aware of this comforting situation, they called it “the balanced aquarium”. They attributed its so-called balance to the reciprocal respiration/growth relationship between the fish and aquatic plants that were then being kept together in home aquaria. By breathing, the fish supplied the plants with carbon dioxide, which they needed in order to live and grow; in return, as a by-product of these processes, the plants produced oxygen vital to the fish. Not until a century later did both amateur and professional aquarists, as well as other scientists, realise that such a balance could never exist in an aquarium. Rarely is any aquarium so well balanced that no potentially lethal by-products are accumulating, or that no essential elements are in decline. Aquarium fishes generate substantial amounts of waste, containing uneaten food and faeces. It has been estimated that over 60% of food placed into the aquarium ends up as waste. The reason is that the scope of digestion in fish is limited; a relatively large fraction of food remains undigested and is excreted. The feeding habit of fish is reflected in their digestive anatomy. The gut length of fish is short and the ratio of gut length to body length is small. For instance, the intestine of Cyprinus carpio is about 2.04 times longer than the body, while that of cattle and sheep is respectively 20 and 30 times longer. The human intestine is about 3 to 4 times longer than the body. Consequently, in fish, partially digested food stays in the gut only for a short time. For this reason, fish food must have a high digestibility. In addition, fish use proteins for energy and growth to a large extent, unlike terrestrial animals that use mostly carbohydrates and lipids. Fish protein requirement, therefore, is about two to three times higher than that of mammals. However, most fishes are able to metabolise, on average, only 25–30% of the available nutrients in their food while the rest is excreted and typically accumulates in the water as organic matter and toxic inorganic nitrogen compounds. There are numerous test kits available in the aquarium hobby for testing water parameters. Those primarily concerned with fish keeping are ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and carbon dioxide. However, many dissolved substances, which cannot be measured by the average hobbyist, rapidly accumulate in an aquarium especially if the water is not changed on a regular schedule. These dissolved substances remain largely unidentified but include organic acids, carbohydrates, microbes, phenolics, proteins, hormones and fine particles of detritus. The toxicity of these dissolved substances to fish is not completely known, however research has indicated that certain components will inhibit the growth and development of fish and increases the susceptibility of the fish to disease. Some researchers

believe that there is a direct relationship between high levels of these substances and high populations of disease organisms in aquaria. A variable proportion of these accumulated substances is readily degradable and consumes significant amounts of oxygen, increasing carbon dioxide levels, lowering the pH, and contributing towards the deterioration of water quality. Therefore the reduction of these compounds ultimately leads to improved water quality and healthier fishes. Larger than normal water changes in the ≥50% range are necessary as otherwise the dilution and removal of these substances is so small that little is removed and the problem lingers or becomes worse. Although the subject of water changes in aquaria has been one of considerable debate over the years, they are generally considered to be beneficial. Refractory compounds’ (those substances resistant to traditional treatment methods) concentrations can be reduced, while desirable elements are at least supplemented. There are no scientific references for how often or how much water should be changed as stocking density, quality of replacement water and feeding vary from tank to tank. Usually the more water changed and the more often, the better the resulting environment is for the fish. If the chemical composition and temperature of the replacement water are the same as that of the aquarium water ≥50% may be changed with no ill effects on the fish. Waterchanges are one of the easiest things you can do for your fish, and will do more to support their health and longevity than the most high-tech filtration and control systems can do without waterchanges. No systems exist, despite misleading claims to the contrary, that can replace waterchanges. Minimum weekly changes of between 25-35% should be employed to avoid any major changes in water quality and chemistry. Weekly changes of ≥50% will be required for aquariums maintained at high population densities or feeding levels. Because each aquarium system is different, it will be necessary to implement a waterchange procedure that is specific for your particular setup. Substratum in heavily fed, overstocked or neglected aquariums can rapidly accumulate organic wastes, especially if the water is not changed on a regular schedule. These wastes will stimulate anaerobic bacterial growth that can release hydrogen sulphides (H2S) into the water. Hydrogen sulphide has a high to very high toxicity to fish; the lethal concentrations for different fish species range from 0.4 mg/L to 4 mg/L. The toxicity of hydrogen sulphides decreases with increasing water pH. The best way to avoid this problem is to ‘vacuum’ the gravel each time you do a waterchange. This process removes organic wastes, which otherwise might accumulate in the gravel bed. However, should the gravel becomes contaminated, the aquarium should be drained, cleaned and the gravel thoroughly washed before re-establishing the aquarium.


The most common apparatus for vacuuming the gravel is a siphon with a large cylinder on one end attached to a long, narrow tube. These devices are generally available from aquarium suppliers. The large end is placed in the tank, the small end in a bucket that is below the level of the tank. Move the large end up and down in the tank to start a water flow into the bucket. Then insert the large end of the siphon into the gravel and slowly move it up and down. If used correctly, it will remove the accumulated wastes from the gravel without removing any gravel. Repeat this over the entire bottom of the tank, until the bucket is full. Then pull the siphon end out of the tank to stop the water flow. If more water is to be changed, this can be repeated. Replace the removed water with new, conditioned water that has been adjusted to the same chemical parameters as the aquarium. Dissolved organic wastes may also be removed from the aquarium water by aquatic plants, algae and bacteria which assimilate them as sources of nitrogen. Biofiltration by plants generates in the aquarium system a mini-ecosystem, in which, if properly balanced, not only can control nutrients but also oxygen, pH and CO2. As a result, aquatic plant biofiltration diminishes the net environmental impact on aquarium systems. One of the most commonly used aquatic plant families is Lemnaceae (duckweed). Duckweed is a floating aquatic macrophyte, which consists of four genera: Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia and Wolffiella. The utilisation of duckweed increases dissolved oxygen in the water, significantly decreases the quantity of total dissolved solids, ammonia, nitrite, orthophosphate as well as total phosphorus in water. Duckweed has a high capacity to adsorb nutrients from water and it is easy to remove from the aquarium because of its floating nature. It also makes an ideal food for many fish species, particularly rainbowfishes. There are some general principles that need to be followed in the proper maintenance of aquarium systems. First, the more quickly wastes are removed from the water the less time they have to break down and the less oxygen they will consume. The longer the waste particles are in the aquarium system the smaller they become, due to physical and bacterial degradation. The smaller the particles and the closer the particle density is to water, the more difficult the particles are to remove. Particles also leach into the water and create dissolved wastes that can be difficult to remove. Therefore, the rapid removal of particulate wastes from aquarium systems is of upmost importance. The most effective way to remove these substances is with proper aquarium maintenance, including routine waterchanges, water testing and especially regular cleaning of the gravel substrate. w

Atz J.W. (1949) The balanced aquarium myth. Aquarist and Pondkeeper 14: 159-160, 179-182. Avnimelech Y. & G. Ritvo (2003) Shrimp and fish pond soils: processes and management. Aquaculture 264: 140–147. Avnimelech Y. (2006) Bio-filters: The need for an new comprehensive approach. Aquacultural Engineering 34: 172–178. Chantawichayasuit W. (2010) A simple and cost effective solution for the cycling and removal of biological nitrogenous wastes in aquaculture. 36th International Conference on Veterinary Science 2010, Thailand. Chapman H., T. Cartwright, R. Hutson and J. O'Toole (2008) Water Quality and Health Risks from Urban Rainwater Tanks. Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment Salisbury, SA, Australia. Loveson A., R. Sivalingam and R. Syamkumar (2013) Aquatic Macrophyte Spirodela Polyrhiza as a Phytoremediation Tool in Polluted Wetland Water from Eloor, Ernakulam District, Kerala Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology 3: 184. Paletta M. (2006) The “Old Tank” Syndrome. Advanced Aquarist's Online Magazine 5(5). Petty D. (2006) Old Tank Syndrome. Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference – Orlando, Florida USA. Roberts H. & B.S. Palmeiro (2008) Toxicology of Aquarium Fish. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practise 11: 359–374. Velichkova K.N. & I.N. Sirakov (2013) The Usage of Aquatic Floating Macrophytes (Lemna and Wolffia) as Biofilter in Recirculation Aquaculture System (RAS). Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 13: 101-110.


Drifting with Driftwood

Adrian Tappin

S ince time immemorial driftwood and rocks have been the typical natural materials for decorating freshwater aquaria. The addition of driftwood

adds a special attractiveness or naturalness to the aquarium. But in addition to its purely decorative aspect, driftwood also affords numerous fishes with natural hiding-places, and provides a large surface area for microorganisms and periphyton to colonise. The addition of epiphytic plants such as Java Fern, Anubias or Bolbitis attached to the driftwood is also attractive, plus these plant species don’t require much light and are regarded as easy to grow. Small specimens can be attached using transparent nylon or woollen thread. After the plants have rooted the threads can be easily removed. In short, it makes an important contribution to the stabilisation of the entire biological system in the aquarium. Dead wood is of considerable practical importance for fishes in the wild. As the trees growing alongside a stream or river age, die and decay, large branches and sometimes even the whole trunk, can fall or topple onto the stream bank or into the river channel itself. There is increasing evidence that before European settlement, most rivers in Australia had a large amount of woody debris along their banks and within their channels. Natural events such as major floods are likely to have contributed to the amount of dead wood found within rivers systems in Australia. Large woody debris is also vital for the survival and growth of many important fish species. It provides habitat and shelter from predators such as birds and piscivorous fishes, while hollow logs are an essential spawning habitat for several native fish species. Dead wood from the riparian zone to rivers and streams provides a complex habitat for aquatic organisms and can influence both aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem function. Thus dead wood is often introduced into the rivers as part of the process of restoring these waters to their natural state. These areas of dead wood act rather like an artificial reef in the sea and are extensively frequented by fishes. This often leads to more rapid recolonisation of formerly barren rivers as well as an increased number of species. Most aquarium or pet stores will have driftwood pieces of all shapes and sizes for sale that are suitable for use in your aquarium. One of the advantages of buying driftwood, is that you can look at the pieces on offer, and choose the ones that suit your needs best. Driftwood pieces can also be found in craft and hobby shops, florists, at flea markets, on eBay, Gumtree and at many other online sites. The majority of pieces will probably require some degree of preparation before using in your aquarium as some will probably release humic substances (tannin) into the water. The only suitable wood for the aquarium is that which is well-weathered, as

well as being very hard and/or preserved through years of immersion in water or lying buried in swamps. Depending on the type and condition of wood collected in the wild, there may be problems with decay. For this reason it may be better to obtain your driftwood from a reliable source in the trade. The downside about buying pieces of driftwood is that they can sometimes be rather pricey. Nevertheless, if you are the adventurist type you can collect your own. However, you need to be aware that some areas are protected and you will not be allowed to collect driftwood or anything else for that matter. Collecting driftwood is some States and Territories is prohibited. In Queensland you can collect dead marine wood if you submit the required application forms to the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Dead marine wood, including flotsam, falls within the marine plant definition as it provides material to the food chain as it breaks down, shoreline protection from wave action and habitat for marine animals, such as shipworms and gastropods. Shipworms and bacteria decompose the wood and gradually turn it into nutrients that are reintroduced to the food web. In Queensland, all marine plants are protected and activities such as disturbance or removal of marine plants are subject to a formal application process or are required to comply with self-assessable code requirements. However, there doesn’t seem to be any requirements for the collection of dead wood from freshwater rivers or creeks. Of course, collecting is not permitted in declared Fish Habitat Areas or National Parks.

▼Dead Mangrove Wood


▲ The best time to find driftwood on the beach is after a storm. ► Most aquarium or pet stores will have driftwood pieces of all shapes and sizes for sale that are suitable for use in your aquarium.


Apart from the fact that finding your own driftwood won’t cost you anything at all, it is also a great way to spend a few hours in the outdoors – either on your own, or with your family or friends. This is because most driftwood is found along riverbanks, at the edges of lakes, or along the beach. A lot of people have the misconception that driftwood can only be found on a beach but riverbanks and around lakes are all good places to get driftwood. The best time to find driftwood on the beach is after a storm and in rivers and streams is after a flood. Dead marine wood has several attributes that make it particularly suitable in a freshwater aquarium because of the long time it has spent in saltwater the wood is already clean apart from some sand that may be attached and has only a negligible effect on the colour of the water. Another positive to be considered is that marine wood has hardly any buoyancy. Dead mangrove wood or roots can be collected on salt flats or at the mouth of estuarine rivers. Whether you have purchased or collected the driftwood yourself, prior to use it should be scrubbed and soaked in water in order to remove any residual soil or other foreign matter. The forces of nature may have already removed much of the debris and hopefully, left you a nicely weathered piece, but you still need to be able to remove the dirt, mould, parasites and other critters that may be lingering in your driftwood. One reason for soaking the driftwood is so that it becomes waterlogged and doesn’t float in the aquarium. Mangrove roots may require a week or more before they will sink. The process can be cut short if the aquarium décor combines wood and rocks as the latter can be used to weigh down the wood. Another reason for soaking is to reduce the leaching of natural pigments into the water, as the tannins they contain can lower the pH.

All types of natural wood when first placed in the aquarium can occasionally result in a slight fluffy mould that can grow on the wood, but this is completely harmless and is often even eaten by bristlenose catfishes, snails, etc., but even without these species the fluffy mould will disappear after a short time.

Cleaning Driftwood Using the Soaking Method Scrub your driftwood with a sturdy scrub brush to remove loose debris and surface dirt. Fill a large container with enough water to cover your wood. The driftwood needs to soak, fully covered, in the water for at least two weeks, and you will need to change the water several times when it becomes dark with the leached tannins. The tannin is what gives the wood its colour and we want to get rid of as much colour as possible in this process, along with any other critters. You can place a large rock or something heavy to hold down your driftwood while it soaks. After two weeks, remove the driftwood and place it somewhere where it will be able to dry in the sun. Cleaning Driftwood Using the Disinfecting Method

Mix a solution of one part chlorine to nine parts water and fill a large container so that there is enough solution to completely submerge your driftwood. Place your driftwood in the solution. Soak your driftwood for 3 or 4 days, changing the disinfecting solution each day. Then do the same again using just freshwater making sure there is no residual chlorine left in the wood (you can test the water with a chlorine test kit). Remove the driftwood and let it dry in the sun for a few days w

The addition of epiphytic plants such as Java Fern, Anubias or Bolbitis attached to driftwood is also attractive. ▲Blyxa with Bolbitis attached to driftwood


Mugilogobius wilsoni Common Name: Wilson's Mangrove Goby

Description Body compressed, moderately slender, usually somewhat rounded anteriorly, depth 4.6-7.1 in SL. Head wider than deep, length 3.0-4.7 in SL; slightly depressed anteriorly and cheeks sometimes inflated in large males. Snout slightly rounded. Anterior nostril tubular, short, at edge of upper lip, directed down and forward, preorbital curved forward slightly to accommodate nostril; posterior nostril rounded to oval, close to centre of anterior margin of eye. Eyes lateral, high on head, top usually forming part of dorsal profile, 2.2-3.9 in head. Interorbital broad, flat to slightly concave; top of head from just behind eyes to snout tip usually covered with fine villi. Mouth subterminal, slightly oblique, reaching to below middle or posterior half of eye in males, to below anterior half of eye in females; upper jaw with outermost teeth largest, pointed and widely spaced; inner 2-4 rows with small curved sharp teeth, lower jaw with 3-4 rows of stout, sharp, inward curving teeth; teeth in females smaller and finer than in males lips usually smooth; lower lip free at sides, broadly fused across front; tongue tip usually blunt, rarely concave; chin smooth. Gill opening usually extending forward to under opercle; inner edge of pectoral girdle smooth with no ridge or flange, with smooth bony flange, with low irregular fleshy ridge, or with distinct fleshy knobs or bumps, knobs rounded and fleshy or

rather flattened flaps. Body fully scaled, ctenoid on side forward in wedge to behind pectoral fin; lateral line absent; longitudinal series 26-31; predorsal scales 11-13. Anteriormost predorsal scale enlarged, at rear of interorbital space, other scales on nape smaller, all cycloid. Upper third to half of operculum with small cycloid scales; cheek naked. Pectoral base and prepelvic area covered with cycloid scales. Belly with patch of ctenoid scales under pelvics, remainder cycloid. Head pores absent. Two dorsal fins; first somewhat rounded to triangular, not or barely reaching second dorsal origin when depressed; second dorsal and anal fins about equal in height to first dorsal, rays of males just reaching caudal base when depressed, distinctly not in females; anal rays not reaching caudal fin when depressed. Pectoral fin rounded, all but first branched. Pelvic fins fully united into disc, short, rounded to oval, reaching half to two-thirds of distance to anus. Caudal fin rounded. Size to around 4 cm SL.

Colour Pale yellowish grey to grey, whitish below, with scale margins narrowly outlined in black giving overall reticulate background pattern; 6-7 black to dark grey oblique bars and spots on side, first bar angling forward behind pectoral base to above opercle, extending onto nape and sometimes meeting its counterpart on midline of nape, lower half of bars often sharply angled back posteriorly, forming chevrons; caudal fin-base scales with vertically oriented pair of black round to oval spots on

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pale background, giving ocellate appearance; upper half of pectoral base with rounded brown spot; side of head with two horizontal stripes, upper broader, from middle of upper lip below eye and breaking up on opercle as series of indistinct blotches or streaks, lower very narrow and wavy, from corner of mouth to near edge of preopercle. Outer third of first dorsal fin yellow above rounded black spot, outer edge of fin with very narrow brown margin; second dorsal fin and upper and lower edges of caudal fin with broad white margin; fins otherwise clear. Distribution & Habitat Known only from northern Australia between the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf in Western Australia to Bowen in Queensland. It is likely that this species has a more or less continuous distribution around the northern tropical coast of Australia from the Kimberley region in Western Australia to central northern Queensland. They have mostly been collected from small muddy brackish mangrove creeks and may not travel very far up into more freshwater habitats. Little is known about the lifecycle and biology of this species. The species is named for ANGFA member David Wilson, of the Northern Territory, in recognition of his help in collecting gobies and promoting the appreciation of native Australian freshwater fishes.

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Source of Information Martin F. Gomon (2011) Wilson's Mangrove Goby, Mugilogobius wilsoni, in Fishes of Australia. http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2248 [Accessed 21 May 2014]

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ANGFA (Qld) Sponsors

Aquagreen P.O. Box 756

Howard Springs Northern Territory

Phone/Fax (08) 89831483

email: [email protected]

web: www.aquagreen.com.au/

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