Automatic street light

AUTOMATIC STREETLIGHT

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

We need to save or conserve energy because most of

the energy sources we depend on, like coal and natural gas can’t be

replaced. Once we use them up , they are gone forever. Saving power is

very important, instead of using the power in unnecessary times it should

be switched off. In any city “STREET LIGHT” is one of the major

power consuming factors. Most of the time we see streetlights are on

even after sunrise thus wasting lot of energy. Over here we are avoiding

the problem by having an automatic system which turns on and off the

streetlights at given time or when ambient light falls below a specific

intensity. LDR is used to detect the ambient light. If the ambient light

is below a specific value the lights are turned on.

A light dependent sensors is interfaced to the PIC16f883

microcontroller. When the sensor goes dark the LED will be made on

and when the sensor founds light the LED will be made off.

It clearly demonstrate the working of transistor in saturation

region and cut-off region. The working of relay is also known ,

microcontroller and the code is written in c language in MikroC ide.

Automatic street light system is a simple concept which uses transistor as

a switch. By this system manual works are completely removed . It

automatically switches on lights when the light goes below ambient light .

This is done using LDR which senses the light.

SNGCE ECE DEPT Page 1


1.2 OBJECTIVE

This project aims to design an automatic streetlight that works

in both conventional (electrical ) as well as non-conventional ( solar )

energy resources. Using LDR we control the street light, when the LDR

value falls above the threshold value the lights are switched on and when

the value falls below the threshold value the lights are switched off . In

order to save and conserve energy in an efficient way an intensity

controller, based on movement detection is used . This is done using a

pair of sensors ( IR transmitter and IR receiver ), whenever the value

obtained at the receiver is above the previously set threshold value, an

obstacle is identified and the LED connected to the receiver will be

switched on .



CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGY AND LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 METHODOLOGY

This paper proposes an effective scheme for controlling the

wastage of electricity due to streetlights. It reduces the manual effort by

automating the streetlight on the basis of light intensity. The electricity

wastage can be reduced by glowing the light on the basis of movement

detection. Here three parts have been included under this topic for

completed this study. Design architecture is the main block function for

the proposed design. While, the hardware specification will detail out the

components involved in this design from the sensor components until the

controller selection. Software development based on the proposed design

will be detail out in software part where the flow of the system

operation will be detailed out elaborated.

2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

Hengyu Wu, Minli Tang , propose about The core technology

of the street light control system is an AT89S52 single-chip microcomputer.

It integrates a power circuit, a fault detect circuit, a photosensitive detection

circuit, an infrared detect circuit, an LCD display circuit, a street light

control circuit, an a1ann circuit, a pressed key control circuit and so on.

This system cans automatically turn on or off the lights and controls the

switches according to traffic flow. It expands the fault detect circuit and

the corresponding a1arm circuit. It also has a convenient and flexible



button control circuit to switch on and off fictions mentioned above.

Main weakness is that they didn’t say about the working principle behind

the system. It also said to use fault detection circuit which when it is

damaged, the voltage is zero, so it will create a problem. This paper is

and theoretic proof and shows only simulation result but not as a real

time set up experiments. The focus of this paper to build a way for the

framework which may leads to many follow up research activities in the

Low – rate and also plan to investigate the applicability of this proposal

to detect performance.

GongSiliang describes a remote streetlight monitoring system based on

wireless sensor network. The system can be set to run in automatic

mode, which control streetlight according to Sunrise and Sunset

Algorithm and light intensity. This control can make a reasonable

adjustment according to the latitude, longitude and seasonal variation.

Also this system can run in controlled mode. In this mode, we can take

the initiative to control street lights through PC monitor terminal. In

addition, the system integrates a digital temperature – humidity sensor, not

only monitoring the street light real – time but also temperature and

humidity. The system is equipped with the high – power relay output

and can be widely applied in all places which need timely control such

as streets, stations, mining, schools, and electricity sectors and so on. But

in this work a wireless network for street light remote control is

discussed. In particular, the novelty of the proposal is in the location

awareness of nodes, which cannot self - localize themselves. Prototypes

have been built using costly hardware. The capability of the ranging

measurements, the basis for localization, is not characterized and

Showing some problems on the order of one meter. In near future,

location aware routing algorithms will developed that will improve the

efficiency of the network.



Street lighting system Gustavo W. Denardin deals about a control network

for a LED street lighting system. The use of LEDs is being considered

promising solution to modern street lighting systems, due to their longer

life time, higher luminous efficiency and higher CRI. The proposed

control network enables disconnection of the street lighting system from

the mains during peak load time, reducing its impact in the distributed

power system automatically consumption, decrease the management cost

and monitor the status information of each street lighting unit. In order to

meet the system requirements, a wireless sensor network based on

IEEE 802.15.4 TM standard is employed. Its network layer is

implemented using geographic routing strategy, which provides slow

overhead and high scalability features. However, due to well - known

drawbacks of the existing techniques, a novel routing algorithm is

proposed. Simulations show that this algorithm leads to a significant

improvement of routing performance when applied to sparse large scale

scenarios, which is the case of street lighting system. Field tests have

been performed on IEEE 802.15.4- compliant wireless

control units. The obtained experimental results show that the proposed

control network is able to meet the requirements of a LED street lighting

system. It mainly deals about safer roadways with intelligent light system

to reduce power consumption. This system has automatic street light

intensity control based on the vehicular movement and switching ON and

OFF of street lights depending on the light ambiance. This will help in

reducing the power consumption during hours of meager road usage. The

street light module is installed consequently for every certain distance.

This paper also aims at reducing road accidents by detecting

consumption of alcohol by the driver. This can be implemented using

alcohol sensor module which contains skin sensor, breath alcohol sensor



and proximity sensor. The skin sensor and breadth alcohol sensor detects

the presence of alcohol content and the proximity sensor helps in

detecting any kind of malpractice. The novelty of this paper is to

effectively reduce the energy consumption of the street lights by

controlling the street light’s intensity, sensing both human as well as

vehicular movement and injury and death caused by drunk driving can be

prevented by prior sensing of the alcohol content in drivers by a simple.

Somchai Hiranvarodo describes a comparative analysis of photovoltaic

(PV) street lighting system in three different lamps. Namely, a low

pressure sodium lamp, a high pressure sodium lamp and a fluorescent

lamp have been used for installation in each mast to determine the

suitable system to install in a typical rural area of Thailand. All three

systems have been mounted with the same module type and wattage in

different places within the Rajamangala Institute of Technology,

Thanyaburi district, Pathumthani province of Thailand. An operation of

solar street lighting system can be divided into 2 period of time, namely,

at 18.00-22.00 hours and 05.00-06.00 hours. The design of a control circuit

was experimentally done in this work. Protection of the battery from

damage for deep discharge and overcharge by a controller was also

considered. The life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is the appropriate method

for comparing three different lamps. The present worth of each system

can be compared and the least cost option selected. LCCA was based on

the key assumptions (year 2002). The results of comparative analysis of

the PV street lighting systems with a fluorescent lamp have been the

appropriate system for installation in a typical rural area of Thailand

when the cost of lamps, system performance and possibility for purchasing

the components of the system have been considered. The results of this

work can he stated that the average luminance in lux of the fluorescent

lamp at design location Pathumthani province of Thailand, has a highest



value compared to the low- pressure sodium and high-pressure sodium.

On the other hand, the lifetime of the fluorescent lamp has a shortest

time compared to other lamps. Nevertheless, the aim of this work is to

determine the appropriate system to install in a typical rural area or a

typical rural village of Thailand when the cost of lamps and system

performance and possibility for purchasing the components of the system

are compared. While considering in other areas it is difficult.

A.C.Kalaiarasan deal about solar energy based street light with auto-

tracking system for maximizing power output from a solar system is

desirable to increase the efficiency. In order to maximize the power

output from the solar panels, one needs to keep panels aligned with the

sun. As such a means of tracking the sun is required. This is a far most

cost effective solution than purchasing additional solar panels. It has been

estimated that the yield from solar panels can be increased by 30 to 60

percent by utilizing a tracking system instead of a stationary array. This

paper describes an automatic tracking system which will keep the solar

panels aligned with the sun in order to maximize efficiency. The sun

tracking sensor is the sensing device, which sense the position of the sun

at the time to time continuously and it gives the sensing output to the

amplifier based on light density of the sun. Here the sun tracking sensor

is LDR ( light dependent resistor ). The amplifier unit is used to amplify

the LDR signals, which makes the low level signal into high level

signals and this output is given to the comparator. The LM324 IC is

used as an amplifier. Comparator compares the signals and gives the

command to the AT89C51 microcontroller. The system presented in this

paper will be an efficient method to use the solar energy in remote

areas. This system consumes very low power and high efficient lightning.

We employ the auto sun tracking system; this can improve the energy

stored in battery. This system does not affect the environment because it



is pollution free. Our system also consisting of automatic ON, OFF

control of the LED lamp, so there is no manual operation and it

is not required operators.

Radhi Priyasree explains a system to reduce the power consumption of

streetlights by avoiding inefficient lighting which wastes significant

financial resources each year. This is done by dimming the lights during

less traffic hours. For this purpose PIR sensor is used which detects any

movement. This work also aims at reducing the fatal crashes and road

accidents caused due to alcohol consumption. This is done using skin

sensors placed in vehicle doors and also using breadth sensors inside the

vehicle. By implementing this death rates due to drunk driving can be

reduced to a great extent. The prototype has been implemented and

works as expected and will prove to be very useful and will fulfil all

the present constraints if implemented on a large scale. It also aims at

detecting consumption of alcohol by the driver and if it exceeds certain

level it impairs the driver from entering into the vehicle. This prevents

occurrence of accidents or any fatal crashes. This initiative will help the

government to save this energy and meet the domestic and industrial

needs.

S.H. Jeong describes about the development of Zigbee based Street

Light Control System which control and monitor status of street lights

installed alongside load. Lights are switched to ON/OFF by this system’s

control command. Its local status information is also monitored by control

system via communication channel. Status information which is monitored

are on/off status information , energy saving mode status, control group

status information and safety related information, etc. To transfer control

command and status information between streetlight control system and

remote street light control terminals which installed at each light pole,

various communication media and communication protocols are using. As



communication media, wireless or power lines are used generally. Various

frequency bands from tens of MHz to Rebrands are used for wireless

case. This Street light control system can save maintenance time and

costs and which can improve safety level.



CHAPTER 3

PROPOSED SYSTEM

Automation, Power consumption and Cost Effectiveness are the

important considerations in the present field of electronics and electrical

related technologies. Industry of street lighting systems are growing

rapidly and going to complex with rapid growth of industry and cities. To

control and maintain complex street lighting system more economically,

various street light control systems are developed. This proposed system

utilizes the renewable technology (Solar) for the sources of light as LED

Lamps instead of generally used street lamps such as High Pressure

Sodium Lamps, etc. The LED technology is preferred as it offers several

advantages over other traditional technologies like energy saving due to

high current luminous efficiency, low maintenance cost, high colour

rendering index, rapid start up speed, long working life etc. This proposed

system makes use of infrared photoelectric sensor (G12-3C3PA) for

movement detection.



CHAPTER 4

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND EXPLANATION

4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

4.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

In this project the list of hardware components used are given

below:

Microcontroller

Transformer

Bridge Rectifier

Voltage Regulator

Light Dependent Resistor

IR Sensors

Relay



Diodes

Resistors

Capacitors

Transistor

4.3 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

Microcontroller ( PIC16f883 ) :-

This section provides an introduction to most common word in

the embedded system “microcontroller”. It is written to familiarize you

with microcontroller terminology and basic microcontroller architecture.

A microcontroller is a single chip, self-contained computer which

incorporates all the basic components of a personal computer on a much

smaller scale. Microcontrollers are often referred to as single chip devices

or single chip computers. The main consequence of the microcontroller’s

small size is that its resources are far more limited than those of a

desktop personal computer. In functional terms, a microcontroller is a

programmable single chip which controls a process or system. Microcontrollers

are typically used as embedded controllers where they control part of a

very larger system such as an appliance, automobile, scientific instrument

or a computer peripheral.

Microcontrollers are designed to be low cost solutions; therefore using

them can drastically reduce part and design costs for a project. Physically, a

microcontroller is an integrated circuit with pins along each side. The pins

presented by a microcontroller are used for power, ground, oscillator, I/O

ports, interrupt request signals, reset and control. In contrast, the pins

exposed by a microprocessor are most often memory bus signals (rather

than I/O ports).

A microcontroller has seven main components:



i. Central processing unit (CPU).

ii. ROM.

iii. RAM.

iv. Input and Output.

v. Timer.

vi. Interrupt circuitry.

vii. Buses.

Fig. 4.1: The Microcontroller.

Microcontrollers do not function in isolation. As their name suggests

they are designed to control other devices.



Fig:4.2 PIC16F883 IC

PIC16f883 MICROCONTROLLER

Microchip manufacture a series of microcontrollers called PIC.

(Peripheral interface controller). There are many different flavours

available, some basic low memory types, going right up through to ones

that have Analogue - To – Digital converters and even PWM built in. A

PIC microcontroller is a processor with built in memory and RAM and

you can use it to control your projects ( or build projects around it). So

it saves you building a circuit that has separate external RAM, ROM and

peripheral chips .

Microchip is providing the 8-bit, 16-bit and the 32 bit

microcontrollers based on the desired application requirement the design

engineer can choose from those. Microchip is also providing the software

for the microcontrollers where the application programs are written

MIKROC IDE, it is also providing the in circuit debugger called MPLAB

ICD3.

The PIC microcontroller used in this project is pic16f883.

These devices feature a 14 bit wide code memory, and an improved 8

level deep call stack. The instruction set differs very little from the

baseline devices, but the two additional opcode bit allow 128 registers

and 2048 word of code to be directly addressed. There are a few

additional miscellaneous instructions, and two additional 8 bit literal

instructions, add and subtracts. The mid range core is available in the

majority of devices labelled PIC12 and PIC16.

The first 32 bytes of the register space are allocated to special

purpose registers; the remaining 96 bytes are used for general purpose



RAM. If banked RAM is used, the high 16 registers (0x70-0x7F) are

global, as are a few of the most important special purpose registers,

including STATUS register which holds the RAM bank select bits.

The PIC16f883 features 256 bytes of EEPROM data memory,

self programming, an ICD, two comparators 11 channels of 10 bit analog

to digital converter, 1 capture/compare/PWM and 1 enhanced

capture/compare/PWM functions, a synchronous serial port that can be

configured as either three wire serial peripheral interface (SPI) or the two

wire inter integrated circuit (IC) bus and an enhanced universal

asynchronous receiver transmitter (EUSART). All of these features make

it ideal for more advanced level A/D applications in automotive,

industrial, appliances or consumer applications

Features

Special Microcontroller Features:

Precision Internal Oscillator:



Factory calibrated to ±1KHz

Software selectable frequency range of 8 MHz to 32 kHz

Software tunable

Two-Speed Start-Up mode

Fail -safe clock monitoring for critical applications

Clock mode switching during operation for low-power operation

Power-Saving Sleep mode

Power-on Reset (POR)

Selectable Brown-out Reset (BOR) voltage

Extended Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for

reliable operation

In-Circuit Serial Programming™ (ICSP™) via two pins

In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins

High-endurance Flash/EEPROM cell:

100,000 erase/write cycle enhanced Flash program memory, typical

1,000,000 erase/write cycle data EEPROM memory, typical

Data EEPROM retention > 40 years

Self-reprogrammable under software control

Programmable code protection

Peripheral Features:

Device Features:

1 input only pin

25 I/O

High sink/source current 25 mA

Interrupt-on-pin change option

Timers:

TMR0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit pre scaler



TMR1 enhanced: 16-bit timer/counter with pre scaler,

External Gate Input mode and dedicated low-power 32 kHz

oscillator

TMR2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register,

prescaler and postscaler

Capture/Compare/PWM (CCP) module

Enhanced Capture/Compare/PWM (ECCP) module

with auto-shutdown and PWM steering

Master Synchronous Serial Port (MSSP) module

SPI™ mode, I2C™ mode with address mask capability

Enhanced Universal Synchronous Asynchronous

Receiver Transmitter (EUSART) module:

Supports RS-485, RS-232 and LIN compatibility

Auto-Baud Detect

Auto-wake-up on Start bit

Ultra Low-Power Wake-up (ULPWU)

Analog Features:

10-bit 11 channel Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter

2 Analog Comparator modules with:

Programmable on-chip Voltage Reference (CVREF) module

(% of VDD)

Fixed 0.6 Vref

Comparator inputs and outputs externally accessible

SR Latch mode

Supports RS-485, RS-232 and LIN compatibility

Auto-Baud Detect

Auto-wake-up on Start bit



Ultra Low-Power Wake-up (ULPWU)

Transformer :-

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical

energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic

induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force

within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic

fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating

voltages in electric power applications. A varying current in the

transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in

the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the

transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the

secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or

voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction.

Making use of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction

with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can

be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage

level to another within power networks.

Figure 4.3 Transformer

Bridge rectifier :-


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday's_law_of_induction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromotive_force

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction


A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes

in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of

output for either polarity of input.

Figure 4.4 Bridge rectifier

When used in its most common application, for conversion of an

alternating current (AC) input into a direct current (DC) output, it is

known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full – wave

rectification from a two – wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and

weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer

with a centre - tapped secondary winding.

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of

the diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is

negative, current flows from the upper power supply terminal to the

right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower

supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input

connected to the right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply

terminal to the right along there (positive) path to the output, and returns to the


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_tap

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier#Full-wave_rectification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier#Full-wave_rectification

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarity_(physics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_circuit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode


upper supply terminal via the blue ( negative ) path. In each case, the upper

right output remains positive and lower right output negative. Since this

is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a

DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes

called “ reverse polarity protection “. That is, it permits normal

functioning of the loads ( wires ) from a DC power source have been

reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by

reverse polarity.

Voltage regulator ( 7805 ) :

7805 is a voltage regulator is a member of 78xx series of

fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may

have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The

voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value.

Thexx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to

provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable

values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the

respective voltage levels.

A voltage regulator takes an unregulated input voltage and converts it to

the exact regulated voltage an electronic circuit requires. Voltage

regulators are used in almost every electronic circuit, and the popular

7805 has been used everywhere from computers to satellites, from DVD

player and video games to Arduinos and robots. Even though it was

introduced in 1972 and more advanced regulators are now available, the

7805 is still in use, especially with hobbyists. The 7805 is a common

type of regulator known as a linear regulator. (As its name hints, the

7805 produces 5 volts.) A linear regulator is built around a large

transistor that controls the amount of power flowing to the output , acting


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http://www.datasheets360.com/pdf/-8485256149941277727?query=omr7805


similar to a variable resistor. A drawback of a linear regulator is that all

the "extra" voltage gets converted into heat. If you put 9 Vinto a linear

regulator and get 5V out, the extra 4V gets turned into heat in the

regulator, so the regulator is only about 56% efficient. Linear regulators

such as the 7805 became very popular because they are extremely easy to

use: just feed the unregulated voltage into one pin, ground the second

pin, and get regulated voltage out the third pin. Another feature that

made the 7805 popular is it is almost indestructible - if you short-circuit

it, put too much voltage in, or run it too hot, it will shut down before

getting damaged, due to internal protection circuits.

Figure 4.5 Regulator

Light dependent resistor ( LDR ) :-

Light dependent resistors are very useful especially in light or dark

sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, but

when they are illuminated with light, resistance drops dramatically.

Electronic onto sensors are the devices that alter their electrical

characteristics, in the presence of light. The best known devices of

this type are the light dependent resistors, the photodiode and

phototransistors. As the name suggest, depending on light the

resistance value varies.

LDR are made by depositing a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium

selenite on a substrate of ceramic containing no or very free electrons



when not illuminated. The longer strip the more the value of

resistance. When light falls on the strip the resistance decreases. In the

absence of light the resistance can be in the order of 10Kohm to

15Kohm and is called dark resistance. Though LDR is very sensitive

to light, the switching time is very high and hence cannot be used

for high frequency applications. The below figure shows that when

the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR falls, allowing

current to pass-through it is shown in figure given below.

Figure 4.6. LDR Figure 4.7 Symbol of LDR

The basic construction and symbol for LDR are shown in above

figures respectively. The device consists of a pair of metal film contacts

separated by a snake like track of cadmium sulphide film, designed to

provide the maximum possible contact area with the two metal films.

The structure is housed in a clear plastic or resin case, to provide free

access to external light. Practical LDRs are available in variety of sizes

and packages styles, the most popular size having a face diameter of

roughly 10mm. Practical LDR is shown in below figure.

Figure 4.7. Practical LDR



IR Sensors :-

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense

some of aspects of the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the

heat of an object as well as detects the motion. These types of

sensors measures only infrared radiations, rather than emitting it that is

called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the

objects radiate some form of thermal radiations. These types of

radiation are invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an IR

sensor. The emitter is simply an IR led and the detector is simply an

IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength

as that emitted IR led . When IR light falls on the photodiode, the

resistance and the output voltages, change in proportion to the

magnitude of the IR light received. An IR sensor circuit is one of the

basic and popular sensor module in an electronic device. This sensor

is analogous to human visionary senses, which can be used to detect

obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time.

Figure 4.8. IR sensor pair



Relay:-Relays are elements connected to the output pins of the

microcontroller and are used to turn on/off all that being out off

board which has sensitive components: motors, transformers, heaters,

bulbs, high voltage components etc. There are various types of relays

but all have same operating principles: when a current flows through

the coil, it makes or breaks the electrical connections, between one or

more pair of contacts. As it is case with optocouplers, there is no

galvanic connection ( electrical contact ) between input and output

circuits. Relays usually demands both higher voltage and current to

start operating but there are also miniature versions which can be

activated with a low current directly obtained from a microcontroller

port pins.

Figure 4.9 Relay

Diodes :-

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component

That conducts primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it

has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow of current in one direction

, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor

diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallinity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics


semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical

terminals. The diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a

check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and

is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including

extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these

diodes are forms of rectifiers . A semiconductor diode's current–voltage

characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials

and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during

manufacture. These techniques are used to create special – purpose

diodes that perform many different functions. In this diode act as a

fly back diode (sometimes called a snubber diode, commutating diode,

freewheeling diode, suppressor diode, suppression diode, clamp diode or

catch diode), it is a diode used to eliminate flyback, which is the

sudden voltage spike seen across an inductive load when its supply

voltage is suddenly reduced or removed.

Figure 4.10. free wheeling diode Figure 4.11 diode

Resistors :-

A resistor is a passive two terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic

circuit, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels,

bias active elements, and terminate transmission line among other uses.

High power resistors, that can dissipate many watts of electrical power


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_load

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_spike

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snubber

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_materials

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectification_(electricity)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valve

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor


as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution

systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have

resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or

operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit

elements ( such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer ), or as

sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Figure 4.12. Resistors Figure 4.13. Schematic diagram symbols

Capacitors :-

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two

terminal electrical component used to store electrical energy temporarily

in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitor vary widely, but all

contain at least two electrical conductors(plates) separated by a

dielectric(i.e., an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized).

The conductors can be thin film, foils or sintered beads of metal or

conductive electrolyte, etc. The non- conducting dielectric acts to increase

the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics

include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, and oxide

layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuit in many

common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not

dissipate energy. Instead a capacitor stores energy in the form of

electrostatic field between its place. An ideal capacitor is characterized

by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is defined as the


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_diagram


ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential

difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F),

which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance

values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F). Capacitors

are widely in electronic circuit for blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current to pass. In analogue filter networks, they

smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuit they tune radios

to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission system, they

stabilise voltage and power flow.

Figure 4.14. Capacitors Figure 4.15. Schematic diagram

Transistor (BC547) :-

BC547 is an NPN bipolar junction transistors. A transistor, stands for

transfer of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small

current at its base controls a large current at collector and emitter

terminals. BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching

purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. It’s equivalent

transistor are BC548 and BC549. The transistor terminals requires a

fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic

curves. This is known as biasing. For amplification application, the

transistor is biased such that it is partly ON for all input conditions.

The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547

is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The voltage

divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching

applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully ON if there is


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units


a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal it gets completely

OFF.

Figure 4.16 Transistor ( BC547 )



CHAPTER 5

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5.2 CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

Automatic control of street lights is designed to turn on and

turn off street light automatically. This project check the amount of light

and street light is turned on and off. Light sensor is used to detect



intensity of light. PIC16F883 microcontroller is used to turn on transistor

which in turn energize the relay coil and relay turn switches between

electricity and solar energy to light the street lights



CHAPTER 6

PROGRAMING CODE

6.1 MAIN PROGRAM

#include<xc.h>

#include"config.h"

#include " delay.h"

#include"adc.h"

#define LDR 0

#define RX1 2

#define RX2 1

#define RELAY PORTBbits.RB0

#define STL1 PORTCbits.RC6

#defineSTL2 PORTCbits.RC7

#define LIGHT_THRESHOLD 300



#defineRX2_THRESHOLD 100

#defineRX1_THRESHOLD 100

#defineON 1

#defineOFF 0

void Initilisation(void);

voidHardwareSetup(void);

void main(void)

{

UnsignedintRx1Val,Rx2Val,Flag = 0,Flag2 = 0 , Counter = 0;

HardwareSetup();

Initilisation();

While(1)

{

If(read_adc(LDR) > LIGHT_THRESHOLD )



RELAY = OFF;

else

RELAY = ON;

Rx1Val = read_adc(RX1);

Rx2Val = read_adc(RX2);

If(Rx2Val> RX2_THRESHOLD&& Rx1Val> RX1_THRESHOL )

{

STL1 = ON;

STL2 = ON;

Flag = 1;

}

else if(Rx1Val > RX1_THRESHOLD)

{

STL1 = ON;

STL2 = OFF;



}

else if(Rx2Val> RX2_THRESHOLD)

{

STL1 = OFF;

STL2 = ON;

Flag2 = 1 ;

}

If(Rx2Val<RX2_THRESHOLD&& Rx1Val <RX1_THRESHOLD

&& Flag == 1)

{

STL1 = OFF;

STL2 = OFF;

Flag = 0;

}

If(Flag2 == 1)



{

Counter++;

If(Counter == 5000)

{

STL2 = OFF;

Flag2 = 0;

Counter = 0;

}

}

// DelayMs(250);

}

}

voidHardwareSetup(void)

{



/*Set LDR pin as input and analog*/

TRISAbits.TRISA0 = 1;

ANSELbits.ANS0 = 1;

/*Set RX1 pin as in put and analog*/


ANSELbits.ANS1 = 1;

/*Set RX2 pin as input and analog*/


ANSELbits.ANS2 = 1;

/*Set Relay pin as output and digital*/

TRISBbits.TRISB0 = 0;

ANSELHbits.ANS12 = 0;

/*Set street light pins as output and digital*/

TRISCbits.TRISC6 = 0;

TRISCbits.TRISC7 = 0;



}

voidInitilisation(void)

{

init_adc();

RELAY = OFF;

STL1 = OFF;

STL2 = OFF;

}

6.2 SUB ROUTINES

/*

* Delayfunctions forHI-TECH C on the PIC

*

* Functions available:

*

DelayUs(x) : Delay specified number of microseconds



*

DelayMs(x) : Delay specifiednumber of milliseconds

*

* Note that there are range limits: x must not exceed 255 - for

*

Crystal frequencies > 12 MHz the range for DelayUs is even

*

smaller . To use DelayUs it is only necessary to include this file ;

*

to useDelayMs you must include delay . c in your project .

*

*/

/* Set the crystal frequency in the CPP predefined symbols list in

HPDPIC,or on the PICC command line,

e.g., picc -DXTAL_FREQ= 4MHZ

or

picc -DXTAL_FREQ=100KHZ

Note that this is the crystal frequency, theCPU clock is

Divided by 4.

* MAKE SURE this code is compiled withfull optimization!!!



*/

#ifndef XTAL_FREQ

# define XTAL_FREQ 20MHZ /* Crystal frequency in MHz */

#endif

#define MHZ *1000L /* number of kHz in a MHz */

#define KHZ *1 /* number of kHz in a kHz */

#if XTAL_FREQ>= 12MHZ

#define DelayUs ( x)

{

unsigned char _dcnt ; \

_dcnt = (x)*((XTAL_FREQ)/(12MHZ)); \

While(--_dcnt != 0) \

Continue;

}

#else



#define DelayUs(x)

{

unsigned char _dcnt; \

_dcnt = (x)/((12MHZ)/(XTAL_FREQ))|1; \

While(--_dcnt != 0) \

Continue;

}

#endif

extern voidDelayMs(unsigned char);

extern voidDelaySec(unsigned charcnt);

/*

* Delay functions

*

See delay.h for details

*

* Make sure this code is compiled with full optimization!!!



*/

#include "delay.h"

VoidDelayMs(unsigned charcnt)

{

# if XTAL_FREQ<= 4MHZ

do

{

DelayUs(996);

} while( --cnt);

#endif

#if XTAL_FREQ> 2MHZ

unsignedchar i;

do

{

i =4;



do

{

DelayUs(250);

} while(--i);

} while(--cnt);

#endif

}

VoidDelaySec ( unsigned charcnt)

{

Unsigned chari;

do

{

i= 4;

do

{



DelayMs(250);

} while(--i);

} while(--cnt);

}

// PIC16F883 Configuration Bit Settings

//'C' source lineconfig statements

#include<xc.h>

//#pragmaconfig statements should precede project file includes.

// Use projectenumsinstead of#define for ON and OFF.

// CONFIG1

#pragmaconfigFOSC = HS

// Oscillator Selection bits (INTOSCIO oscillator: I/O function on



RA6/OSC2/CLKOUT pin, I/O function on RA7/OSC1/CLKIN)

#pragmaconfigWDTE = OFF

//Watchdog Timer Enable bit (WDT disabled and can be enabled by

SWDTEN bit of the WDTCONregister)

#pragmaconfig PWRTE = OFF

// Power-up Timer Enable bit (PWRT disabled)

#pragma config MCLRE = ON

// RE3/MCLR pin function select bit (RE3/MCLR pin function is

MCLR)

#pragmaconfigCP = OFF

// Code Protection bit (Program memory code protection is disabled)

#pragmaconfig CPD = OFF

// Data Code Protection bit (Data memory code protection is disabled)

#pragmaconfigBOREN = OFF

//Brown OutReset Selection bits (BOR disabled)

#pragmaconfig IESO = ON



//Internal ExternalSwitchover bit (Internal/External Switchover mode

Is disabled)

#pragmaconfigFCMEN = ON

// Fail – Safe Clock Monitor Enabled bit (Fail – Safe Clock Monitor is

Disabled)

#pragmaconfig LVP = OFF

// Low Voltage Programming Enable bit (RB3 pin has digital I/O, HV

On MCLR must be used for programming)

// CONFIG2

#pragmaconfigBOR4V = BOR40V

// Brown-out Reset Selection bit (Brown-out Reset set to 4.0V)

#pragmaconfigWRT = OFF

// Flash Program MemorySelf WriteEnable bits ( Write protection

Off )

Extern unsignedintread_adc ( unsigned char channel);

Extern voidinit_adc(void);



extern unsignedintGet_adc(unsigned char Channel);

#include <pic.h>

#include "adc.h"

#include"delay.h"

void nit_adc()

{

ADCON0 = 0B00000001;

ADCON1 =0B10000000;

// TRISA =0XFF;

}

unsigned intread_adc(unsigned char channel)

{

Unsignedintadc_value=0;



// ADCON0 = ( Channel << 2) + 0xC1;

ADCON0bits.CHS =channel ; // enable ADC,

// DelayMs(20);

GO =1;

While(GO);

adc_value=ADRESH;

adc_value= (adc_value<< 8) | ADRESL;

return(adc_value);

}

unsignedintGet_adc(unsigned char Channel)

{

ADCON0&= 0xc7;

ADCON0 |= (Channel<<3);

DelayMs (20);



GO_nDONE = 1;

While(GO_Ndone);

Return((ADRESH<<8)+ADRESL) ;

}



CHAPTER 7

PCB LAYOUT AND FABRICATION

7.1 PCB FABRICATION

Printed Circuit Board ( PCB ) is piece of art. The performance of an

electronic circuit depends on the design and layout of the PCB. A PCB

mechanically supports and connects components by conductive pathways,

etched from copper sheets laminated on to insulated substrate. PCB are

used to rotate electrical currents and signals through copper tracts which

are firmly bonded to an insulating base.

7.1.1 STEPS FOR PCB FABRICATION

PCB fabrication involves the following steps :

1. Drawing the layout of the PCB in the paper. The track layout of

the electronic circuit should be made in such manner that the paths

are in easy routes. It is then transferred to a Mylar sheet. The sheet

is then touched with black ink.

2. The solder side of the Mylar sheet is placed on the shiny side of

the five–star sheet and is placed in a frame. Then it is exposed to

sunlight with Mylar sheet facing the sunlight.

3. The exposed five–star sheet is put in hydrogen peroxide solution.

Then it is put in hot water and shook till unexposed region

becomes transparent.

4. This is put in cold water and then the rough side is stuck onto the

silk screen. This is then pressed and dried well.

5. The plastic sheet of the five-star sheet is removed leaving the

pattern on the screen.



6. A copper clad sheet is cut to the size and cleaned. This is placed

under screen.

7. As it resistant ink if spread on the screen so that a pattern of

tracks and a pad is obtained on a copper clad sheet. It is then

dried.

8. The dried sheet is then etched using Ferric Chloride solution ( 32

Baume ) till all the unwanted copper is etched away. Swish the

board to keep the each fluid moving. Lift PCB and check all the

unwanted copper is removed. Etching is done by immersing the

marked copper clad in a ferric chloride solution. After that the

etched sheet is dried.

9. The unwanted resist is removed using sodium hydroxide solution.

Holes are then dried.

5.1.2 PCB LAYOUT

Figure 7.1 : PCB LAYOUT



7.2 SOLDERING

Soldering is the processes of joining metals by using lower melting

point to weld or alloy with the joining surface.

SOLDER

Solder is the joining material that melts below 427 degree

connections between components. The popularly used solders are alloys of

tin ( Sn ) and lead ( Pb ) that melts below the melting point if tin.

Types :

1. Rosin core :- 60/40 Sn/Pb solders are the most common types used

for electronics assembly. These solders are available in various

diameters and are most appropriate for small electronics work

( 0.02” – 0.05” diameter is recommended )

2. Lead free :- Lead free solders are used as more environmental –

friendly substitutes for leaded solder, but they are typically not as

easy to use mainly because of their higher melting point and

poorer wetting properties.

3. Silver :- Silver solders are typically used for low resistance

connections but they have higher melting point and are expensive

than Sn/Pb solders.

4. Acid - core :- Acid – core solders should not be used for electronic.

They are intended for plumbing of non – electronic assembly work.

The acid – core flux will cause corrosion of the circuitry and can

damage components.

5. Other special solders :- various melting point eutectics : these

special solders are typically used for non – electronic assembly of



difficult to construct mechanical items that must be assembled in a

particular sequence.

6. Paste solders :- these solders are used in the field application or in

specialized manufacturing application.

FLUX

In order to make the surface accept the solder readily, the

components terminals should be cleaned chemically or by abrasion using

blades or knives. Small amount of lead coating can be done on the

portion of the leads using soldering iron, this process is called as

fluxers.These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux.

The desirable properties of flux are :-

It should provide a liquid cover over the materials and exclude air

gap up to the soldering temperature.

It should dissolve any oxide on the metal surface.

It should be easily replaced from the metal by the molten soldering

operation.

Residue should be removed after completing soldering operation.

The most common flux used in hand soldering of electronic

components is rosin, combination of mild organic acids extracted

from pine tree.

SOLDERING IRON

It is a tool used to melt the solder and apply it at the joints in

the circuit. It operates in 230V supply. The iron at the tip gets heated



while few minutes. 50W and 25W soldering irons are commonly used for

soldering of electronic circuits.

SOLDERING STEPS :

1. Make the layout of the component in the circuit. Plug in the chord

of the soldering irons the main to get heated.

2. Straighten and clean the component leads using a blade or knife.

3. Mount the components on the PCB by bending the leads of the

components. Use nose pliers.

4. Apply flux on the joints and solder the joints. Solder must be in

minimum time to avoid dry soldering and heating up of the

components.

5. Wash the residue using water and brush.

6. Solder joints should be inspected when completed to determine if

they have been properly made.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOLDER JOINTS :

A .Shiny surface

B . Good, smooth fillet

CHARACTERISTICS OF A POOR SOLDER JOINTS :

1. Dull or crystallized surface :- This is an indicator of a cold solder

joint. Cold solder joint result from moving the component after



soldering has been removed, but before the solder has hardened.

Cold solder joints may work at first, but will eventually fail.

2. Air Pocket :- Air pocket ( voids ) result from incomplete wetting of

surface, allowing air to be in contact with the connecting metals.

This will cause oxidation of the joints & eventual failure. Blow

holes can occur due to vaporization of moisture on the surface of

the board & existing through the molten solder. Boards should be

clean & dry, prior to soldering. Ethanol ( 100% ) can be used as a

moisture chaser if boards are wet prior to soldering.

3. Dimples :- Dimples in the surface do not always indicate a serious

problem, but they should be avoided since they are precursors to

voids.

4. Floaters : Black spots :- Floating in the soldering fillet should be

avoided, because they indicate contamination & potential for failure

as in the case of voids. These black spots usually results from

overheated ( burnt ) Rosin or other contaminants such as burnt wire

insulation. Maintaining a clean tip will help to avoid these

problems.

5. Balls :- A solder balls instead of a fillet can occur if the trace was

heated but the leads were not ( vice versa ). This prevents proper

wetting of both surfaces & result in solder being attached to only

one surface ( component of trace ).

6. Excess solder :- Excess solder usage can cover up other potential

problems & should be avoided. It can lead to solder bridge. In

addition, spherical solder joints can result from the application of

too much solder.



CHAPTER 8

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

8.1 ADVANTAGES

Photo resistors convert light into electricity and are not dependent

on any other force.

LDR’s are sensitive, inexpensive, and readily available devices.

They have good power and voltage handling capabilities, similar to

those of a conventional resistor.

They are small enough to fit into virtually any electronic device

and are used all around the world as a basic component in many

embedded systems.

LDR may be connected either way round and no special

precautions are required when soldering.

8.2 DISADVANTAGES

Can be more complicated to align detector pairs ( IR transmitter and IR

receiver ).

Prescribed system is sensitive to ambient light and require careful

shielding.

Photo resistors are only sensitive to light and no other force can power it

without risking damage. Also,they are unable to detect low light levels

and may take a few seconds to deliver a charge while their electrons

build up momentum.



CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

9.1 CONCLUSION

The aim of this project was to design and implement an automatic

street light using PIC16f883 microcontroller, which can be used to avoid

manual operation for switching street light on and off. In order to save

and conserve energy in an efficient manner, street lights are on only when

a movement is detected by a movement detection sensors.This proposed

system is in par with government’s policy of energy conservation by reducing

consumption of electricity and efficient use of energy, so it can be termed as

an innovative project in street lightning that can be implemented in the roads

like state and national highways.

9.2 FUTURE SCOPE

This project has scope for improvement and many enhancements

can be done to make it more reliable and interesting. For example, when a

vehicle or a person meet with an accident street light remains on , a

system can be introduced to inform the respective authorities. Similarly, a

system can be introduced to inform the technicians about the default.

All this will be possible, however, only through innovation, hard work and

above all proper use of technology.



CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

8051 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS BY

MAZZIDI

Magazines

Electronics for you

WWW.google.com

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws

http://www.electronics.indianetzone.com

http://www.wikipedia.org

http://www.encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net

IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering (IOSR-

JECE)

www.electronicsmanufacturers.com

www.engineersforyou.com

International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,

Engineering and Technology

(An ISO 3297: 2007 Certified Organization)

Vol. 3, Issue 2, February 2014


http://www.encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/

http://www.electronics.indianetzone.com/

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/

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