Available at http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Eco_people/Presentations/

Becwethan*-biodiversity

David Vaughan 2651582, dvaughan@aquarium.co.za

D. V

au

gh

an

Tw

o O

ce

ans

Aq

ua

riu

mD

. Va

ug

ha

n T

wo

Oc

ean

s A

qu

ari

um

What exactly is Biodiversity? Life on Earth is extremely diverse, ranging from the simplest

unicellular forms to highly specialised creatures. BIODIVERSITY encompasses the following:

- Genetic variation within species

- Interrelationships between species

- Geographical dispersion of species

- The links between local and global ecosystems

- How the above change over time In short, BIODIVERSITY is the singular conceptual description of all

variety of life on Earth functioning as a dynamic. BIODIVERSITY has to be measured for us to appreciate its diversity

and importance. How is this done, and who started the classification of everything?

D. V

au

gh

an

Tw

o O

ce

ans

Aq

ua

riu

mD

. Va

ug

ha

n T

wo

Oc

ean

s A

qu

ari

um

In the beginning…nobody had a clue!In the beginning…nobody had a clue!

Storing information about past and present biodiversity was introduced as an idea by Aristotle in Greece from about 350 BC.

Aristotle was first to attempt classification of animals and plants. Initially plants and animals were separated from each other. Animals were then separated into 3 groups:

1. Animals that lived on land,

2. Animals that lived in the sea,

3. Animals that lived in the air. This first classification was not accurate. Theophratus introduced the first classification using structural

similarities.

D. Vaughan Two Oceans AquariumD. Vaughan Two Oceans AquariumMNH 2001 Annual report (no.2)MNH 2001 Annual report (no.2)

The birth of classification and documentation. Theophratus’ classification system is the hierarchical system most

similar to that of today. Recognised hierarchical classifications typically include: Empirical evidence from observation was used to justify classification. Descriptive morphology (taxonomy) was invented. For the first time in history, because of classification systems and the

first scientific writing, literary text could now officially document taxa! Aristotle and Theophratus mentioned over 1000 species in early text. Aristotle produced a key to unlock information about his classification

system. With this key, you can deduce the specific features used by Aristotle

to classify animals…

KINGDOMKINGDOM

PHYLUMPHYLUM

CLASSCLASS

ORDERORDER

FAMILYFAMILY

GENUSGENUS

SPECIESSPECIEShttp://www.solaster-mb.org/mb/images/dyrynda-matrix-comb-1-wl.JPG

Keys… Aristotle’s key:

Aristotle’s key is both a branched key, and a dichotomous key. Dichotomous keys separate each classified group into TWO parts. Scientific classifications belong to the science of TAXONOMY, or the

science of BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMATICS.

AnimalsAnimals

RedRed blood blood No red bloodNo red blood

Soft bodiesSoft bodies Hard bodiesHard bodies

InsectsInsectsShellShell No shellNo shell

ShellfishShellfish JellyfishJellyfish

MammalsMammals

LizardsLizards

BirdsBirds

FishFish

The science of taxonomy. Carolus Linnaeus is known as the father of modern taxonomy. Established conventional naming of

living organisms, known commonlyas the convention forBinomial nomenclature.

Binomial from Latin “Binomium”meaning “two-portion.”

Formal method of naming species. Genus, species eg. Homo sapiens. Always printed in italics, or underlined

in text. Genus names always begin with a

CAPITAL letter. Taxonomy is the describing, identifying

naming and classifying of organisms.

http://e

n.w

ikipe

dia.o

rg/w

/inde

x.ph

p?title

=C

arolu

s_Lin

na

eus&

oldid

=1

19

578

48

3

The science of taxonomy continued. The standardisation of nomenclature used for species provides a

more inclusive environment through which information about biodiversity can be shared, discussed, and peer-reviewed.

Advantages of the binomial nomenclature system include:

1. Every species can be identified without ambiguity using just two universally accepted words.

2. Universally accepted names can be understood in many different languages since the spelling remains the same.

3. Although names do change, scientific names remain relatively stable. The invention of the microscope and the use of similarities in

morphology fuelled the development of taxonomy.

All photomicrographsAll photomicrographs © D. Vaughan Two Oceans AquariumD. Vaughan Two Oceans Aquarium

‘Species and groups of species gradually disappear, one after another,

first from one spot, then from another, and finally from the world.’

– Charles Darwin (1859) “On The Origin of Species.”

What is biological systematics? The study of the diversity of life, past and present. The study of the relationships between all living things. Only systematics deals with these relationships through time. This requires knowledge of the fossil record. Systematics uses taxonomy as a tool to understand

relationships between animals. Scientists specialising in systematics must be able

to use existing classification systems.

The science of biological systematics.

Phenetic systematics clarifies biodiversity through time by making use of the morphology and physiology of organisms.

Phylogenetic systematics (Cladistics) uses important evolutionary characteristics of organisms and their relationship through time.

Modern systematics commonly makes use of molecular genetics (e.g. DNA), and computer software to study organisms.

Systematics is the foundation for all studies on all organisms. Systematics shows how many organisms are related. Through systematics, an attempt is made to understand the Earth’s

biodiversity. This assists with the understanding of conservation of species and

can also be used to specify the minimum amount of genetic diversity required to preserve endangered taxa.

The science of biological systematics.

Cladistics is the classification philosophy arranging organisms by their branching in what’s called an evolutionary tree.

Morphological similarities are not used. Cladograms are the visual representation of these evolutionary trees:

A cladogram such as the one above, is a hypothesised relationship. The taxa on either side of a split in the tree are sister taxa or sister

groups.

Cladistics.

BeetlesBeetles

Wasps, Ants, BeesWasps, Ants, Bees

Moths, ButterfliesMoths, Butterflies

FliesFlies

The plight of systematics.

Biological exploration has huge intellectual and scientific rewards, however…

Internationally, the amount of trained taxonomists is declining, as is the financial support for the important work which they produce.

The extinction of species, regardless of the rates of extinction, threatens us with biological ignorance.

Where do we begin to look for new medicines, fibres, molecules or even genes that we can use for the future benefit of our own species without the support of systematic sciences?

Taxonomic inventories need to be compiled using surveys of biodiversity.

Sufficient funds must be supplied for the maintenance and building of additional museums, herbaria and public aquaria, the primary repositories for what is known about biodiversity.

Reference collections.

Global comprehensive collections of animals are supportive of efficient taxonomy.

Reference collections provide

information about local species

diversity both past and present. Databases on various taxa are

maintained at the research site

where the expertise, library resource

and collections exist. Data are backed up with voucher

specimens. Voucher specimens provide a biological reference to which

questionable records can be “truthed.”

htt

p://

ww

w.r

oya

lsa

skm

use

um

.ca

/re

sea

rch

/ima

ges

/sa

skbu

gs.

jpg

Reference collections.

“Specimen” means the whole animal or part thereof. Reference specimens are usually differentiated into the following: HOLOTYPE: A single type specimen from which the original

taxonomic description and the name of a new species is based. PARATYPE: Type specimens from the original collection of specimens

from which the original taxonomic description and name of a new species is based.

VOUCHER SPECIMEN: Any specimen, usually dead, but not always, that serves as a basis of study and is retained as a reference.

Holotypes are seldom allowed to leave the museum where they were deposited and represent significant value to biodiversity.

Paratypes are more often allowed to leave the museum for verification and assistance with scientific work.

Reference collections.

The National Museum of Natural History in the USA houses one of the most important mammal collections in the world.

580 000 voucher specimens, 3500 holotype specimens. The taxonomic and geographic reflections within this collection are

world-wide. All museum collections are maintained for posterity, and as

irreplaceable resources.

http://newsdesk.si.edu/photos/buildings_general.htm

Importance of museum collections. Museum collections include scientific specimens that are relevant to

the museums mandate. Many reference collections are kept in museums.

Museum collections are important resources, valuable for the information they provide.

All museum records associated with museum collections are usually managed as museum property.

Museums educate the public with exhibits. Exhibits give a visual reference to why systematics is important. Exhibits can be dead or living. Herbaria are museums of dried plant collections. Vivaria are enclosures for keeping or raising organisms for research

or observation. Gene banks (Genbank) are nucleotide sequence databases and DNA

storage (cryogenic) facilities.

Herbaria. The first botanist to invent a herbarium was Luca Ghini in 1551. Herbaria often make use of dried plants

mounted on special paper, or preserved

in alcohol (this also includes fungi). Herbaria are essentially important to the

study of plant taxonomy. Herbaria are useful sources of plant DNA. Herbaria are also useful in studying the

geographic distributions of plants. Herbaria of toxic plants provides us with

information on what to avoid, and what

medicinal properties certain plants have. The oldest herbarium in South Africa is

that of the South African Museum (SAM) which houses some 750 000 specimens from the Winter rainfall regions of South Africa.

http://w

ww

.flmn

h.ufl.e

du

/herb

ariu

m/he

rba

riaa

nd

spe

cime

ns.htm

Vivaria

Vivaria often recreate a portion of the ecosystem for a particular species in captivity.

Vivaria therefore maintain live exhibits. Public aquaria and zoological gardens are large “vivaria” specialising

in exhibits of animals of many different varieties.

Public aquaria and zoological gardens educate and provide a visual experience of a world not often seen by the general public.

All images All images © © D. Vaughan Two Oceans AquariumD. Vaughan Two Oceans Aquarium

Public aquaria. A public aquarium is the aquatic counterpart of a zoo. Today, most public aquaria have a research component which lends

itself to the conservation of marine species. The Two Oceans Aquarium in Cape Town supports the Save Our Sea

Foundation, and works closely with the Sustainable Sea Food Initiative.

A public aquarium’s mandate is one of conservation as well as education.

Educating the public about the limited natural resources, fragile interconnectedness of species and the rates of habitat destruction, provides awareness.

Education overcomes ignorance Public aquaria have a responsibility towards the exhibit animals under

their custodianship.

Picture credits cited in the notes.Picture credits cited in the notes.

Organisations.

Most zoos and public aquaria are affiliated with WAZA (World Association of Zoos and Aquariums): http://www.waza.org

WAZA is the umbrella organisation for leading zoos and aquaria and includes specialist advisory staff including veterinarians, ‘united for conservation.’

WAZA’s vision is ‘to be recognised as a trusted and leading partner in the conservation of biodiversity.’

PAAZAB (The African Association of Zoos and Aquaria): http://www.paazab.com ‘sees one of the primary functions of zoos and aquariums as healing the relationship between man, animal and their mutual environment.’

PAAZAB represents the interest of bona fide zoos and aquaria on the African continent.

Gene banks (genetic information preservation) The National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) produces

the open access nucleotide sequence database called GENBANK. GENBANK is an annotated collection of all the

publicly available nucleotide sequences. This

includes their protein translations. Over 100 000 distinct organism sequences have

been received. GENBANK was one of the first bioinformatics community projects on

the Internet. The GENBANK database is designed to provide the scientific

community with up-to-date DNA sequence information. Storing information about DNA provides information for future

conservation initiatives and information on genetic diversity of species and populations.

Conclusion Much effort has been placed on the preservation and understanding of

biodiversity over the centuries. With the development of classification systems, storing information in

literary text, to today’s data banks and computer systems, a better understanding of biodiversity is being created.

A good understanding of biodiversity allows us to see our impacts on biodiversity over time.

Biodiversity exploration assists with our own development as a species.

Education of the public through museums, herbaria and vivaria, improves biodiversity awareness and combats blind ignorance.

Within the current mass-extinction event, we document our loss in the hope that future generations may one day prevent the possibility of our own extinction…