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Comprehensive Weld Inspection SolutionsFrom Manual to Automated NDT Technologies

Olympus offers a wide range of innovative testing products to meet all

requirements related to the following technologies and inspection techniques:

pulse-echo (PE), TOFD, combined TOFD/PE, phased array UT, linear scans, and

sectorial scans.

Solutions

Ultrasound / Eddy Current / Phased Array

X-Ray Fluorescence / XRD Analysis

Microscope Imaging / Optical Metrology

Remote Visual Inspection / Videoscopes

NDE Training

Understanding Corrosion

NDE Training

UnderstandingCorrosion

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MAY 2015 / Vol. 18/ No. 2

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CONTACT INFORMATION

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Type of Business (Check ONE only)A q Contract constructionB q Chemicals & allied productsC q Petroleum & coal industriesD q Primary metal industriesE q Fabricated metal productsF q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)G q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodesH q Transportation equip. air, aerospaceI q Transportation equip. automotiveJ q Transportation equip. boats, shipsK q Transportation equip. railroadL q UtilitiesM q Welding distributors & retail tradeN q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)O q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)P q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)R q Government (federal, state, local)S q Other

01 q02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)03 q Sales04 q Purchasing05 q Engineer welding20 q Engineer design21 q Engineer manufacturing06 q Engineer other10 q Architect designer12 q Metallurgist13 q Research & development22 q Quality control07 q Inspector, tester08 q Supervisor, foreman14 q Technician09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator11 q Consultant15 q Educator17 q Librarian16 q Student18 q Customer Service19 q Other

Technical Interests (Check all that apply)A q Ferrous metals B q AluminumC q Nonferrous metals except aluminumD q Advanced materials/IntermetallicsE q CeramicsF q High energy beam processesG q Arc weldingH q Brazing and solderingI q Resistance weldingJ q Thermal sprayK q CuttingL q NDTM q Safety and healthN q Bending and shearingO q Roll formingP q Stamping and punchingQ q AerospaceR q AutomotiveS q MachineryT q MarineU q Piping and tubingV q Pressure vessels and tanksW q Sheet metalX q StructuresY q OtherZ q Automation1 q Robotics2 q Computerization of Welding

Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (One Year)......................................................................................................$86

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OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS ONLY: A.) OPTIONAL Book Selection (Choose from 25 titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling)q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85

ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit www.aws.org/membership q (CD-ROM only) q q Welding Metallurgy Welding Handbook Selections: q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1) Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW) B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (for Members outside North America)q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50

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PAYMENT INFORMATIONPayment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card.

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STUDENT MEMBERSHIP Please choose your Student Membership option below.q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (One Year)...................................................................................................................$15

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q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (One Year)...................................................................................................................$35 Includes one-year Welding Journal hard copy subscription. Option available only to students in U.S., Canada & Mexico.

STUDENT MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT......................................................................................$_____________

REV. 11/14

Join or Renew: Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480 Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership 8669 NW 36 St, # 130

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May 2015 Vol. 18 / No. 2

Features

Texas School Offers Both Wet and Dry Inspection Trainingby Mike Oden / Students at this Houston, Tex., based school have twooptions related to training for nondestructive examination jobs, one ofwhich includes diver training, the other does not / 17

Corrosion Monitoring, Detection, and Measurement by Robert Ward / Improved inspection technologies, such as digitalradiography and phased array ultrasound, are helping organizations controlcosts and get a better handle on the health of their assets / 20

Pennsylvania School Offers Wide Range of NDE-RelatedCoursesby Jeffrey T. Wiswesser / NDTIs inspection courses can help you gain thenecessary knowledge in the techniques, equipment, codes, standards, andother documents that control the NDE methods your company may beusing / 23

DepartmentsEditors Note................................6

News Bulletins .............................8

Print and Product Showcase ......12

Profile.........................................26

The Answer Is ............................28

Mark Your Calendar...................32

Certification Schedule................34

Just the Facts ..............................36

NDE School Profiles..................38

Classifieds..................................44

Advertiser Index ........................44

Cover photo: WTTI's UT Level IItechnician demonstrates ultrasonictesting of moment connections to AWSD1.1 at a customers job site. (Photocourtesy of WTTI, Allentown, Pa.)

INSPECTION TRENDS (ISSN 1523-7168) ispublished quarterly by the American WeldingSociety. Editorial and advertising offices are locatedat 8669 NW 36th St., Suite 130, Miami, FL 33166;telephone (305) 443-9353. Printed by R. R.Donnelley & Sons Co., Senatobia, Miss.Subscriptions $30.00 per year for noncertified,nonmembers in the United States and itspossessions; $50.00 per year in foreign countries;$20.00 per year for noncertified members andstudents; $10.00 single issue for nonmembers and$7.00 single issue for members. American WeldingSociety is located at 8669 NW 36th St., Suite 130,Miami, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., andadditional mailing offices.

POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Inspection Trends c/o American Welding Society,8669 NW 36th St., Suite 130, Miami, FL 33166.

Readers of Inspection Trends may make copies ofarticles for personal, archival, educational, or research purposes, and which are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles,provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources is made. Starred () items excludedfrom copyright.

AWS MISSION STATEMENTThe mission of the American Welding Society is to advance the science, technology, andapplication of welding and allied joining processes woldwide, including brazing, soldering,and thermal spraying.

Inspection Trends / Spring 2015 5

17 20

Editors Note

Inspection Trends / May 20156

By Mary Ruth Johnsen

Dear Readers,

I was fortunate during the years ofmy formal education that my job wasgoing to school. Other than babysitting, Inever worked during high school. Duringmy college years, while I certainly paid mydues as a waitress, hotel maid, desk clerk,and paid intern, I did those jobs during theChristmas and summer breaks. During theschool year, I worked as a reader for a blind

student and got paid for being a reporter on the Oracle, the studentnewspaper at the University of South Florida. Those two didnt seemlike work because I love to read and the newspaper office was where allmy friends hung out. In our minds, saving our school was just the firststep to saving the world as a bunch of crusading journalists.

Later I realized just how lucky I was. Attending classes andworking full time is tough. I watched my sister-in-law Sherree strugglewith going back to school while working full time and, along with mybrother, raising three children. Ive seen lots of my coworkers here at theAmerican Welding Society put in long days at the office and then headoff to class at night.

You know what their struggle is like. There was no CWI class inhigh school. Even if you earned a degree in welding or nondestructivetesting, its highly unlikely your classes included prepping for the CWIor Level II exams. Plus you needed years of work experience along witha certain level of education before you could even apply. When youwere ready to try for the certification, you either took a prep class or justslogged through the study guide entirely on your own. Either way, youmost likely then had to study, study, study. All this while most likelyworking full time, doing your chores around the house, and participatingin family life.

Here at Inspection Trends, we like to periodically take a look atsome of the schools that offer courses in nondestructive examination.Many of these programs cater to workers aiming to upgrade their skillsor put themselves on a new career path as well as students workingtoward beginning their careers. This issue its Nondestructive TestingInstitute (NDTI), a division of Welder Training & Testing Institute,Allentown, Pa., and the Ocean Corp., which offers two choices for NDEtraining, either with commercial diving or with no diving training.Theres also an item in the News Bulletins section about online NDEcourses available from Central Piedmont Community College,Charlotte, N.C. The school believes it is the only community college inthe Southeast to offer online nondestructive examination technology(NDET) training programs to professionals seeking an easier, moreflexible, and convenient way to learn a variety of NDET fundamentals.

If you are one of those professionals, my hats off to you. Earningthose additional credentials is not easy no matter how flexible yourwork and/or class schedule may be.

PublisherAndrew Cullison, [email protected]

Editorial

EditorMary Ruth Johnsen, [email protected]

Associate EditorsHoward Woodward, [email protected] Campbell, [email protected]

Editorial AssistantMelissa Gomez, [email protected]

Design and Production

Production EditorZaida Chavez, [email protected]

Senior Production CoordinatorBrenda Flores, [email protected]

Manager of International Periodicalsand Electronic MediaCarlos Guzman, [email protected]

Advertising

Manager of Sales OperationsLea Paneca, [email protected]

Senior Advertising Sales ExecutivesSandra Jorgensen, [email protected] Delagrange, [email protected]

Senior Advertising Production ManagerFrank Wilson, [email protected]

Subscriptions Representative

Danielle A. Garcia, [email protected]

American Welding Society8669 NW 36th St., #130Miami, FL 33166-6672(800/305) 443-9353

Copyright

Copyright 2015 by American Welding Society in bothprinted and electronic formats. The Society is not responsi-ble for any statement made or opinion expressed herein.Data and information developed by the authors of specificarticles are for informational purposes only and are notintended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

Reserve your sponsorship in one of these upcoming events

AWS Cladding Conference - Minneapolis, MN. May 12-13, 2015The use of cladding to protect structures from corrosion is growing by leaps and bounds. Weld cladding is a cost effective way to prepare structures and piping for applications such as sour gas, chemical reactors and storage vessels, high temperature power generation equipment, transition joints, and repair. Topics include hot-wire weld cladding, roll bonding, explosive cladding, nanocomposite material, strip cladding, the role of lasers, new materials and more that make cladding a competitive solution. Come network with experts who can help you select the preferred process and materials for your applications.

High Temperature Steels Conference - Chicago, IL, August 2015Materials used in high temperature application are becoming more complex to achieve the creep strength and corrosion resistance. A range of low alloy, high strength, and austenitic materials are required depending on the application. What choices does the engineer have once the weldability window for high-temperature steels is cut in half? Come and learn from the experts how to manage weldability of P91 steel, dissimilar metal welding, postweld heat treating, selection of weld consumables, the types of weld cracking, and more.

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News Bulletins


National Lab Partners with APLAIR toCommercialize Weld Inspection Technology

Tennessee-based APLAIR Manufacturing Systemsrecently licensed an infrared imaging system for weldinspection developed by the U.S. Dept. of Energys Oak RidgeNational Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, Tenn.

The average U.S.-built car has more than 4000 resistancespot welds. Manufacturers typically inspect the quality of weldswith a pry check, an expensive and destructive process in which

samples of welded parts are manually torn apart.The infrared imaging system from ORNL will help

automakers quickly determine weld quality without damagingthe part. The infrared check takes only a few seconds, offeringthe industry a low-cost, nondestructive alternative to monitorwelds in real time.

The idea is to measure every weld, or at least everycritical weld, said Zhili Feng, one of the technologysdevelopers. It gives automakers an efficient method toimmediately send feedback to the production lines.

Staff from APLAIR and ORNL will collaborate to improveand validate the technology under a cooperative research anddevelopment agreement, including tests on an industrial-scaleassembly line. The current version of the technology can beapplied to a wide range of steel welds regardless of thematerials surface finish or thickness. ORNL researchers plan toexpand the technique to other metals, which could helpautomakers explore the use of newer high-strength, lightweightmaterials such as aluminum alloys and magnesium alloys.These types of materials typically require more stringentwelding conditions and are more difficult to evaluate with thestandard pry-check test.

This technology will enable increased use of innovativematerials in auto body structures to meet needs for fuel

Coating Thickness Material Analysis Microhardness Material Testing

Outstanding features

Fast, non-destructive measurement of ferrite content on-site or in the lab

Ferrite measurable either in Ferrite-percentage %Fe or Ferritenumber FN

Measurement range 0.1 to 80% Fe or 0.1 to 110 FN

Evaluation capabilities to the platform FISCHER Data Center Software

User-friendly operation menu

www.fischer-technology.com

Handheld instrument for the measurement of the ferrite content in Austenitic and Duplex Steel

Ferrite Content with the FERITSCOPE FMP30fast, precise and non-destructive

ORNL Researcher Jian Chen works with the prototype weldinspection system licensed by APLAIR Manufacturing Systems.

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efficiency and crashworthiness, said Jian Chen, an ORNLresearcher.

APLAIR intends to make a commercial product based onthe ORNL technology available within two years.

Annual NDT Salary and Benefits SurveyResults Available

The results of PQNDTs annual salary and benefits surveyhave been tallied and are now available on its website atwww.pqndt.com/resources.html. The survey contains salaryinformation for NDE and quality inspection jobs throughout theUnited States and across all industries.

To access the 2014 survey, you will need to provide your e-mail address. The results of previous surveys, beginning with2006, are available by just clicking on a link.

North Carolina College Offering OnlineNondestructive Examination Training

Central Piedmont Community College (CPCC), Charlotte,N.C., has added two online training courses to its Non-Destructive Examination Technology (NDET) programs list ofclass offerings: Introduction to NDE and Visual Testing.

Were excited about the addition of our new onlinecourses, which will allow students to learn on their scheduleand master the content at their pace, said Jay Potter, dean ofCPCCs Harper Campus.

The Introduction to NDE course is a 40-h class that givesstudents access to the materials for six months, either on their F

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computer, iPad, or other mobile device. The curriculumfocuses on NDE materials and material failures, manufacturingsystems and processes, the testing of material properties, andNDE process methods, including fracture mechanics.

The online, 40-h Visual Testing class includes a separateon-site practicum. During this class, students may applyindustry theories and knowledge to hands-on learningexperiences, providing each of them with a greaterunderstanding of NDE concepts and principles.

The Intro to NDET online training course is $495, theVisual Testing class is $695, and the practicum is $595. Formore information, visit cpccedu/ndet/online training. Toregister, call (704) 330-4223.

Spectronics Announces Personnel Changes

Spectronics Corp., Westbury, N.Y., recently announcedseveral promotions including that of Limin Chen to vicepresident of Manufacturing and Special Projects. Chen joinedthe company in 1993 as a mechanical product developmentengineer and has been the lead engineer for the pipe freezer,UV EPROM/wafter eraser, and grid lamp products for morethan ten years. In his new position, Chen will direct andguide Spectronics manufacturing/engineering team inestablishing procedures and all required documents in themanufacturing process and direct the plant engineering team,which is responsible for overall maintenance of themanufacturing facility.

The maker of ultraviolet equipment and fluorescentmaterials also promoted Daniel Cooper to general manager ofoperations, Michael Fleming to director of Product


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Management,Daniel Chusid totechnical salesand regulatorycompliancespecialist, andappointed DanielTristan asinternational salesmanager for Latin

American and Asia-Pacific regions. In their new roles,Cooper will oversee prototype design, research anddevelopment, marketing, and customer satisfaction, andensure product quality and reliability; Fleming will be inoverall charge of product management; and Chusid will beresponsible for maintaining legal and regulatory compliancefor the company. Tristan, who previously was director ofsales and marketing at Dreyfus Global Trade, will becharged with supporting and increasing sales by managingSpectronicss existing distribution networks in histerritories.



Limin Chen Daniel Cooper Daniel Chusid

Michael Fleming Daniel Tristan


Print and Product Showcase


CMOS X-Ray DetectorOffers High Resolution, FastImaging

The Rad-icon 3030 detectorfeatures 3096 3100 pixel resolution,

an active area of 30.6 30.7 cm, and99-micron size. Part of the Rad-iconfamily of complementary metal-oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) detectors, itdelivers real-time frame rate of up to30 f/s, high sensitivity, and excellentresolution. The detectors offer a

combination of higher resolution andfast imaging, making them suitable forindustrial X-ray inspection, scientificimaging, and nondestructive testing,including weld inspection, wire bondand printed circuit board inspection,microfocus, computed tomography,and other demanding imagingapplications.

Teledyne DALSAwww.teledynedalsa.com/xray

Tension/Compression ForceTester Is Easily Configured

The Model ESM303 force tester isa highly configurable, single-columninstrument for tension and compressionmeasurement applications up to 300 lb-f. It can perform break testing,cycling, limit testing to a load ordistance, load holding, elongationtesting, tensile testing, andcompression testing. Features includethe FollowMe function thatsimplifies test setup via hand-activated,force-based positioning. It isengineered on a modular platformfunction, and individual functions suchas travel measurement, cycling, andload holding may be purchased up

Over 60 experts in the industry, from research labs, universities, manufacturers, and fabricators, have collaborated on this volume to ensure the accuracy and currency of each of the 10 chapters.

The volume covers aluminum; magnesium; copper; nickel and cobalt; lead and zinc; titanium; reactive, reflective and precious metals; plastics; ceramics; and composites and is an excellent reference source for engineers, designers, educators, technicians, and welders.

Each chapter includes a thorough explanation of the metal or material, details of the welding processes used to join it, safe practices, and a comprehensive bibliography.

The volume includes more than 750 pages; 417 illustrations, which include photos, micrographs, and line drawings; and 274 tables. Hardbound, 8 x 10 in.

Visit pubs.aws.org to claim your copy today!

www.aws.org ITS HERE!THE NEWLY-UPDATED VOLUME 5 OF

THE WELDING HANDBOOK: MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS, PART 2


PUBLICATIONS

THE WELDING HANDBOOK: MATHE NEWL

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front or enabled in the field through an application code,allowing for custom configuration. Force and travel datacan be output to a computer for graphing and analysisusing MESUR gauge software.

Mark-10 Corp.www.mark-10.com

Phased Array Flaw Detector FeaturesEasy Operation

The KrautkramerUSM Vision+ultrasonic flawdetector can be easilyoperated in bothconventional andphased array modes.Inspectors can tackle arange of applicationsfrom weld inspection

to corrosion monitoring, while retaining control of thetotal process. It can be used for any weld configuration,circumferential or longitudinal, and is compatible with awide range of motion encoders. Its phased array 16-128configuration ensures compliance with all acceptedinspection codes. It can be used for parallel scanning,allowing an inspector to scan both sides of a weld in onepass. Corrosion inspection and monitoring can be carriedout using GEs DM phased array probes. The instrumentis designed to operate with a range of low-profilescanners. Inspection data are displayed on a large, high-resolution screen. When required, instant reporting can beprovided by jpeg. It features a rubberized housing andweighs 8.8 lb.

GE Measurement & Controlwww.gemeasurement.com

EDXRF Spectrometers Deliver ReliableOn-Site Analysis

The SPECTROxSORT line ofhandheld energy-dispersive X-rayfluorescence(EDXRF)spectrometersprovides on-siteelemental analysis andspectrochemicaltesting in the plant or

out in the field. They all feature easy-to-use displays andefficient ergonomics. The SPECTRO xSORTAlloyhandheld XRF is an entry-level model useful foraffordable metals identification and for quick incominginspection of materials. The AlloyPlus model features ahigh-quality silicon drift detector and is designed foradvanced metals analysis and is useful for scrap metalssorting and positive material identification. The NonAlloymodel delivers fast, reliable measurement and elemental


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main element is an irrigated water boxhousing a curved ultrasonic phasedarray probe. The water box is setconcentric to the pipe surface and sealsthe instrument to the pipe withreplaceable, low-friction foam gasketsto provide immersion quality ultrasonicdata with near-surface resolution. Thescanner is equipped with an adjustablebuggy and four high-strength magneticwheels. Multiple water boxes areavailable to suit the full range of small-bore pipe diameters from 1 to 4 in.

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Ultrasonic Flaw DetectorFeatures Easy-to-UseInterface

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FeatureBy Mike Oden

The Ocean Corp. has trained menand women for careers in commercialdiving and nondestructive testing since1969. Training takes place at theschools 4.2-acre campus that includesa 10,000-sq-ft building with 60%improved office and classroom spaceand 40% warehouse area. The trainingarea consists of five classrooms, anelaborate dive tank complex, weldingshop, and magnetic particle laboratory.The main campus is located at 10840Rockley Rd. in Houston, Tex.

The Ocean Corp. trains students tobe competent employees in thecommercial diving and industrialinspection professions. Its graduatespossess the knowledge, skills, andcredentials necessary to obtain entry-level employment in the industry forwhich they were trained, and thus tobegin successful careers in high-demand occupations.

In addition to classroom facilitiesand administrative offices, the campusfacility includes Student library and research room Elaborate training tank complex

Figs. 1, 2 Permanently installed medical

decompression chamber facility Portable decompression chamber 400-ft-rated wet lockout diving bell

system Training workshop and equipment

storage facilities.The school also utilizes the Marine

Sciences campus at Texas A&MUniversity Fig. 3. Open-water divesand offshore safety and survivaltraining are held at this facility inGalveston, Tex. Fig. 4.

Students attending Ocean Corp.have two training options: the UltimateDiver Training program (UDT) and the

Nondestructive Testing program(NDT). Students in the UDT programlearn both commercial diving andnondestructive examination (Fig. 5),whereas students in the NDT programlearn six inspection methods butreceive no commercial divinginstruction.

The Ultimate Diver TrainingProgram

The UDT program is the betterchoice for people wanting to work inboth the commercial diving andnondestructive examination industries.The program meets or exceeds thestandards of the American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI) for entry-level commercial divers, and graduatesreceive the academic credentialsnecessary for certification up to LevelII as outlined in American Society for

Nondestructive Testing SNT-TC-1A.Graduates of this program are skilled inwelding and cutting (Fig. 6), bothsurface and underwater, and in air,mixed gas, and saturation diving.Graduates have the skills andknowledge to set up, calibrate, and useultrasonic testing (UT) and magneticparticle testing (MT) equipment.Ultimate diver training students arealso introduced to the latestadvancement in the diving andinspection industries remotelyoperated vehicles (ROVs). They aregiven an overview of the types andstyles of ROVs used in the industryand are taught about offshorestructures/vessels and ROVapplications. Students graduating fromthe UDT program are prepared for anentry-level position in the commercialdiving and inspection industries.

Graduates of the UDTprogramreceive


Texas School Offers Both Wet and DryInspection TrainingOcean Corp. offers students training that gives them a choice of working in both thecommercial diving and nondestructive examination industries

Fig. 1 A student descends to the bottom of a 30-ft-deep dive training tank.

Commercial Diver Card Magnetic particle testing Levels I and

II Ultrasonic testing Levels I and II Surface and underwater welding

qualifications Offshore Survival and Safety (TEEX) National Association of Underwater

Instructors (NAUI Worldwide)Master Scuba Diver Certification

Hazardous Waste Operations andEmergency Response (HAZWOPER)(40 hours) as outlined in 29CFR1910.120.

The Nondestructive TestingProgram

The nondestructive testing/inspection training program is a

comprehensive program that providesgraduates the skills and knowledge toset up, calibrate, and use inspectionequipment commonly used in theindustry today Fig. 7. Ultrasonic(UT), magnetic particle (MT), liquidpenetrant (PT), eddy current (ET),radiography (RT), and visual testing(VT) methods are all addressed indepth Fig. 8. Students graduatingfrom the nondestructive testing/inspection training program areprepared for an entry-level position ininspection, safety technologies, andquality control industries.

Graduates of this program are ableto conduct tests, interpret, evaluate, anddocument results of those testsaccording to specific writtenprocedures for the detection ofdiscontinuities and defects in various

materials. The different processes usedto turn raw materials into variousproducts and the defects inherent inthose processes are also covered.Students gain an understanding ofrigging in accordance with proceduresoutlined in API RP2D and remotelyoperated vehicles operations as theyrelate to the NDT/inspection industry.Workplace safety is covered in the FirstAid and HAZWOPER modules. TheNDT program provides hands-ontraining with a variety of equipmentincluding ultrasonic flaw detectors,thickness meters, and magnetic yokesand coils. Students are also introducedto the various inspection codes andspecifications. Graduates receive theacademic credentials necessary forcertification up to Level II as outlinedin ASNT SNT-TC-1A.


Fig. 2 A dive student suits up for a dive. Fig. 3 Diving students training at Texas A&M UniversitysMarine Science facility in Galveston, Tex.

Fig. 4 Diving students undergo rigorous offshore survivaland safety training at Texas A&Ms facility in Galveston.

Fig. 5 A diving student inspects a flange for flaws.

Graduates are prepared to performessential job skills relating to Levels Iand II of nondestructive examination inthe methods of VT, MT, PT, UT, EC,and RT. In addition, they can use thefollowing skills: practical riggingtechniques, NDT remotely operatedvehicles, report and procedure writing,interview skills, hazardous wasteoperations, and emergency responseprocedures, cardiopulmonaryresuscitation (CPR), first aid, jobresearch, welding and cutting, materialsand processes, and rsum writing.

Graduates of this program receive Magnetic particle testing Levels I and

II

Dye penetrant testing I and II Ultrasonic testing I and II Eddy current testing I and II Radiographic testing I and II Visual testing 1, 2, and 3 Radiation safety (40 hours) HAZWOPER (40 hours) as outlined

in 29CFR 1910.120 American Red Cross first

aid/CPR/automated externaldefibrillator (AED).This program meets or exceeds the

standards established by ASNT SNT-TC-1A (Testing Criteria 1A andCP-189).

Summary

The UDT and NDT programs atOcean Corp. are geared toward menand women who enjoy the challenge ofworking with their hands to solvecomplex problems. The majority oftraining at the school is hands-on andcan be completed in 33 weeks. Jobplacement is provided to graduates andis offered for life or as long as thegraduate needs assistance. No previousdiving, welding, or inspectionexperience is required to register forprograms at Ocean Corp. Studentsmust be at least 18 years old and have ahigh school diploma or GED. Studentsregistering for the UDT program mustalso complete a diving physical with amedical doctor to determine whetherhe or she is fit to dive. The OceanCorp. is a 2015 military friendly schoolthat accepts the Montgomery and Post9/11 GI Bills, and VOC Rehab. Thereis also federal financial aid availablefor those who qualify. For moreinformation, visit www.oceancorp.comor call (800) 321-0298.


Fig. 6 Dive student practicing cutting underwater.

Fig. 7 A flaw detector used forteaching Ocean Corp. students how toperform weld inspections usingultrasound.

Fig. 8 NDE students learning principles of visual inspection.

MIKE ODEN([email protected])

is with admissions at Ocean Corp., Hous-ton, Tex. He holds a masters degree in

education specializing in adult educationand training, and has worked as both a

diver and as an NDE inspector.

Feature


By Robert Ward

Natural objects, such as granite,and man-made structures, such asbridges, cars, ships, refineries, andaircraft, are all subject to the sameenvironmental stresses. Light,temperature changes, water, and gasesin the air all play a role in thebreakdown of materials. The one majordifference is just how quickly thatbreakdown occurs.

A general term for the degradationof man-made structures is corrosion.Scientists try to understand themechanisms by which corrosionoccurs, design barriers to corrosion,find ways to monitor the progress ofcorrosion, and build processes for assetmaintenance and systems to reduce theoverall costs of corrosion to society.

The Cost of Corrosion

The economic impact of corrosionhas been researched at length. A well-known study published in 1999 byNACE (the National Association ofCorrosion Engineers) titled The UnitedStates Cost of Corrosion Studyindicates that the direct cost ofcorrosion is more than 3% of the GrossDomestic Product (GDP). Similarstudies report direct costs ranging from2 to 4.5% of the GDP. The real issue iswhere direct costs end and indirectcosts begin. If a steam pipe under astreet corrodes to an extent that greatamounts of water are lost, the directcosts would be the replacement cost ofthe pipe, including material and workerhours and possibly the cost to repairthe sinkhole made in the road above.But the cost of lost productivity byclosing the street and the lack of steambeing provided by that pipe are notcounted as direct costs. The NACE

Corrosion Monitoring, Detection, andMeasurement

Equipment manufacturers are helping organizations control costs

Fig. 1 Diagram of a digital radiography system.

Fig. 2 A typical application space for corrosion under insulation.


publication suggests that for sometypes of structures (a bridge, forinstance), actual costs are greater thanfive times the direct costs.

Given these enormous costs, it isnot surprising that there are largeindustries centered on

1. Corrosion prevention (such asadditives in water systems, coatingmaterials like paint for automobiles, etc.)

2. Corrosion repair andmaintenance

3. Corrosion monitoring,detection, and measurement.

This article focuses on corrosionmonitoring, detection, andmeasurement as it pertains to pipes andvessels fabricated from metals, withand without protective coatings.

Corrosion Monitoring

Think of the industrialinfrastructure of a plant, mill, refineryor manufacturing facility as a humanbody; the metal pipes and vessels arethe circulatory system and organs.Pipes transport water, processedchemicals, and raw materials such ascrude oil and waste products. Vessels,like organs, accept the materialsbrought to them, and managetemperature and pressure to circulatematerials (product and wastes) backinto the system for distribution.

Engineers choose pipe and vesselmaterials that can withstand as much aspossible the elements that causecorrosion in the intended temperature,pressure, and product environment.While these pipes and vessels are still

subject to corrosion, the degrees andtypes can vary. Types of corrosiontypically fall into three maincategories:

1. Predictable. If a given materialis passing through a given pipe orvessel, at a given set of temperaturesand pressures, general corrosion isexpected and predictable. Materials inthis category are most often under acomprehensive maintenance andinspection program. This case isgenerally well known and statisticallysignificant inspection surveys willoften suffice rather than full assetinspections.

In some cases, engineers shouldexpect specific attack mechanisms suchas microbial-induced corrosion or otherpit-developing processes to take place.These conditions call for inspectiontechniques that can cover large areasquickly with precision measurements,such as phased array ultrasound. Spotchecking will not reliably find pits, anddigital radiography may not be asuitable option due to time, safety, anddefect size considerations.

2. Unpredictable, but expected.Certain conditions may give rise tolocalized corrosion environments, suchas the following:

Corrosion under insulation(CUI). In the process of transformingraw materials to products, temperatureis often a major control requirementmeaning that pipes or vessels areinsulated. In many cases, theseprocesses occur outside in theenvironment, so insulation can bedamaged or degraded, allowing aningress of water or product into thespace between metal wall andinsulation. It is not always easy torecognize the areas of concern, and it iscostly to remove insulation, inspect for

damage, and then reapply insulation.During the time insulation is not on thepipe, the system must be shut down.

Flow accelerated corrosion (FAC)has known locations of likelihood (apipe elbow after a valve), but there is alow probability of knowing whichelbows have had FAC, so again a quickreliable tool for elbows is needed.

3. Unpredictable. An example ofunpredictable corrosion would be inthe production of crude oil. If a wellpicks up significant sand or otherabrasive material, it can cause veryfast-acting corrosion. The only reliablemeans of determining if this ishappening is to fully monitor the pipeor vessel with installed sensorsattached to the metal surface and underthe insulation, if any.

Corrosion Detection

Permanently installed sensors arethe early warning system ofunpredictable corrosion. In this case, arigorous process for measuring theproperties of the material entering theasset cannot be managed well enoughto detect fast-acting corrosive agents(sand, sulfur, acid, or base conditionswidely different than expected).

Corrosion under insulation andFAC are conditions under which theasset owner can expect the possibilityof corrosion, but cannot easilydetermine the most likely area where itmay have occurred. Digitalradiography (DR) is one of the bettertools to use in these cases, as it is fastand does not require the insulation beremoved and replaced. Digitalradiography also makes it easier tomanage large volumes of inspectiondata using DICONDE-compliant

Fig. 3 Using digital radiographyfor flow accelerated corrosion canyield fast, accurate results.

Fig. 4 With traditional thickness gauges such as the one on the left, finding a pitis as difficult as finding a needle in a haystack. Todays phased array ultrasonicinstruments make finding the needle possible.


digital reporting tools, such as GEsRhythm Enterprise Archive. Figure 1shows a diagram of a system and Figs.2 and 3 show typical applications.

Digital radiography has been fieldproven to significantly reduceinspection times by more than 95%. Itshortens radiation exposure time,eliminates film chemical processing,and minimizes the safety-affected workarea. Digital radiography also reducesoverall image noise levels, therebyyielding improved image quality. Thesecombined factors improve the detectivequantum efficiency (DQE) metric, awidely accepted metric for full-fielddigital detectors.

Corrosion Monitoring andPit Detection Using PhasedArray Ultrasound

Regularly scheduled inspectionscan validate corrosion rates and allowengineers and operators to better planfor maintenance situations. Whileultrasound thickness (UT) readings canbe of occasional use with regularlyscheduled inspections, they do notprovide enough precision with thecollection of manual thickness readingsto adequately determine wall thicknesslosses from corrosion. Pitting cannot bereliably detected by conventional UTmethods simply because the size of thedefect is small compared to the areainspected.

Phased array ultrasound (PAUT)techniques can be developed toapproach the needed precision and getgreat coverage quickly Fig. 4.

Historically, the issues with the useof PAUT for corrosion evaluation andpitting detection have been

1. Availability of trainedtechnicians

2. Uniformity of testing (i.e.,consistency between testing)

3. Equipment costs.Availability of trained technicians

is the most pressing issue. It has beenmuch more difficult to find and traintechnicians on phased array systemsthan other inspection tools. However,this also is changing as more traininginstitutes and colleges areincorporating phased array ultrasoundtechnology courses, and the greatbenefits of phased array have resultedin more companies investing intraining. Equipment manufacturers,such as GE Inspection Technologies,

are allowing the experts in a companyto easily customize the user interface ofa phased array device so that a lessexperienced technician can much moreeasily learn to set up the devicecorrectly and gather high value data.

These custom interfaces can beordered into a seamless workflow asthe less experienced technician workshis or her way through setting up thedevice, calibrating it, developing gaincompensation curves, and getting readyto collect data. These serialized custominterfaces allow the input of photos,documents, and other aids to help thetechnician verify the device is set upcorrectly. If a technician does notunderstand a step or a data signal, he orshe can push a button on the device andthe screen is immediately shared on thePC, phone, or tablet of the boss orcustomer as long as both are in awireless area. These new developmentsmitigate the hurdles in takingadvantage of the precision andproductivity gains allowed by usingPAUT.

Conclusion

The direct and indirect costs ofcorrosion can be staggering. Withimproved inspection technologies, suchas digital radiography and phased arrayultrasound, and maintenance schedules,equipment manufacturers andproviders are helping organizationscontrol costs and get a better handle onthe health of their assets.

ROBERT WARDis a senior project manager for

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) andElectromagnetics (EM) Innovation at

GE Measurement & Control, adivision of GE Oil & Gas, Lewistown,

Pa., www.gemeasurement.com.


FeatureBy Jeffrey T. Wiswesser

Each nondestructive examination(NDE) method requires the practitionerto acquire and assimilate a particularbody of knowledge and set of skills inorder to effectively apply it to aspecific application. The trend today isthat companies are moving towardtraining their own employees innondestructive testing and inspection,rather than hiring third parties toprovide the service. Individuals arealso taking steps toward certificationby attending courses, thus bolsteringtheir rsums for employmentopportunities. The NondestructiveTesting Institute (NDTI), a division ofWelder Training & Testing Institute(WTTI), has witnessed this first hand.

As a provider of nondestructiveinspector training, NDTI conductspublic seminars, as well as company-specific programs, at its training centerin Allentown, Pa. Courses are alsoprovided at customer sites, whichbrings the training into the employersfacility, allowing for the instruction totake place in the same environment andon the same equipment trainees willutilize in their daily work activities.

NDTIs publicly offered coursesand seminars cover the most commonNDE methods utilized by industry:magnetic particle (MT), liquidpenetrant (PT), ultrasonic (UT),radiography (RT), visual (VT), andeddy current (ET). Training often leanstoward a focus on the application ofthese methods as utilized in theinspection of welds, but notexclusively, as casting, forgings,wrought material, and machinedproducts are also covered in thecurriculum. Customized seminars oftenhighlight the employers use of the

NDE method for a specific product,industry, or application.

The schools knowledgeableinstructors are ASNT and NAS 410Level III certificate holders. They havea great deal of both teaching andpractical experience, having performedNDE in numerous sectors throughoutindustry. Their expertise and practicalknowledge of techniques translate intoeffective training programs for the real-world application of NDE coursecontent. Instruction includes conceptsand practices that are conveyed to thetrainees through the use of visual aids,hands-on activities, and a detailedexplanation of course material.

The courses are designed toprepare attendees to pass Level I orLevel II qualification exams towardcertification (following the ASNTrecommended practice SNT-TC-1A orother similar guidelines as specified).

Qualification typically refers to theclassroom training, examination, andexperience hours the trainee completes,as defined in the employers writtenpractice. According to SNT-TC-1A,Level I inspectors should be qualifiedto perform specific calibrations, NDE,and evaluations in accordance withwritten instructions, under thesupervision of a NDT Level II or LevelIII. Level II inspectors should bequalified to perform calibrations orinterpret and evaluate results in relationto codes and standards. They can alsoorganize and report results, as well asguide trainees and Level I inspectors.

NDTIs training courses includethe specific techniques in each methodto prepare students for Level I and/orLevel II certification. Certificationrefers to the written testimony by anemployer of the successful completionof qualification in accordance with a


Pennsylvania School Offers Wide Range ofNDE-Related CoursesThe Nondestructive Testing Institutes courses are designed to prepare attendees to passLevel I or Level II qualification exams toward certification

A vessel is inspected by an ASNT RT Level III inspector during a training sessionto confirm the location and identification of the penetrameter.

standard practice, such as SNT-TC-1A.Once an individual has met thetraining, examination, and experiencerequirements, a company-appointedLevel III will attest by signing off onthe certificate. NDTI also providesthese Level III services. The employerwill then certify and assign theindividual in their specific NDEmethod.

Training in NDE is appropriate forquality control (QC) personnel in-training, engineers, quality assurance(QA) personnel, and managers ofQA/QC personnel. Typically, the otherindividuals enrolling in NDTIs coursesare owners of small businesses,welding instructors, and those seekingcontinuing education for recertificationof the AWS Certified WeldingInspector (CWI) or other similarcredentials.

The content of an NDE seminarshould include not only the methodtheory and techniques, but alsorequirements of the codes andstandards that are currently being used

along withrequirements of theinspection personnelto be qualified. SNT-TC-1A is arecommendedpractice, but otherstandards, such as ASNT CP 189, aremandated with minimum acceptablelimits.

Throughout the education process,NDTIs instructors bring theparticipants to a working knowledge ofwhat the standards require. Themovement is toward more documentedqualification for methods thought to bepreviously simple. Customers arerequesting inspectors personnelrecords and verifying them with thecode or standard. If documentation isnot present or being maintained in acurrent state, then everything thatperson has inspected may be inquestion. NDTI Level III servicesassist companies in developing andmaintaining NDE programs to meettheir customers requirements,

including documentation such as theemployers written practice, methodprocedures, and work instructions, aswell as inspector credentials asevidence of meeting the training andexamination requirements.

The schools courses involvehands-on activities to provide thestudent with a working knowledge ofthe equipment and techniques of themethod. This is accomplished throughthe use of specimens with known flawsfor students to review during theinstructional process. Some of theseitems have been accumulated throughreal-world applications, and may beproduction parts that have beenrejected and maintained forinstructional use. Training followsASNT CP 105, Standard TopicalOutlines for Qualification of


An ASNT RTLevel II instructor reviews film with students using a film viewer to evaluate an indication on a weld. Thedensitometer is utilized to verify that the density of the film is acceptable.

An NDE trainee gains experience hours under the supervision ofa qualified NDE Level II inspector, as they ultrasonically test abridge component in a fabricators shop.

A UT trainee uses ultrasonic testing to inspect a pipegroove weld to an ASME code.

Nondestructive Testing. The body ofknowledge contained is taught in thetheory classes through the use ofelectronic media and classroomdiscussion. NDTIs examinationservices may be incorporated intocourses and used by the sponsoringemployers to satisfy their writtenpractice. At the completion of a course,examinations are administered asrequired by the qualification process.This often includes a general, specific,practical, and physical test.

Course Offerings

Of the many courses offered,liquid penetrant and magnetic particletesting are the shortest and mostcommon of the SNT-TC-1A-basedpublic seminars for Level I and/orLevel II qualification. These coursescan be taken individually or back toback. Penetrant testing courses are twodays in length and have an emphasis onthe visible solvent removed technique.Instructors also demonstrate othertechniques including water-washablefluorescent and visible, as well aspostemulsified fluorescent and visible.

Magnetic particle testing coursesare three days in length with anemphasis on the yoke method.Instructors also demonstrate the use ofprods, head shot, central conductor, anda coil. Demonstrations are conductedon such items as bolts, welds, castings,piping, and pressed-metal products.

Ultrasonic testing is divided intotwo separate five-day courses for LevelI and Level II, respectively. Duringthese courses, there is a strongemphasis on the practical applicationof UT skills. Much of the focus is onthe conventional pulse echo contacttechnique as applied principally toweld testing. Practical exercisesconcentrate on familiarization of thetrainees with two principal structuralwelding codes used in industry: AWSD1.1, Structural Welding Code Steel, Part F/Annex S and AWS D1.5,Bridge Welding Code, Part C.Customized training is available forother UT techniques such as thicknessmeasurement, ultrasonic corrosiontesting, ultrasonic verification of bolttension, and phased array, all of whichare discussed in the theory portion ofthe public UT seminars. Candidates areencouraged to bring their own UTinstrument to class, if they possess one;however, equipment is available for use

as part of the course.Radiography and eddy current

testing courses are organized similar toUT, in order to meet the specifiednumber of training hours recommendedin SNT-TC-1A. One week of training isheld for Level I and a separate week oftraining is held for Level II.Radiographic testing techniquesinclude both digital and filmradiography. NDTI also conducts aradiographic interpretation (RI) coursein accordance with SNT-TC-1Aguidelines for those who do not havethe equipment for processing, but wantto be qualified to interpret results. TheRI course is a five-day program.

Visual testing is offered as acustom seminar, and Levels I and II arecombined as a four-day program.Techniques covered include both directand remote, which includes the use ofborescopes, fiberscopes, and videoprobes.

Although NDTIs courses usuallyfulfill the training and examinationrequirements of an employers writtenpractices, as recommended by SNT-TC-1A, it is the employers responsibility toensure the work experience componentof qualification is completed before thetrainee is certified and assigned for NDEactivities. Additionally, periodicrecertification is required, the methodand frequency of which may varybetween standards and codes, and fromone employers NDE program to thenext.

Whats Expected andBenefits

Certified NDE inspectors examinematerials and welds at various stages ofconstruction. Parts may be accepted,rejected, or repaired during the weldingprocess. An inspectors presence on ajob site will save time and money byallowing repairs to be conducted whilethe welders are on site. Finishedproducts can be tested throughout theirlifecycle to maintain integrity. In theend, trained and certified NDEpersonnel should enhance your qualitysystem.

NDTIs inspection courses aredesigned to help your employees gainthe necessary knowledge in thetechniques, equipment, codes,standards, and other documents thatcontrol the NDE methods beingutilized in your company. Publicseminars are held throughout the year,a schedule of which can be found at itswebsite www.ndtinstitute.com.


During a visual testing training program, students use inspection gauges toevaluate indications on a specimens with known defects.

JEFFREY T. WISWESSER([email protected]) is a director with

Nondestructive Testing Institute, Allen-town, Pa. He is an AWS Certified Welding

Inspector and Certified Radiographic Interpreter and an ASNT Level III.

When I decided to become anAWS Certified Welding Inspector 20years ago, I hardly thought it wouldbecome one of the most valuableinvestments of my career Fig. 1. Butthe CWI training and experience, alongwith a degree in welding, provedinvaluable, opening doors to many newjob opportunities, even in todayseconomy. The majority of U.S.businesses have some products orprojects that require welding as well asquality control and quality assurance,in-house inspections, or independentthird-party inspections to ensure thecomponents meet requisite codes andspecifications. Following are some ofthe challenges and rewards of mypersonal CWI journey.

The Journey to Certification

My current CWI expertise stemsfrom the degree in welding technology Ireceived in 1985 from Ferris StateUniversity, Big Rapids, Mich., and morethan 25 years of experience in thewelding and nondestructive examination(NDE) fields. Over the years, I have heldpositions as a welder in the automotiveproduction industry, welding supplier,and structural steel fabrication fields. Ijoined Non-Destructive Testing Group,Caledonia, Mich., in 1989, which wasacquired by TV Rheinland IndustrialSolutions in 2008, and moved ontoperforming inspections on buildings,bridges, and in the petroleum industry.

My first attempt to earn the CWIcertification, with only my weldingknowledge out of college and very littletime to study, resulted in my obtainingCertified Associate Welding Inspectorstatus. I worked under a CWI qualifyingwelders and processing welderqualification tests while studying theAmerican Welding Society CWI studyguide in my free time. My efforts finally

paid off when I officially joined theranks of AWS CWIs. My route tocertification differed from the trainingoffered directly by the AWS, but thedestination was the same.

As an NDE examiner, I found theCWI certification program to be similarto the NDE program since certificationsfor both disciplines consist of a generalexam, specific exam, experience hours,and practical test to verify theknowledge of welding and inspectionprocesses. In the NDE field, there aremany certifications: visual, ultrasonic,magnetic particle, and liquid penetrant,just to name a few.

On a project that requires both aCWI and NDE evaluation, a CWI isusually the first to conduct a visualexamination, followed by an NDEinspector, provided the welds havepassed visual testing. The AWS CWIcertification, along with NDE, has manyuses in the energy, wind, solar, nuclear,

and petroleum industries. With moststeel or metal components, there areusually numerous welding steps they gothrough that require inspections inaccordance with specific codes andspecifications. These specificationsnormally require a third-party CWI toperform quality assurance inspections.

The CWI certification process hasits own challenges, too, culminating withthe exam. To this day, I often haveconversations and get questions fromindividuals who are preparing to take orhave taken the CWI test. Many havethought that some questions weredesigned to trick them or set them up forfailure. My answer is that one word canchange the whole meaning of thequestion and the exam is designed toverify the individual is able to identifysuch a word and demonstrate his or hercompetence, just as he or she wouldneed to do on a jobsite inspecting weldsfor a client.

ProfileChallenges and Rewards of Working as a CWI

Todd Sabo discusses his road to becoming a CWI and what hes learned over the years

Fig. 1 Todd Sabo performs an ultrasonic inspection on an anchor bolt to findfatigue indications.



Professional Challenges

When the training and certificationprocess is over, a beginning CWI needsto be prepared to address professionalchallenges competently. Customerrelations, interpreting codes, managingdocumentation and data, as well asclients and welders who may not befamiliar with the codes or changes to thecode requirements, are all part of the job.

For me, the most difficult part ofthe CWI practice was learning how tointerpret the codes and explain the coderequirements to individuals whose workI inspected. Most believe their welds tobe of the best quality, and things cansometimes get emotional if it turns outpart of the weld was not done to code orspecification. I often have to informindividuals of code changes and noteitems as deficient, so it is important tohandle these conversations in aprofessional manner. When explainingthe situation to individuals who may notagree with my findings, I try toremember two things: First, think aboutwhat you say before you say it; second,it is not what you say, but how you sayit. The key is to explain your views andthe codes objectively but accurately.Knowing the codes along with speakingobjectively can help you gain therespect of the client and individualwelders.

Welding Experience a Plus

As you know, a CWI is notrequired to have any actual weldingexperience; however, the inspectormust have been exposed to weldedassemblies fabricated to national orinternational standards. All therequirements can be found in AWSB5.1:2013, Specification for theQualification of Welding Inspectors. Ifeel it is important to have some levelof welding experience along withknowledge about welding processesbecause this knowledge helps the clientand welders find a solution to aproblem. If an inspector does not havewelding experience, he or she maycomplicate the inspection process byrejecting welds without knowing whatis causing the problem or how tocorrect the issue at hand, such aschanging the amps, volts, or position ofthe rod. Most quality-oriented welderswelcome the advice when it comes towelding matters and respect a CWIwho can make suggestions. However,

CWIs have no authority to makechanges or modifications conflictingwith the contract documents, which isthe responsibility of the projectsEngineer of Record.

What Ive Learned

I have performed many building,bridge, highway lighting, and signstructure inspections over the years andhave encountered many quality-oriented contractors and employeeswho have asked my advice about achallenging project. In my opinion, it isthe knowledge of welding that makes aCWI a more respected and requestedinspector, bringing not only personalgratification but also additional work tothe inspection company.

Over the years, my CWIexperience has taught me to reviewthings more thoroughly when it comesto quality. I frequently find myselflooking at things such as roof joistbearings, reinforcement, beamconnections, and exposed welds when Iwalk through a new building for whichI did not perform examinations orwhile purchasing something that was

welded. Like meeting someone for thefirst time, first impressions of a productare long lasting, and no one wants topurchase something with indications ofpoor quality.

Sometimes, a CWI can contributeto the project even if not actuallyinspecting welds. Recently, whileexamining the installation of lightpoles, I was also asked to reviewaccessible welds and notify the clientof any concerns. The contractor knew Iwas a CWI and was qualified to inspectthe welds. I happened to notice some ofthe aluminum welds were of poorquality and informed the owner asrequested. The fabricator was notified,and is currently addressing those weldconcerns.

Rewards of the Job

My biggest reward of being a CWI,especially on high-profile projects, is thesatisfaction of knowing the project wascompleted in accordance with thespecifications and the structuralintegrity was not compromised, alongwith the client being satisfied with thescope of work and results.

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The Answer IsBy


The Society is not responsible for any statements made or opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors are for specificinformational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

By K. Erickson and A. Moore

Q: My company usually works withsteel, but recently it has taken onprojects that involve stainless steel.What is the difference between steeland stainless steel?

A: (by A. Moore) Lets start at thebeginning with a brief lesson in ferrousmetallurgy. Any alloy system thatincludes the term steel is an iron-based alloy. To say it another way,anything with the name steel containsiron as the main component. We havelow-carbon steel, medium-carbon steel,high-carbon steel, tool steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, high-alloysteel, and lets not forget what youasked about, stainless steel. All of thesteels contain iron as the majorcomponent and are considered to beferrous metals.

Pure iron can have a crystallinestructure that is either body-centeredcubic (BCC) or face-centered cubic(FCC). The body-centered cubicstructure has atoms arranged in a cubicstructure with one atom at each of theeight corners of the cube and one moreatom inside the cube for a total of nine Fig. 1. The face-centered cubicstructure has one atom at the eightcorners of the cube, and one atom atthe center of each of the six faces Fig. 2.

Since the iron can be either BCCor FCC, it is said to be allotropic. Thecrystalline structure is dependent ontemperature. At room temperature, ironis BCC. At temperatures above 1670F,the atoms are rearranged to form aFCC unit cell. At temperatures above2535F, the atoms are rearranged tobecome BCC once again. Uponcooling, the process is reversed.

The crystalline structure of themetal strongly influences its physicalproperties. Metals that are BCC tend tobe strong and hard with reducedductility. Metals that are FCC tend tobe softer, not as strong, but have goodductility when compared to BCCstructures. While I have not talkedabout hexagonal closed packcrystalline unit cells, it is sufficient for

this discussion to say they tend to bebrittle and have poor ductility.

Back to our discussion of iron: It isBCC. It is hard, strong at roomtemperature, and strongly attracted to amagnet. Iron that is BCC cannot holdcarbon in solution. The solubility ofcarbon in BCC iron is only about0.02%. To differentiate it from FCCiron, BCC iron is called ferrite. Uponheating to temperatures above 1670F,it transforms into a FCC structure atwhich time it is no longer attracted to amagnet, is soft, very ductile, and easilyshaped. Carbon has high solubility inFCC iron. Iron that is FCC is calledaustenite. When iron is at a temperaturehigher than 1670F, it is said to beaustenitized.

One property of iron that makes itversatile is that it responds to heattreatment. Specifically, iron containingsufficient carbon can become quitehard when it is austenitized, allowingthe carbon to go into solution, thencooled very quickly, i.e., quenched, toform a supersaturate composition ofiron and carbon. When the iron iscooled to a temperature below 1335F,it wants to be BCC, but the carbontrapped between the iron atoms causes

the BCC to become elongated to forma rectangular-shaped body-centeredtetragonal (BCT) structure Fig. 3.This elongated crystalline structure iscalled martensite. It is characterized asbeing very hard and very strong, butrather brittle.

While iron has some desirableproperties that make it useful, thoseproperties can be enhanced by alloyingit with other metal and nonmetallicelements. As a side note, elements thatenhance the properties of the basemetal are called alloying elements.Those elements that are detrimental tothe properties of the base metal arecalled impurities. The one element thathas the strongest influence on thestrength and hardness of iron is carbon.A small increase in carbon content hasa significant influence on hardness andstrength at the expense of ductility.That is one relationship designerssometimes forget with disastrousconsequences. Chromium can be added

The Society is not responsible for any statements made or opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors are for specificinformational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

Fig. 1 Body-centered cubic (BCC)describes the arrangement of the ironatoms in a microstructure calledferrite. Eight of the iron atoms occupythe corners of the cube, with one ironatom inside the cube. The solubility ofcarbon in ferrite is very low, only about0.02%. This arrangement of the ironatoms occurs at temperatures above2570F and below 1670F.

Fig. 2 Face-centered cubicdescribes the arrangement of the ironatoms forming a microstructure calledaustenite. All the iron atoms are on theoutside surfaces of the cube. Thesolubility of carbon in austenite isconsiderably higher than it is in ferrite.The temperature of transformationfrom ferrite to austenite is dependenton the carbon content. Ferrite,containing virtually no carbon, must beheated above 1670F to transform intoaustenite. When iron containing 0.8%carbon is heated above 1334F, all thecarbon goes into solution. The iron issaid to be austenitized.


to improve corrosion resistance with anincrease in hardness and strength and areduction in ductility. Nickel can beadded to iron to improve low-temperature toughness, with a slightincrease in hardness and strength and

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