Fecsrurr-B

PnerecB:

I .

I I .

I I I .

IV.

CONTENTS

or rns Anre rlr tnB Onrcrr.rar, EortroN

Origin

Form

The Instrument

Ornamentation

General Rules

The Ornaments, Individually Treated

The Execution of Trills

Notes Concerning the Execution of the Ornaments

Variations

Fingeqing

Phrasing

Tempo

Dynamics

General Interpretation

Frontispiece

in the

PAGE

vii

vii

ix

x

x1

xi i

xv

\ /

vI.

VII.

VIII .

IX.

xv

xx

xx

xxiii

xxvii

xxviii

I

82

83

Facsrrnr,r or rnB Trrr.o-PAGE or rHE OnrorNer- EorrroN

Anre wrrn Tnrnrv VanrlrroNs

Texr RrvrsroN

Eorroa's Nore

PRE FACEI

ORIGINThc "Goldbcrg" Variations wcrc frrst publishcd in

1742 by Balthasar Schmid in Niirnberg under the

modcst titlc: "Kcyboard-practice, consisring of an

Aria with diferent variations for the harpsichord with

two manuals. Prepared for thc enioyment of music-

lovcrs by Johann &bastiao Bach, Polish royal and

Saxon electoral court-composer, dircctor and choir-

master in Leipzig." Thc Aria appears as a Sarabande

in Anna Magdalena Bach's notebook of rhe year 1725.

Alqut thc composition of thcse variations, Forkcll

tclls thc following story, which, for all its doubtful

character, has pcrmanently attachcd to rhem thc namc

of Bach's pupil, Johann Gottlicb Goldbetg.x"For this modcl, upon which all sets of variations

should be formcd (although fotcomprehcnsiblc reasons

not a single set has yct bccn thus made), wc havc to

thank thc instigation ofthe formcr Russian ambassador

to thc clectoral court of Saxony, Count Kaiserling,3

who often stoppcd in Lcipzig and brought thcre with

him the aforc-mcntioncd Goldbcrg, in order to have

hirn givcn rnusical insruction by Bach. The Count

was often ill and had sleepless nights. Ar such timcs,

Goldbcrg, who lived in his house, had to spcnd the

night in an antcchamber, so as to play for him during

his insomn- Once rhe Count mcntioned in Bach'sprcsence ah;rt he would likc to havc somc clavicrpieces for Goldberg, which should be ofsuch a smooth

and somcwhat livcly character rhat he might be alittle cheered up by them in his sleepless nights. Bachthought himself best able to fulfill rhis wish by means

of Variations, the writing of which he had until thcn

considercd an ungratcful task on account of the

repeatedly similar harmonic foundation. But sincc

at this time all his works werc alrcady models of art,

such also thcsc variations became undcr his hand.

Yct he ptoduced only a singlc work of this kind.

Thercafter the Count always called them hh vari-

ations. He oever tired of thcm, and for a long timc

slceplcss nights mcant: 'Dear Goldberg, do play me

one of my variations.' Bach was perhaps ncvcr so

rcwarded for one of his works as for this. The Countprcsented him with a golden goblet filled with 100

lo .r-d'or. Nevctthcless, even had the gift been a

thousand times larger, their artistic value would not

Yet havc been oaid for."

I IFORM

Likc an cnormous passacaglia, thcsc variations

reiterate the harmonic irnplications of the same bass in

rhirty difrcrcnt forms. This fundamental bass is never

stated entircly in its most elernental form, as quotcd

hcrc (Ex. 1), not even in thc Aria. But on this har-

monic skclcton and around it are constructed the

lariations, each highly organizcd and composcd ofindcpendent thematic material. Thesc follow ooe

anorher ir a symmctrical gtouping like rhe beads of arosary.

Certain al terations of the fundamental bass are to be

found. For cxample, chords of the sixth are inter-

changcd with their root positions, and t'ice t'rra. Ir

clcn happcns that a six-four is substituted for a sixth-

Ex. 1

r"LS€rJohann Scb$tien 3&hs Lcbcn, Kunst und Kunstwcrkc , Ix. (1802).{cc Ernst Daddcr: Johlnn corrlicb Goldbcrg ', Bac|-Jahrl*h, 1923, o.57.Scc Hcinrich Micsacr: Grlf r. Kc!.c.lingk und Mioisrcr v. Heppc,.zwci Grinocr dcr Familic Bach." B'.h-Ja/1rbacl1, 1,9J4, p.1,Ol.

tvtr l

THE C.OLDBERG VARIATIONS

chord. Thc bass, the third, thc sixth, or cven thefifth is occasionally sharpencd or flartened. In someplaccs thcrc is a cerrain interchange or ambiguoushcsitation bctwecn the 6frh and thc sixth, with muchusc of the third alooc againsr the bass, in order ro leavcthis ambiguity frec of limitation or definition. Frc-qucntly a basic chord is given a subordioate positionbut thc main progrcssion is re-atfirmcd by a kind ofharmonic circumlocution; or a harmony, iostead ofbcing statcd unequivocally once, is hintcd at two orthrcc timcs. This oftcn occurs in passages whereccrtain steps of thc bass are displaced from the mca-surcs propcr to thcm (especially in the canons) beingcithcr anticiparcd or reaardcd and bunched together arthc closc of a phrasc. Bur all these dcvices are em-ploycd by Bach in such ways as ncver ro obscure themain outl incs. A detailed study of these variarions!o try to sec exactly how Bach conceived their rela-tion to a commoo foundation reveals more fully theintellectual span, rhe imagination, and the geniuswhich pcrmitted so much daring freedom.

The form of the Variarions as a whole may beshown by comparison, as before, to that of a rosary, orpcrhaps bettcr explained by an archirectural analogy.Framed as if bctween two rerminal pylons, oneformed by the Aria and rhe first two variations, rheother by rhe rwo penultimare variations and the euod-libet, the \rariations are grouped like rhe members ofan claborare colonnadc. The groups are composed ofa canon and an elaborate two-manual arabesque, en-closing in cach casc anorher variarion of independentcharact . Following upon rhe pylonJike groupwhich terminates this rhythmic procession, the Ariarcpeated closes the grcat circle.

There are ninc canons, at intervals successivelyfrom thc unison ro lhc ninlh, rhose ar the fourrh andfifth in cootrary motion, rhat at rhe ninth wirhourany indepcndcnt third voice, such as accompanies theothers. Among thc variablc forms are to be found a

fughetta, a French overture, f lorid slow movemenasl

The Quodlibct mixcs together thc runes of twofolk-songs:

"Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'wcst.Ruck her, ruck her, ruck her. "

and:' 'Kraut und Riiben haben mich vertrieben.

Hitt, mein' Mutter Fleisch gekocht,so wir ich I ?inget blieben.',

These might be cranslated thus:"I ve oot been with you for so long.

Come closer, closer, closer."and :

' 'Beets and spinach drove me far away.Had mv mother cooked some meat,

then I 'd have stayed much longer."Possiblv this Quodlibet was associated in Bach's

mind with the memory of those annual reunions of thcBach family described by Forkel{. "The way in whichthey passed rhe time during this meering was entirel),musical. Because the whole compary was composcdof cantors, organists, and town-musicians, who wercall concerned with rhe Church, aod because anywavit was sri l l the custom to begin all things wirh re_ligion, as soon as rhev were assembled a chorale waslirst struck up. From this devout beginning ther.proceeded to jokes which were frequently in strongcontrasr. Thar is, thev then sang popular songs,partly of comic and also partly of indecenr conrent,all mixed together on the spur of the momenr so rharthe different improvised voices indeed consriruaed ekind of harmony, bur so that the s,ords in every voicewere different. This kind of improvised harmonizingthey called a Quodliber, and not only could laughover it quite whole-hearredly themselves, bur alsoaroused just as hearty and irresistible laughrer in allwho he ard them. "

tol. cb.

Thc kind of irstrument for which the Goldberg1-s:etions rverc composed is perhaps best exernpli6ed

:. :hc harp,sichord believed (probably crroncously):-. hzr.c bclongcd to Bach, now h the Hochrchrh Jir

-\L;rl in Bcrlin.s This instrumcnt has two manuals

=i four scts of strings, likewise four sets of iacks:lucking mechanism), al. l furnishcd in quil l. The

-:rscr manual controls two rcgistcrs, onc of a rather

:rrk cight-foot tone (that is, at normal pitch) and

:rc of sixtcen-foot tone (that is, sounding an octave

-orscr). Thc uppcr manual controls also two regis-

lcrs, onc of a somcwhat lightcr cight-foot tonc, and

rhc other of four-foot tonc (that is, sounding an oc-

rave higher). The rcgistcrs of thc uppcr manual

nev be coooectcd to the lowcr by mcans of a coupler,

cp'erated by pushing in rhc upper manual. For the

:rght-foot srings of the upper manual there is a stop

cpcrating a set of pads which partially darnp thc tonc,

eitiog a lutc-l ike effect. All the registers of this

:ostrument are operated by hand stops. The tone

:s sti l l quite full, of a rather clcar, silvery character.

Somc harpsichords had the four-foot stop on the

lowcr manual, and the iacks of part or all the registers

furnishcd in leather. Harpsichords with sixtcen-foot

rone seem to havc becn fairly rare. A very few harpsi-

chords scem to havc been constructed with pedals

or gcnotilliint (knee-levers) to facilitate quicker

changing of registers.

Although some dcgree of accent ma)' be obtained,

and from sensitive instruments an appreciable difer-

eoce in tone as well, according ro the speed with

which the string is plucked, really substantial nu-

ances of tone volume are not obtainable through the

rouch of the fingcrs. But the vcry thinness of harpsi-

chord tonc makes possible the effectiveness ofalmost

iolinite dcgrecs of lcgato ar'd, staccato, atd, by tbese

means it is possible to give the i l lusion of incrcased

dynamic variation, much as a paintet can suggest thc

rhird dimcnsioo in a rncrc outline drawins.

THE C,OLDBERG VARTATIONS

IIITHE INSTRUMENT

ix

The varicty of registers makes possiblc thc use ofdiffercnt tone colors for various scctions, and thcadding or subtracting of registcrs produccs variousdcgrees of volume. Also thc two kcyboards cnablerhe player to cmploy two different qualities of toncat the samc tirnc. A kind of richness of which thcpiano is incapable is the full octave doubling pro-duced throughout by thc usc of the four- and sixteen-foot stops. Whcn these are uscd in conjunction witheight-foot tone, we havc for cvcry notc struck thcnormal tone, the octave above, and the octave belowsounding simultaneously.

The possibil i t ics of harpsichord registrarion (so

oftcn misconstrued by pianists) are not to bc crn-ployed in the service of pianistic chiaroscuro dy-namics, but rarher changes of register should bclogically determincd by musical construction so thatthey clarify rathcr rhan obscure musical forrn. Upon

the resulting flat dynamic planes thc urmost subtlcty

and evpressiveness of phrasing must be cmploycd.

Bctwecn harpsichord and piano muslc ore mus!

acknowledge a difference of style analogous cvcn if

orly at face value to the diffcrence, Iet us say, bctwecn

thc painting of Botticcll i and that of Tirian.

Any thorough examination of rhe character of thc

harpsichord is enough, it would seem, to show that

Bach, wirh however much approval hc rnighr have

regarded the modern piano, would have composed for

it altogether differently. By this time it should bcuniversally realized that the keyboard music of Bach

is not piano music, and that on the piano it must bcrcgarded as transcription. If Bach is played on the

piano, and if justice is to be done to the true expressioo

of the thematic matcrial and to an undisrortcd cx-

position of whole musical structurc, a stvlc of playing

must be cultivated which wil l be quite differcnt

frorn the usual pianistic habits. Let us hope some

elements of this style will become fairly cJcar in rhc

course of the followine discussions.

rScc Gcorg Kinsky: "Zui Echihcitsfragc dcs Bcilincr B.ch-Fliigcls", B.cl,I.M*b, 1924, p. 128.

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

IV

ORNAMENIATION

Because of the almost incredible ignorance and

falsc information prevalcnt concerning eighteenth-

centuly ornamentation, it would have been desirable

to undertakc a comPrchcosivc discussion of Bach's

omamentation, but the restrictioos ofspace and subiect

l imit us herc ro a statcmcnt of thc most neccssary

generalit ies and lcave to another occasion the quota-

tion of many furthcrimportant dctails from cighteenth-

ccntury treatiscs.

Thc undcrstanding of a written explanation o{

harpsichord oroamcotation, no mattcr how clear and

accurate, has not been facilitated by thc variety of

signs uscd by diffcrcnt comPosers and thcir great in-

consistency of nomcoclatufc, or, needless to say, by

thc crroncous "traditions" inheritcd from thc nine-

tecoth ccntur)' and maintained by aggressively igno-

rant musicians and writers. Moreover, ooly a thor-

ough knowledge and experience of the harpsichord

reveal all the many shades of variation of which

ornaments are susceptible, and especially their mant-

fold significance as accent, as means of continuity, as

decoration incorporated in the melodic l ine, as co-

r ichmenr of the musical fabr ic, or as exPressi !c

declamation. But through quotation from original

tables and from eighteenth-century writers, and

through additional cornments and the writtcn-out

versions of ornaments in the Variations, the attemPt

has been made to convel to the reader as much a.;

possible of the comParative clarity and sureness of

rnind which a careful study of the matter wil l permit'

In the "Clavier-Biichlein vor Wilhclm Friedc'

mann Bach" Bach wrote out the table of otnamens

which follows here.

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

F;r more fruicful and adequare sources of ioforma- tion, not only in pieces where their choice and plac-:::. t 'or Bech ornamentation are the books of Carl ing is left largely to the player, bur even in works l ike:-:: i: lp Emmanuel Bach ("Versuch iiber die wahre the harpsichord pieces of Franqois Couperin, wherer^- ias Clatier zu sPielen", First Patt, 1753)6 and of ahe composer indicates explicit ly and consistently the

. -.rinn Joachim Quanrz ( ' \rersuch einef Arweisung precise ornaments which are ro be performed by thej:c Flcjte tra'ersidre zu spielen", 1752).6 From player. This freedom comes on rhe one hand fromi::och rvorks l ike the table of ornaments in d'Angle- the fresh impromptr character of much ornamenta-:ct s harpsichord pieces (1689), St. Lambert's t ion, to which we have an i l luminating cooremporary

Principes du Clavecin" (1702), and Franqois Couper- parallel in American jazz, and on the other from rhe:: s tables in his first book of harpsichord pieces calculated subtle expressiveness of performance, which1-11) and in 'L'Art de toucher le clavecin" (1717)i, varies from insrance to instance and from player ro

:tc ca o also leatn much that was taken over by Germao player, and makes it practically impossible to wrire:.:sicians, including Bach. A vety useful source is out accurately the exacr rhythmic form ol certarn::: Anleirung zurn Clavierspielen' ' (1755) of Fried- tri l ls, for example, or to generalize upon their execu-::ch Wilhelm Marpurg. The ' 'Klavierschule' of t ion beyond cerrain consranr conditions. But theseD.:niel Gottlob Tiirk (1789, second editioo 1802) is general condirions are very importanr and necessirare

-: less importance specifically for Bach, but forms a a rraining of the ear, and ofren a kind of declarationi:eJ of summary of the whole of eighteenth-century of independence from ccrtain contrary modern prac-German keyboard culture. t ices. For thc common eighteenth-century ornam€n-

Standing out from the mass of modern falsif ication ration, in spite of irs freedom and subtlety, falls into:rl confusion are two books concerned with musical certain definite categories and under certain general

-r.namentation. "The Interpretation of rhe Music of rules, a thorough knowledge of which is absolutely:he XVIIth and XVIIIIh Centuries" by Arnold Dol- essential to anyone concerned with it. A{ter enor:ghrnetsch (London, Novello) is quite indispeosable and experience one finds that seemingly arbirrary rulesror the most part accurate, the work of one to whorn come to be thoroughly justif ied and explained by.invone concerned with this music must be grateful. musical feeling.

\Iusical Ornamentation" by Edward Dannreuther We shall now proceed briefly to discuss rhese cate-.London, Novello) is somew-hat more conveniently gories and rules in accordance with rhe clear codifi-organized, but is unfortunately full of mistakes and cation and detailed accounts which are to be foundinconsistencies in the section dealing withJ. S. Bach. in rnid-century works l ike those of C. p. E. Bach,In fact it may be wise to warn the reader here against Marpurg, and euaotz.rhe frequent incorrectness and inaccuracy of Dann-

reurher's discussion and "corrections" of the orna-

ments in the Goldberg Variations, in spite of the GENERAL RULES

general excellence of the book. Both works are With certaio rather rare and somewhat contro-

composed mosrlv of quotations and paraphrases from versial exceptions, mostly of the earlier eighteenth-

the original treatises, and the)' nearly always permit century (the passing appoggiattra ot Nachtclt lag,,l isrinction between primary sources and the some- for example, so much disliked by C. P. E. Bach),

rimes doubtful conclusions of the compilers. all ornaments are played on the beat; ahaa is, theyThe abbreviated indication of ornaments has often take their value from the beginning of the note.

been justifred by the remark that it leaves clear the affected by the sign, and the first noae of the orna-

main harmonic anC melodic progressions, and that ment wil l coincide with any note of the bass or anyrhe writ ing out of such atl ornament as the mord€nt other voice which occurs on the same beaa.rvould in any case be an unnecessary complication of In canons or imitative passages the second voice

rhe text. But the principal reason for this incomplete should follow exactly the ornameotation of the l irsr.

expression of ornaments is a certain freedom of execu- (See C. P. E. Bach, Chap. II, Sect. 2, Par. 28.)6Pirr ia l modern repr inrs. Lcipzig, G. F. Krhnr.iModern rcprint wirh English and Gcrmen rrandations. kiprig, Breitkopf & Hirtel.

,'" OO*A"'TS, INDIVIDUAL'" T;;;*AppoccrATURA (Vauchlag, Accent, Port de ooix):

C. P. E. Bach distinguishes two kinds of appoggiatura,one that is "long" and of variable length, and onethat is invariably "short".

According to general rule, a long appoggiaturatakes frorn the following note half or, in the casc ofdotted notes, two thirds of irs value (Ex. 2) butrhythmic or harmonic considerations cause frequentexceptions. (See the inreresting and enlighteningexamples in C. P. E. Bach and Quantz.) Moreover thccxpression of certain appoggiaturas consists in theirimprovisatory character and the fact thar their valueis not exactlv determinable.

Ex.2 (n. l . r . )

VARIATIONS

MonooNr (Pjzcy'): Sometimes a distinction ofnota-tion is made berween short and long mordents,,rfvand alr,r,, but it is scarcelv ever followed consistcntly(Ex. 4a.). The length of a mordent depends upon thecontext and partly upon the value of thc maio note.Sometimes the mordenr prolongs itsclf throughseveral rneasures, becoming the pirrci contixt ofCouperin.

"There is another special way of making mordcntswhen they should be verv shorr (Ex. 4b.). Ofthese norcs borh srruck simultaneously, onc holds thcupper, immcdiarell ' releasing thc lower. This modcis not to be neglecrcd, as loog as onc cmploys it .lessoftcn than the othcr kiods ofmordenr. ft occurs onlycx dbrupto, that is, r,r ' i thour conoecrion." (C. p. E.Bach, Chap. II, Secr. 5, Par. 3.)

The short appoggiatura, according to C. P. E.Bach (Chap. II, Sect. 2, Par. 1l), occurs most oftenbefore short rrotes, but also before repeated notes andbefore various figures where the melodic contour,harmonic character, or rhvthmic function is to bcpreserved unchanged, such as at caesuras rn connec-r i r rn rv i r l r a quic l i n,-rre. anJ in sr .ncopat ions, suspen-sions, slurred passages, triplers, skips of thirds. Hegivcs manv examples, more than can be quoted here.

C. P. E. Bach tries to inclicate rhe durarion of thealpoggiltura by the value of the small note, but mosrcomposers, including his farher, macle l itr le suchaa{e mPr.

Pesstrsc Appoccrarunr, (N ach:clt lag): ' 'The PassiogAppoggiaturas are found when several aotes of thesame value descend by skips of thirds (E". la). Theymust be flayed as seen ar Ex. lb." (Quanrz, Chap.\r I I I , Par.6.)

Appoccr,rrun r ,rlro Monoxur (Acunt ud Mordant,Pirci ct Pott dc Vaix): Frequenrly an appoggiarura isfollowed by a mordenr (E*. :). ttte single clcmcntsof the combinarion follow the usual rulcs and exccpr ions.

TunN (Doppeltchlag, Cadncc, Doubh): (Exs. 6,7.) C. P. E. Bach (Chap. II, Sect. 4, Par. 20) dis-tinguishcs the turo from the ending of rhe tri l l witlrermination, in remarking that rhe frrsr notcs of rh:turn are played more quickly rhan rhe lasr, lcaving rslight pause on the lasr note, whereas ahc last notes orthe rerminated tri l l always connect smoothly with rh:following notes. For various ternpi he gives corrcs-ponding versions.

Ex.4 (tuarpurg, Tab. y Figs. r ta, tZ)

Ex.5*tt i i r t [raoz], p. sou)

Ex. 3 (Quantz, Tab. VI, Figs. s, o)

I

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS I t l l

Er. 6 (c. p.E. 8., Tab. Y Fig. L)

o0

When thc sign appcars after the notc, thc cxccu-

rion is as follows:

Ex.7 (c. P. E. B.,Tab.t Fig. LX,cj

Thesc interpretations must be distinguished from

that of thc modcrn turn

Ex. 8 (n.1. x.)

hus by C. P. E. Bach:

(c. P. e. n., tat.q Fig. LXIXa, b)

Suos (Scbhifet, Co Q: The slide is indicatcd in

Bach by thc sign ,/- or by small notcs, and cxecuted

thus:

Ex. 10 (uarpurg, Tab. Iq Fig. 16)

Tnu,t (Trillr, Tremblemert): It cannot be too cm-phaticallystatcd th at theBach trill aluay bcgittt uitlt thctpfcl note, in accordance with the nearly unanirnous di-rections ofeighreenth-ceotury instruction books8. It isalmost incredible that the nineteenth-ccntury changeto the modern practice of beginning on the lowernote should have led people even ro deliberatc falsi-f ication of eighteerth-cenrury rexts Iike that incertain edirions of Bach's own table of ornaments.Moreover it is rather disheartening neady always tohear trills and other ornamenrs wrongly performcd

even by the best musicians of today. But quitc io-excusable is the work of certain musicologists whohave presumably worked fo'' years with books likeC. P. E. Bach's "Versuch" with its cxplicit directions,and yer make edirions in which ornamenrs are writccn

out as wrongly as if no evidence of eighteenth-ccntury

practice had survived. Perhaps thc most flagrant

exarnplc of such work (cited to augment rhc readcr's

caution against editorial rnisdecds) is thc cdirion byone of the foremost English musicologisrs of the Prc-ludcs from Couperin's "L'Art de Toucher lc Clavccin".

Herc, io the face of Couperin's own table of orna-ments and his own insrructions in the very same book,

are the most incredibly false realizations of signs soemployed by Couperin as to leave no room for error.

The trill is indicated by the signs av or ,t* or *

or somctimes by a cross.

Ex.e il,.

In Ex. 11, wc find another kind of slidc used in chords

to 611 in thirds.

Ex. 11 (D'Angtetert)

Coul6 sur une tierce

iodicated thus by C. P.

tThc fcw cxccptions to this practrcc sccm to havc no bcering on thc work bcforc us, .Dd ccrtdnly h.vc not beco rekcn iDto accounrt'' rhc pcoolc who icrtrzc rills fr6m bclow. lr is hopcd rhac this cootrovcrsial mattcr mey bc scttlcd once rnd tor all bv rhc cvcnturlpoblicaiio; of t hbulation of thcsc cxccprions rnd . g;ocrrt survey, now in proccss, of all iourccs of informetion conccrning cighrccarh-

ft should be noticed that the eighteenth-century tri l l ,

beginning upon the upper auxil iary note, has an ap-

poggiatura character in the accentuation of the dis-

sonance which gives it quite a different seose from the

modern tri l l , which begins on the lower main note and

has only the weaket chatacter ofa changing note.

Tnrr-r- wrrn TsR\4rNerroN (Triller mit Nachrchlag,

Trillo and Motd.ant, Trmblement et pinci) (Ex. fl): The

signs { and ,n") indicate rri l ls with termination (rzir

Nachtchlag). This termination can frequently be

iotroduced by the plaver when it is not already in-

dicated or written out.

Ex. 13a. (y. S. Bach) Ex.13b.(R.L.K)

Pnspaneo Tnttt (Accent und Ttillo, Trembhmert

appall): The appoggiatura character is especially

emphasizecl it the trenblemeit appuli, indtcated.h,

(Ex. 14), or sometimes only implied as a freedom of

rhe player.

Ex. 14 (l'e.ngtebert)

Tnrr,ls wrrn Pnerrx, srrner FRoM ABovE oR rRoM

oatow (Ttiller tan Obex ot Triller uan U ren, Doqlelt-

Cadetcc, Cadence): The signs Cra and Cw indicate

trills with prefixes respectively from above and from

below.

Ex. 15 (n'Anglebert)

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

Trro Trur-r (Accext and Trillo, Gebandener or

getchlonexer T ller, Tremblement Iil): If, tn rhe

of a downward diatonic progression, the tri l l is

nected by a slur with the preceding note, that noi.

not repeated, but is t iecl o1'er as the 6rst note of

tri l l .

In many cases this slur can be pre-supposed

when not inJicateJ bv the comloser, except in w

of c.r tnposers l ike Couper in, uho w.rs absoluprecise about his indicatioos, even on this

But in the works of composers who are not

precise or consisrent, rhere ; r re manv

the slur should not be presupposed, because the

acter of phrasing and accentuation make it desi

to souncl again the first note of the tri l l instead

tying it to the prececling note.

Her-r Tnrr,r, (,Prall Trillet): The nue Ptall T.is r form of Tremblenent /rl, playeJ very frsr

Ex. 18 (c. p. E.8., Tab. I{ Fig. xLV),Motuj Ir the o!igiral table,thetiebetweer the first two aotesof the secoad version wasevident ly omit ted through amistake o{ the englaver, asC, P. E. B. expl ic i t ly refersto i t i r the text (Chap. U,Sect.3, Par.3o).

short, consisting, as Marpurg remarks (An

[1ll l l , Page 56, Note 2) of only three notes.

occurs in fast passlges, or in r low molemenrs just

Ex. 16 (o'englebert)

(Marpurg Tab. IV, Figs. 30,31i

the end of a long sustained appoggiatura, but in

THE COLDBERG VARIAT1ONS

- zr fqllqe,,ing a dotvriward stepwisc prcgression

? I E. Bach, Chap. II, Sect. 3,Par.34).l= nscrtcd mordent (Ex. l9), now somctimcs

rrnr-:'-r callcd Prall Trilhr, is ncver indicated by:E :-- sigo, *, but is always writtcn our in smallue =l called a Schteller. Unlike rhe Prull Ttilhr,cr lc:aciler is not restricted to preparation by a:--r-- rirJ stcpwise progression, bur can occur on quitc

c::i:cl notcs.

Fr 19 (Marours. Tab. v. Fiss. rr. rc)

THE EXECUTION OF TRILLS

l-:c rhythmic shape and number of beats in trills is-;:-::le. Couperin ("L'Art dc Toucher le Clavccin")

=-ri:s the following remarks:

-llthough thc trills are marked equal in the tablc

:r ,=aments of my first book, they should neverrhe-

=: :rgin more slowly than they end, but this grada-::: should be impcrccptible.

Trills of any considerable length conrain three

:r=tors, which in performance appear to be com-

:l-:lv unifred: l. Thc leaning (app J) npor' rhc

-:-: oote. 2. The beacs. 3. The sropping poinr.

Ex. 20 (Couperin, ((L'Art de toucher leclavecint')

''-Ls for other Trills, they are arbitrary. Thcre

::: those which are prepared Qppa/) and others so

:: ::r t hat they show neirher preparation nor sropping

:-.:at. One can even aspirate them." (See Var. 16,

3i-- l5 for a ncmbhment arpiri.)

Saint Lambert says ("Les Principes du Clavecin",

-:.:;. 11) r "When the tri l l must be long, it is more

:c.:r-:ri iul to beat it slowlv at f irst and not to hurry it

uqtil thc cod; but whcq it is short it should alwaysbc prompt. "

Hcre in the Variations, as wcll as elsewhcrc. dis-tinctions should bc madc amongt

l. Trills used as accents, cspccially on short notcs,or leaving clear a rathcr largc proportion of rhe mainnote. These are quickly disposed of and containrather few "bears". (Var. 7, Bar 2, ctc.; Var. J,Dar lu- etc. )

2. Trills which are not accented but incorporatcdsmoothly into thc mclodic line. Thcsc are playcdevenly and conoected smoorhly with thc followingnotcs. Such smooth trills frequcntly have tcrmina-tions. (Var. 9,Bar\2,etc.; Var. lO, Bar4.)

3. Ttills which begin with an emphasis of thcirappoggiatura character, or a certain lingcriog on thcupper note, \ke rhe *cmblcmcx, app*Jl. (Yar- 2L,Bar 6.)

4. Long trills. Such a trill becomes fasrcr to-ward thc middlc and often slightly slowcr to roundoff thc ending and to connect it smoothly with whatfollows. (Var. 22, bars II, f2.) This is also frc-quently truc of trills of any considerable lcngth whichhavc terminarions. (Aria, Bar 3.)

5 Trills, most frequcntly on dotted norcs or prc-

ceding tied-ovcr notcs or rcsts, which increasc grcatlyin specd and end in a kind of snap just bcforc thc dot,t ied note, o! rest, as rhe casc may be. (Var, I l, Bar

J, 6tst version, etc.; Var. t l, Bar 12.) This snap iscalled. Scbnclhn by C. P. E. Bach, and is dcscribcdin connection wnh the Prall Trilhr (Chap. I1, Sect.

3, Par. 32) and with the last beats of an accelcrated

tlrll (Ibid., Par. 8). Sometimes it is followed by arest in the place of the dot, making a rremblemcnt atpiri.(Var. 16, Bar 15.)

Notes Concerning the Execation of the)rnamentu in tLe Variations

The rhythmical values which are given to thc

written-out tri l ls reproduce the fundamenral char-

acteristics of my present execution, but can undoubt-

edly well be subjected to alteration by myself as well

as others. At any rate rhey give some indication ofthe frequently igllred but necessar)' shapeliness

and exptessive subtlery which should bc givcn to all

(Marpurg, 'fab. Y Figs. 16, 16)

THE C'OLDBERG VARIATIONS

eighteenth-ceotury ornameotation in accordance with

its context. It has seemed useless to complicate the

text with any indication of the fluctuating details of

rhythmic freedom, which must necessarily be the

result of the performer's own feeling. On the piano

the tri l ls could often be executed with fewer "beats".

Certain tri l ls may be given terminations where they

ale not indicated, but the versions given have been

consiJered preferable. _

Theturns can of ien be given rhus:JJJ J, accord-

ing to C. P. E. Bach's. indications; but many of them

can lust as wel l be played ,*oo,hly, .J lT! , . tc.

AR]A:

Bat 2: The two appoggiaturas ate interpreted by

Dolmetsch as "Nachtchlige" on the authority of

Quantz (Chap. VIII, Pat. 6), but it would seem that

the rhythm and the sentimeflt demand appoggiaturas.

One may play the 6rst appoggiatura shorter than its

wrirren-out valuc. If the second appoggiatura were

played long, according to rule, the two D's rogether

would sound too hard on the harpsichord and give a

false accent, See Bars 6 and 25.

Bar 4: Here a long appoggiatura fol lowing the rule

would produce an ugly fourth between A aod D.

Bat 6: See Bar 2.

BarT: The harmony would be less pure in this

alternative version with the appoggiatura as an

cighth-note, following an example of C. P. E. Bach

("Versuch", Chap. II, Sect. 2, Par. 11), (Ex. 2fb.)

Bar 7l J. S. Bach seldorn rnakes a distinction be-

tween the sign of the arpeggio upwards and that of

thc arpeggio downwards. This chord might also

be brokcn upwards.

Bat 72. As in Bar 2 the 6rst appoggiatura mrght

also bc very short. In Anna Magdalena Bach s note-

book of U25 only an appoggiatura D occurs, instead

of rhe trcmblcmext alqryi. A

added here.

Bat 14: The consonaflce of G, B, and D, aod ;-

the rhythm, would sound quite flat if the appog::

tura were played long. It can be played shorter

iodicated.

Bar 16 The first appoggiatura may also be plar

as an eighth-note, according to an example of C. P.

Bach similar to ahat referred to at Bar 7 (Ex.21z

The octave D's of the third beat. unlike those in Bar I

have an agreeable finality, and on the

harpsichord rhe octave following parallel rnori

gives the illusion of a dimiruendo nther than thc cF

of accent which seems to occur after thc

motion of Bar 2. See Bar 24.

Bar 18: The first two appoggiaturas may be

shorter.

Bar 19: Hete aqain the accent of an octave on

would be unpleasant. In the sccond beat thc

tion of the appoggiatura D sharp to E should sti l l

connecred with the harmony of C. even if rhe

rion coincides only with the passing note B.

result is a wonderful f luidity of harmony in which

tri l l on F sharp makes a delightful accenr.

Bar 20: The sequence of 6fths makes impossiblc

long appoggiatura resolving according to rule.

Bar 21 the appoggiatura must be short to

coosecutive sevenths with the tenor.

ma\'

Bat 72. lt misht have been consistent rvith

2, Par. 11; Ex. 21a), to prolong .he appo

practice of C. P. E. Bach ( \ 'ersuch", Chap. II,

the length of thc entire qualter-notcr were i t not

rhe weakness of rhe resulring harmony.

the resolution coincidiog with the tenor F

would be undesirable.

Bar 24 The resolution of the first appoggia

according to rule would be obviously impossible.

Bat 25'. See Bat 2.

Bat 26: Here the octave G-G would be less

turbing, but consistency demands the present

tion. The appoggiatura in the left hand might

played shorter.

VARIATION 5:Bar 20. Here the weakness of the D sharp

(C. P. E.8., Tab. trI, Fig. VI)

tion is best expressed by an accelerated. tremblemcnt lii,

THE C.OLDBERG VARIATIONS

B* 2: Herc the trills havc almost the same crisp VARIATION 16:accentual efect as the mordents, and should occupy The inexact indicarion of dotted notes in erght_no more of the time of the main notes. eenrh-ceorury music is menrioned in thc books of

instead of thc rcncwed accent of an ordinary trill,This must occupy an almost imperceptiblc part o{ thc

ootc. Notice thc contrasting acccntual interpreta-tion of thc tri l l on G.

VA$IATION 7:

Bar 76, Herc the customary practicc is followed in

cooncctiol with tied dotted notes (Qgantz VIII,9),

but in Bar 8 harmonic puriry dcmands the execution

given.

VARIATION 8:

Bar 24: C. P. E. Bach gives an cxample of a similar

casc and its execution. (Ex. 2fa.) Thus this ap

poggiatura might be playcd as a quartcr-note.

\.ARIATION 9:

Bat 12 The imitation, of course, will follow the

6rst voicc cxactly.

VARIATION 1I:

Bar 5, ctc.: Thcsc rills must cnd with a vigorous

soaP.

\.ARIATION 12:

Bar 4, 5: The till is intcrpretcd as ^

,ftmbhn.n, lil

rn order that thc following mordent may imirate it in

contrary motion. These may also be played re-

spectivcly as simple Prall Triller and short mordent.

Batt 29,3o: Here likewise the mordent imitatcs the

rrill in contr'ary motion.

VARIATION 1]:

Bar 2: C.P. E. Bach writcs ("Vcrsuch", Chap. II,

Scction 2, Par. 14): "When the appoggiatura sounds

rhe octave of the bass, it cannot be long, becausc thc

harmonv would sound too empty' ,

Bar 6: Herc thc dissonant resolution of thc appog-giatura givcs an extraordinary savour to thc harmofly.

VARIAT]ON T5:

Bau 7, 8', See notes to Variation 12, Bars 4, 5 or29, 10.

C. P. E. Bach, Quanrz, Agricola ("Anlcitung zur Sing-kuns.", 1757)0, and Leopold Mozart ("Vcrsuch

eincr griindlichen Violinschule", l?J6).

C. P. E. Bach says (Chap. 3, Par. 23): "Thc shortnotcs following dots will always be dispatchcd asshorter than the notation indicates, thus it is supcr-fluous to dc6ne these short notes by thc usc of dots orstrokcs." "In Ex. 2J we sec thcir exprcssion.

E.x.23 (c. p. e. B., Tab. vr, Fig. vIt)

At times thc arrangemeor of parts (Einthcilung) dc-mands that one procccd accordiog ro thcir litcralnotation * (Schtcibart)." "Thc dots after shorrnotes, followcd by notes still shorter, should be hcldout. "

Ex.24 (c. p. E.8., Tab. vr, Fis. vff)

Thc following passage in Agricola (p. rl3), isquotcd by Dannreuther (Vol. I,p.f9f). "Short notcswhich follow dots, espccially sixtccnth- and thirty-

second notes, and in alla bnoc timc, $ , 2, ,""n

cighth-notcs, are invariably takcn vcry short-thc

notcs prcceding thc dots bciog hcld so much thc

longcr."

'An zmplificd cransletioa of Picr Franccsco Tosi: O?i"ioni d.' C.n oi a"tkb; . no& i, o lhno o$en.4;o t rof. ;l C."ro fgtrzto. Dnlogor.

Ex.22 (Qratlz, Tab.VI, Figs. rr, ro)

j,r"n,, *ri,.r 1Chap. V. par. ,tr' "r,]:t :::::""

dotted eighrh-, sixre€nth-, and thirty-second-notes,one departs from the general rule, because of thevivacity which they should express. It must benoticed, above all, that the note following the dot inEx. 25a and b, should be played as quickly as thatinEx.25c, wherher in slow or fast tempo. Whenceit follows that the dotted ootes io Ex. 25a dernandnearly the whole time of a quarter-nore, and those inEx. 25b nearly that of an eighth-note. One cannotexacrly determioe the rimc of the short note followingthe dor. "

Ex.25 (Qaantz, Tab. tr, Fig. z, c, d, e )a.

(Chap. X\III, Secr. 2, Par. 16): "When thirty-second-notes follow a long note aod a shorr rest (Ex.26) they should always be played verv quickly,whcther in an A,lagia ot in an Allegro. Hence, toavoid faulty t ime, one must wait to the lerv end of theallotied time before playing them.

' 'If in a slow alla brcte or in ordinarv commontime there is a sixteenth-rest on the down-beatfollowed by dotted notes (Exs. 27 a, b), the resr mustbe playecl as if there were either a dot or a pause of halfthe value following ir, and as if the following noteswere twice as short." (In other words, l ike Ex. 27,aa, bb).

Ex.27 (Qtantz, Tab. XX[, Figs. ao, sr)ha. - b

@:;# wg

(Chap. XVII, Sect. 7, Par. J8): "Morcover, inthis measure Q , as well as in 3-4 time , which one

VARIATIONS

employs for the Loure, the Sarabande, rhe Coura:=-and the Chaconne, rhe eighth-notes following doi:-quarters are nor expressed according to their prc:evalue, but shortly and sharply. The dotted nore semphasized and the bow is dctached during the j:-_

One does l ikewise with all dored notes if rhe t:=rpermits, and when there Are three or more thir:r-second notes xf(er r dot or a resr, thev are nor erecu:jaccording ro rheir real value, especially in slow piecs_but, awaiting the very end of the time allorred the=one plavs them then with rhe utmost speed, as Ioften the case in Ouvertures, Entr€es aod Furie:However one must give a separate bowing to each --c-these quick notes, and one can hardly slur anything

This last is an excellent description of the vigoro:rtlitacLti style in which the Ouverture (Variarion lfshould be played.

Although these quotations explain the inaccura=notation and the true execution of much eighteent!-ceoturv music, especially the slow sections of FrenclOuyertures (and one must at all t imes bear rhcm::mind), in much music of Bach there is sti l l son:

t \room for doubt as to whether el. J) occurring agains:t.:t t-t

-

a, . ) l . a should be raken J ! .3 . nr ur lny casej .

also here, one can be influ"nJ afternatelv by Bach !obviously mere orthographical conlenrion of writ ir.-tN . t t - .

J. Jr InsreaLf of J J.) rn al la brcrer ime, aoJ bypass-

ages where he d.ii-ir.ly intencled the literal inrerpre-tr l - l -

tat ion.r f J, ) )aod ) . ) .1.J, such as rhose in rhr

' 'Kunst der Fuge" and the "Musikalisches Opfer'where dotted themes appear siinultaneously in aug-mentation and in their natural form. Here, afcc:having for some time played as sixteenths the eighthsfollowing dotted quarters, I have finally decided, arleasr for the presenr, upon rheir l i teral interpretation.especially as the sound of the harpsichord is givergreater continuity through the increased complexirlof rhyrhmic morion. I actually play the sixteenrhsshorter than noted, and undertook ar f irst ro wrirc

6

-'1-them our rhus:J. J t , bur was dissuaded by whar

.."-.d ono"."rriy complication of the text. Like-wlse there is here no attempt to indicate the rests

bb. (R.

Ex.26 (Q'aantz, Tab. XX[, Fig. ze)

THE GOLDBERG V'.RIATIONS

:mplicd by Quantz above in speaking of the detached

:os'l rvhich can takc the place of the dots.

Barc 4,5: A tcrmination may be added here. In

::ct Marpurg says (Anweisung, 11755), Page 57,\ore 4) that such "prcpared trills" are always given

: rcrmination. One may qucstion whcther such a rulclsas thc result of unanimous contemporary opinion.

:s it is not mcntioned by C. P. E. Bach, or Ttirk, or

rndicated in D'Anglebcrt's table, At any rate thc

remaining "prcpared tri l ls" in this variation do not

rcquire the addition of a termination where not in-

Jicated, since the function of the termination is

already performed by the succeeding quick notes (as

C. P. E. Bach points out in parallel passages fChap.II, Scct. III, Par. 161).

Bar 28: The version with a "Triller von unten"

rs given to avoid the 6fths resulting from the l iteral

interpretation of the original, which might offend a

fastidious ear.

Barc 31, 13l Here likewise especial care has been

taken in shortening the termination of rhe rri l l to

rroid rhe fifths which would othcrwise occur.

\..{RIATION 22:

Bar 11: This tri l l should be incorporated smoothly

in the rnelodic l ine and played as rhythmically in-

dependent from the bass, with a slight speecling up

in the middle and slowing off toward the end. It is

useless to attempt to indicate the exact number of' 'beats".

vARIATION 2]:

Bar 23: Besr as'a Pral l Tr i l ler . The rr i l l should

take as l itt le of the time of the main note as possible.

VARIATION 24:

Bar 17: A rough attempt has been made to iodi-

cate the changes of spced without specifving the

number of "beats" in the middle portion.

\TARIATION 25:

Bat L3. The appoggiatura on the second beat is

found written out by Bach in the corresponding place

in Bars 21 and 22. Although rhis same appoggiatura

has beeo introduced in the first two bars, in other

corresponding places fr.rrther use of it is left to thecaste of the player.

VARIATION 26:

See notes to Variation 16 for information con-cerning the indeterminate value of dotted notes ineighteenth-century notation. See also followingnote.

VARIATION 29:(See also Notes to Variation 16). Marpurg

( Anleitung" [1755], P. 24) makes the following

remarks:"It is frequenrly cusromary to employ simultaoe-

ously a simple and a composite measute, for example12-8 against C (Ex. 28a, b) as well as 6-8 agrinsr2-4, or 9-8 againsr 3-4, and so forth. If in this

combination of measures two notes of equal valueoccur against three others l ikewise of equal value,for exami.rle, two eighrh-notes against three othereighth-notes, or two quarter-nores againsr threeothers, the 6rst two of the three equal noces wil lalways be played against the 6rst of the two. Thus,for instance, those io Ex. 28a wil l all be playedas in Ex. 28c, and even if tbe 6rsr of the rwo equalnotes is dottecl (Ex. 28b), they must nevertheless beplayed as in Ex. 28c. The so-called triplets whichone uses in simple measurcs have their origin in thismixaure of measures. These are such that one takesthree eighths against a quarrer, three sixteenthsagainst an eighrh, etc. "

VARIATION ]O:Bat 2: A trenblemtnt lil se€ms best.

(Marpurg, Tab. I , Figs. 42,44)

iTHE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

I

" l IIn plaving Bach it seems besr to use

" t:il:tTT:etached finsering which makes,, ",-^..,- Imodern fingering based upon the now traditional possibre .o play passages altogether.-oo,"tott '= Isuccession of five fingers an.r crossi'g thumb. Thus we wourrr feer to require regata praying. ,:'ilt.': If iogers rarely cross' excePt in Polvphonic passages, tached style entirely intentional? o, i, i : ' ; ;- |where there is often occasion to change fingers on the promise brought abour by the traditions

";; ;;. Isame note to ensare legato A comptomise is advisable just beginning ro culrivate u ..r1"in .qo"tiry'ot- ,1,. Ibetween the old principJe of avoiding the use of the 6.re fin!..s and a substitution .r ,rr.

-.a."-'t-.^"",- - |rhumb on "black" keys and that ofavoiding changes ond.. uf th" thumb for the old principre ;;:: l :: Iof l ive-finger position or usiog similar f ingering for a longer finger over a shoner

"r" (a .;." r.;,:. Isequent ia l repet i t ions of f igures. Al l jumps of posi- r ight lan.r : r23434)4etc.)? ' " '^" '

It ion and breaks of lcgato cao be fitted to places where In playing the pieces of couperin, on. ,hour, I:l:';;:':il:iJi'.',."T:::JTi::::::-,J:Jj i:ffi::l,ijl";.,..T;:;;* j::.:lf,.j:l: I.'"JilT::::*'.';:A:1iT,:Hl:,ather dinc,rrt ::'"':"',',1.i',:Til;;:, ;::ii: mti*:: Ito understand some eighteenth-centurv fingering as and of rhe hancr. But with u-n, *n*.-iir'.,., Irepresenced in Bach's own indications (Bachgesell- music is so much less idiomatic, and often ;:"- ... Ischaft edition, volr.:me J6, Pages 224, 225, 2)7, 126), orher inscruments, one consraorly t..,r,n.rl ' j j l,?'. Ior in the sonaras of c. p. E Bach's "\'ersuch r.iber of bringing to the keyboard ,n. .r"."rrr"'.*',.. Idie wahre Arr das Clavier zu spielen,. Herc one ,uppl.nfs ofstring or voice phrasing.

IVI

THE GOLDBERG VARI,{TIONS

:he constanr rhythmic relaaion of strong and weak

-*ats; which ale the notes of introduction, of climax,

-irJ of cooclusion in a mclodic phrase; as well asrshich are the fiotes of harmonic importance andrhose of importance in the main melodic and harmonic

:rogressions of sections and of rhe wholc piece.

The performer's task in converring a piece jnro

sound is l ike that of a painrer who must undersrand

rhoroughly the anatomy of his rnodel and the relation

of the srnallest detail to the whole, not so much thar

the original may be fairhfully reproduced as that his

orvn feeling about it and his choice of technical means

for its interpretation may bc controled by the com-

plete inner logic of nature. Thus here in rhe music

of Bach we arc confronted with the task of making

clear the articulation and poetic significance of com-

plicat€d sructures which rival those of nature in their

obedience to all her inner laws of balance, of propor-

tion, of form.

One of the mos! important and practically least

recognized characteristics of Bach's music is the

fusion of form and expression almost to the point of

identif icarion. Thus, the musical feeling leading to

the true exptession of a Bach phrase can frequently be

guided largely by the intellect and often rnust be,

urtil the musical perceptions reach a degree of in-

stinctive sharpness not so ofren demanded by orher

musrc.

Although "phrasing" involves a consideration of

the music in many phases ard from many points

of view, here on paper we can only attempt to isolate

and discuss the most important elements and to make

a numbcr of perhaps lash generalizations.

First, and for us here most imporrant, is rhe con-

sideration of individual voices as single mclodic

lines, ignoring for the time being their relationship

to each other.

The fundamental rule which underlies of course all

measured music is the rhythmic relation of weak

beats to strong beats, and the different funcrions of rhe

first, second, third, and fourth beats.Weak beats generally tend to be connected with rhe

following strong beat, so that most pauses are l ikely

to occur aftet strong beats. However, this very

rough generalization must not allow us to ignore the

musical parallel of feminine eodings in verse. It

seems to me that many wriaers, eveo includingSchweitzer, to whom we owe so much. have ovcr-emphasized the progression from thc weak to thcstrong bcat-in orher words, iambicthe expense of trochaic movemeflt. In many fastmovem€nts, such as those of thc concertos, this tro-chaic movement, by irs very holdiog back, gives theimpression of tremendous energy pulsing under thcharness of superhuman restraint. Likewise it sccmsto me thar in maoy Bach phrases there are quite asmany subsidiary nores which take their rhythmicmomentum from a preceding strong note l ike thesuccessive bounces of a rhrown or droppcd tennis ball,as there are those which progress forward to a strongbeat l ike a ball roll ing down a slope. And there arenotes which perform a double function, in relarion toboth preceding and succeeding strong bears. In manyBach performances one hears either the flabbiness ofroll ing or the excessive jumpiness of bouncing, forlack of balance berween the two kinds of motion.The parallel in dancing is easily pcrceprible. Exs.

lJ-J9 show a few of manv possible modes of rhythmicthoughr which can work rogerher ro produce theequil ibrium.

Syncopeced nores, or notes ty ing o\er a srrongbeat, often have a peculiar character, being ap-proached with a certain spring or sighing effecr, thcimpulse coming from the preceding strong beat.Leopold Mozart says ("Versuch einer grtindlichcn\riolinschule" {Chap. I, Sect. 3, Par. 18, Note kl):' 'Such notes must be amacked strongly aod held witha gradually diminishing quierness (eize nacb ud nachcerlicrcnde Jrille) wirhour renewed pressure, like thegradually disappearing sound ofa sharply struck bell. "

The meloJrc deteimiol t iun of note-grouping, evenin the face of so many cornplicated and intaogible

elemeots, permits a few crude generalizarions. Notesmoving stepn,rsc are more often played hgato h con-tlast to the deta.ched. taccato performance of jumping

notes. (We might make an exceprion to rhis remarkin the case of nores outJining arpeggiared harmooyin quick time.) Likewise, an inrerruption ofstcpwiseprogressicn bv a ieap of the melodic l ine oftcn requires

a phrasing corresponding ro the necessatv vocalrendition or to rhe parallel sensarion of bodily movc-ment. However, one musr oot take these principles

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

too seriously. in view of thousands of instances where

thcy are superseded by more imPortant factors.

For nearly all the keyboard music of Bach it is

extremely i l luminating to think in terms of string

bowing. Thus one can often determine the divisions

of sequential figures and stepwise passages, also thc

texture of hgato and of relative degrccs of rraccaro.

Between thinking of string bowing and feeling the

instinctive vocal inflection (as recommended by C. P.

E. Bach) one is fairly sure to arrive at a natural phras-

ing. Vocal inflection itself (except in the case of

singers, as I am inclined maliciously to remark), is

closely governed by mystcrious laws of kinrsthetic

feeling and of bodily movement. For exarnple, a

phrase or movement can often be explained in terms

of sprirlging, fall ing, or bouncing.

The phrasing must make clear the main pro-

gressions underlying more or less elaborate decoration

of the melodic line. Often in Bach, esPecially in .wo-

voice pieces, a single voicc wil l outl ine harrnonies

and carry on in broken form the progressions of two-

or three-part harmony. This ofcourse must be under-

stood by rhe player and cxpressed by the phrasing.

Ex.33(Var. 5, Bar 13)

Thc exposition of the manifold melodic, harmonic,

and rhythmic implications of many such single voice

passages demands absolute balance of rhythm. Such

is the foregoing example, whose richness dcpcnds

upon a superposition in thc finished pcrformancc of

the various phases which are shown separatcly hcrc.

An example l ike this, with its many parallels, goes

to demonstrate the fact that much Bach phrasing

exists far morc in time, that is in l iving rhythmic

patterns, than in the spatial articulation and cxag-

gerated nuancing of melodic figures usually cm-

phasizcd by Bach performers (more unfortunately,

for example, in the unaccompanied violin sonatas)

at ahe expense of the rhythmic vitality and organic

unity of the whole. In fact, one is sometimes lcd to

feel that che cumulative effect of sharply dcfined

rhythmic detail incorporated into a steady pulse is far

more important in many Bach movements than the

inflections of tone and dynamics; and cvcn that some

of the Bach sonatas could be given a performancc on a

drum which would be {ar more thri l l ing than that of

most string players. Of course the ideal performance

does justice to borh elements. In other words, the

music cannot become fully alive in a performancc

which develops plastic shape by heightening melodic

cootours through light and shade of dynamics and

variation of ltaccato ar.d lcgato texture, yet fails to

endow these shapes with their own rhythrnic form

carved out of precise time-divisions, just as they are

carved so to speak, out of pitch, and dynamic in-

tensity, in perfectly proportioned telation to the

whole. Anything else resembles the blurred, lop-

sided contours of sculpture in wax beginning to melt

uoder the hot sun.

Even had the preceding topic of the grouping of

notes into phrases been properly treated, one would

sril l need to make a large book to explain ihe relation-

ships of notes wirhin these phrases, a thiog which we

can hardly expect more than to suggest here. So far

we have spokeo principally of the smaller groups of

notes more in the sense of texture than io the sensc of

phrases which make small €ntitics in themsclves and

which in turn go to build up a larger unit. Thcsc

phrases have a definite plastic form, to which the

sense and perceptions must bc sharpcncd in rccogniz-

ing the functions of every notc, whethcr it be as

inrroduction, climax, conclusion, coda, or mere

decoration.

When we begin to put the voiccs together, rhe

resulting harmony has an influcncc, especially on thc

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

phrasing of rhe longer sections. The building up ofa stress or tension resolving to repose, although itoccurs melodically, we find especially in harmonicprogressions and in the relation of dissonance and con-sonance. Here we are not so much obliged to grapplewith this dif icult subject, because rhe Variations areall built on the same fundamental harmony and on thesame rhythmic skeleton of four eight-bar phrases,

much as they sometimcs stretch these bounds,Another important feature, when all the voices are

put togethef, is the texture of the whole. It mustnot be too close, but must have air, so to speak. Onthe other hand, especially on rhe harpsichord, onemust not break it apart with "holes" caused by too

short or misplaced .Itaccata. This can occur mosreasily when the bass is played too short, thus remov-ing rhe bottom of the srructure too suddenly. Thedistribution of legat0 and rtdccata mtrst balance through

the whole counterpoint, l ike the disrribution of blackand white in a well made woodcur.

I might remark, in connection with harpsichordphrasing, rhat the principal means of distinguishingnotes consists in infinitely varying degtees ol lcgato and:taccato (akho,tgh the instrument rs to some extentcapable of accena) and, through the use of these verymeaos of l,tato and, $accato, of the illusion of slightnuance. On the harpsichord one musr guard againsrmakiog too short.rt4ccatl, as the €ffecr is quite unlikethat of the piano, in rhat the plucked string must begiven sufficient t ime to vibrate, whereas the struckstring vibrates instantly in pure sound.

Perhaps these remarks, for all their inadequacy,wil l demonstrare the furi l i ty of artempting ar all toindicate phrasing in the text, and perhaps rhey wil lconvey some idea of the way in which the playermust sepafate and analyze every phrase of rhesc Vari-ations, the funcrion of every note wiahin thar phrase,and the organizarion of smaller phrases into largerones, and finally into the whole.

VII

TEMPOIn the table on p. xxvi are indicated tempi used

in performing the Variations. These may vary, how-

ever, according to the instrument and acoustical con-ditions, and of course according to the phrasing

chosen even, I fear, according to rhe metronome!The tempo should be mainrained very strictly within

each variation.

In Bach, especially in strongly rhythmical fastmovements, clarity and coherence demand a degree of

precision in the small noae-values which is less fre-quently necessitated by other music, where complete

rhythmic exacrilude is often lefr only to the main

beats.

This rhythrnic precision is especially necessary ro

performarce on a nuanceless instrument like the orgao

or the harpsichord, where the weakening effect ofmost rhythmic freedom cannot be compensated bynuance. On the clavichord, for example, one canplay the same pieces much less strictly rhan on rhe

harpsichord, because any rhythmic flexibil i ty may becombined with a complete flexibil i ty of nuaoce to

produce something warm and perfectly hurnan,

wher€as on the harpsichord or organ such freedomr

going only half way, cannot have the same sincerityof effecr.

For slow movements we should make some excep-tion to the above temarks, because there the ex-pression frequently depends upon a certain flexibil i tyof small notes within the frame of rhe main beats.However, one of rhe greatest daogers rn tcmpo nbatois that slight rhythmic l luctuations which wereoriginally sincere and inspired by perfect tasre, in thecourse of ahe successive imitations which a pro-fessional performer is l ikely to make of his first goodco[ception and performance become mannered andexaggerated, having lost some of their originalsigniEcaoce, resembling rhe afected movcmenrs of abad dancer.

Moreover, in most Bach movements, all harmonicand melodic detail is arranged in such a symmcricalrelation to the whole phrase or movement thar themusical structure can often be distorted by rhythmicalfluctuations, l ike an elaborate Baroque facade mirroredin troubled water, or, as one is inclined to say inreminiscence of some performances, thrown heltetskelter by a series of earthquakes!

IrI conarast to the fluid legato of the canoos and

slow movdnents, the fast variations, esP€cially those

for two kcyboards, should have a kind of sparkling

precision, down to the smallest note values. It is

very beneficial to Practise these fast variations with

a mearonome, and wise even thus to test the accuracy

of larger rhythmical values in rhe slow movements' in

order to insure against unconscious extremes of

rxbato.

Of course there are two ways of achieving a true

accuracy of rhythm and tempo, a quality which for

the most part is not natural to the human organism

of changing pulse tates. For just as one can fall be-

low the human level into an insensitive and mechan-

ical kind ofmetronomical strictness (some of the most

unrhythmical playing in the world comes from

persofis practisirg with a metronome), so one can

rise above the weakness of vacil lating flesh and blood

to an unswerving thythmic strength and inevitabil ity

which, associated with balanced, sensitive phrasing,

can only be described as supernatural.

The metronome is only a mechanical means of

assistance and can in no way take rhe place of a real

feeling for rempo, which is a constant inner sense of

the rhythmical relationship ofeach part to the whole

The acquisit ion o{ such a sense of tempo may be aided

in practice by singing a rhythrnic motive from one

parr of a piece while playing another. Attention is

called here to some of the useful ancl enlightening

patterns or modes of rhythmic thoughr ahat are to be

fo'.rnd among the inexhaustible riches of these vari-

ations (Exs. 33-39). These all suggest modes of ob-

taining from smaller note-values a rhythmic precision

controlled by musical feeling rather than imposed

only by mechanical f inger disciplne.

Ex.34(Var.8, Bar 11)

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

Ex.35 (Var. 26,Bar 9)

Ex.36 (Var. 14, Bar 1)

THE GOLDBERG V,{RIATIONS

Ex.37 (Var.

r \ l t2R

CtBar 1)

7

Similarly in the Aria one may sing rhe rhythm ofthe first eight bars againsr the lasr eight, in bass aswell as soprano, or superpose the sixteenrh- or rheeighth-note motion of the last bars on alry pre-ceding section of the Aria. Or one may sing simplythe bass, either in its sirnplest form (dotted half-notes)or in a figure of quarter-notes. Especially useful inestablishing rhythmic equil ibrium is playing the

movement through alternatelv tfrirLirg ;r J J . .f,

the characteristic sarabande movemenr, *1. .f J,

or e'en occasiona lI" n ) . If one becomes rhus

sensitive to the many sirnultaneous rhvthmic pulses,from sixteenth-notes ro.whole beats, or the rhythmicrelation of measures rvithin a phrase, one begins toundersrand part of the real vitalitv of mosr Bachmotemenls.

-i-r- tr=

In \ : r r .8, rh is f igureJ ))) l ) ) ) f rom the

beginning, may be used ro kccp the lefr hand undercontrol from bars 9 to 16.

-TrIn \rar. 11, this f igure, j . J ! may be superposed

on Dars 1/ to J l .

ln Var. 11, an alrernarion U.,-..n Jl j o,l- | | r-1-r

) . ) )^nr ) . ) ) ) mrv be useful .

In Var. 14, the performer in playing the openingpassage shoulcl be minclf ' .r l of the subsequent thirtv-second nore rhvthm. The last two bars should beheard both in sixreen!h-nores and in thittv-seconds.

In \ ar . 17, rhe rhrrhm ' l i " .er" helpful , as' a.a

well as rhe wh.rle tiqure f.]-- | I l ' f1-1 asainstaaataa.aaaaa

J-JlTi:*J i .iIn Var. 20, the triplcr rhvchm should be super-

posed on the rhythm of the openirrg sccuon.r--6-r

Tn \ar.2o, hl lT i I l l erc. . rs rheata.aaa 1a' l

key to the whole moueXnt.In \rar. 28, the eighth-note motion should always

be felt. The tri l ls wil l be smooth if thev are alwaysfelt simultaneously as coming from the impulse of thepreceding strong beat and joining smoothly with thefollowing.

N

Jj

Ex. 38 (Var. 17, Bars 27-22)

@

Ex. 39 (Var.20, Bar 9)

THE GOLDDERG VARIATIONS

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONSRegistration*

ARIA

Variat io l a ICIav.

Var iat io 2. a IClav.

Variatio l. C-auor.rr ar-r- 'UNrsollo, a l Clav.

Var iat io 4. a lClav.

Variario 5. a I oaqo 2CIau.

\rariatio 6. CaNoNs ar,r,,{ Srcouoe, a I Clav.

[ar iat io 7. a I overo 2Clav.

Yatiario 8. a2Clar,.

Variatio 9. CeNoNs er,La Ttrze, a 1 Clav.

Var iat io 10. FughetIa, a I Clav.

\ ariatio 11. a 2CIau.

Variatio 12. CeNoro ar,r,e Quenre

Variat io IJ. a 2Clav.

Yariatio 14. a 2Clat.

Variatio 15. Casouo,rr,r,e QuIrvr,r, a I Clav.

Var iar io 16. Ouver iure, a I Clav.

Yartatio 17. a 2 Clau.

Variatio 18. CarqoNe ,{LL.{ Sosra, a 1 Clav.

Var iat io 19. a lClav.

v zrtat to zv, d zLldt t ,

Variatio 21. CeroNr ar,r,,r SsrrIN"x

Y ariario 22. a 1Clav. Alla breve

v af tat to 2), a 2Lt4u.

Yariario 24. CaNoNe ar,r, 'Orrave, a 1Clav.

Var iat io 25. a2Clav.

Y ati.atto 26 . a 2 Claa ,

\:ariatio 27. CaNorr arr,,r NoNa, a 2 CIar'.

Iar iar io 28. a2Clar.

Var iar io 29. a l overo 2CIar ' .

\rariatio 10. a 1Clav. Quodlibet

ARIA da Capo

J = 72,J.=6o (J: 66, )= r8r

J : to8 (tl3

) =ae oL

I8'

8, 4,

I6', 4',

I8 '

II 8' 4' Lute

I8"I I 8 '

I8 '

ll 8' ( ano)

I 8 ' , I I 8 '

I8 '

I8 ' I I 8 '

I 8', II 8

I8 '

4', 8' (Lute ?)

I 8 ' , I I 8 '

I8 '

16' I 8', II 8', 4',

I8 ' , I I 8 '

TempolJ:5sJ:94

J: seJ,: 40rh: rbsJ=Es

. rl): t8ra.= 72

d:68

J:6s

J: so

J.= ,tz

J:60

)=+oJ.eo

.0. s+

. 4', 16'(Lute or 8'Lutc?) .D= lo

I8 '

II 8' Lute

I 8 ' , I I 8 '

I8 '

8, 4,

I8"I I 8 '

I8 '

. .h= rsp

. r l =ee

' t l =Se

. ) =m

. J=rc2

. J. : 6o

J: t+

r l . : 0or l :60. l =aaJ:sor/ :5s

I8" I I 8 '

I8 ' , I I 8 '

I8" I I 8 '

16' I 8', II 8', 4',

I 6 ' I 8 ' I I 8 '4 ' ,

l8 '

*Solo 16'or4 'should bc uscd here in such a wrv as tosound at normal eighFloor Firch. l indicates

rhe losef nranual , I I ' rhc upper. Th€ presence of commas indicates the usc of two kcvboarr ls. Othcr-

* ise thc indicat ion of stops fronr borh uppcr and loner mrnuals impl ies rhe use of the coupler f rom the

uppcrrnanuel to the loncr. . t l lonance is madc hcre both fot instrumcnts l ike th. so-cal led Bach harpsi-

chord rvirh four-foot on thc upper manual and for those $ith four'foot on the lower.

tThc second set of metronome indications (in parcnthescs) *as made eighreen rnonrhs befo.e rhe 6rsr.

For the sake of trurhfulness. both arc givcn, srron.qll'' ls I now repsdiate some of the carjier tempi. Where

thc poinrs of ad,ustment of thc ordinarl. metronome did not seem satisfac.ory at rhe iime of mersutcme.t,

points in bcrveen arc indicated.

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

VIII

DYNAMICS

A harpsichord registration is indicated in therable of tempi. It should be noticed that this regir::a-;ion is intended to enhance the symnetrical arrange-ment of rhe variarions, in thar the same 8' registeris employed for all the canons and rhe same combina-rion for all rhe rwo-manual arabesques, whereas thegreatest possible variety is brought ro rhe orherrssorred forms, in accordance with rheir characrer.

Changes of registration within the variations arequite uncalled-for; rhey only bring a kind of disturbingrestlessness to the expressioq and utterl]' destroy theeichitectural symrnetry. Each movement has its owntone-color, wirhin which all thc expressiveness ofJeclamarion and nuances of form can be brought outbl rouch and phrasing.

This same chatacter should be preserved in a pcr-iormance on the piano, by preserving a certain unityof volume and color within each variation and by:mploving the resources of nuance only in smallerjeqrees in order to enhance the declamation of indi-l iJual phrases. One only does violence to rhe musicl.r artempting to render rhe form of the whole move-ment into pianistic chiaroscuro. However, each varia-rroo should be given a distincrly characterized coloror d_vnamic level, Thc pedal should of course be used''erl sparingly and only for coloring, not for sustain-rng, aod should seldom be allowed to interfere wirhihe \vrirren rhythmical values.

1 false kind of expressiveness and emotional cli-macricism should not be imposed upon this music.

Neither must we react against nincteenth-centuryfashioos in favor of a. mechanical, rigidly shallow,"abstract" style of Bach playing.

As one must undersrand thc differcnce bctween thcheartrending ravings of a Philoctctcs and rhe ir-tellectual sereniry of a Socrares in a platonic dialoguclike the Phaedo, though realizing that thc humanimplications of the one are no grearer rhan of theother; so onc musr distioguish in this music the elc-ments which direcdy appeal ro the senses and thoscwhich we would no more treat with the physicalimmediacy, one might almost say importunacy, ofmuch of Wagner, than we would rcad a sonoet ofShakcspeare with dramatic iqflection and a brcak inour voices.

As has been too ofren forgorten, therc is much inmusic that is nobler and emorionally more profoundrhan superficial parhos of declamarion-

"Thoughrs that do often l ie too deep for tears".

As far as cxprcssion through dynamics is coo-cerned, here is an entirely different sruff from Bect-hoven or Wagner, a kind of music which wirhin amovement undergoes very l itt lc change ofsentimcnt orincrease of intensity. The real expression dcpcndsupon rhe 6nest feeling for rhe significancc of thefundamental, germinal phrascs, inwardly sung melo-dies, intensely felt rhythmic ligurcs and sensitiveharrnonic inflections; and the ability to expose,fully and nobly developed in obiective clarity, rhccontinuity and emotional logic of the wholc.

rxvi i i

Howcvcr much it is an act of imPu.{ence thus to

discuss somcthing which is far too Profound and com-

plex to bc graspcd in words, it seenls ncccssary, ln

order to explain all that has been s,rd beforc, to con-

fess some of the feelings which incvrtably come with

rhe playing of this music.

The Aria seems to foreshadow the spirit of the

whole work through the tendcrncss and calm with

which the solemnity of the fundamental bass is

clothed at its init ial appearance.

The frrst variation stands like a festive gateway

leading to the inner world exposed in the following

threc variations. These, like so many of the canons

and the Aria, havc an unearthly pure swcctncss and

a lyricism in evety phrasc that makes onc long to

dissolvc one's fingers, the instrumcnt, and one's whole

self into threc or fout singing voices. For a moment

this quiet lyricism is interrupted by the shining

smooth swiftness of the first arabesquc variation.

Thcn comes a second canon of an almost nostalgic

tendetness; ther, a fataway scherzo of thc utmost

lightness and delicacy. The following arabcsquc

and canon return to a lyricism whicb is interrupted by

the brusque roughness of the Fughcma. This is

followed by the delicate network of the third ara-

besque and the sunny caoon at the fourth. Then comes

a flute aria of a breath-taking quiet pure 1oy. The

humor of the fourth arabesquc makes cven more

striking thc appcarance of the dark tragic caoon at

the fifth which ends the first half of the variations.

The second half opens with a maiestic Ftench

Ouverture, followed by one of the lightcst of the

arabesque vatiations. In the sixth canon and the

lute-variation we return to a lyric sweetness l ike that

THE GOLDBERG VARIATIONS

IX

GENERAL INTERPRETATION

of thc bcginning, but rnore peaccful. Another

arabesquc contrasts with thc sombre scvcnth

which in turn loins on to the alla brctc

This, for all its quicker tcmpo, transforms

chromatic pathos of the canoo into that kind

screne chastcned joy which follows pain. In

seventh arabesquc wc burst forth in the most

resrained exuberant loy, which is tranquilized io

gcntle rocking of the canon at the octavc. Agaio

are intcrruptcd to be carricd to even greater

heights on the wavcs ofa quiet yet iresistibly passi

ate aria. Front rhe cighrh arabcsque on, thc

rions mount through a sprightly caton, glittcri

tr i l ls, and waltzlikc bravura to the 6nal ]ubiclimax in the Quodlibct, upon which the repetitioo

thc Aria falls l ike a benediction.

But for all their lyricism and tragic passion

exuberance. thc Aria and the Variations scem of

divine substance entirely rcfincd and purified of

thing pcrsonal or ignoble, so that in playing them

secms only the unworthy mouthpiccc of a

voicc. And even beyond the scope of ahe emoti

that have been aroused. the ell'ect of the whole is

of boundless oeace. in which onc returns

rencwed, matured to ahe starting point, which sccn

sccond time seems so transfigured in thc light of

travcrsed spirittral journey.

But how Bach himself in pious humility

ridicule these high-sounding words of ours with

wry face and with godJikc laughter:"Kraut und Riibcn. . . ."

Rar.pa Krr.rp

Salzburg, Septembff 15, 1934.