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bact growth and temp

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JOURNAL OF BACTERiOLOGY, Jan. 1982, p. 1 -5 Vol. 149, N o . 1 0021-9193/82/10001-05$02.0O/O Relationship Between Temperature and Growth Rate o f Bacterial Cultures D . A . RATKOWSKY,1 JUNE OLLEY,2 T . A . McMEEKIN,3* A N D A . BALL3 Division ofMathematics a nd Statistics' a nd Division o f Food Research,2 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization; a nd Department of Agricultural Science, University o f Tasmania3; Hobart, Tasmania, Australia 7000 Received 1 5 June 1981/Accepted 9 July 1981 The Arrhenius Law, which w a s originally proposed to describe t h e temperature dependence o f t h e specific reaction rate constant in chemical reactions, does n o t adequately describe t h e effect oftemperature o n bacterial growth. Microbiologists have attempted t o apply a modified version o f this l a w t o bacterial growth b y replacing t h e reaction rate constant b y the growth rate constant, b u t t h e modified l a w relationship fits data poorly, a s graphs of t h e logarithm o f t h e growth rate constant against reciprocal absolute temperature result i n curves rather than straight lines. Instead, a linear relationship between t he square root o f growth rate constant ( r ) a n d temperature (7), namely, ; - = b ( T - To), where b i s t h e regres- sion coefficient an d T o is a hypothetical temperature which i s a n intrinsic property of the organism, i s proposed a n d found to apply to t h e growth o f a wide range o f bacteria. T h e relationship i s also applicable t o nucleotide breakdown a n d t o t h e growth of yeast a n d molds. Van't Hoff (27) an d Arrhenius (2), b y analogy t o the Van't Hoff thermodynamic equation for chemical equilibrium, p u t forward t h e concept that the rate constant f o chemical reactions might b e suitably described b y t he following expression in differential form: d l n k/dT = E/RT2 ( 1 ) where k i s t h e specific reaction rate constant ( o r simply the rate constant), R i s the universal g a s constant, T i s t h e absolute temperature, a n d E i s a n empirically determined quantity called t h e activation energy. Upon integration, equation 1 results in t h e following exponential form: k = A e x p (-EIRT) ( 2 ) where the constant A i s referred t o variously as t h e "collision factor" o r "frequency factor" (16). Equation 2 h a s become generally known a s t h e Arrhenius Law, this expression h a s h a d some notable success i n describing t h e tempera- ture dependence o f chemical reactions. I n microbiology, i t ha s been recognized that temperature i s also a cardinal factor controlling the rate of development o f microbial popula- tions, a n d microbiologists have simply substitut- ed growth rate constant r , which i s determined assuming a n exponential growth model a n d which i also t h e reciprocal o f t h e generation time, fo r rate constant k i n equation 2 an d have replaced E by a quantity , which they have called the temperature characteristic. However, although , is supposed t o b e a constant i n equation 2 , there is widespread recognition that i i s i n fact a decreasing function of temperature ( 3 , 1 3 , 23). Th e consequence of this is that when I n r i s plotted against reciprocal temperature lI T t o produce what i s commonly known a s a n Arrhenius plot, a curve i s obtained instead o f a straight line. This i s readily observed f o r the s i x data sets depicted i n Fig. 1 . This figure, which represents five bacteria an d a mold, w as r e - drawn from Johnson et a l . (13); i t i s quite clear that the data do no t even remotely approximate a straight-line relationship a t any portion of t h e range. I n a more recent paper, Mohr a n d Krawiec (17) claim that some o f their Arrhenmus plots show t w o distinct slopes, b u t inspection o f their Fig. 1 to 3 reveals continuous downward- trending curves f o r each o f their data sets throughout the whole suboptimal temperature range. T h e curves o f growth rate constant versus temperature as drawn i n Fig. 1 a r e very typical o f data f o r bacterial cultures, a s Arrhenius plots o f data obtained i n the present study (Table 1 ) an d those derived from t he literature (Table 2 ) a r e a l l characterized by a continuously changing slope between t h e minimum a n d optimum tem- peratures. A poor f i t is generally obtained i f o n e triesto f i t the Arrhenius L a w to such data, a s t he response deviates from the linear relationship predicted by equation 2 . Laidler (15) h a s pointed o ut that t h e Arrhenius L a w i s of universal valid- i t y f o r elementary reactions a n d that "failure t o obey t he Arrhenius Law, i n fact, i s a n indication
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J O U R N A L OF B A C T E R i O L O G Y , J a n . 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 - 5 V o l . 1 4 9 , N o . 10 0 2 1 - 9 1 9 3 / 8 2 / 1 0 0 0 1 - 0 5 $ 0 2 . 0 O / O

R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n T e m p e r a t u r e a n d G r o w t h R a t e o f

B a c t e r i a l C u l t u r e s

D . A . RATKOWSKY,1 JUNE O L L E Y , 2 T . A . M c M E E K I N , 3 * AND A . B A L L 3

D i v i s i o n o f M a t h e m a t i c s a n d S t a t i s t i c s ' a n d D i v i s i o n o f F o o d R e s e a r c h , 2 C o m m o n w e a l t h S c i e n t i f i c a n dI n d u s t r i a l R e s e a r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n ; a n d D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e , U n i v e r s i t y o f T a s m a n i a 3 ; H o b a r t ,

T a s m a n i a , A u s t r a l i a 7 0 0 0

R e c e i v e d 1 5 J u n e 1 9 8 1 / A cc e p t e d 9 J u l y 1 9 8 1

T h e A r r h e n i u s L a w , w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y p r o p o s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e t e m p e r a t u r ed e p e n d e n c e o f t h e s p e c i f i c r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t i n c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s , d o e s n o ta d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h . M i c r o b i o l o g i s t sh a v e a t t e m p t e d t o a p p l y a m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f t h i s l a w t o b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h b y

r e p l a c i n g t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t b y t h e g r o w t h r a t e c o n s t a n t , b u t t h e m o d i f i e dl a w r e l a t i o n s h i p f i t s d a t a p o o r l y , a s g r a p h s o f t h e l o g a r i t h m o f t h e g r o w t h r a t ec o n s t a n t a g a i n s t r e c i p r o c a l a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e r e s u l t i n c u r v e s r a t h e r t h a ns t r a i g h t l i n e s . I n s t e a d , a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f g r o w t h r a t ec o n s t a n t ( r ) a n d t e m p e r a t u r e ( 7 ) , n a m e l y , V ; - = b ( T - T o ) , w h e r e b i s t h e r e g r e s -s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a n d T o i s a h y p o t h e t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e w h i c h i s a n i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t yo f t h e o r g a n i s m , i s p r o p o s e d a n d f o u n d t o a p p l y t o t h e g r o w t h o f a w i d e r a n g e o fb a c t e r i a . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o n u c l e o t i d e b r e a k d o w n a n d t o t h eg r o w t h o f y e a s t a n d m o l d s .

V a n ' t H o f f ( 2 7 ) a n d A r r h e n i u s ( 2 ) , b y a n a l o g y

t o t h e V a n ' t H o f f t h e r m o d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n f o rc h e m i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m , p u t f o r w a r d t h e c o n c e p tt h a t t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t f o r c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n sm i g h t b e s u i t a b l y d e s c r i b e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o n i n d i f f e r e n t i a l f o r m :

d l n k / d T = E / R T 2 ( 1 )

w h e r e k i s t h e s p e c i f i c r e a c t i o n r a t e c o n s t a n t ( o rs i m p l y t h e r a t e c o n s t a n t ) , R i s t h e u n i v e r s a l g a sc o n s t a n t , T i s t h e a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d E i sa n e m p i r i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d q u a n t i t y c a l l e d t h ea c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y . Upon i n t e g r a t i o n , e q u a t i o n 1

r e s u l t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p o n e n t i a l f o r m :k = A e x p ( - E I R T ) ( 2 )

w h e r e t h e c o n s t a n t A i s r e f e r r e d t o v a r i o u s l y a st h e " c o l l i s i o n f a c t o r " o r " f r e q u e n c y f a c t o r "( 1 6 ) . E q u a t i o n 2 h a s b e c o m e g e n e r a l l y k n o w n a st h e A r r h e n i u s L a w , a n d t h i s e x p r e s s i o n h a s h a ds o m e n o t a b l e s u c c e s s i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e t e m p e r a -t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s .

I n m i c r o b i o l o g y , i t h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d t h a tt e m p e r a t u r e i s a l s o a c a r d i n a l f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n gt h e r a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f m i c r o b i a l p o p u l a -

t i o n s , a n d m i c r o b i o l o g i s t s h a v e s i m p l y s u b s t i t u t -e d g r o w t h r a t e c o n s t a n t r , w h i c h i s d e t e r m i n e da s s u m i n g a n e x p o n e n t i a l g r o w t h m o d e l a n d

w h i c h i s a l s o t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e g e n e r a t i o nt i m e , f o r r a t e c o n s t a n t k i n e q u a t i o n 2 a n d h a v er e p l a c e d E b y a q u a n t i t y , w h i c h t h e y h a v ec a l l e d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . H o w e v e r ,a l t h o u g h , i s s u p p o s e d t o b e a c o n s t a n t i n

e q u a t i o n 2 , t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t

i t i s i n f a c t a d e c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e( 3 , 1 3 , 2 3 ) . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s i s t h a t w h e nI n r i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t r e c i p r o c a l t e m p e r a t u r e l I Tt o p r o d u c e w h a t i s c o m m o n l y k n o w n a s a n

A r r h e n i u s p l o t , a c u r v e i s o b t a i n e d i n s t e a d o f as t r a i g h t l i n e . T h i s i s r e a d i l y o b s e r v e d f o r t h e s i xd a t a s e t s d e p i c t e d i n F i g . 1 . T h i s f i g u r e , w h i c hr e p r e s e n t s f i v e b a c t e r i a a n d a m o l d , w a s r e -d r a w n f r o m J o h n s o n e t a l . ( 1 3 ) ; i t i s q u i t e c l e a rt h a t t h e d a t a d o n o t e v e n r e m o t e l y a p p r o x i m a t ea s t r a i g h t - l i n e r e l a t i o n s h i p a t a n y p o r t i o n o f t h er a n g e . I n a m o r e r e c e n t p a p e r , M o h r a n d

K r a w i e c ( 1 7 ) c l a i m t h a t s o m e o f t h e i r A r r h e n m u sp l o t s s h o w t w o d i s t i n c t s l o p e s , b u t i n s p e c t i o n o ft h e i r F i g . 1 t o 3 r e v e a l s c o n t i n u o u s d o w n w a r d -t r e n d i n g c u r v e s f o r e a c h o f t h e i r d a t a s e t st h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e s u b o p t i m a l t e m p e r a t u r er a n g e .

T h e c u r v e s o f g r o w t h r a t e c o n s t a n t v e r s u st e m p e r a t u r e a s d r a w n i n F i g . 1 a r e v e r y t y p i c a lo f d a t a f o r b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s , a s A r r h e n i u s p l o t so f d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y ( T a b l e 1 )a n d t h o s e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e ( T a b l e 2 )a r e a l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g i n g

s l o p e b e t w e e n t h e m i n i m u m a n d o p t i m u m t e m -p e r a t u r e s . A p o o r f i t i s g e n e r a l l y o b t a i n e d i f o n et r i e s t o f i t t h e A r r h e n i u s Law t o s u c h d a t a , a s t h er e s p o n s e d e v i a t e s f r o m t h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i pp r e d i c t e d b y e q u a t i o n 2 . L a i d l e r ( 1 5 ) h a s p o i n t e do u t t h a t t h e A r r h e n i u s Law i s o f u n i v e r s a l v a l i d -i t y f o r e l e m e n t a r y r e a c t i o n s a n d t h a t " f a i l u r e t oo b e y t h e A r r h e n i u s L a w , i n f a c t , i s a n i n d i c a t i o n

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F I G . 1 . A r r h e n i u s p l o t o f s i x s e t s o f d a t a r e d r a w n f r o m J o h n s o n e t a l . ( 1 3 ) . The s o l i d c u r v e s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e

e q u a t i o n V r - = b ( T -T o ) .

t h a t a r e a c t i o n i s n o t a s i m p l e o n e . " B a c t e r i a lg r o w t h i s a c o m p l e x b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n ga v a r i e t y o f s u b s t r a t e s a n d enzymes, a n d i t i st h u s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e A r r h e n i u s Law d o e s

n o t a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a -t u r e o n t h e g r o w t h o f b a c t e r i a . I n t h e p r e s e n tw o r k we p u t f o r w a r d an a l t e r n a t i v e l i n e a rg r o w t h r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s grow-

i n g b e t w e e n t h e minimum a n d o p t i m u m g r o w t ht e m p e r a t u r e s . I n common w i t h t h e A r r h e n i u s

Law as a p p l i e d t o b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s , t h e r e i s n o

t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e a l t e r n a t i v e r e l a -t i o n s h i p t o b e p r o p o s e d , b u t i t d o e s a t l e a s t h a v et h e v i r t u e o f p r o v i d i n g an e x c e l l e n t f i t t o e m p i r i -c a l d a t a .A r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h i s t y p e w a s s u g g e s t e d

b y t h e w o r k o f O h t a a n d H i r a h a r a ( 1 8 ) , wh of o u n d e m p i r i c a l l y t h a t a p l o t o f t h e s q u a r e r o o t

o f t h e r a t e o f n u c l e o t i d e b r e a k d o w n in c o o l -s t o r e d carp m u s c l e versus t e m p e r a t u r e w a s

n e a r l y l i n e a r a n d d e s c r i b e d b y t h e e q u a t i o n \ r /= 0 . 0 6 5 0 + 0 . 5 1 8 , w h e r e 0 i s t e m p e r a t u r e i n

T A B L E 1 . S a m p l e s i z e s , c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e t w e e n V ' r a n d T , a n d T o v a l u e s f o r 1 4 b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s

C o d e N o . o f N o . o f d a t a A v g c o r e l a t i o nT o ( n f a t S D )

n o . d a t a s e t s p o i n t s c o e f f i c i e n t

1 6 L 1 6 P s e u d o m o n a s g r o u p I 1 5 1 8 8 0 . 9 9 1 2 6 4 . 0 ± 2 . 0CLD38 A l t e r o m o n a s 6 8 2 0 . 9 9 6 2 6 6 . 0 ± 1 . 1F S 1 A l t e r o m o n a s 3 2 7 0 . 9 8 9 2 6 7 . 8 ± 2 . 4F S 2 A l t e r o m o n a s 3 2 1 0 . 9 8 4 2 6 3 . 1 ± 5 . 5G 4 8 9 P s e u d o m o n a s g r o u p I V 9 7 4 0 . 9 9 1 2 6 3 . 1 ± 1 . 4G 2 6 8 P s e u d o m o n a s g r o u p I I 4 3 1 0 . 9 7 9 2 7 2 . 2 ± 1 . 9G 2 4 9 A c i n e t o b a c t e r 4 3 7 0 . 9 6 8 2 7 8 . 0 ± 1 . 6G 2 7 3 A c i n e t o b a c t e r 4 4 8 0 . 9 9 0 2 7 2 . 5 ± 0 . 8G 2 7 5 A c i n e t o b a c t e r 3 2 0 0 . 9 9 4 2 7 7 . 0 ± 1 . 4G 2 8 1 A c i n e t o b a c t e r 2 1 8 0 . 9 7 6 2 7 6 . 1 ± 2 . 5G 2 1 5 M i c r o c o c c u s 4 4 1 0 . 9 8 5 2 7 3 . 7 ± 0 . 7G 2 7 4 M i c r o c o c c u s 4 4 1 0 . 9 8 9 2 7 3 . 6 ± 4 . 6G 3 5 6 C o r y n e f o r m 4 3 6 0 . 9 8 8 2 7 5 . 8 ± 3 . 7G 3 5 7 C o r y n e f o r m 8 5 4 0 . 9 8 2 2 7 8 . 5 ± 2 . 9

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TEMPER A TURE V S . BACTERIAL G R O W T H

T A B LE 2 . S a m p l e s i z e s , c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s b e t w e e nr -

a n d T , a n d T o v a l u e s f o r c u l t u r e s i n t h el i t e r a t u r e

C u l t u r e R e f e r e n c e N o . o f s t p o i n t s C o f f e l a t i o n T o ( m e a n ± S D )

P s e u d o m o n a s s p . L 1 2 9 1 7 0 . 9 9 8 2 4 8A c h r o m o b a c t e r s p . 2 3 3 2 0 0 . 9 9 3 a 2 6 1 . 2 ± 1 . 5P s e u d o m o n a s s p . L 9 9 1 7 0 . 9 9 7 2 6 3P s e u d o m o n a s f l u o r e s c e n s 2 2 6 3 0 0 . 9 9 6 a 2 6 3 . 5 ± 2 . 2P s y c h r o p h i l i c c o l i f o r m EBT 3 1 6 0 . 9 8 7 2 6 4P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 1 1 3 1 6 0 . 9 8 8 2 6 4C o l i f o r m C l 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 9 2 6 5C o l i f o r m C 4 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 6 2 6 5P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 2 6 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 2 2 6 5P s e u d o m o n a s s p p . 1 1 3 4 4 0 . 9 9 5 a 2 6 5 . 1 ± 2 . 5P s e u d o m o n a s s p . 2 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 5 2 6 6P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 1 4 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 2 2 6 6P s y c h r o p h i l i c m i c r o b a c t e r i a b 3 2 4 0 . 9 9 5 a 2 6 6 . 0 ± 0 . 6A e r o b a c t e r a e r o g e n e s 6 1 6 0 . 9 9 3 2 6 7

P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 2 2 3 1 6 0 . 9 8 6 2 6 9P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 2 7 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 9 2 7 2C o l i f o r m C 7 3 1 5 0 . 9 8 9 2 7 2M e s o p h i l i c l a c t o b a c i l l i b 2 1 1 0 . 9 9 2 a 2 7 2 . 9 ± 0 . 2C o l i f o r m C 2 3 1 6 0 . 9 8 6 2 7 4P s e u d o m o n a s a e r u g i n o s a 3 1 6 0 . 9 7 9 2 7 4C o l i f o r m C l O 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 3 2 7 5E s c h e r i c h i a c o l i 3 1 6 0 . 9 9 5 2 7 5P s e u d o m o n a s a e r u g i n o s a 1 1 1 8 0 . 9 9 5 2 7 6P s e u d o m o n a s s p . P 1 5 3 1 6 0 . 9 8 1 2 7 6E . c o l i 4 1 1 2 0 . 9 9 2 2 7 6E . c o l i 1 4 1 6 0 . 9 9 4 2 7 7E . c o l i 1 1 1 1 5 0 . 9 8 8 2 8 0

L a c t o b a c i l l u s d e l b r u e c k i i 2 6 1 7 0 . 9 9 4 2 9 0B a c i l l u s c i r c u l a n s 1 1 5 0 . 9 8 9 2 9 6

a A v e r a g e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e g i v e n w h e n t h e r e i s m o r e t h a n o n e d a t a s e t .b , B r o w n l i e , t h e s i s .

d e g r e e s C e l s i u s . R e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h i s t y p e mayb e r e a r r a n g e d a s f o l l o w s :

V = b ( T - T o ) ( 3 )

w h e r e b i s t h e s l o p e o f t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e , T i st e m p e r a t u r e , a n d T o i s a c o n c e p t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e

o f n o m e t a b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e . A l t h o u g h T a n d T om ay b e i n d e g r e e s C e l s i u s , we c h o o s e t o u s ed e g r e e s K e l v i n t o a v o i d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f n e g a -

t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e s . The g r o w t h r a t e s o f 1 4 b a c t e -r i a l c u l t u r e s w e r e s t u d i e d o v e r a w i d e r a n g e o ft e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d t h e d a t a w e r e u s e d t o t e s t t h ea p p l i c a b i l i t y o f e q u a t i o n 3 .

M A T E R I A L S A ND METHODS

T h e i d e n t i t i e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m s u s e d a r e s h o w n i nT a b l e 1 . S t r a i n s o f p r e f i x e d G w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m N .G i l l e s p i e , Q u e e n s l a n d F i s h e r i e s S e r v i c e , a n d w e r e

i s o l a t e d f r o m f r e s h p r a w n s c a u g h t a t 7 f a t h o m s ( c a .1 2 . 8 m ) i n t h e G 4 8 9 , w h i c h w a s i s o l a t e d f r o m s p o i l e dp r a w n s . O t h e r i s o l a t e s w e r e o b t a i n e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t yo f T a s m a n i a d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .S t r a i n s 1 6 L 1 6 a n d CLD38 w e r e i s o l a t e d f r o m s p o i l e dc h i c k e n , a n d F S 1 a n d F S 2 w e r e i s o l a t e d f r o m s p o i l e df i s h . T h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e g r o w t h o f t h e s e1 4 b a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s w a s e x a m i n e d b y u s i n g a t e m -

p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t i n c u b a t o r ( T o y o K a g a k u S a n g y o C o .

L t d . , T o k y o , J a p a n ) . T h i s p e r m i t t e d e x a m i n a t i o n o fg r o w t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 C i n t e r v a l s over t h e r a n g e 0t o 4 4 ° C . T h e g r o w t h m e d i u m ( s e a w a t e r n u t r i e n t b r o t h )w a s i n o c u l a t e d w i t h 0 . 1 m l o f e a c h c u l t u r e , w h i c h h a d

b e e n g r o w n i n s e a w a t e r n u t r i e n t b r o t h f o r 2 4 h a t 2 2 ° C .G r o w t h a t e a c h

t e m p e r a t u r ewas d e t e r m i n e d

b y o p t i -c a l d e n s i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s u s i n g a n e p h e l o m e t e r ( E E LU n i g a l v o ) . G r o w t h c o n s t a n t r was c a l c u l a t e d a t e a c h

t e m p e r a t u r e , a s s e s s e d a s t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e t i m et a k e n t o r e a c h s p e c i f i c t u r b i d i t y l e v e l s ( 2 5 , 5 0 , a n d

7 9 % o ) o r f r o m t h e s l o p e o f c u r v e s o f t h e l o g a r i t h m o ft u r b i d i t y p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t i m e . D a t a s e t s o b t a i n e d b y a l l

f o u r m e t h o d s w e r e u s e d t o e v a l u a t e T o .

RESULTS A ND DISCUSSION

R e s u l t s w e r e p l o t t e d i n t h e f o r m o f \ / - ver-

s u s T , a n d e x c e l l e n t s t r a i g h t l i n e s wer e o b t a i n e d

f o r t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o o r j u s t b e l o w t h e m a x i -mum g r o w t h r a t e , b e y o n d w h i c h a s i g n i f i c a n td e c l i n e o c c u r r e d i n t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h , d u e t o a

v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s s u c h a s i n a c t i v a t i o n o r d e n a -

t u r a t i o n o f p r o t e i n s , i n s t a b i l i t y o r n o s y n t h e s i s o f

RNA, o r i n h i b i t i o n . O n l y t h o s e d a t a p o i n t s f o rw h i c h t h i s d e c l i n e h a d n o t y e t o c c u r r e d w e r e

V O L . 1 4 9 , 1 9 8 2 3

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4 R A T K O W S K Y ET A L .

u s e d ; t h i s meant t h a t f o r most d a t a s e t s t h e l a s tp o i n t o r l a s t two p o i n t s w e r e o m i t t e d . T y p i c a ld a t a f o r o n e o r g a n i s m are p l o t t e d i n F i g . 2 .R e s u l t s ar e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 . V a l u e s o f t h ec o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w e e n V ; r a n d T ex-

c e e d e d 0 . 9 7 i n 6 5 o f t h e d a t a s e t s , a n d p l o t s o f

r e s i d u a l s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d a t a f i t t e d e q u a t i o n 3w e l l . T h e o t h e r e i g h t d a t a s e t s h a d c o r r e l a t i o nc o e f f i c i e n t s a b o v e 0 . 9 3 , a n d n o n e s h o w e d an y

s i g n i f i c a n t d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e f o r m o f e q u a t i o n3 . V a l u e s o f T o a n d t h e i r s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s are

a l s o t a b u l a t e d . W i t h i n an y s i n g l e c u l t u r e t h e

v a l u e s o f T o v a r i e d l i t t l e a n d t h e means f o r t h ec u l t u r e s e x a m i n e d r a n g e d f r o m 2 6 3 t o 2 7 9 ° K .To f u r t h e r e x a m i n e w h e t h e r e q u a t i o n 3 was

g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h , a d d i -t i o n a l d a t a s e t s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e( 1 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 4 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 6 ; L . E . B r o w n l i e ,t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y , S y d n e y , A u s t r a l i a ,1 9 6 9 ) . R e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 i n o r d e r

o f i n c r e a s i n g T o v a l u e s . A l l d a t a s e t s f i t t e de q u a t i o n 3 e x c e l l e n t l y w i t h a l l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i -c i e n t s e x c e e d i n g 0 . 9 8 . F i v e o f t h e s e d a t a s e t s are

s h o w n i n F i g . 1 i n t h e f o r m o f an A r r h e n i u s p l o t( l o g a r i t h m o f r a t e v e rsu s r e c i p r o c a l a b s o l u t e

t e m p e r a t u r e ) . C u r v e s r e p r e s e n t i n g p r e d i c t e dv a l u e s o f t h e r a t e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b e s t - f i t l i n e su s i n g e q u a t i o n 3 are s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e d a t a i nF i g . 1 a n d c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t e q u a t i o n 3

c l o s e l y m o d e l s t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h eg r o w t h o f e a c h o r g a n i s m b e t w e e n t h e minimuma n d o p t i m u m v a l u e s f o r e a c h o r g a n i s m .

E xt r a p o l a t i o n o f t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e o b t a i n e db y p l o t t i n g / r - v e r s u s T y i e l d s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e

T o a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h et e m p e r a t u r e a x i s . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h eminimum g r o w t h t e m p e r a t u r e i s o n l y a h y p o -t h e t i c a l c o n c e p t s i n c e e q u a t i o n 3 i s v a l i d o n l y a t

0 . 2 4 [

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26 0 2 6 5 27 0 2 7 5 28 0 2 8 5 2 9 0 2 9 5 3 0 0T e m p e r a t u r e I K )

F I G . 2 . T y p i c a l l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r P s e u d o m o -n as g r o u p 1 s t r a i n 1 6 L 1 6 b e t w e e n squ a re r o o t o fg r o w t h r a t e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . G r o w t h r a t e w a s m e a -

s u r e d as t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e t i m e t o r e a c h 25%t u r b i d i t y .

t e m p e r a t u r e s w h e r e w a t e r a c t i v i t y i s n o t c h a n g -i n g d u e t o i c e f o r m a t i o n ( 2 4 ) . F r o m T a b l e 2 t h ep s y c h r o p h i l e d e s c r i b e d b y H a r d e r a n d V e l d -k a m p ( 9 ) h a s a T o v a l u e o f 2 4 8 ° K , a n d t h ep s y c h r o t r o p h s h a v e v a l u e s i n t h e r e g i o n b e -t w e e n 2 6 1 a n d 2 6 9 ° K . O f i n t e r e s t a r e t h e r e s u l t so f s i x d a t a s e t s o n P s e u d o m o n a s f l u o r e s c e n s( 2 2 ) , t h e s e b e i n g o b t a i n e d f r o m f a c t o r i a l c o m b i -n a t i o n s o f t h r e e g r o w t h m e d i a a n d t w o c o n d i -t i o n s o f a e r a t i o n . T h e T o v a l u e s w e r e i n d e p e n -d e n t o f m e d i u m a n d a e r a t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t T oi s a n i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t y o f t h e o r g a n i s m w h e ng r o w t h c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t e m p e r a t u r e a r en o n l i m i t i n g . T o v a l u e s f o r m e s o p h i l e s w e r e i n t e r -m e d i a t e , i . e . , f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 7 0 t o 2 8 0 ° K ,b e t w e e n p s y c h r o t r o p h s a n d t h e r m o p h i l e s . T h et w o t h e r m o p h i l e s i n T a b l e 2 h a v e T o v a l u e s o f

2 9 0 a n d 2 9 6 ° K r e s p e c t i v e l y . T o v a l u e s mayt h e r e f o r e b e a u s e f u l a i d i n a d d i t i o n t o o p t i m u mg r o w t h t e m p e r a t u r e t o c a t e g o r i z e a m i c r o o r g a n -i s m a s a p s y c h r o p h i l e , p s y c h r o t r o p h , m e s o p h i l e ,o r t h e r m o p h i l e . T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 1a n d 2 i n d i c a t e d i s t i n c t T o v a l u e s f o r p s y c h r o -p h i l e s a n d t h e r m o p h i l e s w i t h a g r a d a t i o n f r o mp s y c h r o t r o p h s t o m e s o p h i l e s . I t s e e m s l i k e l yt h a t a s f u r t h e r T o v a l u e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d t h e r ew i l l b e a c o n t i n u a l g r a d a t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s a c r o s st h e s p e c t r u m f r o m p s y c h r o p h i l e t o t h e r m o p h i l e .P r e v i o u s l y , a t t e m p t s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e t e m p e r a -t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s h a v e b e e nd e r i v e d f r o m A r r h e n i u s p l o t s . T h u s I n g r a h a m( 1 1 , 1 2 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c ( , ) c o u l d b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e ra n o r g a n i s m w a s a p s y c h r o p h i l e o r m e s o p h i l e .T h i s c o n c e p t w a s c h a l l e n g e d b y H a n u s a n dM o r i t a ( 8 ) , who f o u n d n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o nb e t w e e n , u v a l u e s o f p s y c h r o p h i l e s , p s y c h r o -t r o p h s , a n d m e s o p h i l e s . A s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o nw a s d r a w n b y S h a w ( 2 5 ) f o r y e a s t s a n d b yH e r b e r t a n d B h a k o o ( 1 0 ) f o r f i v e p s y c h r o p h i l i cv i b r i o s . S i n c e t h e A r r h e n i u s Law d o e s n o t a d e -

q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o fb a c t e r i a l c u l t u r e s , a s e m p h a s i z e d i n t h e i n t r o -d u c t i o n t o t h i s p a p e r , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n dt h a t , may v a r y a s much a s t h r e e f o l d o r f o u r f o l dt h r o u g h o u t a s i n g l e s e t o f d a t a d e p e n d i n g u p o nw h i c h p o r t i o n o f t h e d a t a s e t i s u s e d . T h i sp r o b l e m d o e s n o t a r i s e w h e n e q u a t i o n 3 i s u s e d ,a s i t a p p l i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f t h er e s p o n s e f r o m t h e m i n i m u m t o t h e o p t i m u mv a l u e s .

I t t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s t h a t e q u a t i o n 3 may b eu s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m -

p e r a t u r e a n d g r o w t h r a t e o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m sb e t w e e n t h e m i n i m u m ' a n d o p t i m u m t e m p e r a -t u r e s a n d may b e u s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e A r r h e n i u sL a w . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p may f i n d a p p l i c a t i o n i no t h e r a r e a s o f b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e . A s a n e x a m p l e ,o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n o u r l a b o r a t o r i e s h a v es h o w n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o d e s c r i b e t h e e f f e c t o f

J . B A C T E R I O L .

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T EMPER A T U R E V S . BAC TERI AL GROWTH

t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o t e i n -a c e o u s f o o d s . T h i s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , s i n c en u c l e o t i d e b r e a k d o w n ( 1 8 ) w h i c h p r e c e d e ss p o i l a g e h a s b e e n s h o w n t o o b e y e q u a t i o n 3 w i t h

a T o o f 2 6 5 ° K . T h i s T o v a l u e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a to b t a i n e d f o r many p s e u d o m o n a d s w h i c h ar e t h em a j o r s p o i l a g e o r g a n i s m s o f p r o t e i n a c e o u s f o o d s

s t o r e d a e r o b i c a l l y a t c h i l l t e m p e r a t u r e s . U n d e rt h e s e c o n d i t i o n s p s y c h r o t r o p h i c p s e u d o m o n a d sar e s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e g e n e r a t i o n t i m e su p t o 30% f a s t e r t h a n c o m p e t i t o r s ( 5 ) . T e m p e r a -t u r e i s t h e c a r d i n a l f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e r a t e o f

g r o w t h s i n c e o t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h as n u t r i e n t s t a -t u s a n d a v a i l a b l e w a t e r ar e n o n l i m i t i n g a n d n o

m i c r o b i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o c c u r u n t i l maximum c e l l

d e n s i t i e s are r e a c h e d ( 5 ) . T h e r e f o r e a k n o w l e d g eo f t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h

o f t h e s p o i l a g e f l o r a may b e u s e d t o m o n i t o r t h et i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y o f e x p i r e d s h e l f l i f e o f

t h e p r o d u c t . T h i s proce s s , t e m p e r a t u r e f u n c t i o ni n t e g r a t i o n , i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s e o f e l e c t r o n i ci n t e g r a t o r s o f w h i c h t h e c i r c u i t r y c o n t a i n s t h er e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g r o w t h r a t e a n d t e m p e r a -

t u r e ( 1 9 ) . To d a t e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e nb a s e d u p o n t h e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i v e r a t e c u r v e

c o n s t r u c t e d b y O l l e y a n d R a t k o w s k y ( 2 0 , 2 1 )f r o m 7 0 d a t a s e t s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . T h e e m p i r i c a lc u r v e c an now b e r e p l a c e d b y a r e l a t i v e r a t e

c u r v e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m e q u a t i o n 3 . A T o v a l u e o f

2 6 3 ° K , w h i c h i s c l o s e t o t h e l o w e s t v a l u e o b -t a i n e d f o r t y p i c a l p s y c h r o t r o p h i c p s e u d o m o -n a d s , g i v e s a r e l a t i v e r a t e c u r v e w h i c h i s i ne x c e l l e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l d a t a .A f u r t h e r u s e o f e q u a t i o n 3 i s t h a t i t a c c u r a t e l y

d e s c r i b e s t h e d a t a ( 2 3 ) o n t h e g r o w t h o f y e a s t

s p e c i e s o f t h e g e n e r a C a n d i d a , G e o t r i c h o i d e s ,a n d M y c o t o r u l a , w i t h T o v a l u e s near 2 6 0 , a n d i t

a l s o a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e s t h e g r o w t h o f t h e m o l dS p o r o t r i c h u m c a r n i s ( 7 ) w i t h T o = 2 6 4 ( t h i s l a t t e rs e t o f d a t a i s s h o w n i n F i g . 1 ) .

A CKNOWLEDGMENT

W e t h a n k R . K . L o w r y f o r c o m p u t a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e .

LITERATURE CIMD

1 . A l l e n , M. B . 1 9 5 3 . T h e t h e r m o p h i l i c a e r o b i c s p o r e - f o r m -i n g b a c t e r i a . B a c t e r i o l . R e v . 1 7 : 1 2 5 - 1 7 3 .

2 . Arrbenlus, S . 1 8 8 9 . U b e r d i e R e a k t i o n s g e s c h w i n d i g k e i tb e i d e r I n v e r s i o n v o n R o h r z u c k e r d u r c h S a u r e n . Z . P h y s .C h e m . 4 : 2 2 6 - 2 4 8 .

3 . B a i g , L . A . , a n d J . W . H o p t o n . 1 9 6 9 . P s y c h r o p h i l i c p r o p e r -

t i e s a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f g r o w t h o f b a c t e -

r i a . J . B a c t e r i o l . 1 0 0 : 5 5 2 - 5 5 3 .

4 . B a r b e r , M. A . 1 9 0 8 . The r a t e o f m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f B a c i l l u sc o l i a t d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s . J . I n f e c t . D i s . 5 : 3 7 9 - 4 0 0 .

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a e r o b i c s p o i l a g e f l o r a o n m e a t s t o r e d a t c h i l i t e m p e r a -

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