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BALDAUF 1993, Animals and Fungi Are Each Other's Closest Relatives

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8/20/2019 BALDAUF 1993, Animals and Fungi Are Each Other's Closest Relatives http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/baldauf-1993-animals-and-fungi-are-each-others-closest-relatives 1/5 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 90, pp. 11558-11562, December 1993 Evolution Animals and fungi are each other's closest relatives: Congruent evidence from multiple proteins SANDRA L. BALDAUF* AND JEFFREY D. PALMERt *Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, Halifax, NS, Canada, B3H 3Z1; and tDepartment of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 Communicated by David Dilcher, September 17, 1993 ABSTRACT Phylogenetic relationships among plants, an- imals, and fungi were examined by using sequences from 25 proteins. Four insertions/deletions were found that are shared by two ofthe three taxonomic groups in question, and all four are uniquely shared by animals and fungi relative to plants, protists, and bacteria. These include a 12-amino acid insertion in translation elongation factor la and three small gaps in enolase. Maximum-parsimony trees were constructed from published data for four of the most broadly sequenced of the 25 proteins, actin, a-tubulin, ,-tubulin, and elongation factor la, with the latter supplemented by three new outgroup sequences. All four proteins place animals and fungi together as a mono- phyletic group to theexclusion of plants and a broad diversity of protists. In all cases, bootstrapanalyses showno support for either an animal-plant or hfngal-plant dade. This congruence among multiple lines of evidence strongly suggests, in contrast to traditional and current classification, that animals and fungi are sister groups while plants constitute an independent evo- lutionary lineage. The traditional classification of fungi as plants has been largely replaced over the past three decades by the five- kingdom classification of Whittaker (1, 2). In this scheme, the three major multicellular groups-animals, fungi, and green plants-are each given the status of kingdoms derived from different protistan lineages of uncertain affinities. More re- cently, however, based on a combination of ultrastructural and biochemical characters, Cavalier-Smith (3) proposed that animals and fungi are closely related and share a most recent common ancestor similar to present-day choanoflagellates. Molecular phylogenies of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences have alternatively placed either plants or fungi as more closely related to animals with about equal frequency (4-9). However, the most recent and comprehensive rRNA analysis supported animals as the sister group to fungi (9), as did an analysis of a subset of elongation factor la (EF-la) sequences (10). The only analysis of this question using multiple lines of molecular evidence used rRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), and protein sequences and supported plants as the sister group to the animals (11). However, this analysis was critically limited by the narrow representation of major taxonomic groups available at the time. We have reexamined this question by using several different proteins, each representing a wide diversity of eukaryotic phyla, as well as by surveying a large number of proteins for diagnostic insertions and deletions. From these, we find multiple lines of data all showing that animals and fungi are most closely related to each other to the exclusion of a broad diversity of eukaryotic phyla, including plants.t The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked  advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact. MATERIALS AND METHODS An internal portion of the EF-la gene was amplified from Giardia lamblia, Trypanosoma brucei, and Staphylothermus marinus by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). DNA was amplified through 40 cycles of 1 min at 92°C, 1.5 min at 50°C or 55°C, and 2 min at 72°C with a set of 16- and 32-fold degenerate primers. Products were cloned, and sequence was determined on both strands for at least three independent clones. Clones were hybridized to Southern blots of at least two different restriction digests each of total DNA from T. brucei, Paramecium aurelia, and six different archaebacte- ria, and G. lamblia DNA from four independent sources. This confirmed the origin of each PCR product and also showed the gene to be single copy in all three taxa. The S. marinus, T. brucei, and G. lamblia sequences correspond to amino acids 20-304, 20-422, and 63-304 of animal EF-la, respec- tively. Sequences were aligned on a Sun workstation using the Wisconsin Genetics Computer Group program PILEUP (12) with default gap penalties. Alignments were then modified by eye to minimize insertion/deletion events. For phylogeny reconstruction, identical or nearly identical sequences were identified by pairwise comparisons, and a single representa- tive was chosen for each set. For the four proteins analyzed, a total of five short amino- and carboxyl-terminal regions were omitted, as these were not alignable with confidence among all sequences; for EF-la, a single region ambiguous among archaebacteria was included and scored as missing data for these taxa. All alignments and the coordinates of deleted regions are available from S.L.B. upon request. Maximum-parsimony trees were derived from amino acid sequences by using PAUP 3.Or (13). Shortest tree, decay (14), and alternative topology searches used 50 replicates of ran- dom addition with branch swapping by tree bisection- reconnection (TBR). In all cases, all shortest trees were found within the first one to four random replicates, suggest- ing that this heuristic search strategy was effective in iden- tifying all most-parsimonious trees (D. Swofford, personal communication). In addition, when trees were trimmed of closely related taxa, all shortest trees were found on the first replicate and discovered on all subsequent relicates, suggest- ing that any search islands (15) that might exist were re- stricted to terminal clades. Bootstrap analyses (16) used 100 replicates of simple addition, holding one tree at each step. Due to computer memory limitations, all data sets except EF-la required trimming for either decay and/or bootstrap analyses as indicated in the figure legends, although this was still insufficientto allow decay analysis of actin. All trees are rooted with kinetoplastids except for the EF-la tree, which is rooted with the archaebacteria. All data sets were also analyzed by distance with the PHYLIP 3.5C (17) programs PROTIST (weights based on Dayhoff PAM 001 and/or George- Abbreviation: EF-la, elongation factor la. tThe sequences reported in this paper have been deposited in the GenBank data base (accession nos. L23957, L23984, and L25868). 11558
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Page 1: BALDAUF 1993, Animals and Fungi Are Each Other's Closest Relatives

8/20/2019 BALDAUF 1993, Animals and Fungi Are Each Other's Closest Relatives

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/baldauf-1993-animals-and-fungi-are-each-others-closest-relatives 1/5

P r o c .

N a t l .

A c a d .

S c i .

USA

V o l . 9 0 , p p . 1 1 5 5 8 - 1 1 5 6 2 ,

D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 3

E v o l u t i o n

A n i m a l s

a n d

f u n g i a r e e a c h o t h e r ' s

c l o s e s t r e l a t i v e s :

C o n g r u e n t

e v i d e n c e

f r o m

m u l t i p l e

p r o t e i n s

SANDRA L . BALDAUF*

AN D J E F F R E Y D . P A L M E R t

* I n s t i t u t e

f o r

M a r i n e

B i o s c i e n c e s ,

N a t i o n a l

R e s e a r c h

C o u nc i l o f C a n a d a ,

H a l i f a x ,

N S ,

C a n a d a ,

B3H

3 Z 1 ;

a n d

t D e p a r t m e n t

o f

B i o l o g y , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y ,

B l o o m i n g t o n ,

I N

4 7 4 0 5

C o m m u n i c a t e d b y

D a v i d D i l c h e r , S e p t e m b e r

1 7 ,

1 9 9 3

ABSTRACT

P h y l o g e n e t i c

r e l a t i o n s h i p s

a m o n g p l a n t s , a n -

i m a l s , a n d

f u n g i w e r e e x a m i n e d

b y

u s i n g

s e q u e n c e s

f r o m

2 5

p r o t e i n s . F o u r i n s e r t i o n s / d e l e t i o n s

w e r e f o u n d

t h a t a r e

s h a r e d

b y t w o

o f t h e

t h r e e t a x o n o m i c g r o u p s

i n q u e s t i o n , a n d

a l l f o u r

a r e u n i q u e l y

s h a r e d b y

a n i m a l s

a n d f u n g i r e l a t i v e t o

p l a n t s ,

p r o t i s t s ,

a n d b a c t e r i a .

T h e s e i n c l u d e a 1 2 - a m i n o

a c i d i n s e r t i o n

i n

t r a n s l a t i o n

e l o n g a t i o n

f a c t o r

l a

a n d

t h r e e s m a l l g a p s

i n

e n o l a s e .

M a x i m u m - p a r s i m o n y

t r e e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m

p u b l i s h e d

d a t a f o r

f o u r

o f t h e m o s t

b r o a d l y s e q u e n c e d

o f

t h e 2 5

p r o t e i n s ,

a c t i n ,

a - t u b u l i n ,

, - t u b u l i n ,

a n d

e l o n g a t i o n

f a c t o r

l a ,

w i t h t h e l a t t e r

s u p p l e m e n t e d

b y t h r e e n e w

o u t g r o u p s e q u e n c e s .

A l l

f o u r p r o t e i n s

p l a c e a n i m a l s

a n d

f u n g i

t o g e t h e r

a s a

m o n o -

p h y l e t i c

g r o u p t o

t h e e x c l u s i o n o f p l a n t s a n d

a b r o a d

d i v e r s i t y

o f

p r o t i s t s .

I n

a l l

c a s e s ,

b o o t s t r a p a n a l y s e s s h o w n o

s u p p o r t

f o r

e i t h e r a n a n i m a l - p l a n t

o r

h f n g a l - p l a n t

d a d e .

T h i s

c o n g r u e n c e

a m o n g m u l t i p l e

l i n e s

o f

e v i d e n c e

s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s ,

i n c o n t r a s t

t o t r a d i t i o n a l

a n d

c u r r e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,

t h a t a n i m a l s a n d

f u n g i

a r e s i s t e r g r o u p s

w h i l e

p l a n t s c o n s t i t u t e

a n i n d e p e n d e n t

e v o -

l u t i o n a r y

l i n e a g e .

T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

o f f u n g i

a s

p l a n t s

h a s

b e e n

l a r g e l y r e p l a c e d

o v e r t h e p a s t

t h r e e

d e c a d e s b y

t h e f i v e -

k i n g d o m

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

o f W h i t t a k e r

( 1 ,

2 ) .

I n

t h i s

s c h e m e ,

t h e

t h r e e

m a j o r

m u l t i c e l l u l a r g r o u p s - a n i m a l s ,

f u n g i ,

a n d

g r e e n

p l a n t s - a r e

e a c h g i v e n

t h e

s t a t u s o f k i n g d o m s

d e r i v e d

f r o m

d i f f e r e n t

p r o t i s t a n

l i n e a g e s

o f u n c e r t a i n

a f f i n i t i e s .

M o r e r e -

c e n t l y ,

h o w e v e r ,

b a se d o n

a

c o m b i n a t i o n

o f u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l

a n d b i o c h e m i c a l

c h a r a c t e r s ,

C a v a l i e r - S m i t h

( 3 ) p r o p o s e d

t h a t

a n i m a l s a n d

f u n g i

a r e c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d a n d

s h a r e

a m o s t r e c e n t

common

a n c e s t o r s i m i l a r t o

p r e s e n t - d a y

c h o a n o f l a g e l l a t e s .

M o l e c u l a r

p h y l o g e n i e s

o f

r i b o s o m a l

R N A

( r R N A )

s e q u e n c e s

h a v e a l t e r n a t i v e l y p l a c e d

e i t h e r

p l a n t s

o r

f u n g i

a s m o r e

c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d t o

a n i m a l s

w i t h a b o u t

e q u a l f r e q u e n c y ( 4 - 9 ) .

H o w e v e r , t h e

m o s t r e c e n t

a n d

c o m p r e h e n s i v e

rRNA

a n a l y s i s

s u p p o r t e d

a n i m a l s

a s

t h e s i s t e r

g r o u p

t o f u n g i ( 9 ) ,

a s

d i d

a n

a n a l y s i s

o f

a

s u b s e t

o f

e l o n g a t i o n

f a c t o r

l a

( E F - l a )

s e q u e n c e s

( 1 0 ) .

T h e

o n l y

a n a l y s i s o f

t h i s

q u e s t i o n u s i n g

m u l t i p l e

l i n e s

o f

m o l e c u l a r

e v i d e n c e u s e d

r R N A ,

t r a n s f e r

RNA

( t R N A ) ,

a n d

p r o t e i n s e q u e n c e s

a n d s u p p o r t e d p l a n t s

a s t h e s i s t e r

g r o u p

t o

t h e a n i m a l s

( 1 1 ) .

H o w e v e r ,

t h i s

a n a l y s i s

w a s c r i t i c a l l y

l i m i t e d

b y

t h e

n a r r o w

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f

m a j o r

t a x o n o m i c g r o u p s

a v a i l a b l e

a t

t h e t i m e .

We

h a v e r e e x a m i n e d

t h i s

q u e s t i o n b y

u s i n g

s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t

p r o t e i n s ,

e a c h

r e p r e s e n t i n g

a

w i d e

d i v e r s i t y

o f

e u k a r y o t i c

p h y l a ,

a s w e l l

a s

b y

s u r v e y i n g

a

l a r g e

n u m b e r o f

p r o t e i n s

f o r

d i a g n o s t i c

i n s e r t i o n s

a n d d e l e t i o n s .

From

t h e s e ,

we f i n d

m u l t i p l e

l i n e s

o f

d a t a a l l

s h o w i n g

t h a t

a n i m a l s

a n d

f u n g i

a r e m o s t

c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d t o

e a c h

o t h e r

t o

t h e

e x c l u s i o n o f

a b r o a d

d i v e r s i t y

o f

e u k a r y o t i c p h y l a , i n c l u d i n g

p l a n t s . t

T h e

p u b l i c a t i o n

c o s t s o f

t h i s

a r t i c l e

w e r e

d e f r a y e d

i n

p a r t b y p a g e c h a r g e

p a y m e n t .

T h i s a r t i c l e

m u s t

t h e r e f o r e

b e

h e r e b y

m a r k e d

  a d v e r t i s e m e n t

i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h

1 8

U . S . C .

§ 1 7 3 4

s o l e l y

t o i n d i c a t e

t h i s

f a c t .

MATERIALS

A N D METHODS

An

i n t e r n a l p o r t i o n

o f t h e E F - l a

g e n e

w a s

a m p l i f i e d

f r o m

G i a r d i a

l a m b l i a ,

T r y p a n o s o m a

b r u c e i ,

a n d

S t a p h y l o t h e r m u s

m a r i n u s b y

t h e

p o l y m e r a s e

c h a i n

r e a c t i o n ( P C R ) .

DNA

w a s

a m p l i f i e d

t h r o u g h 4 0 c y c l e s o f

1

m i n a t 9 2 ° C ,

1 . 5

m i n a t

5 0 ° C

o r

5 5 ° C , a n d

2

m i n

a t

7 2 ° C

w i t h

a

s e t

o f

1 6 - a n d

3 2 - f o l d

d e g e n e r a t e p r i m e r s .

P r o d u c t s w e r e

c l o n e d ,

a n d

s e q u e n c e

w a s

d e t e r m i n e d

o n b o t h s t r a n d s

f o r a t l e a s t t h r e e

i n d e p e n d e n t

c l o n e s .

C l o n e s w e r e

h y b r i d i z e d

t o

S o u t h e r n

b l o t s

o f

a t

l e a s t

t w o

d i f f e r e n t

r e s t r i c t i o n d i g e s t s e a c h

o f

t o t a l

DNA f r o m

T .

b r u c e i ,

P a r a m e c i u m

a u r e l i a ,

a n d

s i x d i f f e r e n t a r c h a e b a c t e -

r i a ,

a n d G .

l a m b l i a

DNA f r o m f o u r i n d e p e n d e n t

s o u r c e s .

T h i s

c o n f i r m e d

t h e

o r i g i n

o f e a c h PCR

p r o d u c t

a n d a l s o s h o w e d

t h e

g e n e

t o

b e s i n g l e c o p y

i n a l l t h r e e t a x a .

T h e S .

m a r i n u s ,

T .

b r u c e i , a n d G . l a m b l i a

s e q u e n c e s

c o r r e s p o n d

t o

a m i n o

a c i d s

2 0 - 3 0 4 , 2 0 - 4 2 2 ,

a n d 6 3 - 3 0 4 o f

a n i m a l

E F - l a ,

r e s p e c -

t i v e l y .

S e q u e n c e s

w e r e a l i g n e d o n

a

S u n

w o r k s t a t i o n

u s i n g

t h e

W i s c o n s i n

G e n e t i c s C o m p u t e r

G r o u p

p r o g r a m

P I L E U P

( 1 2 )

w i t h d e f a u l t

g a p p e n a l t i e s .

A l i g n m e n t s w e r e t h e n

m o d i f i e d b y

e y e

t o m i n i m i z e

i n s e r t i o n / d e l e t i o n

e v e n t s . F o r p h y l o g e n y

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i d e n t i c a l

o r n e a r l y

i d e n t i c a l

s e q u e n c e s

w e r e

i d e n t i f i e d

b y

p a i r w i s e c o m p a r i s o n s ,

a n d a

s i n g l e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i v e

w a s c h o s e n

f o r

e a c h

s e t .

F o r

t h e

f o u r

p r o t e i n s

a n a l y z e d ,

a t o t a l o f

f i v e

s h o r t a m i n o -

a n d c a r b o x y l - t e r m i n a l

r e g i o n s

w e r e o m i t t e d ,

a s

t h e s e

w e r e

n o t

a l i g n a b l e

w i t h c o n f i d e n c e

a m o n g

a l l s e q u e n c e s ; f o r E F - l a ,

a s i n g l e r e g i o n

a m b i g u o u s

a m o n g

a r c h a e b a c t e r i a

w a s i n c l u d e d

a n d s c o r e d a s

m i s s i n g

d a t a f o r

t h e s e

t a x a . A l l a l i g n m e n t s

a n d t h e

c o o r d i n a t e s

o f

d e l e t e d r e g i o n s

a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m

S . L . B . u p o n

r e q u e s t .

M a x i m u m - p a r s i m o n y

t r e e s

w e r e

d e r i v e d

f r o m a m i n o

a c i d

s e q u e n c e s

b y u s i n g

P A U P

3 . O r ( 1 3 ) .

S h o r t e s t t r e e ,

d e c a y

( 1 4 ) ,

a n d a l t e r n a t i v e t o p o l o g y

s e a r c h e s

u s e d 5 0

r e p l i c a t e s

o f r a n -

dom

a d d i t i o n

w i t h

b r a n c h s w a p p i n g b y

t r e e

b i s e c t i o n -

r e c o n n e c t i o n ( T B R ) .

I n

a l l

c a s e s ,

a l l

s h o r t e s t

t r e e s

w e r e

f o u n d w i t h i n

t h e f i r s t o n e t o

f o u r r a n d o m

r e p l i c a t e s ,

s u g g e s t -

i n g

t h a t

t h i s

h e u r i s t i c s e a r c h

s t r a t e g y

w a s e f f e c t i v e

i n

i d e n -

t i f y i n g

a l l

m o s t - p a r s i m o n i o u s

t r e e s

( D .

S w o f f o r d ,

p e r s o n a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) .

I n

a d d i t i o n ,

w h e n t r e e s w e r e

t r i m m e d o f

c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d

t a x a ,

a l l s h o r t e s t t r e e s

w e r e

f o u n d

o n

t h e

f i r s t

r e p l i c a t e

a n d d i s c o v e r e d o n

a l l

s u b s e q u e n t

r e l i c a t e s , s u g g e s t -

i n g

t h a t

a n y

s e a r c h

i s l a n d s

( 1 5 )

t h a t

m i g h t

e x i s t w e r e

r e -

s t r i c t e d t o

t e r m i n a l c l a d e s .

B o o t s t r a p

a n a l y s e s

( 1 6 )

u s e d

1 0 0

r e p l i c a t e s

o f

s i m p l e

a d d i t i o n , h o l d i n g

o n e

t r e e a t

e a c h

s t e p .

Due

t o

c o m p u t e r

m e m o r y

l i m i t a t i o n s ,

a l l d a t a s e t s

e x c e p t

E F - l a

r e q u i r e d

t r i m m i n g

f o r

e i t h e r

d e c a y a n d / o r

b o o t s t r a p

a n a l y s e s

a s

i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e

f i g u r e l e g e n d s ,

a l t h o u g h

t h i s w a s

s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l o w

d e c a y

a n a l y s i s

o f a c t i n .

A l l t r e e s

a r e

r o o t e d

w i t h

k i n e t o p l a s t i d s

e x c e p t

f o r

t h e

E F - l a

t r e e ,

w h i c h

i s r o o t e d

w i t h t h e

a r c h a e b a c t e r i a .

A l l d a t a s e t s

w e r e a l s o

a n a l y z e d

b y

d i s t a n c e

w i t h t h e

P H Y L I P 3 . 5 C

( 1 7 )

p r o g r a m s

P R O T I S T

( w e i g h t s

b a s e d

o n

D a y h o f f

P A M

0 0 1

a n d / o r

G e o r g e -

A b b r e v i a t i o n :

E F - l a ,

e l o n g a t i o n

f a c t o r

l a .

t T h e

s e q u e n c e s

r e p o r t e d

i n

t h i s

p a p e r

h a v e

b e e n

d e p o s i t e d

i n t h e

G e n B a n k d a t a

b a s e

( a c c e s s i o n

n o s .

L 2 3 9 5 7 , L 2 3 9 8 4 ,

a n d

L 2 5 8 6 8 ) .

1 1 5 5 8

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P r o c . N a t l .

A c a d . S c i .

USA

9 0

( 1 9 9 3 )

1 1 5 5 9

H u n t - B a r k e r c a t e g o r i e s )

a n d

F I T C H .

E F - l a

a n d

p - t u b u l i n

n u c l e o t i d e s e q u e n c e s

w e r e

a n a l y z e d - w i t h

t h i r d p o s i t i o n s

d e l e t e d - b y

b o t h p a r s i m o n y ( 1 3 )

a n d d i s t a n c e ( D N A D I S T ,

a l l

c h a n g e s

w e i g h t e d e q u a l l y ;

r e f .

1 7 ) .

RESULTS

F o u r

G a p s U n i t e A n i m a l s a n d

F u n g i . I n

t h e c o u r s e o f

o u r

w o r k

( 1 8 )

o n

E F - l a

( a l s o

k n o w n a s E F - T u ) ,

we d i s c o v e r e d

a

g a p

o f

1 2 a m i n o

a c i d s

i n a n o t h e r w i s e

h i g h l y c o n s e r v e d

r e g i o n

o f

t h e

p r o t e i n

w h i c h

a p p e a r s

t o

b e

a n

i n s e r t i o n ( F i g . 1 A ) .

T h i s

s e q u e n c e

i s f o u n d i n

a l l

a n i m a l a n d

f u n g a l

E F - l a p r o t e i n s

b u t

n o t

i n

t h o s e

o f

a n y

o t h e r o r g a n i s m

e x a m i n e d ,

i n c l u d i n g

p l a n t s ,

s i x

d i v e r s e

p r o t i s t s ,

a n d a r c h a e b a c t e r i a

( F i g . 1 A ) .

T a k e n

t o g e t h e r , t h e

c o n s e r v e d s i z e , s e q u e n c e , a n d

p l a c e m e n t

o f t h e

i n s e r t i o n

a l l

m a k e i t u n l i k e l y

t h a t t h i s s e q u e n c e

w a s

e i t h e r

i n s e r t e d

t w i c e

i n d e p e n d e n t l y ,

o n c e i n a n i m a l s

a n d o n c e

i n f u n g i , o r p r e s e n t

e a r l i e r b u t d e l e t e d

i n d e p e n d e n t l y

a n d

p r e c i s e l y

i n

o n e

o r m o r e o f t h e o t h e r

l i n e a g e s .

T h e s i m p l e s t

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f

t h i s

g a p i s a

s i n g l e

i n s e r t i o n e v e n t i n a

common a n c e s t o r s h a r e d s o l e l y

b y a n i m a l s a n d

f u n g i .

An

e x t e n s i v e

s e a r c h

o f

t h e n u c l e o t i d e

a n d

a m i n o

a c i d

s e q u e n c e

d a t a

b a s e s

i d e n t i f i e d

2 4

a d d i t i o n a l

p r o t e i n s

f o r

w h i c h p l a n t , a n i m a l ,

f u n g a l , a n d o u t g r o u p

s e q u e n c e s

w e r e

a v a i l a b l e a n d

a l i g n a b l e

w i t h

c o n f i d e n c e .

T h e s e

a r e a c t i n , a -

a n d

P - t u b u l i n s ,

a l c o h o l d e h y d r o g e n a s e ,

c a l m o d u l i n ,

c a t a -

l a s e ,

c i t r a t e s y n t h a s e ,

C u - Z n a n d

F e - M n

s u p er o x i d e d i s m u -

t a s e s , e l o n g a t i o n

f a c t o r

G , e n o l a s e ,

f r u c t o s e b i s p h o s p h a t a s e ,

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e

d e h y d r o g e n a s e ,

h y d r o x y m e t h -

y l g l u t a r y l - C o A

r e d u c t a s e ,

m a l a t e

d e h y d r o g e n a s e ,

p h o s p h o -

g l y c e r a t e

k i n a s e , p h o s p h o g l u c o s e

i s o m e r a s e , p y r u v a t e

k i -

n a s e ,

RNA

p o l y m e r a s e

I I l a r g e s t s u b u n i t , t r i o s e p h o s p h a t e

i s o m e r a s e , v a c u o l a r

A T P a s e

s u b u n i t s

1

a n d

2 ,

a n d t h e 6 0 -

a n d

7 0 - k D a h e a t

s h o c k

p r o t e i n s .

A n a l y s i s o f

t h e 2 4 p r o t e i n s r e v e a l e d o n l y

t h r e e

g a p s ,

a l l i n

e n o l a s e ,

t h a t u n i t e d t w o o f

t h e

t h r e e

g r o u p s

o f

i n t e r e s t . L i k e

t h e

E F - l a

i n s e r t i o n ,

t h e

t w o

d e l e t i o n s

a n d

o n e

i n s e r t i o n

i n

e n o l a s e

a r e

a l l

u n i q u e l y

s h a r e d

b y a n i m a l s a n d

f u n g i

( F i g .

1 B ) .

P a r s i m o n y a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e

a e u k a r y o t i c o r i g i n o f

t h e

p l a n t e n o l a s e

( d a t a

n o t s h o w n ) , r u l i n g o u t

a

p o s s i b l e

e u b a c -

t e r i a l / p l a s t i d a n c e s t r y

f o r t h i s

p r o t e i n

( a c y t o p l a s m i c

e n -

z y m e ;

r e f .

2 0 ) .

A l t h o u g h

t h e

e n o l a s e

g a p s

a r e s m a l l ( o n e

o r

t w o a m i n o a c i d s ) a n d ,

i n

t w o c a s e s , a r e i n

r e g i o n s a f f e c t e d b y

a d d i t i o n a l

i n s e r t i o n s

a n d d e l e t i o n s ,

t h e

s i m p l e s t

i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n i n e a c h c a s e

i s

a s i n g l e e v e n t

i n

a n e x c l u s i v e

common

a n c e s t o r o f a n i ma l s a n d f u n g i .

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An

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, O v

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0 *0

 

0

oo

o

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F u

P 1

A r

E u

M o l e c u l a r

P h y l o g e n e t i c S u p p o r t

f o r a n A n i m a l - F u n g a l

C l a d e . F o u r

c r i t e r i a w e r e

s e t f o r s e l e c t i n g p r o t e i n s f o r

e x -

t e n s i v e p h y l o g e n e t i c

a n a l y s i s . P r o t e i n s

w e r e c h o s e n

t h a t

w e r e

( i )

> 3 0 0

a m i n o

a c i d s l o n g , ( i i )

a v a i l a b l e f r o m

m u l t i p l e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e a c h

o f

a n i m a l s , p l a n t s , a n d

f u n g i ;

( i i i )

a v a i l -

a b l e f r o m

a r a n g e o f

p r o t i s t a n l i n e a g e s ;

a n d ( i v )

f r e e

f r o m

p r o b l e m s

o f g e n e

d u p l i c a t i o n ,

s u b s t i t u t i o n ,

o r

h o r i z o n t a l

e v o l u t i o n

a t

r e l e v a n t

t a x o n o m i c

l e v e l s .

T h e s e

p r o t e i n s

g a v e

t h e m o s t

c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s - i . e . ,

b r a n c h i n g

p a t t e r n s

w e r e

l e a s t

a f f e c t e d b y

i n c l u s i o n

o r e x c l u s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l

t a x a .

I n c l u s i o n

o f m u l t i p l e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

o f i n g r o u p a s

w e l l

a s

o u t g r o u p l i n e a g e s

i s e s p e c i a l l y

i m p o r t a n t i n p h y l o g e n y

r e -

c o n s t r u c t i o n

i n o r d e r t o a v o i d s y s t e m a t i c

e r r o r s i n

t h e

p l a c e m e n t o f

l o n g , s p a r s e l y s a m p l e d

b r a n c h e s ( 2 1 ) .

O f t h e

2 5

t o t a l p r o t e i n s

o n l y

4

c u r r e n t l y

s a t i s f y

t h e a b o v e

c r i t e r i a : a c t i n ,

a - t u b u l i n ,

, B - t u b u l i n ,

a n d E F - l a . A l t h o u g h

t h e s e

f o u r

p r o t e i n s

i n c l u d e s o m e

d u p l i c a t i o n , p r e l i m i n a r y

r e s u l t s h a v e s h o w n

t h a t a l l

d u p l i c a t i o n s a r e

r e s t r i c t e d t o

i n d i v i d u a l t e r m i n a l c l a d e s

( s e e

F i g . 2 )

a n d

a r e t h e r e f o r e

i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e b r a n c h i n g o r d e r

a m o n g m a j o r g r o u p s .

F o r

E F - l a ,

t h e

l e a s t

b r o a d l y r e p r e s e n t e d

o f

t h e

f o u r

p r o t e i n s ,

a

w i d e r

d i v e r s i t y

o f

o u t g r o u p

t a x a

w a s

p r o v i d e d

b y

s e q u e n c i n g

t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g g e n e

f r o m

t h e

e a r l y - b r a n c h i n g

p r o t i s t s

G .

l a m b l i a a n d

T .

b r u c e i

a n d

f r o m t h e a r c h a e b a c t e r i u m S .

m a r i n u s .

W i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n ,

t h e

m a x i m u m p a r s i m o n y

t r e e s f o r a l l

f o u r p r o t e i n s

p l a c e d

a n i m a l s a n d f u n g i t o g e t h e r

a s s i s t e r

l i n e a g e s

t o t h e

e x c l u s i o n

o f a l l

o t h e r e u k a r y o t e s ,

i n c l u d i n g

p l a n t s ( F i g .

2 ) . B o o t s t r a p a n a l y s e s

s h o w e d v a r y i n g

l e v e l s o f

s u p p o r t

f o r

t h e a n i m a l - f u n g a l

c l a d e

( 1 0 0 f o r a - t u b u l i n ,

8 5

f o r , B - t u b u l i n ,

5 3

f o r

E F - l a ,

a n d 2 8

f o r

a c t i n ) b u t

n o

s u p p o r t

f o r e i t h e r a n a n i m a l - p l a n t

o r

f u n g a l - p l a n t

c l a d e

( < l . 0 o f o r

a c t i n ,

0 . 0

f o r a l l

o t h e r s ) . T r e e s u n i t i n g

p l a n t s

w i t h e i t h e r

a n i m a l s

o r

f u n g i

r e q u i r e d

a n a d d i t i o n a l

3 2 o r 3 4

s t e p s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

f o r

t h e

a - t u b u l i n

t r e e , a n

a d d i t i o n a l 1 3

o r

1 4

s t e p s

f o r

t h e

, - t u b u l i n

t r e e ,

8

o r

1 0

s t e p s f o r t h e

E F - l a

t r e e ,

a n d

a n

a d d i t i o n a l

5 s t e p s f o r e i t h e r

t o p o l o g y f o r a c t i n .

A l t h o u g h p l a c em en t

o f t h e r o o t

i n

a l l

t r e e s e x c e p t

E F - l a i s

e s s e n t i a l l y

a r b i t r a r y ,

i t

s h o u l d b e

n o t e d t h a t

t h e r e i s n o w a y

t o r o o t a n y

o f t h e s e t r e e s

s o t h a t a n i m a l s - f u n g i

a r e n o t

m o n o p h y l e t i c ,

u n l e s s e i t h e r

a n i m a l s

o r

f u n g i a r e

u s e d

a s

t h e

a c t u a l r o o t .

T h u s , p a r s i m o n y

a n a l y s i s

o f a l l

f o u r

p r o t e i n s

s u p p o r t s

t h e

s a m e c o n c l u s i o n

a s

s t r u c t u r a l

( i n s e r t i o n /

d e l e t i o n ) d a t a ,

t h a t

a n i m a l s

a n d f u n g i

a r e

m o s t

c l o s e l y r e l a t e d

t o e a c h o t h e r .

 

a a

d e l e t i o n

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GMD VAASEF Y G.KD KS Y D L N

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F I G .

1 . A

1 2 - a m i n o a c i d

i n s e r t i o n i n E F - l a a n d t h r e e s m a l l g a p s

i n e n o l a s e a r e

a l l

s h a r e d

u n i q u e l y

b y a n i m a l s a n d

f u n g i .

P o r t i o n s

o f

a m i n o

a c i d

( a a ) s e q u e n c e

a l i g n m e n t s

a r e s h o w n f o r

E F - l a

( A )

a n d e n o l a s e

( B ) .

N u m b e r s

a b o v e

t h e

s e q u e n c e f r a g m e n t s

i n d i c a t e t h e i r p o s i t i o n

i n t h e

o v e r a l l

a l i g n m e n t .

W i t h i n

t h e

a l i g n m e n t

g a p s

a r e

i n d i c a t e d

b y

d o t s ;

m i s s i n g d a t a ( i n c o m p l e t e s e q u e n c e s )

a r e

i n d i c a t e d b y d a s h e s .

U n i v e r s a l l y

c o n s e r v e d

s i t e s

a r e

d e n o t e d a b o v e

a n d

b e l o w

t h e

a l i g n m e n t b y s t a r s ;

s i t e s w i t h

o n l y c o n s e r v a t i v e s u b s t i t u t i o n s

( 1 9 ) a r e s h o w n

b y o p e n

c i r c l e s .

R e l a t i v e l y

c o n s e r v e d

p o s i t i o n s

a r e d e f i n e d

a s

s i t e s

s u s t a i n i n g o n l y

o n e

o r

t w o

n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e s u b s t i t u t i o n s

a n d a r e d e n o t e d

b e l o w t h e e n o l a s e

a l i g n m e n t

b y

d o t s .

L e t t e r s

t o

t h e

l e f t

o f

t h e b r a c k e t s

i n d i c a t e

m a j o r t a x o n o m i c g r o u p s

( F u ,

f u n g i ;

A n ,

a n i m a l s ;

P 1 ,

p l a n t s ; P r ,

p r o t i s t s ;

A r ,

a r c h a e b a c t e r i a ; E u , e u b a c t e r i a ) ;

l e t t e r s t o

t h e

r i g h t

o f t h e b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e s p e c i e s

( A t ,

A r a b i d o p s i s

t h a l i a n a ; C a ,

C a n d i d a a l b i c a n s ;

C r ,

C h l a m y d o m o n a s

r e i n h a r d t i i ; D d ,

D i c t y o s t e l i u m d i s c o i d e u m ;

Dm, D ro s o p h i l a m el a n o g a s t e r ; E c ,

E s c h e r i c h i a

c o l i ;

E g ,

E u g l e n a

g r a c i l i s ;

E h ,

E n t a m o e b a h i s t o l y t i c a ; G g ,

G a l l u s

g a l l u s ; G I ,

G i a r d i a l a m b l i a ; H h , H a l o b a c t e r i u m

h a l o b i u m ;

H s , Homo

s a p i e n s ;

L e ,

L y c o p e r s i c o n e s c u l e n t u m ;

O v ,

O n c h o c e r c a

v o l v u l u s ;

M r ,

Mucor r a c e m o s u s ; S c ,

S a c c h a r o m y c e s

c e r e v i s i a e ; S s , S u l f o l o b u s

a c i d o c a l d a r i u s ;

T e ,

T r i t i c u m a e s t i v u m ;

X l ,

X e n o p u s

l a e v i s ;

Z m ,

Z e a

m a y s ; Z y ,

Z y m o m o n a s

m o b i l i s .

E v o l u t i o n :

B a l d a u f

a n d P a l me r

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c c h a r o n y c e s

1 '

d Sar o

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1 '

S c h i z o s s o c h a n y c e s

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1 '

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t

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2

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P r

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2 .

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1 1 5 6 2

E v o l u t i o n : B a l d a u f

a n d

P a l m e r

s h o w e d

a

r o u g h l y e q u a l s p l i t

b e t w e e n

a n i m a l s - f u n g i

a n d

a n i m a l s - p l a n t s , w i t h

n o n e

s u p p o r t i n g p l a n t s - f u n g i .

How-

e v e r ,

m o s t o f t h e s e

d a t a s e t s a r e

e x t r e m e l y s m a l l ,

o f t e n w i t h

o n l y a

s i n g l e v e r y

d i s t a n t

o u t g r o u p

a n d / o r

o n l y

a

s i n g l e

p l a n t

a n d / o r

f u n g a l

s e q u e n c e .

N o n e t h e l e s s , we

c a n

c o i q c l u d e

t h a t

t h e r e

i s n o

s u p p o r t f r o m

t h i s

l a r g e b o d y

o f d a t a f o r

t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f f u n g i a s

p l a n t s . T h e

f a c t

t h a t

a l l

t h e d a t a

s u p p o r t

o n l y

t w o o f t h r e e

p o s s i b l e

a l t e r n a t i v e s

s u g g e s t s t h e

p r es e n c e o f

a

s p e c i f i c

a r t i f a c t

o r

a r t i f a c t s

w h i c h ,

c o n s i d e r i n g

t h e

s t r e n g t h

o f

o u r

r e s u l t s

a n d o t h e r s ( 9 ) ,

a r e

e i t h e r

d r a w i n g

p l a n t s

a n d a n i m a l s

t o g e t h e r o r

p u s h i n g

a n i m a l s

a n d f u n g i

a p a r t .

P o s s i b l e s o u r c e s

o f

a r t i f a c t

i n c l u d e

u n e q u a l

r a t e s

o f

s e q u e n c e

e v o l u t i o n a n d

p a r a l o g o u s o r

h o r i z o n t a l

e v o l u t i o n . A

s t r i k i n g

e x a m p l e

i s

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 - p h o s p h a t e

d e h y d r o g e n a s e ;

w i t h

y e a s t s a l o n e

r e p r e s e n t i n g

f u n g i ,

a n i m a l s

a n d

p l a n t s

f o r m a s t r o n g c l a d e

i n

t h e

g l y c e r a l d e h y d e - 3 -

p h o s p h a t e

d e h y d r o g e n a s e t r e e , b u t w h e n

a b r o a d d i v e r s i t y

o f

o t h e r

f u n g i

a r e

i n c l u d e d , t h e s e

d i s p l a c e p l a n t s a s

t h e c l o s e s t

r e l a t i v e

t o a n i m a l s ( r e f .

2 8 ;

S . L . B .

u n p u b l i s h e d ) .

T h e r e f o r e ,

we

e m p h a s i z e a g a i n

t h a t

p r o t e i n s u s e d

i n p h y l o g e n y r e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n

s h o u l d i n c l u d e

a b ro a d

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f i n g r o u p a s

w e l l a s

o u t g r o u p l i n e a g e s ,

b o t h

t o

h e l p

a s s e s s

o r t h o l o g y a n d

t o

m i n i m i z e

r a t e

a r t i f a c t s .

We f i n d

t h a t a l l

p a r s i m o n y -

a n d

d i s t a n c e - b a s e d

a n a l y s e s

o f

f o u r

l a r g e a n d

d i v e r s e

d a t a

s e t s

s u p p o r t

a

s i s t e r - g r o u p

r e l a -

t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n

a n i m a l s

a n d

f u n g i .

T h e

v a r y i n g

l e v e l s

o f

b o o t s t r a p

s u p p o r t

f o r a n i m a l s - f u n g i a r e c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h

t h e

t e n d e n c y

o f

b o o t s t r a p v a l u e s

t o b e

i n v e r s e l y

r e l a t e d t o t h e

s i z e a n d

c o m p l e x i t y

o f

t h e

d a t a

s e t s

a n a l y z e d ( 2 9 ) .

T h i s

i s

a p p a r e n t l y

d u e t o

t h e

i n a b i l i t y

o f t h e

b o o t s t r a p ,

a s

c u r r e n t l y

i m p l e m e n t e d

( 1 6 ) ,

t o t e s t

o t h e r

t h a n

s t r i c t l y

m o n o p h y l e t i c

g r o u p s

( 2 9 ) .

We

c h o s e

t o

c i r c u m v e n t t h i s

p r o b l e m b y d e l e t i n g

a n

e n t i r e

c l a s s

o f

s e q u e n c e s

o f l e s s

i m m e d i a t e

i n t e r e s t ,

t h e

r e l a t i v e l y - d e r i v e d p r o t i s t s , i n o r d e r

t o f u r t h e r

e x a m i n e

r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s a m o n g

o u r

p r i m a r y g r o u p o f

i n t e r e s t ,

p l a n t s /

a n i m a l s / f u n g i . T h e r e s u l t s

o f t h e s e

a n a l y s e s

s h o w t h a t a l l o u r

d a t a

s e t s

d o , i n

f a c t ,

s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t

a n i m a l s - f u n g i o v e r

e i t h e r

a l t e r n a t i v e , c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h

t h e

c o m p l e t e

l a c k

o f

b o o t -

s t r a p

s u p p o r t

f o r

t h e

l a t t e r ,

e v e n w i t h

a l l t a x a i n c l u d e d . T h i s

u s e

o f

t h e

b o o t s t r a p t o

t e s t a l t e r n a t i v e

m o n o p h y l e t i c g r o u p s

i s b o t h

a n

a p p r o p r i a t e

a n d

h i g h l y

i n f o r m a t i v e

a p p l i c a t i o n

o f

t h e m e t h o d

( J .

F e l s e n s t e i n ,

p e r s o n a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) .

R e -

c e n t

f i m d i n g s

a l s o

s h o w

t h a t

u n d e r

a

w i d e

r a n g e

o f

c o n d i t i o n s ,

g r o u p s

s u p p o r t e d

b y b o o t s t r a p

v a l u e s

a b o v e

70 h a v e a

>95

p r o b a b i l i t y o f

r e p r e s e n t i n g

t r u e

c l a d e s

( 3 0 ) .

D e s p i t e

t h e

p o t e n t i a l

p o w e r

o f

i n s e r t i o n s a n d

d e l e t i o n s a s

p h y l o g e n e t i c

m a r k e r s ,

o u r r e s u l t s

s u g g e s t

t h a t

t h e y

a r e

p r o b a b l y t o o r a r e t o b e

r e l i e d

u p o n

c o n s i s t e n t l y

f o r

p h y l o -

g e n y

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h e r e f o r e ,

s e q u e n c e - b a s e d

p h y l o g e -

n i e s , o f b o t h

p r o t e i n s

a n d

r R N A s ,

w i l l

n e c e s s a r i l y

c o n t i n u e

t o b e

t h e

f o c u s o f

e f f o r t s t o e l u c i d a t e

e v o l u t i o n a r y

r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s

a m o n g

e u k a r y o t e s .

H o w e v e r ,

e a c h

p h y l o g e n y

w i l l

h a v e

t o b e

i n t e r p r e t e d

w i t h

c a u t i o n ,

a s n o

s i n g l e

g e n e

o r

p r o t e i n

i s

l i k e l y

t o

r e p r o d u c e

a

c o m p l e t e l y

a c c u r a t e t r e e w i t h a l l

b r a n c h e s

s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d .

R a t h e r t h e

a c c u m u l a t i o n o f

c o n g r u e n t

e v i d e n c e f r o m

m u l t i p l e i n d e p e n d e n t

s o u r c e s ,

m o -

l e c u l a r

a n d ,

i n a s m u c h a s

p o s s i b l e ,

n o n m o l e c u l a r ,

w i l l b e

r e q u i r e d .

We t h a n k

S .

A l e y ,

T .

C a v a l i e r - S m i t h ,

J .

F e a g i n ,

F .

G i l l i n ,

J .

G o g a r t e n ,

D .

K a y ,

a n d

A .

W e i n e r

f o r

G i a r d i a

DNA;

J .

P r e e r a n d

L .

P r e e r f o r

P a r a m e c i u m

DNA;

S .

B u r g g r a f

a n d K .

S t e t t e r f o r c r e n -

a r c h a e b a c t e r i a l

D N A s ;

M .

S o g i n f o r

t h e u s e

o f u n p u b l i s h e d

d a t a ; a n d

S .

Em s

f o r

t e c h n i c a l

a s s i s t a n c e .

We

a l s o t h a n k R .

H o e h , J . F e l s e n -

s t e i n , J . L o g s d o n ,

M .

S o g i n , a n d

D . S w o f f o r d f o r h e l p f u l

d i s c u s s i o n s

a n d C

D e l w i c h e ,

D .

E d g e l l , R .

H o e h , J . L o g s d o n , R .

P r i c e , M .

R a g a n ,

a n d A .

R o g e r

f o r c r i t i c a l

r e a d i n g

o f

t h e m a n u s c r i p t . T h i s

w o r k

w a s

s u p p o r t e d

b y

a n

A l f r e d

P .

S l o a n p o s t d o c t o r a l f e l l o w s h i p t o

S . L . B .

a n d

M . W .

G r a y

a n d

b y

g r a n t s f r o m t h e

N a t i o n a l

S c i e n c e

F o u n d a t i o n

a n d

t h e N a t i o n a l

I n s t i t u t e s

o f H e a l t h

t o

J . D . P .

1 .

W h i t t a k e r ,

R .

H .

&

M a r g u l i s ,

L .

( 1 9 7 8 )

B i o s y s t e m s 1 0 ,

3 - 1 8 .

2 .

R a v e n ,

P . N .

 

J o h n s o n ,

G .

B .

( 1 9 8 9 ) B i o l o g y ( T i m e s

M i r r o r /

M o s b y

C o l l e g e ,

S t .

L o u i s ) ,

2 n d E d .

3 .

C a v a l i e r - S m i t h , T .

( 1 9 8 7 )

i n

E v o l u t i o n a r y B i o l o g y

o f

t h e

F u n g i ,

e d s .

R a y n e r ,

A . D .

M . ,

B r a s i e r ,

C . M . &

M o o r e ,

D .

( C a m -

b r i d g e

U n i v .

P r e s s ,

C a m b r i d g e ) ,

p p .

3 3 9 - 3 5 3 .

4 .

H a s e g a w a , M . ,

I i d a ,

Y . ,

Y a n o , T . - a . , T a k a i w a , F . &

I w a b u c h i ,

M .

( 1 9 8 5 )

J . M o l .

E v o l .

2 2 ,

3 2 - 3 8 .

5 .

C e d e r g r e n , R . ,

G r a y ,

M .

W . ,

A b e l ,

Y .

 

S a n k o f f ,

D .

( 1 9 8 8 ) J .

M o l .

E v o l .

2 8 ,

9 8 - 1 1 2 .

6 .

S o g i n ,

M .

L . , G u n d e r s o n ,

J .

H . ,

E l w o o d ,

H .

J . ,

A l o n s o ,

R . A .

&

P e a t t i e ,

D .

A .

( 1 9 8 9 )

S c i e n c e 2 4 3 , 7 5 7 7

7 .

H e n d r i k s ,

L . ,

De

B a e r e , R . ,

V a n d e

P e e r ,

Y . , N e e f s , J . ,

G o r i s ,

A .

& De W a c h t e r ,

R .

( 1 9 9 1 )

J . M o l .

E v o l .

3 2 , 1 6 7 - 1 7 7 .

8 .

K r i s h n a n ,

S . ,

B a r n a b a s ,

S .

&

B a r n a b a s ,

J .

( 1 9 9 0 )

B i o s y s t e m s

2 4 , 1 3 5 - 1 4 4 .

9 .

W a i n r i g h t , P .

O . , H i n k l e , G . ,

S o g i n ,

M .

L .

&

S t i c k e l ,

S .

K .

( 1 9 9 3 ) S c i e n c e

2 6 0 ,

3 4 0 - 3 4 2 .

1 0 . H a s e g a w a ,

M . , H a s h i m o t o ,

T . ,

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( I l l i n o i s N a t u r a l

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[ P H Y L I P

3 . S C ]

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( 1 9 9 0 )

i n

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( 1 9 6 0 )

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9 0

( 1 9 9 3 )


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