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Communities of Practice and virtual learning communities:

benefits, barriers and success factorsPat Gannon-Leary, Northumbria University, United Kingdom

Elsa Fontainha, ISEG – Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal 

Summary AvirtualCommunityofPractice(CoP)isanetworkofindividualswhoshareadomainofinterestaboutwhichtheycommunicateonline.Thepractitionersshareresources(forexampleexperiences,problemsandsolutions,tools,methodologies).Suchcommunicationresultsintheimprovementoftheknowledgeofeachparticipantinthecommunityandcontributestothedevelopmentoftheknowledgewithinthedomain.Avirtuallearningcommunitymayinvolvetheconductoforiginalresearchbutitismorelikelythatitsmain

purposeistoincreasetheknowledgeofparticipants,viaformaleducationorprofessionaldevelopment.Virtuallearningcommunitiescouldhavelearningastheirmaingoalorthee-learningcouldbegeneratedasasideeffect. Virtualcommunitiesofpractice(CoPs)andvirtuallearningcommunitiesarebecomingwidespreadwithinhighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)thankstotechnologicaldevelopmentswhichenableincreasedcommunication,interactivityamongparticipantsandincorporationofcollaborativepedagogicalmodels,specificallythroughinformationcommunicationstechnologies(ICTs)Theyaffordthepotentialforthecombinationofsynchronousandasynchronouscommunication,accessto-andfrom-geographicallyisolatedcommunitiesandinternationalinformationsharing.

ClearlytherearebenefitstobederivedfromsharingandlearningwithinandoutwithHEIs.Thereisasenseofconnectedness,ofsharedpassionandadeepeningofknowledgetobederivedfromongoinginteraction.Knowledgedevelopmentcanbecontinuous,cyclicalandfluid.However,barriersexistinvirtualCoPsandthesearedefinedbytheauthorsandillustratedwithquotesfromacademicstaffwhohavebeeninvolvedinCoPs.Criticalsuccessfactors(CSFs)foravirtualCoParediscussed.Theseincludeusabilityoftechnology;trustin,andacceptanceof,ICTsincommunication;asenseofbelongingamongmembers;payingattentiontocross-nationalandcross-culturaldimensionsoftheCoP;sharedunderstandings;acommonsenseofpurpose;useofnetiquetteanduser-friendlylanguageandlongevity.

TheauthorsrecognisetheenormouspotentialforthedevelopmentofCoPsthroughe-maildiscussionlistsanddiscussionboardsbuthavethemselvesexperiencedthedifficultiesinherentininitiatingsuchacommunity.Thesearecorroboratedandillustratedwithtextfrominterviewswithacademicstaff.MuchoftheliteratureonCoPsemanatesfromoutsideEurope,despitethefactthate-learningarticleshavealargediffusionaroundEurope.TheauthorssuggestfurtherexplorationofthistopicbyidentifyingandstudyingCoPsandvirtuallearningcommunitiesacrossEUcountries.Keywords

Communitiesofpractice;collaborative;environments;informallearning;interactivity;usability;e-learning 

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Introduction

 AVirtualCommunityofPractice(CoP)isanetworkofindividualswhoshareadomainofinterestaboutwhichtheycommunicateonline.Thepractitionersshareresources(forexampleexperiences,problemsandsolutions,tools,methodologies).Suchcommunicationresultsintheimprovementoftheknowledgeofeachparticipantinthecommunityandcontributestothedevelopmentoftheknowledgewithinthedomain.VirtualCoPsmaysharenewsandadviceofacademic/professionalinterestbutareunlikelytoundertakejointprojectstogether–thisismoretheroleofaDistributedResearchCentre(Bosetal,2007).Avirtuallearningcommunity,ontheotherhand,mayinvolvetheconductoforiginalresearchbutitismorelikelythatitsmainpurposeistoincreasetheknowledgeofparticipants,viaformaleducationorprofessionaldevelopment.Virtuallearningcommunitiescouldhavelearningastheirmaingoalorthee-learningcouldbegeneratedasasideeffect.InformallearningratherthanmoreformallearningoccurswithinavirtualCoPand,accordingtoLave&Wengerthisinvolves“theprocessofbecomingafullparticipantinasocioculturalpractice”(Lave&Wenger,1991:29)wherebymoreexperiencedparticipantspassontoneophytestheknowledgeandskillstheyhaveacquiredand,inconsequence,thesharedexpertiseoftheparticipantsisenhanced.Owingtotechnologicaldevelopments,academicstaffandstudentsinhighereducationinstitutions(HEIs)nowhavetheopportunitytooperateinimprovedlearningenvironmentsthroughincreasedcommunication,interactivityamongparticipants,andincorporationofcollaborativepedagogicalmodels,specificallythroughinformationcommunicationstechnologies(ICTs)(Schrum,1998;Robey,Khoo,&Powers,2000;Rogers,2000;Stacey,Smith&Barty,2004).UsingICTsinlearningenvironmentsaffordthepotentialforthecombinationofsynchronousandasynchronouscommunication,accessto-andfrom-geographicallyisolatedcommunities(Hlapinis&Dimitracopoulou,2007)andinternationalinformationsharing.

Benefits of sharing and learningEngaginginavirtualCoPenhancesthelearningenvironmentsince,accordingtoJohnson(2001),“thelearningthatevolvedfromthesecommunitiesiscollaborative,inwhichthecollaborativeknowledgeofthecommunityisgreaterthananyindividualknowledge”(Johnson2001:34).Thisissimilartotheconceptofsynergyinwhichtwoormorediscreteagentsactingtogethercreateaneffectgreaterthanthatwhichwouldbeexpectedfromtheseparateactivitiesoftheindividualagents.ItalsoechoesVygotsky’s(1978)argumentthataperson’slearningmaybeenhancedthroughengagementwithotherswhichenablestheextensionofthatperson’scapabilitytoanew,higherlevel.Oneexampleofthisistheuse,bytworesearchers(Winkworth&Gannon-Leary,1999),ofa

virtualCoPintheformofadiscussionlist,tosupplementresearchtheyhadconductedforaconferencepaper.Thetopicwasgovernmentinterestinlibraryperformancemeasuresandtheywishedtogainaninternationalperspective.Knowingthatmembershipofarelateddiscussionlist(lis-perf-measures)comprisedsome400informationprofessionalsfrommorethan30countries,theypostedarequesttothelistforadditionaldata.Usingthismethodtheywereabletogainup-to-dateinformationfromfellowprofessionalsaboutthesituationintheircountries.Thedatawaspresentedattheconferenceanddisseminatedviatheproceedingstothewiderprofessionalandacademiccommunity.Muchemphasisisgiven,whenvirtualCoPsarediscussed,totheconceptofsharing,e.g.Wenger,McDermottandSnyder(2002)discusshowcommongroundisfoundbyCoPmembersasthey“feelconnected…andhaveinvaluableinsightstheycanlearnfromeach

other”(Wengeretal,2002:71).Thesameauthors,discussingthedevelopmentofCoPsintheworkplace,seethemas“groupsofpeoplewhoshareaconcern,setofproblemsor

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passionaboutatopicandwhodeepentheirknowledgeandexpertiseinthisareabyinteractingonanongoingbasis”(Wengeretal,2002:4).KnowledgedevelopmentinaCoP,therefore,iscontinuous,cyclicalandfluidwithnoclearlydefinedbeginningorend. AsWhiteandPagano(2007)comment,theconceptofaCoPhasbeengivencurrencyinHEdiscoursebypractitionersinemergentareasofnetworkedlearning.LaveandWenger’swork

didnotproduceanewpedagogicalapproachbutprovidedananalyticalviewoflearning,questioningtheplaceofformaleducation.Thisshiftedtheemphasisfromtheabstractbodiesofknowledgetaughtinformaleducationtowardsthe‘situatedlearning’thatoccursaspeopleengagewithreal-worldproblemsinwayswhichmayalreadybemediatedforthembyexistingCoPs(Brown,Collins&Duguid1989;McLellan1995;Fox2005).AsFox(2005)says,networkedlearninghas,“asnoeducationalprocesshashadbefore,thecapabilitytofacilitateandenablenewformsofimaginedcommunity”(Fox2005:108).LaveandWenger(1991)discusslearningasparticipationinasocialworlddescribinghowpeoplelearnbetterinsocialsettingsandthroughsocialinteraction.VirtualCoPsencompassthisconceptinthattheyestablishanetworkedenvironmentwherethenecessaryinteractionsthatimprovelearningcanoccur(Wengeretal.,2002).Theinteractionswithinthesecommunitiesfocusaroundknowledgesharingwithinthemembership,whomayrangefromexpertsthroughtonovices.Viatheinteractionoftheexpertandnovice,aneo-apprenticeshipstylelearning,similartothatproposedbyVygotsky,canoccur.LearnersparticipatinginavirtualCoPareassimilatedintothesocioculturalpracticesofthecommunityandgainknowledge/skillsfromthosecommunitymemberspositionedasmasters(Lave&Wenger1991).Thisviewreiteratesthemodelofapprenticeshiporlearninginsocialandsituatedcontexts,especiallyintheworkplace(Fowler&Mayes,1999;Fox,2000;Warhurst,2003).BrownandDuguid(2002)suggestsituatedlearningis“knowinghowtobeinpractice”,ratherthan“knowingaboutpractice”(Brown&Duguid2002:138),andthusinvolvesaprocessofidentitydevelopmentforthenewcomerthroughparticipationinthepracticeofthecommunity.BecomingamemberofavirtualCoPanddevelopingknowledgeandskillsis,therefore,importantinidentityformationofthenewcomer.Thisisaboutthememberdescribingtheirownengagement…intermsofwhatthey’rehopingtolearnoutofit…theymodeltheirowncapabilities,sothattheycreatethemselvesassomebodywhohasmorevalueinrelationtothecontextthatthey’reworkingin…(UKacademic)[1]ThisfactorhasbeensubjecttosomecriticismwithregardtoCoPssinceitmayresultintheperpetuationofcommunitiesandcommonalityratherthansupportiveofgrowth,changeanddiversity(Eraut,2003).

Barriers to virtual CoPs and virtual learning communities

ThefirstpotentialbarriertothevirtualCoPmaybethedisciplineinvolved.Insomeareas,suchasthesciences,cuttingedgeknowledgemaybedifficulttodisseminatetolargegroupssinceitmayrequirespecialisedexpertiseandmaybedifficulttoaggregateorrepresent(Szulanski,1992;Olson&Olson,2000;Bosetal,2007).Secondly,inmanydisciplines,academicsenjoyagreatdegreeoffreedomandexistinacultureofindependencerenderingopencommunicationmoredifficult.Withcolleaguesandpeopleknownpersonallytoyou,thereisasharingoftacitknowledgeandtransactiveknowledge(i.e.youknowwhatyourpeersknow)(Hollingshead,1998;Ozdemir,2007).Eachprofessionhasitsownterminology…wehaveaverydiverselanguage (UKacademic)

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 Afewhavesaidhowmuchofastruggletheyhavehadwiththelanguage.Theyhavenotallbeenfromoverseas–afewhavebeenintheUK–itisallcognitiveandcultural,alllinked.(UKacademic)Thethirdbarrier,therefore,iscollegialitysincemotivationtojoinavirtualCoPmaybeweakwherethereisacontextofhighcollegiality,e.g.astrongcommunityofpeoplewhoare

physicallyco-located(Smithetal,2005)It’smoredifficulttocreatetheflowofinformation.Wetryreallyhardtogetmemberstocommunicatewithintheirowngroup…butit’squitedifficultwithouttheface-to-facethingtobreaktheice(UKacademic)Lackofpeersupportandlackofcontactwithothers…Thelackofcontactwasquitefrustrating.(UKacademic) AnotherbarrierinvolvestheshiftingmembershipofavirtualCoPwhichasWengeretal.(2002)pointoutisfluidinitscomposition.Inconsequence,virtualCoPsneedtoworkhardtomaintainenergyandahighdegreeofparticipation.Individualmembersofavirtualcommunitymustengagewithitinorderthatitmaydevelopandgrowandhavemeaning(McMillan,1996;Gibson&Manuel,2003;Ellisetal2004).StuckeyandSmith(2004)arguethatthereareidentifiablefeaturestoasuccessfulCoP,andmostimportantlytheabilitytosustainthecommunity,thechiefofwhichistheneedfor‘leadership’which,inthecaseofaCoP,maybeamoderator,facilitatororlistowner.Whenyou’redeliveringitelectronically,alotofmembersjustdon’t‘getit’,butyoucan’tspotthat…(UKacademic)Somemembersdon’tsayawordon-line.They’lljustsitthere.There’salotof‘lurking’goeson…(UKacademic)[2] Afifthbarrierinvolvestrust.ThevirtualCoPlackstheopportunityforface-tofaceinteractionandsocialisingwhichcanconsolidategroupmembership.ConsequentlyindividualsmayfailtoengageintheCoP,preferringtoworkautonomously.Trustbuildingisvitalforsharing(Jarvenpaa&Leidner,1999;Kirkup,2002;Gibson&Manuel,2003;Ellisetal2004)andtrustprimarilydevelopsthroughface-to-faceinteractions.Inthevirtualenvironment,identitiescanremainhiddenandmembersmayadoptdifferentpersonas(Tomes,2001;Turkle,1997).You’retryingtoreplaceareallearningenvironmentwithavirtualone…it’savery‘touchy- feely’thing.There’sawholeraftofthingsthatthevirtualenvironmentwon’tletyoudo… (UKacademic) Asixthbarrieralsoinvolvestrustbutataninstitutionallevel.Crossingvirtualboundariesbetweeninstitutionscanresultininstitutional-relatedproblems,especiallylegalissues,e.g.dataprotection,intellectualproperty(Stokolsetal.,2003,2005;Cummings&Kiesler,2005;Boset.al.2007).Iworryaboutintellectualpropertyrights:Wegivetoomuchaway…nobodyelsegivesasmuchdetailelectronically…(UKacademic) AfurtherbarrierinvolvesselectivityintheuseofICTs.Manyacademics,professionalsandstudentsarestrategicusersofICTs(Schwen&Hara,2003;Smithetal,2005;Kellyetal,2007),matchingtheirusagetoperceptionsofmeetingtheiroperationalneeds,irrespectiveofthedegreeoftheirICTskills.Thisisrelevanttoanotherbarrier,revolvingaroundwhetherthe

CoPistask-basedorpracticebased.Avirtuallearningcommunitymaybeshort-livedhaveafinitebeginningandend,beingtask-based,establishedforaspecificlearningactivitysuchas

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acourseorseminar.Ontheotherhand,apractice-basedorsubject-basedvirtualCoPmaydevelopmoreorganicallyandbelesstransient(Fowler&Mayes,1999) Afinalissueinvolvestheuseoftechnologytobridgethegeographicalgapwhichcanleadtomisinterpretationofmessages,asalotofnon-verbalcuescanbemissingfromthecommunication(Gibson&Manuel,2003;Cramton,2001;Gannon-Leary,1999).ICTslack

therichnessofface-to-faceinteraction.Muchanecdotalinformationfeaturesmisinterpretedcommunicationonline,easilyexaggeratedintheabsenceofcuesandfeedback.(Trayner,Smith&Bettoni,2006)OrganisationssuchastheUKNationalHealthServiceareincreasinglyusingnetworkedlearning,e-learningplatformsandblendedlearningbut:Workingwithotherpractitioners,Iknowthattheircomputerskillsarenotnecessarily100%.…(UKacademic)Theylackfamiliaritywithsystems…Itmeansanewlearningcurve,butwearenowinasocietyandaculturalandtechnologicalenvironmentofconstantchange,sowejustneedtobeabletoengagewithchangeinawaythatdoesn’tfeellikeaconstantstepbackwards (UKacademic)

Critical success factors for virtual CoPs and virtual learning communitiesOnecriticalsuccessfactor(CSF)foravirtualCoPisthetechnologyanditsusability.VirtualCoPsneedtomakegooduseofInternetstandardtechnologiessuchaslistserv,bulletinboards,andaccessiblewebtechnology.Moule’s(2006)findingssuggestthatavirtuallearningcommunitywillneedtoensureparticipantshavethetechnologicalprovisionandnecessaryITskillstosupportmutualengagement(Wenger1998).DifficultieswithaccessandICTskillsinrelationtoonlinediscussionsande-basedlearningareacknowledgedintheexistinginternationalliterature(Milstead&Nelson1998,Andrusyszynetal.1999,Geibert2000,Gillisetal.2000,Hongetal.2003).Technologyneedstoberegardedasanaccepted–andtransparent–meansofcommunication(Campbell&Uys2007).TheevolutionofaCoPisreliantupontheeffectivecommunicationofthemembers,mosteasilyachievedthroughface-to-facemeetings(Hinds&Wesiband,2003;Raven,2003;Wengeretal.2002).PersonalinteractionsarevaluableinbuildingCoPsandBroady-PrestonandFelice(2006)demonstratethecreationofanelectronicrelationshipbetweenlibraryusersandinformationprovidersintheUniversityofMalta,adoptingacustomerrelationshipmanagementandcommunitiesofpracticeapproach.Thisprogressedfromaphysicaltoanelectronicrelationshipanddemonstratedtheabilityof

theinternettofunctionasamediumformanagingrelationshipsaswellasafacilitatorforinteractionandcommunication(Broady-Prestonetal2006)Communication,therefore,isanotherCSFandisfundamentalinthedevelopmentoftrustandthecommunity.Alongwithtrust,communicationallowstheCoPtogrow,changeandachieveitsobjectives.Trustisbuiltthroughcontinuedinteractiondevelopingcommonvaluesandasharedunderstanding(Gibson&Manuel,2003;Amin&Roberts,2006). AthirdCSFinvolvesCoPmembership.AndrewsandSchwarz(2002)havereportedthebenefitsofidentifyinggroupmemberswithpriorknowledgeofeachothertohelpconsolidatemembershipanddeveloptrust

Fourthly,CoPmembersmusthaveasenseofbelonging,beinganinsider(Brown&Duguid2002;Wegerif1998),Trayner,SmithandBettoni(2006)addthatpayingattentiontocross-nationalandcross-culturaldimensionsininternationalonlinecommunitiesaddstothe

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complexity,challengesandvalueinsuchanaccomplishment.ThisisillustratedbytheHSBCadvertisementsontelevisionthatidentifydifferentgestureswhichconveydifferentmeaningsindifferentcultureswhenoneis‘doingbusiness’inaglobalcontext.FromthisfollowsonafifthCSF,thatthereshouldbesharedunderstanding.ConsiderationneedstobegiventotheinfluenceofcultureintheuseofICTsinthedevelopmentofacommunity(Campbell&Uys2007).Cultureimpactsontheabilityofthememberstodevelopasharedunderstandingand

sub-groupsofthecommunity,basedontheseculturescaneasilyemerge.Sharedrepertoire mayincludedevelopedroutines,language,waysofworkingandstorieswithinthepracticeofthecommunity,generatedthroughnegotiatingmeaning(Wenger1998).Itispostulatedthatvirtuallearningcommunitieswithabriefexistencemaynothavethelongevityofengagementrequiredtodevelopsharedrepertoire(Fowler&Mayes1999).IdentifyingelementsofsharedrepertoireprovedproblematicinMoule’s(2006)analysisoftheonlineenvironment,whichlackedtherichnessthatmightbeobservedinaphysicallylocatedCoP,wherepresentationsofgestures,nuances,routinesandstoriesaremademanifest. AnotherCSFinvolveshavingasenseofpurpose.AvirtualCoPmusthaveapurposeandthispurposemustbeachievableviaICTs(Dubeetal,2005;Campbell&Uys2007).ACSFwhichhelpsachievethissenseofpurposeinvolvesleadershipwhichStuckeyandSmith(2004)haveexemplifiedassustainingaCoPthroughsensitivityinmonitoring,regulating,maintainingboundariesandrespondingtochange.Asthecommunitybecomesmoredistributedtheneedfordrivingleadershipbecomesmoreimportant,(Chavisetal1986;Gibson&Manuel,2003).AttendantonthisistheCSFofnetiquetteandthemodellingofgoodpracticeandthewayguidelinesaboutconductinavirtualCoPareputintopracticebyfacilitators(Trayner,Smith&Bettoni2006;Gannon-Leary1999).Thisisespeciallyimportantinthecaseof‘neo-apprentices’invirtualCoPswhomaybewaryaboutcontributingbecausetheyfeelwhattheyhavetosayisnotsufficientlyworthyorweighty.Seeingotherpeople‘flamed’orsendabusiveemailsonvirtualCoPsislikelytoinhibitcontributionsfromputativemembers. AnotherCSFinvolvestheCoPsusageofuser-friendlylanguageandwhatTrayner,SmithandBettoni(2006)describeasthe‘ecology’ofcommunicationmodesandskills,orgracefulwaysofbringingpeopleintoconversations. AfinalCSFrevolvesaroundtime.LongevityofaCoPimprovesengagement,asmentionedinconnectionwithtask-basedvs.practicebasedCoPs.Timeisneededbothforcommunicationandtobuilduptrust,rapportandatruesenseofcommunity(Trayner,Smith&Bettoni,2006.Table1:Benefits,BarriersandCSFs Benefits Barriers CSFs

•  Enhancedlearningenvironment

•  Synergiescreated

•  Capabilitiesextendedtohigherlevel

•  Knowledgesharing&learning

•  Gaininginsightsfromeachother

•  Deepeningofknowledge,innovation&expertise

•  Cyclical,fluidknowledgedevelopment

•  Feelingofconnection

•  Ongoinginteractions•   Assimilationinto

•  Perpetuationvs.changeanddiversity

•  Disciplinarydifferences

•  Cultureofindependence

•  Tacitknowledge

•  Transactiveknowledge

•  Specialistlanguage

•  Collegiality,strongphysicalcommunity

•  Shiftingmembership,

•  Creatingandmaintaininginformationflow

•  NoF2Ftobreaktheice

•  Read-onlyparticipants

(formerlylurkers)•  Hiddenidentities,

•  GooduseofInternetstandardtechnologies

•  Technologicalprovision

•  ICTskills

•  InstitutionalacceptanceofICTsascommunicationmedia

•  Goodcommunications

•  Trust

•  Commonvalues

•  Sharedunderstanding

•  Priorknowledgeofmembership

•  Senseofbelonging

•  Culturalawareness•  Senseofpurpose

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socioculturalpractices

•  Neo-apprenticeshipstyleoflearning

•  Identitydevelopmentandformation

•  Practice-basedusage

adoptedpersonas

•  Lackoftrust–personalandinstitutional

•  SelectivityinICTuse

•  Nobodylanguage,misinterpretations

•  Task-basedusage

•  Sensitivityinmonitoring,regulating,facilitating

•  Netiquette

•  User-friendlylanguage

•  TimetobuilduptheCoP

•  Regularinteraction

•  Goodcoordinationtoachieveregularbutvariedcommunication

•  Materialresourcesorsponsorshiptobolsterandbuildupthecommunity

Final commentsThepotentialimportofvirtualCoPsisrecognisedbyincreasinginterestinEuropeinnetworkedlearningande-learning,aswitnessedbythedevelopmentoforganisations

engagedinstudyingandproducingdataonthetopic,e.g.Eurostat,Eurydice,IEA,Eurobarometer,ECprojects.Amongthelast-mentionedare“eLearning:Designingtomorrow’sEducation”(CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,2003)and“  i2010:EuropeanInformationSocietyforgrowthandemployment”whichwaslaunchedinJune2005asaframeworkforaddressingthemainchallengesanddevelopmentsintheinformationsocietyandmediasectorsupto2010(CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,2006). AnotherexampleistheLEONIEprojectthatspecificallyindicatesthatoneexpectedoutcometoevolvebetweennowand2010isthecreationoflearningcommunities.(Alfaroetal,2006)ThegoalsoftheHELIOSProject(HorizontalE-LearningIntegratedObservationSystem)includethe“buildingofasystematicobservationandforesightingplatformone-LearningatEUandnationallevels”(HELIOS2007:1).Itstressesthatvirtualcommunities,eveniftheydonotforeseelearningastheirmainobjective,couldgeneratee-learningasasideeffect.

(DelRio&Fischer2007)TherecentlypublishedEuropeanCommissionGreenPaper(2007)iscurrentlyinvitingviewsonitsproposalsforaEuropeanResearchArea(ERA).ThepapersuggeststhattheERA“progressivelystructureitselfalongthelinesofapowerfulwebofresearchandinnovationclusters.Theirreachshouldbeamplifiedthrough‘virtualresearchcommunities’createdbypoolingandintegratingactivitiesandresourcesfromdifferentlocationsinEuropeandbeyond…”(EuropeanCommission2007:9).Italsosuggeststhatvirtualresearchcommunitiescan“constituteapowerfulvehicletoensuretheinclusionofresearchersandstudentsfromallaroundEuropeandothercountries.”(EuropeanCommission2007:18).Oneofthequestionsitposesinitsconcludingremarksisoneofinteresttotheauthors:“HowcantheEUandMemberStatesbeststimulatetheemergenceofEuropeanandglobalvirtualresearch

communities,exploitingfullythepotentialofcomputing,informationandcommunicationinfrastructures?”(EuropeanCommission2007:19).TheInternetoffersthepotentialforaccessandinteractionwithauniversallyaccessible,democraticandinteractivehubofspeedy,low-costcommunicationsandresourcesconnectingindividuals,disciplines,departmentsandservices.Weseeourselvesasaworldplayerinthedevelopmentofthee-learningcommunity.ThereisalotofpotentialfordevelopmentofcommunitythroughtheInternet.(UKacademic)Wearestillalongwayofffromprovidingasatisfactoryexperience(  UKacademic)

TheexistenceofvirtualCoPssuchasdiscussionlistsaffordopportunitiesforcollaborationwhichhavebeenfacilitatedbynetworkedtechnologysuchase-mail,whichmanyacademics

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useregularly(Ciolek,2000).DiscussionlistsmayserveasvirtualCoPssincetheyprovideforinterestedprofessionals/academicstoengageindiscussionanddebate;giveothersthebenefitoftheirexperience,andoftensavethemselvesreinventingthewheelbyfindingoutwhatothershavedonewhenfacedwithparticularproblems(Gannon-Leary,1998).Inacademiathereareavarietyofthesespecialinterestgroupsexchangingmessagesonarangeoftopics.

Intheory,theCoPsshouldaddanewdimensiontoacademicresearchanditscommunication.Mootedbenefitsofnetworkingandcommunicationincluderenderingphysicallocationunimportantandisolationfromthepeergrouplessproblematicwhenacademicsarescatteredgeographicallyorworkinsmallinstitutions,sincevirtualCoPscangrowupbasedoninterestsratherthanonphysicalproximityenablingcollaborations,sharingofspecialistinterestsandaffordingaccesstomentorsandlike-mindedindividuals(SchmitzandFulk,1991). Amongagroupofpeoplewithacommoninterestinatopic,thereisnonaturalhierarchyexcepttheonewhichevolvesfromparticipationand‘natural’expertscanemerge(Andersonetal,1995).Enhancedaccessisaffordedtoinformation,academicsmaystrengthentheircommandoftheirfieldofworkandthatworkismadeincreasinglyvisibletoothers(Ciolek,2000).CoPmembersshareinformation,insightandadviceand,insodoing,derivevaluefromtheirinteraction.Overtimeitispossibletodevelopauniqueperspectiveonatopicinadditiontoabodyofcommonknowledge,practicesandapproaches.WhiletheconceptofCoPsisnotnew,thedevelopmentoftheICTs,combinedwiththeneedformoreintentional,systematicmanagementofknowledgemeansthatelectroniccommunicationsmayaffordanopportunitynotonlytomanageknowledgeasanassetbutalsotokeepapaceofchangeandcoreknowledgerequirements. AlthoughthepotentialforvirtualCoPsthroughe-maildiscussionlistsanddiscussionboardswouldseemenormous,theauthors’recentexperienceinsettingupandmoderatingsuchalist,coupledwiththecommentsderivedfromacademicstryingtosustaindiscussionboards,suggeststhispotentialisnotbeingrealised.Theauthors’experiencewasthattheannouncementoftheintroductionofanewlist,alongwithitsaimsandscope,resultedinmanywould-bemembersfromallovertheworldsigningupand,bysodoing,indicatinganinterestinthelistthemebutfewofthesigneessubsequentlymadeanactivecontribution.Listmembersincludedinternationalexpertsinthelisttopic,withmuchvaluableexperiencewhichtheycouldsharewithotherssothislackofexchangeofinteractionwasamatterofconcern.ManyofthearticlescitedinthispaperarefromareasotherthanEurope–fromtheUSA(Geibert,2000;Gibson&Manuel,2003;Hinds&Wesiband,2003;Jarvenpaa&Leidner,1999;Milstead&Nelson,1998;Robeyetal,2000;Schrum,1998),Canada(Andrusyszynetal,1999;Gillisetal,2000)andAustralia(Andrews&Schwarz,2002;Campbell&Uys,2007;Smithetal,2005;Staceyetal,2004).Fox(2005)commentsonthefacttheInternetisdominatedbyAmerican-Englishandstressestheneedfornetworkedlearning“toengagewiththeissueoflanguagesandthroughthattheissueofotherculturesandcommunities.”(Fox2005:108)RecentlyPetersen(2007)fromDenmarksuggeststhatconceptsoflearningincommunitiesofpracticemightbefurtherdevelopedandWubbels(2007)fromtheNetherlandsdiscussedtheneedforfurtherresearchinthisarea.Theauthorswouldconcurwiththis,giventhatnetworkedlearningande-learningarticleshavealargediffusionaroundEurope,andwouldliketofurtheridentifyandstudyCoPsandvirtuallearningcommunitiesacrossEUcountries.Whatarethebenefits,barriersandsuccessstoriesinEurope?Havewebeenslowertotake

advantageofthepotentialofICTs?DoEuropeansdisplayspecialcharacteristicswhichdifferentiatetheiruseofelectronicmedia,specificallyCoPs,fromthatmadebytheircounterpartsinNorthAmericaandAustralia?Doesthediversityofculturesandlanguages

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militateagainstEuropeanacademicsengaginginCoPstothesameextent?ItwouldappearfromtheliteraturethatthereiscurrentlyalackofknowledgeaboutCoPsinEurope,especiallythoseassociatedwithposttertiaryandUniversityeducation.Oneacademicrecognisedpotentialbenefitsbeyondthosetohimself:Ifyou’reinvolvedindistancelearningyoucaneasilybecomeinvolvedinon-linecommunities

thatrevolvearoundyoursubject.There’salotofbenefitthatcouldbegainedbytheHEIfromthatsortofinvolvementbothintermsofstudentrecruitmentandintermsofworldrenown.(UKacademic) AnotheracademicexpandedonherownUtopianvisionofaCoPasanupdatedversionoftheeighteenthcenturyEuropean‘salon’whichprovidedabaseforthediscussionofsocial,artisticandscientificquestions:Scholarlyexchange,thebuildingupofresearchcommunities...peoplereallybecomingpartofaresearchnetworkinaveryactiveway,eventhoughthey'rethousandsandthousandsofmilesapart…thedemocratisingpotentialofthat...recreatestheconditions,almost,ofamassintellectualsalonwherepeopleareabletoargueanddiscuss,andbeincontact(UKacademic)

Remarks[1]Thequotationsarefromtheauthors’recentresearchwithacademicsintheUKwhich,todate,hasnotbeenpublishedelsewhere.Theauthorswouldliketothankcontributors[2]CurrentlythepreferredtermforonlinebehaviourwherebytheparticipantreadsthepostingsoftheparticipantsinavirtualCoPbutdoesnotactivelycontributetothedebateis‘ROP’or‘readonlyparticipant’.

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Authors

Patricia Margaret Gannon-LearyNorthumbriaUniversity,UnitedKingdompat.gannon-leary@unn.ac.uk 

Elsa FontainhaISEG–TechnicalUniversityofLisbon,Portugalelmano@iseg.utl.pt

Citation instruction

Gannon-Leary,PatriciaMargaret&Fontainha,Elsa(2007).CommunitiesofPracticeandvirtuallearningcommunities:benefits,barriersandsuccessfactors.eLearningPapers,no.5.ISSN1887-1542.

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