Contents
This presentation provides a general introduction to CDMA
-Evolution of CDMA-CDMA Concepts -Principle of spread-spectrum multiple
access-Spreading spectrum Sequences(PN)-Features of CDMA
Evolution of CDMAEvolution of CDMA
CDMA: Past, Present, and Future
The origins of spread spectrum are in military field and navigation systems
In 1949, John Pierce wrote a technical memorandum where he described a multiplexing system in which a common medium carries coded signals that need not be synchronized. This system can be classified as a time hopping spread spectrum multiple access system
In 1949, Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce introduced the basic ideas of CDMA by describing the interference averaging effect and the graceful degradation of CDMA
In 1950, De Rosa-Rogoff proposed a direct sequence spread spectrum system and introduced the processing gain equation and noise multiplexing idea
CDMA: Past, Present, and Future In 1956, Price and Green filed for the anti-multipath "RAKE" pat
ent . Signals arriving over different propagation paths can be resolved by a wideband spread spectrum signal and combined by the RAKE receiver.
In 1961 ,The near-far problem (i.e., a high interference overwhelming a weaker spread spectrum signal) was first mentioned by Magnuski
For cellular application spread spectrum was suggested by Cooper and Nettleton in 1978
During the 1980s Qualcomm investigated DS-CDMA techniques, which finally led to the commercialization of cellular spread spectrum communications in the form of the narrowband CDMA IS-95 standard in July 1993
Commercial operation of IS-95 systems started in 1996.
CDMA: Past, Present, and Future Multiuser detection (MUD) has been subject to extensive rese
arch since 1986 when Verdu formulated an optimum multiuser detection for the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel, maximum likelihood sequence estimator (MLSE)
During the 1990s ,wideband CDMA techniques with a bandwidth of 5 MHz or more have been studied intensively throughout the world, and several trial systems have been built and tested
Based on the above description, the CDMA era is divided into three periods:
1. the pioneer CDMA era 2. the narrowband CDMA era 3. the wideband CDMA era
Table 1. CDMA era Pioneer Era
1949 John Pierce: time hopping spread spectrum
1949 Claude Shannon and Robert Pierce: basic ideas of CDMA
1950 De Rosa-Rogoff: direct sequence spread spectrum
1956 Price and Green: antimultipath "RAKE" patent
1961 Magnuski: near-far problem
1970s Several developments for military field and navigation systemsNarrowband CDMA Era
1978 Cooper and Nettleton: cellular application of spread spectrum
1980s Investigation of narrowband CDMA techniques for cellular applications
1986 Formulation of optimum multiuser detection by Verdu
1993 IS-95 standardWideband CDMA Era
1995
Europe:FRAMES FMA2WCDMA
Japan: Core-AUSA :cdma2000Korea :TTA I TTA II
2000s Commercialization of wideband CDMA systems
Evolution of Mobile communication system
AMPSTACS
GSM
N-CDMA
IMT-2000
1G 2G 3G
Analog
N-BAND
Digital
W-BAND
HRPD
GSM GPRSWCDMA
IS-95Acdma2000-3x
1X-EVDV
IS-95B
cdma2000-1x
EDGE
Evolution from 2G to 3G
TD-SCDMA
CDMA Concepts - Multiple Access Techniques - Description of CDMA - Two Types of CDMA - How does CDMA work? - DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View - Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View - CDMA Spread Spectrum Payoff - CDMA’s Nested Spreading Sequences
Multiple Access Techniques
FDMA:Frequency division multiple access Feature:each user is allocated a unique frequency
band or channel TACS AMPS
TDMA:Time Division Multiple Access Feature:Radio spectrum is divided into time
slots,and in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive.
GSM DAMPS
CDMA:Code division multiple access Feature:In CDMA each user is assigned a unique
code sequence it uses to encode its information-bearing signal
IS-95/CDMA2000 /WCDMA/TD-SCDMA Frequency
Time
Power
FrequencyTime
Power
FrequencyTime
Power
FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
Description of CDMA
The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate which is greater than the data rate of the message.
All CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time! Frequency and time are not used as discriminators.
In cdma systems,the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
CDMA operates by using CODING to discriminate between users. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is
approximately orthogonal to all other codewords. CDMA interference comes mainly from nearby users The receiver performs a time correlation operation to d
etect only the specific desired codeword.All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation.
Time
Frequency
Code
Chnannel 1Chnannel 2Chnannel 3Chnannel 4
Chnannel N
Two Types of CDMA
How does CDMA work?
Sender combines data with a fast spreading
sequence, transmits spread data streamReceiver intercepts the stream, uses same
spreading sequence to extract original data
DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View
Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View
CDMA Spread Spectrum Payoff
CDMA’s Nested Spreading Sequences
Principle of spread-spectrum multiple access
Block diagram of a DS-SS transmitter
Generation of a BPSK-modulated SS signal
- Code signal consists of a number of code bits called "chips" that can be either +1 or 1. - Chip rate of the code signal must be much higher than the rate of the information signal. - In this figure, 10 code chips per information symbol are transmitted (the code chip rate is 10 times the data rate) so the processing gain is equal to 10.
Receiver of a DS-SS signal- The receiver uses coherent demodulation to despread the SS signal, using a locally generated code sequence. - To be able to perform the despreading operation, the receiver must not only know the code sequence used to spread the signal, but the codes of the received signal and the locally generated code must also be synchronized. - This synchronization must be accomplished at the beginning of the reception and maintained until the whole signal has been received. - The code synchronization/tracking block performs this operation- After despreading a data modulated signal results, and after demodulation the original data can be recovered.
Receiver of a DS-SS signal
SpreadingModulation
Information Modulation Despreading
Information Demodulati
onb(t)
PN
C(t)
fc PN fc
A B
B PointA Point C Point
C
Interference
Block of DS-SS communication system
Spreading spectrum Sequences(PN) - Property of PN - m-sequences -Walsh Code
Property of PN
Correlation - The Rule of Sequence design The ideal Sequence: The side peak value of auto-correlation(ACF) is
zero The value of cross-correlation(CCF) is zero Ideal Sequence can eliminate co-channel interference(MAI) Unfortunately,We can’t find the ideal sequence So,our target is to find such sequence: The smaller of the side peak value of auto-
correlation and the value of cross-correlation ,the better of the sequence.
1nN
0 11 1 nN 1nN
0 11 1 nN 1nN
Auto-correlation Function
Cross-correlation Function
Definition of ACF and CCF
Periodic sequence The Periodic ACF:
The Periodic CCF:
)..,.........,(),..,.........,( 110110 NN yyyxxx
ji
N
iiy
li
N
iix
yylR
xxlR
1
0
1
0
)(
)(
li
N
iixy yxlR
1
0
)(
m-sequences
Good periodic ACF properties Bad periodic CCF properties CDMA operates by using different offset of the same m-
sequence to discriminate between users for the bad periodic CCF properties
In IS-95 and IS2000 standard ,two kinds m-sequences are used:
short code and long code The m-sequences are generated using shift register The normative ACF of m-sequence:
chips)12( 15 chips)12( 42
)(mod01
)(mod0)(
1
0 NNlNlN
xxlR li
N
iix
An Example of periodic ACF of m-sequence
length 15 m-sequence (- - - -+ - + - - + + - + + +) here , - means 1,+means -1
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
15- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1- 1
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +
- - - - + - + - - + + - + + + - - - - + - + - - + + - + + +- 1- 1
m- sequence: N=15
The per i odi c ACF of m- sequence(N=15)
Introduction of the short code
Introduce of the long code
Walsh Code- orthogonal sequence
Walsh codes are generated by applying Hadamard transform upon 0 repeatedly. Hadamard transform is given by
11
11
22
22
2NN
NN
N
HH
HHH
0110001101010000
4H
0100
2H 01 H
most important feature: Orthogonal Walsh Sequence is Orthogonal when synchronized. ACF and CCF of Walsh Sequence are not ideal when not synchronized. Walsh function Set is self-contained. Walsh Sequence with Length n= can constitute n= Sequences orthogonal one another.
r2 r2
Features of CDMA- Multiple Access Capability - Protection Against Multipath Interference - Privacy - Interference Rejection - Anti-Jamming Capability, Especially Narrowband Jamming
- Low Probability of Interception(LPI)
Multiple Access Capability
If multiple users transmit a spread-spectrum signal at the same time, the receiver will still be able to distinguish between the users provided each user has a unique code that has a sufficiently low cross-correlation with the other codes.
Correlating the received signal with a code signal from a certain user will then only despread the signal of this user, while the other spread-spectrum signals will remain
spread over a large bandwidth. Within the information bandwidth the power of the desired user will be larger than the interfering power provided there are not too many interferers, and the desired signal can be extracted. At the receiver 1 only the signal of user 1 is "despread" and the data recovered.
Principle of spread-spectrum multiple access
Protection Against Multipath Interference
The signals of the different paths are all copies of the same transmitted signal but with different amplitudes, phases, delays, and arrival angles. Adding these signals at the receiver will be constructive at some of the frequencies and destructive at others. In the time domain, t
his results in a dispersed signal. If the code sequence has an ideal autocorrelation function, t
hen the correlation function is zero outside the interval [ Tc,Tc], where Tc is the chip duration. This means that if the desired signal and a version that is delayed for more than 2Tc are received, coherent demodulation will treat the delayed version as an interfering signal, putting only a small part of the power in the information bandwidth.
1
0
2 3
Tx Rx
Privacy
Privacy -- The transmitted signal can only be despread and the data recovered if the code is known to the receiver.
Interference Rejection
Cross-correlating the code signal with a narrowband signal will spread the power of the narrowband signal thereby reducing the interfering power in the information bandwidth.
The spread-spectrum signal (s) receives a narrowband interference (i). At the receiver the SS signal is "despread" while the interference signal is spread, making it appear as background noise compared to the despread signal.
Interference rejection
Anti-Jamming Capability
This is more or less the same as interference rejection except the interference is now willfully inflicted on the system. It is this property, together with the next one-LPI, that makes spread-spectrum modulation attractive for military applications.
Low Probability of Interception(LPI)
Because of its low power density, the spread-spectrum signal is difficult to detect and intercept by a hostile listener. f
S( f)
f0Signal Frequency Before Decoding
f
S( f)
f0Signal Frequency Before SS
Signal
Signal
Noise
ff0
Signal Frequency after SS
Signal
f
S( f)
f0
Signal Frequency After Decoding
Signal
Noise
Signal Pulse Noise Other Noise
Features of cdma2000-1X Reverse Pilot Support: Function:Phase reference,Coherent demodulation For each cdma2000 user, either Turbo or Convolutional co
des can be used. Fast 800 Hz forward and reverse link power control.The re
verse power control subchannel can be divided into two independent power control channel,the power control rate can be 400/400bps or 200/600bps for FCH/SCH.
Double the capacity vs. IS-95-A/B Provide higher data rates more efficiently (up to 307.2 kbp
s)
Features of cdma2000-1X
Support for Quasi Orthogonal Functions (QOF) increasing available forward channels
Quick paging channel. This allows the mobile to wake up for a shorter period of time before entering sleep mode, thereby increasing the standby time of phones.
OTD(Orthogonal Transmit Diversity) and STS(Space Time Spreading) transmit diversity