BASICS OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT CONSTRUCTION

Raihan Uddin AhmedEnvironmental SpecialistInfrastructure Development Company LimitedDhaka, Bangladesh

E-mail: ruahmed1995@gmail.com

Cell: +88-01715255725

August 2015

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Objectives

The environmental and health safety impacts of infrastructure project in construction phase depend on scale and type of construction activities ,which vary from project to project.

So, a basic understanding about major construction issues may facilitate an immediate understanding about potential EHS impacts and mitigation/management measures, irrespective of difference in projects.

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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

OF

INFRASTRUCTURE

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Paleolithic Age

NOMADIC HUNTER

CAVE

32,000 BC – 12,000 BC5

Mesolithic Age

12,000 BC – 8,000 BC

FOOD GATHERER

TEMPORARY

SHELTER FROM

PERISHABLE

MATERIALS

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Neolithic Age

8,000 BC – 3,000 BC

FARMING

PERMANENT SETTLEMENT

COMMUNAL HOUSE

- wooden post & lintel to support the ridge

pole & rafters

- thatch for the roof structure

- walls were made of various materials,

such as clay, wattle & daub, tree bark &

thatch 7

Sumerians and Egyptians Age

3,000 BC – 653 BC

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Greek Age

The Parthenon

The Coliseum

600 BC to 500 AD

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Roman, Gothic & Renaissance Age

1100-1700 AD

Basilica of Rome

Louvre of Paris

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CLASSIFICATION

OF

INFRASTRUCTURE

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Types of Infrastructures

• Public sector housing

Local authority housing scheme

• Private sector housing

Private building for residential/commercial use

• Non-housing excluding infrastructure

• Infrastructure

Water Sewerage Electricity Gas

Communication Air transport Railway Harbour

Factories Warehouses Oil Steel

Coal Academic

inst.

Health Shops

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CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

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Major Construction Materials

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Properties of Materials

Physical properties Size, shape, density, porosity etc.

Mechanical properties Strength, elasticity, plasticity, stiffness, ductility, malleability, hardness, brittleness, resilience, creep

Chemical properties Corrosion, resistance, acidity, alkalinity etc.

Thermal properties Specific heat, thermal expansion, conductivity

Magnetic properties Permeability, cohesive force, hysteresis

Electrical properties Conductivity, di-electric permeability, di-electric strength

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Bricks

Bricks are one of the oldest known building materials dating back to 7000BC, where they were first found in southern Turkey and around Jericho.

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Aesthetic

Bricks offer natural and a variety of colors, including various textures

Strength

Bricks offer excellent high compressive strength.

Porosity

The porosity of bricks in attributed to its fine capillaries. The ability to release and absorb moisture is one of the

most important and useful properties of bricks, regulating temperatures and humidity inside structures.

Fire Resistance

When prepared properly a brick structure can give a fire protection maximum rating of 6 hours

Sound InsulationThe brick sound insulation is normally 45 decibels for a 4.5 inches brick thickness.

InsulationBricks can exhibit above normal thermal insulation when compared to other building materials.

Major Properties of Bricks

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The bricks used in construction are classified as:

First class bricks

Second class bricks

Third class bricks

Types of Bricks

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First Class Bricks

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Second Class Bricks

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Third Class Bricks

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Crushing strength test

Water Absorption test

Efflorescence test

Hardness test

Size, Shape and Color test

Soundness test

Structure test

Quality Tests of Bricks

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Production and Testing of Real Size Bricks

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Meet ASTM requirements for different applications

Mechanical Test Result of Real Size Bricks

Title of specification Minimum UCS (MPa)

Maximum water absorption (%)

Structural clay load bearing wall tile 4.8-9.6 16 -25

Building brick 10.3-20.7 17-22

Solid masonry unit 13.8-20.7 NA

Facing brick 17.2-20.7 17-22

Pedestrian and light traffic paving brick 20.7-55.2 8-14

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Lime and clay have been used as cementing

material on constructions through many

centuries.

Romans are commonly given the credit for the

development of hydraulic cement, the most

significant incorporation of the Roman’s was

the use of pozzolan-lime cement by mixing

volcanic ash from the Mt. Vesuvius with lime.

Best know surviving example is the Pantheon

in Rome

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin from England invented

the Portland cement

Relevant Historical Facts of Cement

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Types of Cement Portland cement

Artificial cement. Made by the mixing clinker with gypsum in a 95:5 ratio.

Portland-limestone cementsLarge amounts (6% to 35%) of ground limestone have been added as a filler to a portland cement base.

Blended cementsMix of portland cement with one or more SCM (supplementary cemetitious materials) like pozzolanic

additives.

Pozzolan-lime cementsOriginal Roman cements. Only a small quantity is manufactured in the U.S. Mix of pozzolans with lime.

Masonry cementsPortland cement where other materials have been added primarily to impart plasticity.

Aluminous cementsLimestones and bauxite are the main raw materials. Used for refractory applications (such as cementing

furnace bricks) and certain applications where rapid hardening is required. It is more expensive than

portland. There is only one producing facility in the U.S.

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Chemical Properties of Cement and sources of CaCO3

Sedimentary deposits of

marine origin (limestone)

Marble(metamorphosed limestone)

Chalk

Marl

Coral

Aragonite

Oyster and clam shells

Travertine

Tuff

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Sand

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of

finely divided rock and mineral particles.

the most common constituent of sand is silica (silicon

dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

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Sources of Sand

Sand is formed by the weathering of rocks. Based on the natural sources from which sand is obtained, it is classified as follows:

Pit sand

River sand

Sea sand

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Based on the grain size distribution

Fine sand

The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as

fine sand. Fine sand is mainly used for plastering.

Coarse sand

The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as

coarse sand. It is generally used for masonry work.

Gravelly sand

The sand passing through a sieve with clear openings of 7.62 mm is known as

gravelly sand. It is generally used for concrete work.

Types of Sand

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Types of Sand

Different construction works require different standards of sand for construction.

Brick Works

finest modulus of fine sand should be 1.2 to 1.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%.

Plastering Works

finest modulus of fine sand should not be more than 1.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%.

Concreting Works

coarse sand should be used with finest modulus 2.5 to 3.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%.

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clean and coarse

free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3-4 per cent clay is permitted

chemically inert

contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains

not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere

well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable proportions

strong and durable

clean and free from coatings of clay and silt

Properties of Good Quality Sand

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The increase in the volume of sand due to the presence of moisture is known as bulking of sand. This is due to the fact that moisture forms a film of water around the sand particles and this results in an increase in the volume of sand. The extent of bulking depends on the grading of sand. The finer the material the more will be the increase in volume for the given moisture content.

For a moisture content of 5–8 per cent, the increase in volume may be about 20–40 per cent depending upon the gradation of sand. When the moisture content is further increased, the sand particles pack near each other and the amount of bulking is decreased. Hence, dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the same volume.

Bulking of Sand

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Bulking of Sand

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We have already sent Our messengers with clear evidences and sent down with them the Scripture and

the balance that the people may maintain [their affairs] in justice. And We sent down iron, wherein is

great military might and benefits for the people, and so that Allah may make evident those who support

Him and His messengers unseen. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might. (Al-Hadid, 25)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzFkhwi7S8I

Steel

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Types of Steel

Steel can be classified as iron steel (ferrous) and non-iron steel (non ferrous).

Iron steel• Iron steel is the a kind of alloy that usually containing iron and carbon

• The types of iron steel are ingot/pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and mild steel

Ingot iron

Cast iron

Wrought iron

Mild steel

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Ingot/Pig Iron

USES

CHARACTERISTICS

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Advantages of Steel

They are a first choice for structures, reinforcements, cladding, roofing, window frames, plumbing etc.

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Susceptibility to corrosion

Maintenance costs / thin-walled structure

Loss of strength at elevated temperature

Fireproofing costs

Susceptibility to buckling

Fatigue and brittle fracture

Bucling phenomenon

Disadvantages of Steel

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Animation on Construction

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vc4_5M1rhFg

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

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Examples of Typical Structures

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Concentrated and Distributed Loads

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Forces Acting in Structures

Forces induced by gravity

Dead Loads (permanent): self-weight of structure and attachments

Live Loads (transient): moving loads (e.g. occupants, vehicles)

Forces induced by wind

Forces induced by earthquakes

Forces induced by rain/snow

Fluid pressures

Others

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Forces Acting in Structures

Vertical: Gravity Lateral: Wind, Earthquake

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Forces in Structural Elements

100 lb

Compression

100 lb

Tension

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Forces in Structural Elements (cont.)100 lb

Bending

Torsion

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Major Building Sections

Superstructure

Substructure

Foundation

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Typical Structural Systems (1)

Arch

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Typical Structural Systems (2)

Truss

C

T

CCT

Forces in Truss Members50

Typical Structural Systems (3)

Frame

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Typical Structural Systems (4)

Flat Plate

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CONSTRUCTION WORKS, STAGES AND EQUIPMENT

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Major Construction Works

Clearing of land and related excavation and compaction activities

Operation of heavy machinery and related equipment for earthmoving and construction

Erection of structures using steel, concrete, brick, glass, timber, and other materials

Mechanical activities including grinding, hammering, drilling, grit blasting and demolition

Metal joining and finishing including welding, brazing, soldering and other techniques.

Generation of solid wastes and debris, their stockpiling and transfer through chutes and loading onto trucks or into skips

Transport of building materials and supplies onto the site, and transport of wastes off site.

Movement of vehicles along roadways and paths, in and out of the site and within the site

Application of surface coatings and finishes using paints and adhesives.

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Major Construction Equipment

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Earth Moving Equipment

Excavator

LoaderScraper

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Construction Vehicles

Dumper

Tipper Trailer

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Materials Handling Vehicles/Equipment

Conveyor

CraneHoist

Fork lift

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Construction Equipment

Tunnel cutter

Stone crusher

Compactor Paver

Concrete mixer59

Construction Order/Stage

Order of construction

Clearing the site

Excavation and timbering

Foundations

Concrete floors

Reinforced concrete frames

Roofs

Brickwork

Internal fixtures and fittings

Insulation

Plumbing and wiring

Painting and decorating

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Clearing the Site

May involve:-

Demolition of existing buildings (by experienced contractor)

Grubbing out bushes and tress (by manual or mechanical means, or by specialist for the large tress)

Removal of soil to reduce levels following to Building Regulation C1 (sterilize the top 300 mm to contain plant life and decaying vegetation)

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Excavation and Timbering

Before a foundation can be laid, it is necessary to excavate a trench of the required depth and width (by hand or mechanical excavator)

Timbering – term used to cover temporary supports to the sides of excavations and is sometimes called planking and strutting

Type and amount – depend on the depth, nature of subsoil, weather conditions and duration

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Load and Settlements of Foundations

Types of loads on foundations

Dead, live, wind, inclined thrusts and uplift, water table and earthquake forces

Types of settlements

Uniform and differential - Differential settlement must be minimized, depends on site soil conditions and distribution of loads on columns supporting the building

Requirements of a safe foundation

Structure-foundation system safe against settlements that would lead to collapse -Foundation settlement should not damage the structure - Foundation must be technically and economically feasible

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Various types of loads and their distribution

Settlements of Foundations

NO SETTLEMENT * TOTAL SETTLEMENT * DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

Uniform settlement is usually of little consequence in a building, but differential settlement can cause severestructural damage

NO SETTLEMENT TOTAL SETTLEMENT DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

TOTAL SETTLEMENT * DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

Uniform settlement is usually of little consequence in a building, but differential settlement can cause severe structural damage

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Various Types of Concrete Foundation

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Floor Construction

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Walls

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Solid Wall Cavity Wall

Timber Frame

Traditional method with heavy structural sections.

Modern timber frame buildings are normally constructed with timber internal frames clad with plywood to add strength and a single skin of external brick or blockwork supported with ‘wall ties’.

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STRUCTURAL FAILURE

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Engineering Properties of Structural Failure

Strength

Ability to withstand a given stress without failure

Depends on type of material and type of force (tension or compression)

Tensile Failure Compressive Failure70

Modulus of Rupture

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Cripple Wall Type Hi - Footing 6s

Most likely Aftershock hazards = Falling heavy objects

Rackedcripple wall

SeparatedEntry Roof

Roof Tilefalls off

Gas &Water

Masonry veneerfalls off

Elec

Brick chimneycracked & mayfall

Structural Failure of a Single Storied Building (moderate stress)

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Most Hazards are Brittle & Lethal falling objects

Elec

GasWater

Slip offbearing

Unsupportedroof & floorURM

corner

Crackedwall piers

Cracked parapets& split or peeled walls

URM can fall20 ft frombldg. face

Looseequip

10s

Structural Failure of a Single Storied Building (high stress)

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Elec

Gas

Crackedwalls w/broken conns

Overload fromupper collapseLoose debris

Partly fallen slabs & beams

Cracked corbelsBeam collapse ?

Leaning wallcheck conns

Water

Aftershocks cause loosely connected parts to shift & fall.Debris piles of large parts can shift & trap rescuers

5s

Structural Failure of a Multi- Storied Building

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Structural Failure (others)

Strength Limit State

Service Limit State

Strength Limit State

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LIFE CYCLE OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS

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Life Cycle of Construction

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THANKS

Disclaimer: I am sincerely grateful to all those resource persons, who have offered me the opportunity to share information/image/theme from their works, while preparing this PPT. This PPT is dedicated to all of you having interest on sustainable and climate friendly infrastructure projects.

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