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Masaryk University in BrnoFaculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

Kateina Olexov

Ritual inBeowulf

B.A. Major Thesis

Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Milada Frankov, CSc., M.A.

2007

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I declare that I have worked on this dissertation independently, using only the sources

listed in the bibliography.

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I would like to thank my supervisor, doc. Mgr. Milada Frankov, CSc., M.A., for her

kind help, patience and the time she dedicated to my work.

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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ... 4

2. ANGLO-SAXON RITUAL . 5

3. BURIAL RITUALS . 73.1. Ship burial . 73.2. Cremation .. 103.3. Inhumation . 123.4. Mounds .. 133.5. Gifts ... 133.6. Mourning ... 15

4. GIFT GIVING . 164.1. Loyalty to the king 18

4.2. Punishment of disloyalty .. 194.3. Gifts given to the lord ... 21

5. SYMBEL . 225.1. Boasting and oath .. 235.2. Queen 245.3. Kings hall . 25

6. SACRIFICES ... 276.1. Animal and people sacrifice .. 29

7. PROPHECIES . 30

8. SYMBOLS ... 308.1. Boars .. 319.1. Runes . 31

9. CONCLUSION 33

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

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1. INTRODUCTION

This thesis deals with the Anglo-Saxon ritual practice as described in the medieval

heroic epicBeowulf. The practices are discussed in connection with the Anglo-Saxon culture,

religion and traditions. It explores how the pagan practices are supported by archaeological or

literary evidence and how they were influenced by the Christian author.

The rituals of a society are influenced by the religion. Because the religious beliefs of

the Anglo-Saxons were highly inconsistent, the rituals varied according to time and place, and

often there were various rituals practiced at one place in one time.

The first practice this thesis concentrates on is the burial ritual. InBeowulfseveral burial

practices are described. The very first and the most interesting one is the ship burial, which

attracts the attention mainly by its similarity to the famous archaeological field in Sutton Hoo,

where a comparable ship burial was found. Cremation was another widely used pagan burial

practice which was described inBeowulf, it was how the hero Beowulf was buried. This

practice is documented by the archaeological evidence as well. Mounds were often built to

mark the burial places and many gifts were also laid with the body or the ahes. These ritual

acts and especially the rich treasures are described inBeowulfwith many details.

The ritual of gift-giving was an important practice for the Anglo-Saxons. Giving and

receiving gifts strenghtened the bond between a lord and his companions. The recipient was

obliged to serve his lord, follow him to battle and revenge his death. The relationship between

a lord and his followers was one of the basic principles of the society. InBeowulfthe violators

of these rules were banished and that was a punishment of the most severe kind, for no

individual could endure without the society that protected him.

Another ritual that strenghtened the relationships within a community was the symbel. It

was a drinking ritual also described inBeowulf. The warriors drank from a beaker and made

their boasts which were equal to sacred oaths. The beaker was served by the lady of the house

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who was a very important figure in the Anglo-Saxon society, for she functioned as the peace-

weaver. The symbel usually took place in the lords hall, inBeowulfit was Heorot, the great

hall of king Higelac. The Anglo-Saxons believed that the world was a cruel place and the hall

was the shelter that protected them from its dangers.

Sacrifices to gods were a significant part of the heathen life as well, yet they are not

described inBeowulfin much detail. It is probably because idolatry was forbidden by the

Christian Church and pagan practices as sacrifices of animals or even people were totally

unacceptable.

Prophecies and divination are mentioned inBeowulftoo, but only divining by lots is

described. Distinctively pagan practices as divination from entrails were withheld.

Sacred symbols were used during the heathen period to protect the one who wore them.

Boars and runes are described inBeowulf, they were engraved on weapons and armour to

perfect their qualities and protect the warrior.

The rituals mentioned in the epic are not always accurate because they are influenced by

the authors beliefs and intentions, yet often they can be supported by archaeological or

literary evidence. This thesis compares the rituals in the epic with the practices of the real

Anglo-Saxon world.

2. ANGLO-SAXON RITUAL

Ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is

prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community (Ritual). It can have various

forms and purposes; while sacrifices or idolatry are practices of religious manner, symbel or

gift giving are rituals with practical purpose. These intents were often connected with the

society and thus the rituals served as a means of strengthening the relationships within a

community.

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Both the religious and the practical ritual practices of a society were greatly affected by

the religion. The religion of the Anglo-Saxons was derived from the Germanic and

Scandinavian systems, however, the evidence of Anglo-Saxon heathendom is so scanty that

there can be no satisfactory comparison between these systems (Hodgkin, 240). According to

Maurois, the religion was greatly based on the legends that were tied to certain places of

Germany, so it lost much of its allure during the migration (40). It is no wonder then that the

ideas and practices were so inconsistent and that they often mixed with older and better-

rooted beliefs (Hodgkin, 242).

When Christianity came to Britain it often blended with pagan beliefs. Bede gives

evidence that even after Britain had been Christianized the religion was unstable, and there

were frequent returns to paganism and idolatry (73). Paganism was never fully forgotten

because of the contact with the Vikings in the 9th and 10th centuries which revived the

interest in pre-Christian religions (ermk, 223).

These pagan beliefs and customs are an important part of the epicBeowulf. The rituals

described in the poem illustrate the Anglo-Saxon tradition, but they can not be considered a

proper evidence of the time. The credibility of the text is determined by several factors. The

first is that the poem was composed in Christian times, thus the heathen traditions are

complemented with Christian beliefs and some of the distinctively pagan rituals are

completely withheld. Another factor is the placement of the poem. Although the origin of the

epic is in Britain, the story takes place in Daneland, so it is probable that traditions of both the

countries may appear. In spite of that, many of the rituals are documented by various literary

sources or archaeological finds.

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3. BURIAL RITUALS

There were many methods of burial in the heathen period and it is difficult to pick one

as the most preferred. In every part of Britain different burials were practised and often there

were several different practices used in one place at a time. The burial ritual was everything

but consistent; Bronsted says that one of the reasons for this fact is that heathen people had

very unclear idea of the afterlife, so they were not quite sure what to do with their deceased

(222). Another theory is proposed by Collingwood; he suggests that the inconsistensy of the

burial ritual is caused by the influence of Britons whose population was strong in some areas

and mixed with the Anglo-Saxon conquerors (448).

Ship burial, cremation and inhumation were the most common practices in heathen

Britain. Archaeologists have found cemeteries where all these three methods are represented,

in other places only one method was preferred. All these rituals were practised until

inhumation, preferred by Christians, fully prevailed.

3.1. SHIP BURIAL

Ship burial is one of the most interesting and discussed burial practices of the heathen

society. Although ship burial is usually connected with Teutonism, it is not the only society

that used this kind of burial; similar practices were found also among Celtic and ancient

American tribes (ermk, 220). Nevertheless, there is no doubt that ship burial is a typical

practice of Teutonic heathenism and it is not only thanks to literary sources but also numerous

archaeological finds thatconfirm it.

The evidence of ship burial practices was found in many archaeological excavations in

Europe. Due to the fact that Christianity demanding inhumation and banning laying gifts was

brought to Britain relatively early, the majority of evidence has been found in Scandinavia.

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The burial grounds in Vendel and Vlsgarde in Sweden are the most important Scandinavian

archaeological sites.

The most historically interesting British site has been discovered in Sutton Hoo, Suffolk.

Two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries from the 6th and 7th centuries have been found there and in

1939 an example of a ship burial was excavated. Basil Brown, an archaeologist working for

Ipswich Museum, found two graves where a burial chamber was placed in a ship. The first

ship was placed over the burial chamber and then a mound was raised above. The second

grave, which was unlike the first one not damaged, contained a hull of a ship with a complete

and undisturbed burial chamber with many gifts and treasures. The ship was about 27 meters

long and 4.4 meters wide and from the construction it was concluded that it had been a

functional seagoing ship, not just a model built for the purpose of burial (Sutton Hoo).

The ship burial found in Sutton Hoo is often connected withBeowulf. There were real

links between Sutton Hoo and Scandinavia (Sweden) and also the graves found in Vendel and

Vlsgarde contained ships, though smaller than the one of Sutton Hoo. Another fact that

contributes to theories of connection between Sutton Hoo andBeowulfis the ship itself and

the treasure found in the burial chamber (Sutton Hoo).

Let us have a look at the description of king Scylds burial inBeowulfthat appears at the

very beginning of the poem:

The beloved leader laid they down there,

Giver of rings, on the breast of the vessel,The famed by the mainmast. A many of jewels,Of fretted embossings, from far-lands brought over,Was placed near at hand then; and heard I not everThat a folk ever furnished a float more superblyWith weapons of warfare, weeds for the battle,Bills and burnies; on his bosom sparkledMany a jewel that with him must travel(Beowulf, I, 35-43).

We can see there are many similarities to the ship burial of Sutton Hoo. Both men were

placed in a ship, approximately in the middle. Scyld was laid by the mast; the Sutton Hoo ship

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did not have a mast (or it had been removed) and the corpse was placed in a burial chamber in

the central part of the ship. Scyld was surrounded by treasures weapons and jewels that were

put close to him. The burial chamber of the Sutton Hoo ship was equipped with weapons and

jewels as well. There was, among others, a sword, a set of spears, a helmet and many

wonderful ornamented objects made of silver and gold, as buckles, shoulder-clasps and

bosses. The grave also contained various articles of daily use, bowls, cauldrons, spoons and

drinking vessels (Sutton Hoo).

The ships and their equipment connectBeowulfwith archaeological finds. The literary

sources, e.g. Snorri Sturluson, also give evidence of ship burial practices that did not leave

any tangible proof, e.g. ships that were burnt or sent to the sea or both (Sturluson, 106).

Releasing a burning ship was a popular way of burial. ermk points out the fact that

Scylds ship was not set on fire. He suggests that the author ofBeowulfsuppressed this pagan

ritual for it was banned by the Christian Church (62-63). On the other hand, in the description

of Beowulfs funeral the pyre is described. However, in both cases distinctive pagan features

(e.g. sacrifices) are avoided by the author.

Although the ship burial used to be very popular in the heathen society, there were also

practical requirements that people had to face. The significant reality is that mourners did not

always have a spare boat because ships were important, and probably quite expensive, means

of subsistence. That was the reason for the fact that many graves were only equipped with

little boats or even symbolic vessels made of stones (Bronsted, 222). Another thing that must

be considered is the purpose of the ship. Bronsted suggests three variants: the ship might be

only one of the gifts to the deceased person, or the ship shall wait in harbour for the proper

time for leaving, or the ship should carry the dead warrior straight to Valhalla, a great

heavenly hall situated in the south where warriors feast and wait for the end of the world

(Bronsted, 224). The first two variants are clear the ship should be buried with the corpse.

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This theory is supported by various graves equipped with a ship. The third variant is the case

of Scylds ship inBeowulfwhich is no doubt a means of transport to Valhalla. However, if we

consider Teutons inclination to symbolism, the journey to Valhalla might be symbolic as

well, so the ship does not have to be released to the sea or burnt at a pyre but it can be buried

too. This method was found in Ladby, Denmark, where a buried ship was equipped with an

anchor ready for use at the end of the journey (Bronsted, 224).

Although the author ofBeowulfsent Scyld on the journey, he surely did not believe in

afterlife in Valhalla; he does not mention what the destination of the ship should be. He says

that Scyld departed to the All-Fathers keeping (Beowulf, I, 27) and that is definetely a

Christian perspective on death. The ship burial inBeowulf serves as a portrayal of a Teutonic

ritual, but it can also serve as a contrast to Scylds coming to the Danes as a foundling

(Beowulf, I, 6).

3.2. CREMATION

Cremation belongs to burial practices often connected with paganism, for these practices

were strictly banned by the Christian Church. Cremation was common to Teutonic societies

not only in Britain but also in continental Europe. In Scandinavia, cremation was practised

even after 1100, but then Scandinavia became fully Christianised and cremation was replaced

by inhumation. In northern Germany, where the Anglo-Saxons came from, the custom was to

cremate the dead and bury the ashes in urns, however, there were also influences from the

Roman Empire where inhumation was the most common practice. It would thus be natural to

expect that after the migration to Britain the peoples of this region would have continued with

some consistency to cremate their dead, but in fact this was not the case. From the beginning

both rites are practised with a tendency much stronger in some districts than others towards a

general abandonment of cremation (Collingwoood, 448). This is a confirmation of the fact

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that burial practices of heathen society were rather inconsistent. However, it is obvious that

because inhumation was common to Christians, cremation became one of the symbols of

heathenism. Description of this practice is a popular means of illustrating a pagan society in

literature.

InBeowulfcremation is the most common way of burying a warrior. It is mentioned

several times and the individual procedures are very similar; the warrior is laid on a pyre and

he is surrounded by treasures, usually weapons. Then the whole structure is set on fire. The

funeral pyre for Beowulf is described in detail:

The folk of the Geatmen got him then readyA pile on the earth strong for the burning,Behung with helmets, hero-knights' targets,And bright-shining burnies, as he begged they should have them;Then wailing war-heroes their world-famous chieftain,Their liegelord beloved, laid in the middle (Beowulf, XLIII, 1-7).

The treasures were burned with Beowulf, then his kinsmen made a mound over the place and

many jewels were put inside. The text shows that the burned pyre was covered by the mound

and that the ashes were not put inside any urn. emk says that this practice is not supported

by any archaeological evidence and he points out the startling fact that Beowulf had two

burials, both cremation and inhumation (273). There are theories which say that because

Christians believed in inhumation, the second burial is a symbol of blessing that was added

later.

According to the archaeological evidence, the ashes of dead people were put in varioustypes of containers and dug under the ground. Sometimes weapons or jewels were put around.

In the Sutton Hoo cemetery, the archaeological excavations discovered several cases of this

practice. The ashes were put in bronze bowls or placed on a wooden bier and there were

weapons, jewels and other objects buried with the ashes. Horses and other animals had been

sometimes cremated too and then buried with the deceased; this practice was not mentioned in

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Beowulf, apparently because its distinctive pagan character was not accepted by the Christian

Church.

Although some pagan features were withheld by the author ofBeowulf, according to the

archaeological evidence we can say that the burial practices described inBeowulfwere quite

common to the heathen society in Britain. The funeral of Beowulf, though some of its features

diverge from the theories of historians, may be considered to be a typical example of Anglo-

Saxon burial. On the other hand, ermk (273) says that we must take into account a certain

universal form of burial ritual, as parallels from classical literature suggest.

3.3. INHUMATION

As already mentioned, inhumation was typical of Christianity, even though this practice

first came into Britain as an influence of western provinces of the Roman Empire and in some

parts of Britain it was a universal practice long before the conversion to Christianity

(Collingwood, 448). Inhumation was a common practice also among heathen societies of

Germany and Scandinavia. Graves used to be equipped with large wooden chambers or

wooden coffins, some of them were covered by ships those would belong to ship burials.

Gifts were usually put into the graves and also a horse or a dog was often buried with the

deceased. The gifts and the animals are the evidence of pagan character of these graves, for

gifts were strictly forbidden by the Christian Church.

Although this burial practice was used widely in the heathen period, there is no case of

inhumation mentioned inBeowulf. It is probably because the other burial practices (ship

burial, cremation) were more attractive for the audience. Inhumation, so common in Christian

Britain, apparently lacked the valued feeling of paganism, so the author chose practices that

would fit in with the poem.

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3.4. MOUNDS

Mounds were built over graves as markings of burial places, they were de facto

analogous to future tombstones. They were not connected with any special burial practice,

mounds complemented graves with chambers or ships as well as urnes with the ashes of

cremated people. Mounds could be built on raised places by the sea as documented among

northern Germans and Anglo-Saxons, or there could be a group of mounds as known from

Sutton Hoo, where 20 mounds were found in one place. Every mound contained a grave of

one person only and they used to cover different types of burials (Sutton Hoo).

InBeowulfa mound was built over the place where the hero had been cremated.

The men of the Weders made accordinglyA hill on the height, high and extensive,Of sea-going sailors to be seen from a distance,And the brave one's beacon built where the fire was (Beowulf, XLIII, 21-24).

There were jewels and other treasures put into Beowulfs mound, which is a practice

corresponding with the archaeological evidence. The mound served as a memorial of the dead

king who did not want to be forgotten, so he commanded that the mound should be a

memory-mark to the men I have governed (Beowulf, XXXVIII, 51).

3.5. GIFTS

Gifts were given to the deceased to provide them with necessities for the afterlife. Gifts

were usually laid with the corpse (or the ashes in case of cremation) in the ground. Burialships released to the sea were equipped by gifts as well, inBeowulfthe gifts were also put on

the pyre to be burnt together with the hero. Beowulfs pyre is similar to the pyre of mythical

hero Sigurd, with whom many treasures and slaves were burnt (Edda, 349).

It is clear that the quantity and richness of gifts were directly proportional to the social

status of the deceased. Graves of lords and noblemen used to be equipped with rich treasures

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and often became targets of thieves; common people, on the other hand, were provided by

meagre or symbolic gifts only, or by no gifts at all (Bronsted, 222).

The most common gifts for men were weapons and jewels. The gifts of the dead kings

inBeowulfmay be regarded as typical examples. Scylds ship was furnished With weapons

of warfare, weeds for the battle (Beowulf, I, 41) and a many of jewels, of fretted

embossings (Beowulf, I, 37-38). The gifts laid on Beowulfs funeral pyre are described in a

similar way:

There's a mass of bright jewels,Gold beyond measure, grewsomely purchased

And ending it all ornament-rings too (Beowulf, XLI, 67-69).

It is beyond doubt that there is maybe more than a little bit of exaggeration by the author, yet

the treasures are in many ways comparable to the gifts found in pagan graves. Many valuable

gifts were found in Teutonic graveyards, the most significant ones are Vendel and Birka in

Sweden, in Britain it is the graveyard of Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. The ship burial in Sutton Hoo

was the best equipped grave in the graveyard and it was one of the few that had not been

burgled. The equipment of the burial chamber is in many ways similar to the gifts given to

Beowulf; there were weapons (spears, a sword and an axe), pieces of armour (a shield, a

helmet and a ring-mail coat) and various ornaments (buckles and shoulder-clasps). Moreover,

the grave contained many articles of daily use, both luxurious (silver dish or a lyre) and

ordinary (buckets, bowls and textiles) (Sutton Hoo). It is interesting that none of those

articles of daily use were mentioned inBeowulf. The author apparently wanted to emphasize

the richness of the kings gifts and ordinary objects simply did not match the image of a royal

burial that is usually connected with weapons and precious metals.

InBeowulfornaments from abroad are also mentioned: A many of jewels [] from

far-lands brought over (Beowulf, I, 37-38). It is understandable that luxurious items from

abroad were highly valued and thus served as a proper gift for a dead king. There is

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archaeological evidence of foreign gifts; in Britain an assemblage of silverware of

Mediterranean origin was found in the ship burial of Sutton Hoo. However, this find is unique

for the heathen period both in Britain and Europe (Sutton Hoo).

But not only precious ornaments and weapons, but also symbolic objects were to be

found in graves. For Teutonic peoples, symbolism was an important part of life, it is no

wonder then, that this feature appeared also in burials. Most frequently there were symbolic

ships made from stones and figures of animals.

Animals, both in symbolic and real shape, were among customary gifts. Many graves

found in Scandinavia and Britain contained a skeleton or ashes of an animal most frequently

horses and dogs, but there were also cases when cattle, sheep, pigs and even a red deer were

buried or cremated with the deceased. A morbid equivalent of this practice was burial of

people as one of the gifts, mostly wives or slaves. It was probably a sporadic custom, yet there

is archaeological evidence that proves it. One of the most interesting ones is from Birka,

Sweden. Corpses of two women have been found there, one of them was surrounded by gifts,

the second one lied in a contorted position that suggests that the woman died of suffocation; it

was probably a slave who had been buried alive with her mistress (Bronsted, 225).

It is understandable that none of these morbid practices can be observed inBeowulf.

Laying gifts is used as an illustration of the heathen lifestyle there, although it was forbidden

by the Church, but the practices containing animals or people were withheld completely. It is

obvious that the author chose just those features of the ritual that corresponded with the poem

and that were not too outrageous for the audience.

3.6. MOURNING

Mourning is an important part of a burial ritual among many nations, it represents

respect for the deceased and expresses sorrow at his death. The belief that it is appropriate to

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remember the lord with praise is mentioned inBeowulf(XLIII, 38-39). Bronsted says that

relatives are responsible for keeping the tomb of the deceased neat and remember the dead

one, or he would feel aggrieved and punish them (223). For this reason, weepers were a

frequent part of burials. InBeowulfwomen weepers lamenting at Beowulfs and Hnaefs

funerals are described (XVII, 64 and XLIII, 14). The author ofBeowulfalso describes

mourning of Beowulfs kinsmen at the funeral of their king:

'Round the dead-mound rode then the doughty-in-battle,Bairns of all twelve of the chiefs of the people,More would they mourn, lament for their ruler,Speak in measure, mention him with pleasure,

Weighed his worth, and his warlike achievementsMightily commended (Beowulf, XLIII, 33-38).

According to ermk, this description of funeral is in many ways accurate (237), it could be

also some kind of duty to grieve over their lord. Yet, Tacitus reports that The pomp of

tedious and elaborate monuments they [Germans] contemn, as things grievous to the

deceased. Tears and wailings they soon dismiss (Tacitus). This information is inconsistent

both with the spectacular ceremony described inBeowulfand the remarkable tombs that were

found by archaeologists. It is no doubt that it is appropriate for a hero of Beowulfs kind to

have a funeral where both men and women would weep for him.

4. GIFT GIVING

Gift giving was a significant feature of heathen society. Old Germanic culture [] hada system of gift exchange so clearly defined and well developed that there are few systems so

typical (Bjork, 995). InBeowulfit is mentioned repeatedly, the usual kenning for king is

giver of rings (Beowulf, I, 36) or giver of gold (Beowulf, XXXII, 89). The function of the

gifts was not only material but also symbolic, gifts confirmed the bond between the king and

his companions. Gifts served as a reward for service both in the past and future; by receiving

the gift the recipient pledged to follow his lord to the end and revenge his death, if necessary,

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and the gift became a tangible prompt of the promise (ermk, 27). Gift giving was surely an

occasion held before witnesses, usualy in the kings hall. Preferably only through public

ritual should the exchange occur (Bjork, 995).

According to ermk, the most usual gifts were weapons, the value of which depended

on their age, horses, gold and land (26-27). The gifts mentioned inBeowulfconfirm this

proposition; Hrothgar gave to Beowulf golden jewels, a sword and eight steeds (Beowulf,

XVI, 38-44), Higelac rewarded him with land mong the people, estate and inherited rights

and possessions (Beowulf, XXXI, 51-52).

A special kind of gifts were daughters of noblemen, often given away to other lords to

fulfil their function of peace-weavers. King Higelac gave to Eofor his one only daughter, the

honor of home, as an earnest of favor (Beowulf, XLI, 53-54).

Gift giving was a basic royal function (Helterman, 5). InBeowulf this function is

described as a custom that a good king should never break. King Heremod is given as an

example of a bad ruler:

He gave then no ring-gemsTo the Danes after custom; endured he unjoyfulStanding the straits from strife that was raging,Longsome folk-sorrow. Learn then from this,Lay hold of virtue! (Beowulf, XXV, 69-73).

As warriors had obligation to their king, a good king had an obligation to his men. Not only

should he reward the men for their service, he should also hold their favour for the future. Gift

giving is a feature according to which the power of a king can be measured. Hrothgar is an

example of a good king, he is described as a ruler who his promise he brake not, rings he

lavished(Beowulf, II, 27).

However, inBeowulf not only kings but also queen Hygd serves as a gift-giver. After

the death of Higelac, her husband, she offered to Beowulf treasure and kingdom, rings and

dominion (Beowulf, XXXIII, 57-58). It was the queen who decided that her son was too

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young for reign and asked Beowulf to be his guardian. The queen was obligated to decide the

issue, for the situation required her to substitute the kings function.

After the expansion of Christianity the role of the gift-giver passed from kings to God.

Christian God was the giver of all good things (Bede, 78), yet they were not of material

value as the gifts of kings but rather spiritual. InBeowulfthe great qualities of heroes are

often described as gifts given by God; Beowulf himself remembers that God had erst given

him greatness no little (XXVI, 8). However, in this case we can not talk about an exchange,

the gifts of God were nonmaterial and they were not meant to be a pledge of loyalty.

4.1. LOYALTY TO THE KING

The principle of the comitatusis one of the principles common to Germanic tribes on

which society was built; it secured for a warleader a troop of devoted followers (Hodgkin,

210). The relationship between a lord and his followers was very important, for the king was

the source of food, drink and treasure, and he was the protector of his people (Halverson,

594). According to Tacitus, the number and valour of followers was also a matter of

distinction, so it is natural that the king rewarded his devoted men richly (Tacitus). The king

was obliged to provide his men with board and lodging, supplemented by occasional special

rewards, such as bracelets of gold and silver(Hodgkin, 210). These principles well

correspond with the promise that Hrothgar gave to Beowulf:

I'll love thee in spiritAs bairn of my body; bear well henceforwardThe relationship new. No lack shall befall theeOf earth-joys any I ever can give thee (Beowulf, XV, 22-25).

Of course these rewards offered by the king require loyal service of his followers.

Hodgkin says that the men were bound to their lord by a devotion which was almost a religion

(211). The king was not only the gift-giver and protector, but also a noble figure, a descendant

of gods. Bede says that it was Woden from whose stock the royal race of many provinces

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deduce their original (23). In spite of that, the follower was more a companion than a

servant; the word used in the Anglo-Saxon period to describe a man loyal to his lord was

gesith, which contains the idea of companionship (Hodgkin, 210). The men who formed the

troop were carefully selected, for the kings obligation was not only to protect his followers,

but he was also responsible for their deeds (ermk, 27), so the description of Hrothgars men

as true unto other, gentle in spirit, loyal to leader (Beowulf,XIX, 37-38) might not be too

exaggerated.

The most important obligation the men had to their king was to follow him in battle. For

a true follower it was scandalous to desert his lord in the fight (Hodgkin, 236) or to survive

him. According to Tacitus, it is infamy during life [] to return alive from a battle where

their Prince was slain (Tacitus). Basically the same values are mentioned by Wiglaf, who

urges the men to help Beowulf:

Meseemeth not properTo bear our battle-shields back to our country,'Less first we are able to fell and destroy theLong-hating foeman, to defend the life ofThe prince of the Weders. (Beowulf, XXXVI, 48-52).

Yet, the men did not fulfil their oaths and did not follow their king. They acted against an

important principle of the society, which was that the Princes fight for victory; for the Prince

his followers fight (Tacitus).

4.2. PUNISHMENT OF DISLOYALTY

Breaking the oath given to a king was one of the most terrible crimes in the Anglo-

Saxon society. Deserting or surviving the lord in battle was something that had to be

punished. Not only did the violator lose his honour and the favour of the king, a disloyal man

could be also banished and that was a punishment probably worse than death. Tacitus says

that the shame was often so great that the violators preferred suicide to shameful life

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(Tacitus). This philosophy is mentioned inBeowulfas well; when Beowulfs men deserted

him, Wiglaf moralises:

Now must ornament-taking and weapon-bestowing,

Home-joyance all, cease for your kindred,Food for the people; each of your warriorsMust needs be bereaved of rights that he holdethIn landed possessions, when faraway noblesShall learn of your leaving your lord so basely,The dastardly deed. Death is more pleasantTo every earlman than infamous life is! (Beowulf, XXXIX, 60-67).

Wiglafs speech suggests that the shame concerns not only the warriors but all their kindred.

The violators have little chance of escaping their destiny, for also the lords of other lands shall

hear about their betrayal.

Banishment was one of the most severe punishments that could be inflicted on a man.

Teutonic society was based on a kinship system; society (i.e. kin) was an important feature in

everyones life, for it supported and protected all its members (Bronsted, 243). To be

excluded from the society meant that the individual became unprotected and weak; Bronsted

says that this was typical of slaves of the most inferior status (243).

This kind of punishment was mentioned several times inBeowulf, most noticeably in the

part where Wiglaf predicts this cruel fate to the men who deserted Beowulf (XXXIX, 60-61).

Another example is the case of Eanmund, who was exiled and friendless(Beowulf, XXXVI,

10) and thus his death was not revenged by his relatives.

However, inBeowulfdisobedience can be forgiven. The man who found the dragonsden is described as a sin-driven warrior (Beowulf, XXXII, 5), but his offence is pardoned

when he brings a golden beaker to his lord. ermk says that when the lord took the beaker

from the wrongdoers hands, he officially confirmed that he accepted the compensation and

forgave the offence (173).

The punishment of a malefactor was a matter that concerned the whole kin. According

to Bronsted, the members of the kin protected and revenged every individual, who was also

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responsible for protecting and revenging the others (243). Also Tacitus says that All the

enmities of your house, whether of your father or of your kindred, you must necessarily adopt;

as well as all their friendships (Tacitus). Similar principles worked in the relationship

between a lord and his followers, because for Germans this relationship was equal to kinship.

When Hrothgar promises Beowulf I'll love thee in spirit, as bairn of my body (Beowulf, XV,

22-23), he adopts him into his own family with all the kinship responsibilities.

It was common for Teutons to compensate crimes by an appropriate sum of money.

Even for so great a crime as homicide, compensation is made by a fixed number of sheep

and cattle, and by it the whole family is pacified to content (Tacitus). This practice is

mentioned also in Edda: Hundings descendants asked Siegfried for rings and treasure,

because they were bound to revenge their father who had been killed by Siegfried (227).

When the compensation could not be paid (e.g. it was refused or the offenders family

could not afford it), the revenge usually took the form of a blood feud. When Beowulf recalls

the wars between the Geats and the Swedes he says that his kinsmen avenged the feud and

fury (Beowulf, XXXV, 19-20), which means that they killed the Swedes who attacked

Geatland.

InBeowulfa murder that can not be revenged is also mentioned, when Haedcyn

accidentally kills his brother Herebald (XXXIV, 46). According to the social rule, Herebalds

father was obliged to revenge his son, but he was unable to follow the warrior with hatred

(Beowulf, XXXV, 7). This situation is described as a feeless fight (Beowulf, XXXIV, 49)

for it does not allow any compensation.

4.3. GIFTS GIVEN TO THE LORD

Kings of the period were not only givers but also recievers of gifts. It was usual that men

gave occasional gifts to their friends to retain their friendship and support. One of the

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Teutonic wisdoms was that those who exchange gifts will have a long-lasting friendship

(Edda, 42). Thus, it was natural that nobles were giving gifts to each other, and a lord could

also receive a gift from somebody of a lower social rank.

InBeowulfthe hero is described offering gifts that Hrothgar gave him to king Higelac:

But he gave me jewels, regarding my wishes,Healfdene his bairn; I'll bring them to thee, then,Atheling of earlmen, offer them gladly (Beowulf, XXXI, 3-5).

Beowulf offers the gifts to please his king and hold his favour, but the gifts also act as the

proof of Beowulfs great deeds and a guarantee of the future ones.

Before the fight with Grendel Beowulf also requests his followers to send his armour to

Higelac in case he should die (Beowulf, VII, 79-80). Here Beowulf makes Higelac his heir; it

could be because Higelac was Beowulfs relative and thus it was his right to inherit the heros

possessions, or Beowulf wanted to gratify the king, so he would remember him with affection.

This would probably mean that Higelac would arrange an excellent funeral for Beowulf and

that he would also take care of his men. In any case, Beowulf knew that the favour of the king

was significant and so it was important to ingratiate himself with him.

5. SYMBEL

Symbel was one of the most interesting and important rituals of the heathen period in

Britain. It is also called the drinking ritual or the ritual of passing of the cup. The primary

elements of a symbel are drinking ale or mead from a horn, speech making (which often

included formulaic boasting and oaths), and gift giving (Symbel). A symbel was usually

held in a lords hall, as described inBeowulf(VIII, 36) and its purpose was ritual, but not

religious. Although it probably derived from Indo-European libation rites common to ancient

Greeks, Romans and Celts, it differs from them for there is no pouring out to the gods and the

toasts to the gods are a secondary aim of the symbel (Wodening).

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The usual drink served at a symbel was mead or beer. According to Splitter, beer was

drunken to welcome a guest or to speed him on his way (257). InBeowulfboth beer (X, 60)

and mead (XXIX, 19) are mentioned. The drinks were served in cups or sacred horns. These

drinking vessels were found also in archaeological excavations, in the Sutton Hoo ship burial

there were drinking horns made of the horns of an aurochs and a set of maplewood cups

(Sutton Hoo).

The important persons at symbel were a scop or scald who recited genealogogies and

poetry, women who served the drinks, and a thylewho challenged those who made boasts

(Symbel). Both the scop and the woman serving drinks (queen) are described inBeowulf

(VIII, 40 and X, 55). Unferth, the man who confronts Beowulf by ridiculing his swimming

contest, fulfils the function of the thyle. However, this character is very much speculated for it

is rather ambiguous; some interpreters think he could be a magician, a pagan priest or even a

jester (ermk, 227-228). In spite of these speculations it is obvious that Unferths main role

is to be Beowulfs challenger and opponent.

An important rule that had to be respected during a symbel was the order in which the

men were seated and in which they drank and made their boasts. Celebrants should be seated

according to their rank and seniority and in the same order they should be served (Wodening).

During the symbel at Heorot queen Wealhtheow first serves the king, then his men and

Beowulf as the last (Beowulf, X, 59-67). According to ermk, this order corresponds to the

position of Beowulf, for he has not made his oath yet (91).

5.1. BOASTING AND OATH

Boasting was an important part of a symbel. It was a speech that revolved around ones

ancestry and deeds, both past and future (Wodening). After coming to Heorot, Beowulf first

tells about his kin and brave deeds he did in the past (Beowulf, VII, 35-52) and he makes a

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promise (not binding yet) that he would fight Grendel and dispense with all weapons

(Beowulf, VII, 52-69). Then he is confronted by the thyle, Unferth, who challenges his speech

(Beowulf, IX, 1-30). When Beowulf succeeds in this war of words he is allowed to make an

oath over a cup. The boast made over a cup is not a simple promise, but a sacred oath with the

most powerful of obligations to complete (Wodening).

The purpose of boasting was to influence the future by recalling the past deeds; the

Anglo-Saxons believed that results of actions of the present were based on the results of

actions of the past (Wodening). The boasting should affect the fortune and bring luck to the

one who did it.

Beowulfs refusal to use weapons against Grendel is a part of his boasting (Beowulf,

VII, 63-68). According to Helterman, it is a symbolic feature for the two opponents become

equal and the battle becomes a clash between two elemental forces (11). In spite of the

symbolism, the important fact is that Beowulf fulfilled his oath and thus he accomplished the

role of a hero.

5.2. QUEEN

A woman serving drinks was an important person at a symbel. She was called the ealu

boraor the alekeeper, and she was always a noble woman, often a queen, and it was her

hand that poured the first drink thus sacralizing it (Wodening). InBeowulfqueen

Wealhtheow is the ealu boraand not only does she serve drinks but she also speaks to the

warriors and encourages them:

She greeted the Geat-prince, God she did thank,Most wise in her words, that her wish was accomplished,That in any of earlmen she ever should look forSolace in sorrow (Beowulf, X, 68-71).

The queen heartens the warrior and her words are kind and caring, she creates the feminine

element that contrasts to the hard words of men. ermk says that her role was to express

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feelings instead of the king, for such behaviour was not appropriate for him (241). She was

also some kind of opposite of the thylefor instead of challenging the boasts, she flattered

those who made them (Wodening).

A noble woman was not inferior to men, on the contrary, she was very powerful. There

is a gnomic saying which declares that the woman shall be high in honor among men, in the

mead hall of comrades first to greet the ruler, to hand to the king the drinking-horn (Splitter,

257). The queen could give wise advice to her husband as described inBeowulf(XVIII, 45-

63).

A woman served as the peace-weaver, she was the calming element in the house. A

warrior might offend a king, but no one wanted to offend the likes and power of the queen

(Wodening). By marriage she could also settle feuds between kins or tribes (ermk, 155). In

Beowulfqueen Thrytho is set as an example of a bad queen who does not fulfil her function,

and the author moralises:

Such no womanly customFor a lady to practise, though lovely her person,That a weaver-of-peace, on pretence of angerA beloved liegeman of life should deprive (Beowulf, XXVIII, 50-53).

A woman should be the heart of the house and the support to her husband. Wealhtheow is an

example of an excellent queen for she makes Heorot an ideal place for the weary warrior

(Helterman, 14).

5.3. KINGS HALL

The place where a symbel takes place is the chieftains hall. InBeowulfit is Heorot,

Hrothgars residence, which is the greatest of hall-buildings (Beowulf, II, 25). For the Danes

Heorot is the place of social joy, music, drinking and feasting, the source of pleasure, where

friends and kinsmen are together in peace. The hall embodies all the good things of this

world (Halverson, 594). It is no doubt that feasting in such a hall had to be one of the most

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gratifying things in life; in the hall there was light and joy while the cruel world had been left

outside. For Teutonic people the world was a dark, cold and chaotic place full of danger and

horrible monsters (ermk, 27), inBeowulfthe landscape is described as moor-fens, the

marsh and the fastness (II, 51). The hall, on the other hand, represents stability, safety and

delight.

Halterman says that all primitive cultures, extending up until classical Greece and

Rome, consider the chief palace or temple as a symbol of the center of the universe (6).

Heorot thus can be seen as a parallel to Valhalla, the great heavenly hall of Odin. InEdda

Valhalla is described as a hall with golden roof where the faithful company shall live and joy

forever (33). Similarly, in Heorot there was light-hearted laughter loud in the building

(Beowulf, II, 35).

Heorot is described as a magnificent building, high and horn-crested, huge between

antlers (Beowulf, II, 29). In Iceland an archaeological excavation revealed a hall that could

be similar to Heorot. It was approximately 36 metres long and 5-8 metres wide, and in the

same building there was also a 6 metres long sanctuary (Munch, 237). Such a large building

surely fascinated people with its magnificence. Royal halls like Heorot used to be nicely

furnished; the walls were hung with arms and woven hangings, gold-embroidered, round the

walls there were benches and half-way down one side there was the high-seat of the king

(Hodgkin, 220). Light and warmth were secured by long fires that burned along the middle of

the floor (Munch, 273). Heorot was equipped similarly; there were the benches on which the

warriors sat (Beowulf, VIII, 36) and which could be removed to make place for sleeping

(Beowulf, XIX, 47). Like Valhalla, Heorot had a golden roof (Beowulf, XV, 3) and inside the

hall there were wonderful decorations:

Gold-flashing sparkledWebs on the walls then, of wonders a many

To each of the heroes that look on such objects (Beowulf, XVI, 4-6).

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Heorot was a magnificent building and it was a proper place for the great king Hrothgar. It

was a feast-house of brave heroes who contributed to its fame. The symbel taking place in

such a hall was especially appreciated and the oaths that were made there were irreversible.

6. SACRIFICES

When speaking about sacrifices to pagan gods, we must take into account that there is

little evidence of Anglo-Saxon heathendom. Hodgkin explains this fact in two ways: one is

that the evidence did not survive the Christian censorship, the other is that Germanic

heathenism did not weather the migration and it never recovered fully in Britain (238).

However, Bede gives evidence that an organised priesthood existed and that even in the

Christian times there were frequent returns to paganism and idolatry (73). Because of such

little evidence, there can be no satisfactory comparison between the British and Scandinavian

system (Hodgkin, 240), yet there are notable similarities.

The most important Anglo-Saxon deities were Woden, the god of war, and Tunor the

Thunderer. Woden was the chief god of warriors at the time of the migration when the

worship of Woden spread from Rhine lands to Britain (Hodgkin, 29). It was Woden from

whom the origin of kings was deduced (Bede, 23). Woden can be compared to the

Scandinavian god Odin, the one-eyed All-Father. Yet, Anglo-Saxon Woden is different from

his Scandinvian counterpart, he appears to be first and foremost the god of war (Hodgkin,

239). Similar relationship exists between Anglo-Saxon Tunor and Scandinavian Thor.

Apart from gods, there were numerous lesser beings as Wyrd (Fate), elves, giants, sea-

monsters and many others (Hodgkin, 243). Then there were mythical heroes who were

brought to Britain during the migration. InBeowulfthe mythical hero Siegmund and Wayland

the Smith are mentioned (XIV, 38 and VII, 83). According to Hodgkin, these lesser powers

were in some ways more important than the gods (243).

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Sacrifices were made both to gods and the lesser beings. Because of the assorted ideas,

the Anglo-Saxon practices were diverse and often mixed with older beliefs (Hodgkin, 242).

Like burial practices, the sacrifice rituals are similarly varied and inconsistent. When speaking

about sacrifices described inBeowulf, three factors must be taken into consideration; the first

is the diversity of the rites and the second is the fact thatBeowulfwas composed by a

Christian author, so the authenticity of the pagan rites is rather questionable. The third factor

is affected by the location of the story, even though it was written in Britain, the story takes

place in Daneland, thus it is probable that in the poem rituals and beliefs of both the countries

may be represented.

InBeowulf sacrifices to gods are made to ask them for help against Grendel:

At the shrines of their idols often they promisedGifts and offerings, earnestly prayed theyThe devil from hell would help them to lightenTheir people's oppression. Such practice they used then,Hope of the heathen (Beowulf, III, 60-64).

The existence of shrines is documented by the archaeological evidence. The sanctuaries were

roofed or under the open sky (Munch, 267). Often they were separate large buildings but they

could be a part of a festival hall, as found in excavations in Hofstair, Iceland (Munch, 273).

The Danes are described when laying gifts to their idols but there are no details about these

practices. The author was surely cautious about giving too much information about pagan

practices, some of them (e.g. animal and people sacrifices) were definitely unacceptable for

Christians. According to ermk, inBeowulfthere are two spiritual perspectives; pagan

Danes distant in time and the Christian reality of Britain (223). The author mentiones the

ritual without any details and concentrates on the spirituality of the text.

For Christians, idolatry and sacrifices were unacceptable. According to Bede, St. Alban

preached: These sacrifices, which by you are offered to devils, neither can avail the subjects,

nor answer the wishes or desires of those that offer up their supplications to them. On the

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contrary, whosoever shall offer sacrifice to these images shall receive the everlasting pains of

hell for his reward (12). The author ofBeowulfis not so strict in his moralizing, he describes

heathen Danes as people unaware of God who hell they remembered in innermost spirit, God

they knew not (Beowulf, III, 64-65). Although the pagan gods and lesser beings are described

as ill-favored creatures and devils from hell (Beowulf, II, 59 and III, 62), the Danes are

not sinners who will get into hell, but only uneducated people who can still hope for

enlightenment and salvation.

6.1. ANIMAL AND PEOPLE SACRIFICE

It is not surprising that inBeowulfthere is no direct reference to sacrifice of animals or

people for these practices were intolerable in Christian times. However, animal and people

sacrifice was an inherent part of heathen religion. Munch describes a ritual where sheep and

horses were killed, their blood was collected into bowls and then it was sprinkled over the

assembled men (271). Tacitus gives information about sacrifice of people: Of all the Gods,

Mercury is he whom they worship most. To him on certain stated days it is lawful to offer

even human victims (Tacitus).

It is clear that none of these strongly pagan practices could be described by the Christian

author ofBeowulf. Yet, in the part where the war with the Swedes is described, Ongentheow

says that he at morning would kill them with edges of weapons, some on the gallows for glee

to the fowls (Beowulf,XL, 45-46). ermk says that the verse could refer to the sacrifice of

dead enemies to the god of war (270). Hanging was a common way of sacrifice to Odin in

Scandinavia, so it is probable that similar sacrifices were offered also to Anglo-Saxon Woden.

In spite of this, it is a question whether the authors intention really was to remark about the

pagan custom or if it was only a mention of an execution practice.

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7. PROPHECIES

Divination was a frequent way of foretelling the future. Its purpose was to learn the will

of the gods in matters of importance (Munch, 275). InBeowulfdivining by lots is mentioned

(XLII, 66) and inEddaalso gods are said to use lots for foretelling the future (120).

Divining by lots is described by Tacitus. A twig was cut from a tree, divided into pieces

and magical marks (probably runes) were cut into them; then they were thrown upon a white

garment and a judgment was made according to the marks (Tacitus). InBeowulf no details are

given, yet we can assume that the divination was similar to the one described by Tacitus.

Lots were not the only way to make a prophecy. The Teutons were able to divine also

from the voices and flight of birds or from horses (Tacitus). ermk also mentions

diviniations from entrails or from an anklebone (224). None of these practices were described

inBeowulf, obviously because they were too revolting for Christians.

Another way to receive information about the future was to ask soothsayers or

magicians. These were usually women, so-called volur, who occupied themselves with

soothsaying and sorcery (Munch, 275). Wisdom based on divinatory insight into the future

was a characteristic of noble women and even of Christian saints (ermk, 254). This could

be the reason why Anglo-Saxon noble women had such a high position in the society and

their wisdom was considered equal to men.

8. SYMBOLS

The Teutonic people were fond of symbolism and thus various symbolic elements can

be found in many features of their culture. Symbolism affected their burial customs, when

symbolic gifts (ships made of stones, animal figures) were laid in the graves (Bronsted, 222).

Symbolism occurred also during religious festivals; sacred rituals with symbolic meaning

were performed mainly to bring fertility to the land (Hodgkin, 242).

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Various symbols appeared in everyday life as well. InBeowulfsymbols on weapons and

armour are described; they should protect the one who wears them or guarantee victory in

battle.

8.1. BOARS

One of the symbols described inBeowulfis a boar. Boar signs were placed on warriors

armour, most frequently on helmets. Beowulfs helmet is described in this way:

The weapon-smith worked it, wondrously made it,With swine-bodies fashioned it, that thenceforward no longer

Brand might bite it, and battle-sword hurt it (Beowulf, XXII, 66-68).

It is said that the boar should protect the owner of the helmet from injury in battle. The

existence of helmets with boar symbols is supported with archaeological evidence; helmets

similar to Beowulfs one were found in Benty Grange excavations in Britain and also in

Scandinavian archaeological fields Vendel and Valgrde (ermk, 225).

There is no doubt that the boar was an important animal for the Teutons. According to

ermk, it was related to Frey, the German god of fertility (225) and inEddathe boar is said

to be the animal of goddess Freya (183). It was a sacrifical animal as well, in the Eddic song

of Gudrun a drink strengthened with the power of the earth and sacrifical blood of a boar is

described (361). Obviously, the boar was a significant animal in the heathen period and thus it

was powerful both as a symbol and a sacrifical animal.

9.1. RUNES

Runic writing was an important feature of the heathen culture of Anglo-Saxons as well

as Germans, Vikings or Celts. Runes were popular also in the early Christian era, they were

used for tomb-inscriptions and to adorn Christian works of art like the Ruthwell Cross

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(Elliott, 257). Runic inscriptions are observable on many objects found by archaeologists both

in Britain and the rest of Europe.

Runic writing is often connected with magic. The word rnameans secret and so it is

not surprising that the runes were regarded even in Germany proper as full of mystery and

endowed with supernatural power (Wgner, 34). However, Elliott says that the runes were

first secular and practical script, and any magic associations are later accretions (250).

In spite of that, magical qualities were ascribed to the runes. According toEddathe

runes were great and powerful writings that were created by mighty gods (65). A legend says

that Odin hanged himself on the Ash Tree in order to learn the secret of the runes of wisdom,

then he taught the others of his kin and that was how the runes spread among the Aesir

(Branston, 114).

The runes were used for many magical purposes, e.g. for divination, and they were also

supposed to bring luck in battle. Certain kinds of runes were regarded as producing victory

and were carved on the hilt and on the blade of the sword (Rydberg, 162). Also inEddait is

advised to inscribe the runes of victory on the swords hilt and the blade (311).

The sword that Beowulf found in Grendels mothers lair had a runic inscription as well.

On the handle of the sword an ancient story of giants was graven and it was also said whom

the sword had been made for (Beowulf, XXV, 36-45). The purpose of these runes seems to be

practical, for no magical function is mentioned. However, the sword is also described as

gleaming with serpents (Beowulf, XXV, 47); ermk suggests that the serpent-like

ornament could be the source of the magical power of the sword (246), so the runes could

only serve as a complement to the ornamentation of the sword.

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9. CONCLUSION

The ritual practice mentioned inBeowulfcorrespond in many ways to the practices of

the Anglo-Saxon culture in Britain, even though many of the rituals and pagan customs were

modified and reduced by the Christian author. Also, since the story takes place in Daneland,

Anglo-Saxon features can be mixed with the Scandinavian ones. In spite of this, the majority

of the practices described inBeowulfcan be supported by archaeological evidence and/or

other literary sources.

The burial practices described inBeowulfwere widely used in Britain during the

heathen period. The practice of ship burial is best known from the archaeological field in

Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. This ship is often connected withBeowulf, specifically with the burial of

king Scyld, even though Scylds ship was sent to the sea and not buried as the one from

Sutton Hoo.

Another burial practice of the heathen period was cremation; it was the way Beowulf

was buried at the end of the poem. The practice described inBeowulfcorresponds to the

archaeological evidence, including the armour, weapons and other gifts that were buried with

the body. Beowulfs ashes were then covered with a mound, such monuments are also known

from archaeological fields in Britain.

Various gifts were laid with the dead body, they could be both real shape and symbolic.

InBeowulfarmour, weapons and jewels are the most common gifts for a warrior, and this fact

is also supported by archaeological finds. Distinctively pagan gifts as animals and people

(slaves or wives) were withheld by the author and do not appear inBeowulf.

Gift giving is a typical feature of the Anglo-Saxon society. Gifts given by a lord to his

companion confirmed the bond between them, by receiving the gift the recipient pledged to

obey his lord, follow him in battle and revenge his death, if necessary. Beowulf received gifts

as a reward for killing the beast and the gifts also serve as an obligation to the future. The

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loyalty to the king was an important quality of a warrior. The king was the source of food,

drink and gifts and he also served as a shepherd of his people. Disloyalty and disobedience

was considered a crime and it was punished. Banishment was one of the most severe

punishments, for an individual could not exist without his kin. When the warriors deserted

Beowulf Wiglaf speaks about their miserable future for they shall be banished from the

society that protected and supported them.

Symbel was an important ceremony, usually held in the kings hall. Ceremonial drinking

of an alcoholic drink (usually mead or ale) and boasting were the important parts of the ritual.

Promise that was said over the cup was equal to a sacred oath, like Beowulf who pledges to

kill Grendel. The drink was usually served by the lady of the house, inBeowulfit is queen

Wealhtheow. The place where symbel was held (Heorot inBeowulf) was a symbol of safety

and power that contrasted to the dark, chaotic and dangerous world outside.

Sacrifices to pagan idols are also mentioned inBeowulf, yet they are not described in

detail, because idolatry was banned by the Christian Church and pagan gods were equal to

devils. For the Teutons it was usual to sacrifice animals and also people, which was

unacceptable for Christians.

Animals and their organs were also used for divination. InBeowulfdivinaton by lots is

mentioned, but not described in detail. The runic symbols were widely used for foretelling the

future. The runes were considered to be the creation of gods and they were associated with

magic. Runic inscriptions were also on the sword that Beowulf brought from Grendels

mothers lair.

Another symbol often depicted on weapons and armour was a boar. The boars on

Beowulfs helmet were described and they were said to protect the warrior. Similar helmets

were found in archaeological excavations in Britain and Scandinavia.

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The rituals and pagan customs described inBeowulfoften correspond with the scanty

evidence that we have from this time. Although the pagan features are not always accurate for

they are often adapted by the author, the poem can serve as an illustration of the Anglo-Saxon

religious and ritual practice.

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36

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