enerSTORE Consulting

Battery-Based

Energy Storage Systems

for Stationary Applications

Hans Desilvestro

Hanmer Springs

November 2004

enerSTORE Consulting

Outline• Battery ESS selection criteria• The raw materials issue• The LiOX battery

Safe Li-ion type battery based on oxide active materials

• Cost comparison of commercially available and emerging energy storage systems (ESS)

• Summary

enerSTORE ConsultingCourtesy Dr Paul Rüetschi

enerSTORE Consulting

Battery ESS selection criteria

• Specific Energy (Wh/kg) - to +

• Energy Density (Wh/L) +/- to +

• Power performance (W/kg, W/L) -

• Cycle life and calendar life +

• $/year ++

• Safety ++

• Maintenance-free $-issue

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Economic and safety considerations more important

than other performance parameters

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Factors influencing raw material costs• Natural abundance / mineable sources• Mining / refining costs• Demand in key markets

Commodity vs speciality markets • Relative importance of battery market

in relation to key markets • Common ore origin

e.g. Fe-Ni-Co or Zn-Cd• Ease of recycling

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Estimated Resources

0

200,000,000

400,000,000

600,000,000

800,000,000

1,000,000,000

Mn Zn Ti Pb Ni V Li Co Cd

Ton

nes

5,0

00

,00

0,0

00

t

4,6

00

,00

0,0

00

t

13

,00

0,0

00

t

1,8

00

,00

0 t

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Availability at present mine production

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Mn Zn Ti Pb Ni V Li Co Cd

Yea

rs

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% of present mine production required for 1 GWh

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Mn Zn Ti Pb Ni V Li Co Cd

Yea

rs

%

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"Low cost" base metals used in batteries (<3,000$/t)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Sep

-99

Dec

-99

Mar

-00

Jun

-00

Sep

-00

Dec

-00

Mar

-01

Jun

-01

Sep

-01

Dec

-01

Mar

-02

Jun

-02

Sep

-02

Dec

-02

Mar

-03

Jun

-03

Sep

-03

Dec

-03

Mar

-04

Jun

-04

Sep

-04

$/to

nn

e

Cu, LME Al, LME Mn metal, electrolytic Mn(Ferromanganese)Zn, LME Pb, LME

enerSTORE Consulting

"High cost" base metals used in batteries (>3,000$/t)

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

Sep

-99

Dec

-99

Mar

-00

Jun

-00

Sep

-00

Dec

-00

Mar

-01

Jun

-01

Sep

-01

Dec

-01

Mar

-02

Jun

-02

Sep

-02

Dec

-02

Mar

-03

Jun

-03

Sep

-03

Dec

-03

Mar

-04

Jun

-04

Sep

-04

$/to

nn

e

Li (Li2CO3) V (Ferrovanadium) V (V2O5) Ni, LME Ti (Ferrotitanium T(TiO2)

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Are Li-ion batteries safe ?• Ask IATA: Li-ion battery size for carry-on

items limited to 100 Wh• Even small portable Li-ion batteries

encounter safety problems quite frequentlyOverheating, fire, explosions, product recalls

• Limiting maximum thickness or diameter to max. ~16 mm

• Li-ion batteries can only be operated in a relatively safe way by- electronic single cell control- safety elements such as burst disks, PTC,...

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Reasons for relatively poor safety characteristics of standard Li-ion batteries• Overall cell reaction:

3C + LiCoO2

0.5C6Li + Li0.5CoO2

Charge to 4.2V

Discharge to ~3V

Thermodynamically unstable O2 + LiCo-oxides + heat

Very close to Li plating potential Thermodynamically unstable towards solvents employed

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Reasons for relatively poor safety characteristics of standard Li-ion batteries

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1 2 3

BR

P [

106 k

J/m

3]

Li-ion

Li-SO2 Gun powder

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Pacific Lithium saw market opportunities for a safe

Li-ion type batteryLiOX

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LiOX, a safe Li-ion battery

• Overall cell reaction:

Li3Ti5O12 + 4LiMn2O4

Charge to 2.7V

Discharge to 2.2V

Thermodynamically much more stable than Li0.5CoO2

No risk of Li plating Thermodynamically stable towards solvents employed

Li7Ti5O12 + 4Mn2O4

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0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

Cycle Number

1

A D

isch

arg

e C

apac

ity

(Ah

)

Cycle Life of 5-cell batteries at 22, 45 oC, 55 oC.

1C charge and discharge (100%)

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Direct metal cost for electrochemical energy storage systems

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sep

-99

De

c-99

Mar

-00

Jun

-00

Sep

-00

De

c-00

Mar

-01

Jun

-01

Sep

-01

De

c-01

Mar

-02

Jun

-02

Sep

-02

De

c-02

Mar

-03

Jun

-03

Sep

-03

De

c-03

Mar

-04

Jun

-04

Sep

-04

$/kW

h

LiOX Lead-acid Ni-H2, 0.07 mg/cm2 Pt *) Ni-H2, 0.14 mg/cm2 Pt **) Vanadium Redox

*) 100-times less than in aerospace batteries**) 50-times less than in aerospace batteries

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Conclusions

Battery technology Lead-acid Ni-Cd Ni-H2 VRedox LiOX Zn-Br2

Cycle Life - ++ +++ +++ +++ +

Resources +/- -- +/- - ++ +++

Price stability "metals" - - - -- ++ +

Battery affordability ++ 50-100$/kWh

- -- +/- +/- 350-450$/kWh

+

Environmental compatibility - - +/- - +/- +/-

Safety +/- + +/- + + -

Overall + --- -- - +/- +/-