Believing in Burkina FasoFAITH, TRADITION AND RITUAL IN DAGARA CULTURE

BY MADELINE GRAY

Believing in Burkina FasoFAITH, TRADITION AND RITUAL IN DAGARA CULTURE

4

What matters to the Dagara are not the differences in practice but rather the shared belief that faith is undeniable.

Mali

Mauritania

Niger

Nigeria

Senegal

Cote d’Ivoire Ghana

Togo

Guineau

SierraLeone

Liberia

Guineau-Bissau

Benin

Cameroon

West Africa

Burkina Faso

Ioba Province

Dano

5

Algeria

6

In his faded Italian soccer jersey, Dabiré Maxim does not strike a very imposing figure, but without him, his family in Dano, Burkina Faso would not be able to communicate with the idols. He left neighboring Cote d’Ivoire for the sole purpose of returning to his compound to perform sacrifices. The men talk quietly as the goat meat is dispersed according to family rank. They know that the sacrifice was well received because the two sacrificial hens died on their backs – a positive sign in Dagara beliefs. The Dagara are an ethnic group living in southwest Burkina Faso and northern Ghana. Burkina Faso has a population of 16 million of which approximately 300,000 are Dagara, living primarily in the Ioba province. Dagara culture is defined by a rich oral tradition which uses spoken narratives to maintain their identity and pass on beliefs from generation to generation. Their social structure is based on clans that have an assigned animal and accompanying taboos, such as specific foods, that must be avoided. Above all else, the Dagara emphasize the importance of community and harmony with the earth. The will and needs of an individual never outweigh the well being of the group. Regardless of the activity, whether it is farming, cooking, eating or performing a sacrifice, the idea of it being done alone is nearly inconceivable. When a man and woman are married, the husband must farm for his wife’s father, an act that keeps the two families closely connected. Houses are never built alone but rather become the responsibility of an entire community in which each person has a defined role that contributes to the completion of the structure. This focus on community rises out of a deep respect for the earth itself. Harmony with nature cannot exist if there is an imbalance between individuals. When a problem does arise, it is the role of the eldest men to call all of the families together to resolve the issue. Often, the Dagara must consult their idols to restore the delicate equilibrium. Such idols are not simply created by men to serve their own ideals, but rather they are born of the earth. For the Dagara, nature has a power that no man can touch. In an area of the world that is often defined by its poverty, violence, and ethnic and religious tensions, the Dagara have a belief system that allows them to place community relations above personal profit. The Dagara reside primarily in the southwest of Burkina Faso, living side-by-side with people of many different ethnic groups such as the Pugali, Fulani and Mossi.

Ethnicity is by no means the only source of conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa. Religious differences have literally torn countries such as Sudan in half. Christians and Muslims do not often see the strength of their convictions as a commonality, but rather as a point of departure to highlight the differences between the two religions. For the Dagara, the power of believing is more important than the ideology. Today, vast numbers of Dagara have converted to Christianity, specifically Catholicism. Although Islam is not quite as common among the Dagara, they often live in communities with large Muslim populations. Over 60% of Burkina Faso’s population is Muslim. Within one Dagara family, there may be members that practice Christianity, Islam or the traditional animist beliefs. Although Christianity and Islam may seek to remove specific traditional Dagara practices such as the use of sacrifices from their followers’ lives, the underlying sense that the community is more important than the individual remains deeply ingrained. At one mosque in Dano, Burkina Faso less than 10% of its members are Dagara, however, all of the services are held in Dagara because it is the most commonly spoken language throughout the community. The word Dagara literally translates to “wooden cross.” Although these words existed long before Christianity came to the area, the translation has taken on additional meaning with the rise of Catholicism in Dagara communities. At a mass baptism in Dano, in the heart of Dagara land in southwest Burkina Faso, nearly 500 people of all ages are baptized in a single day. At the Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church on the hill above town, young girls in blindingly white dresses crowd around a vendor selling every size, shape and color of crucifix necklace imaginable. There is not enough space in the church for the nearly 3,000 attendees, so most people crowd in the shade under outdoor awnings, listening to the service over crackling speakers. Families have hired photographers to document this important step in their children’s lives. The service is perfectly choreographed as one-by-one the children step forward and a splash of water trickles down their face, past their eyes and drips from their chin. None of them wipe the water away. They file back to their seats and with looks of serious contemplation extinguish the small candles they have been holding. The baptism service lasts all day. Food vendors fry balls of sensen over small fires, while children wander in and out of the crowds carrying sachets of water in large metal bowls on their heads.

Several Dagara men crouch low in the dirt as Dabire Maxim divides the meat from a goat that has just been slaughtered. A tarnished, metal cross hangs from a frayed string around one man’s neck. Everyone present is Christian. Yet, they have just summoned their traditional idols to this place to offer up a goat and two white hens as a sacrifice.

The Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church has been a fixture in Dano for over 75 years. While the Catholic Church does not condone all of the traditional practices, they understand that some of the beliefs are so strongly ingrained in the Dagara community that it would be impossible to separate them from daily life. When a person passes away, Dagara beliefs stipulate that a sacrifice must be made before the person can be buried. This is not a matter of religion. It is a matter of culture, a matter of life. One reason the traditional Dagara beliefs have survived despite the influence of Christianity and Islam is because the Dagara do not view their practices as part of a mystical religion. Instead, seeking advice from idols is the only way to navigate life – to find balance in a landscape that is often brutally forthcoming. Their traditional beliefs are the most intimate way in which the Dagara define themselves and their relationship to the world that surrounds them. The Catholic Church’s tolerance of these traditional beliefs has allowed it to garner a large following among the Dagara. However, more recent Protestant movements are starting to gain footing. American Church of Christ missionaries have been in Dano for 10 years and have founded more than 40 church groups in the surrounding villages. The missionaries are primarily converting Catholic Dagara to Protestantism, rather than introducing the idea of Christianity for the first time. However, Catholicism is entrenched in Dagara lands and the Protestants are finding certain practices difficult to weed out. As members of a newly established Church of Christ congregation meet under a looming tree, they cross themselves before joining the service. The missionaries do not flinch at these vestiges of Catholicism, but they are quick to jump in when new members begin to hail Mary. While the influence of the Catholic Church is ever-present, the evidence of Islam is confined almost entirely to the muezzin’s call to prayer that echoes through Dano five times a day. As they describe themselves in French, the Dagara are “tranquil.” They are relaxed, easygoing and have adopted a fluidity that has allowed them to survive in a harsh region of the world. Yet Islam is based on structure, on rules that are not to be broken. While Catholicism allows Dagara to practice traditional sacrifices, Islam insists that followers sever all ties to their animist beliefs. Islam also forbids the Dagara to consume alcohol. The leaders at the local mosque cite this prohibition as one of the primary reasons that more Dagara

do not convert to Islam. Locally made millet beer, called dolo, forms the basis of Dagara social life. Cabarets where dolo is brewed line almost every street in Dano. On Sundays as vendors at the local market begin to pack up their wares, the hum of the crowds at the dolo booths slowly reaches a roar. Only women are allowed to make dolo and they wander in and out among their patrons, offering refills from their plastic jugs. The roughly 12,000 adults in Dano and the surrounding villages consume approximately 1.5 million liters of dolo each year. Funerals are where Dagara drink the largest quantities dolo. Funerals are the most important ritual in Dagara beliefs. The Dagara spend an estimated 100 days per year at funerals, which typically last three days each. Not having a funeral is not an option for the Dagara. Putting the deceased’s soul to rest is the responsibility of the family and community. One person is designated to recount the narrative of the deceased person’s life. The funerals are carefully choreographed as men and women dance to the beat of large balafon drums. The Dagara do not just dance to forget their sadness that someone has passed, they dance to forget all sadness, to forget that all bad things have happened. Through this collective experience, they are renewed. They dance together to re-establish the importance of community, to reaffirm their shared beliefs. After the public funeral has finished, private ceremonies take place to cleanse the soul before it can depart peacefully. The Dagara believe that there are no natural causes of death. Rather, everyone dies due to an imbalance with the idols. Although the cause of death may not immediately be known, on the sixth day after a person has died, the deceased person will appear and explain the mistake they made that led to their death. The boundaries between the living and dead are thin for the Dagara. Deceased ancestors are closely tied to the concept of idols, which are not distant deities to be worshipped, but rather live in every Dagara home. While Catholicism may allow the use of idols and Islam may not, the underlying beliefs of the Dagara do not change. They emphasize harmony in community. Faith is not a debate or point of conflict as it is in many regions of the world. Christianity, Islam and traditional animist beliefs are practiced side-by-side in southwest Burkina Faso where the lines between them often blend. Out of this synthesis comes an often-unseen sense of tolerance and respect.

7

MOUNT IOBAFarming and traditional sacrifices take place on Mount Ioba, which is both the Ioba province’s namesake and a sacred location in Dagara culture.

8

TOWN villageMarkets provide a location for the Dagara to buy food, get their bikes fixed or simply meet friends. Because the Dagara calendar is based on a six-day week, the small village markets occur every sixth day. Christian missionaries introduced the seven-day week for their Sunday services and the largest market in Dano now occurs every seventh day. The two systems continue to exist side-by-side.

10

11

SAMBIONA Dagara boy attends a Sunday Church of Christ service.

DANOWith a strong emphasis on community, the Dagara typically live with their large extended families. Dabiré Nagnan is the eldest man in this compound, where he lives with his three sons, their wives and children. Each smaller family has their own house that opens onto a central courtyard.

DANOThe late afternoon sun creeps into a tailor’s shop on the main road in Dano. Although the owner Mr. Bari is a Muslim Fulani, most of his clients are Christian Dagara. He speaks fluent Dagara and works as a night guard for a Church of Christ missionary family.

12

p

p

13

DANOThe influence of Catholicism is never far from sight in Dano. Images of Mary hang in hair salons, restaurants, offices and people’s homes.

16

DANOOne girl reads the Bible while she gets her hair done outside a beauty salon in Dano. Although the Bible has recently been translated into Dagara, it is most commonly available in French, which is the official language of Burkina Faso.

17

TOWNChildren wait as their classmates prepare to practice a dance for an upcoming showcase marking the end of the school year. The Dagara do not have a strong written history but rather communicate their beliefs and culture in a predominantly oral form. Since only 28% of Burkina Faso’s population can read, many Christian organizations use the Bible as the basis for literacy campaigns.

19

DANOMonsoon clouds darken the sky as a late night maquis offers tea and coffee. Although women play a vital role in Dagara society – children used to take their mother’s last name rather than their father’s – the restaurants and maquis cater to an almost entirely male clientele.

20

21

22

LOFING villageAlthough the Dagara are known throughout Burkina Faso for their traditional clothing styles, such attire is now primarily worn for special occasions. Today Dagara mean wear t-shirts and jeans, while most women still wear brightly patterned, ankle-length skirts.

DANO PARISThe influence of Western ideals and values can be seen on the walls of one Dagara home.

23

LOFING villageHeat engulfs the small cooking room that Somé Tiesob uses for boiling shea nuts. The nuts will be laid out in the sun to dry before being turned into shea oil that the Dagara use for cooking.

24

25

TOWNThe searing afternoon temperatures in southwest Burkina Faso can rise to 90 degrees even during the monsoon season. Such a harsh climate makes it difficult to grow anything but the heartiest of plants. Millet provides the main source of nutrition for the Dagara but often supplies run out before the next crop is ready to be harvested.

26

DANOVultures are the last in line to get scraps from the Restaurant Avenir. Children who come to the restaurant to beg for leftovers are second on the food chain after the restaurant’s patrons. Wild dogs pick at their discarded waste and snap at vultures that try their luck too soon.

27

28

DANOPatrons of Dano’s weekly Sunday market seek refuge from the sun under makeshift awnings as they drink dolo millet beer. Dolo forms the center around which many Dagara social activities take place. Since the alcohol content is typically less than four percent, children often drink it as well.

29

DANOSilhouettes and shadows play side by side as the sun sets on the market.

30

DANODolo bowls dry outside one of the 200 cabarets found in Dano and the surrounding villages. Dolo is used in special ceremonies, at family gatherings or as sustenance while working in the fields. Dagara cook the dolo in massive vats over the course of three days, using 1,000 tons of firewood each month for dolo production.

31

Webs of low doorways and narrow paths connect entire family compounds as children appear out of the shadows and quickly dart into the blazing sun. Within each home is a sacred place for the family’s idol. The Dagara believe in five idols, the first of which is the most important and represents the earth. The fourth idol is made of guinea feathers, such as this one. While goats and chickens are often used in sacrifices, only guinea hens can be offered to these fourth idols. Knowledge about the idols is not a secret. However, in order to gain full understanding of the traditional beliefs, Dagara must undergo an initiation. Through the initiation, Dagara learn the secrets of their history and culture. They gain an intimate knowledge of the totemic structure of Dagara society. Every three years, the oldest men in the community gather together to nominate people for initiation. Dagara men, women and children can be initiated at any age, but once they complete the process they are considered to have aged significantly and they will be treated with the same respect as the elders. Despite the reverence that one receives after going through initiation, the number of Dagara choosing to complete the process has been dwindling. Against the gray hues of a cloudy monsoon day, the blood red meat of the recently sacrificed goat glows with dripping warmth. Men perch around the edge of the turquoise tarp where the meat is being divided. Of the ten or so men present, many wear crucifixes around their necks. However, only one man, leaning silently against a warm mud wall, has gone through the Dagara initiation process. While some traditional practices remain inextricably linked with daily life, others begin to fade as other beliefs take their place.

33

The interiors of Dagara homes form a dark maze punctuated by strands of light that leak down through holes in the roof. Turning the corner, an idol hangs motionless, seeming to stare out of the darkness.

34

DANOBefore a sacrifice is performed, ash is sprinkled around the family’s compound to summon the idols. Once the sacrificial goat’s throat is cut, its blood is poured over two small earthen idols that reside in a sacred room.

DANOAlthough such sacrifices are indicative of traditional animist beliefs, everyone present at the sacrifice was Catholic as evidenced by the cross on one family’s door.

35

38

DANOAfter Somé Kandjan, center, and Somé Hourdor, far right, butcher the goat, Dabiré Maxim reaches in to divide the meat. Each person present must eat a piece of meat to show that they are in agreement with the sacrifice. The Dagara believe that if a person eats a piece of sacrificial meat that has not been designated for them, then they will die.

39

40

TOWNA funeral attendant straightens a photo of Dabiré “Do” Frederic. Do was a leader in the Church of Christ in the Gnyinyime region. The wooden seat behind Do’s photo held is body for the fist day of the funeral. Previously, the body would have been displayed for all three days of the ceremony, but new laws require a quicker burial for health reasons. Since Do was heavily involved in the Church of Christ, his funeral was a rare combination of traditional Dagara practices and a Christian service. As drumming and wailing resonated in the background, the Christians at the funeral gathered around Do’s photo for a quiet prayer.

41

TOWNAfter using a small bell to summon the idols, a traditional Dagara medicine man motions to a gourd that is balancing on its small end. The upright gourd is evidence that the idols are present. The idols then guide his hand over a pile of small items such as cowrie shells, broken eyeglasses, batteries, pieces of plastic and bits of bone, stopping periodically to deliver a message, which only the medicine man can interpret. Dagara come to these medicine men with questions about their future, wishes for a successful school exam, desires for success in business and a multitude of other issues.

42

TOWNDabiré Léonard filled his compound with both Christian influences and Dagara idols. The two idols became so large that Léonard claims his brothers destroyed them because they believed the idols’ incredible power could be dangerous. The Church of Christ missionaries do not want their children to look at any traditional Dagara idols out of fear that they could have a harmful impact. All that remains of Léonard’s collection is a Bible that his brothers left him.

43

The Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church has been a fixture in Dano for 75 years. Members arrive in their finest clothes every Sunday, beautifully clean despite the swirl of dust that constantly seems to envelope the town. They traipse up the hill on foot, bicycle or moped, navigating the rutted road that allows only one person to pass through the church gates at a time. Protestant sects have yet to gain the immovable strength of the Catholic Church. They believe strongly that the traditional animist practices must be relinquished in order to fully embrace Christianity. Hien Arnyine, who is now a deacon in the Church of Christ, explains that he suffered from horrible headaches for many years and tried numerous traditional antidotes such as wearing protective amulets and offering sacrifices. He had been introduced to the Church of Christ teachings when American missionaries came to his village. Hien prayed to God and his headaches subsided. Hien’s conversion story is not unique. For the Dagara, power exists in the act and actions of believing. As individuals feel the power of different belief systems in their own lives, the tapestry of religion and tradition becomes ever more complex.

45

As the sun sets and the breathless heat of the day begins to give way, the cool stone of the prayer circle at the Catholic Church stands out against the dark grass. The gently curving white rows face towards a grotto holding a statue of The Virgin Mary. The lights around the statue have long since burnt out so she is hardly visible in the fading light. A small figure crouches near the front of the circle, noiselessly offering up a prayer.

NOTER DAME DE MARIE, DANOCatholicism remains the dominant religion among the Dagara. At a mass baptism at Notre Dame de Marie, nearly 500 people are baptized in a single day. Many Dagara see no conflict between their traditional practices and their belief in Christianity. The traditional practices are a way to navigate everyday life. They are culture, society and personal identity all in one. Catholicism is religion, another way to define oneself.

46

DANOThe turbulent history of Africa and Catholicism intertwine in a mural that adorns the walls of the priest’s quarters at Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church in Dano.

48

DANOWhile members of the Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church attend an evening service, others listen from outside. Saturday night services are held in the Dagara language and Sunday services are conducted in French.

49

DANOSister Dabuou Marie Odile Kousiele has been a Dagara Catholic nun for 52 years. After working in the larger cities of Bobo-Dioulasso and Gaoa, she moved to the Notre Dame de Marie Catholic Church in Dano, where she lives in a convent with four other sisters.

50

51

DANOAlthough the Pentecostal Church in Dano has a small following compared to the Catholic Church, the sounds of their sermons blanket the town every Sunday when they are broadcast on loudspeakers. One woman clasps her hands as she stands and sings at a Pentecostal service.

52

DANOMen and women sit separately during services at the Pentecostal Church, but they stand and sing together as they raise their voices in praise.

53

56

VILLAGE OF LOFINGOne woman wears a traditional round Dagara amulet to protect herself from sickness and other dangers, as well as a Catholic crucifix. Dagara believe that objects have the power to physically protect them from harm. This concept is mirrored in the Catholicism. Symbols are not mere representations of belief, but true manifestations of it.

TOWNIn the Catholic Church at Maria Taw, a large cross hovers above the pews.

57

TOWNWhile some Dagara scarification is decorative, it is also believed to treat infection and other ailments. Scars on the stomach may help with digestive problems or markings on a person’s face may ward off eye infections. A majority of Dagara cite Christianity as their primary religion, but their belief in the traditional methods does not necessarily diminish. At Protestant Church of Christ services such as this one, congregates take communion, while American missionaries preach that members should not partake in traditional practices. However, as belief systems begin to meld, new ideas and practices take shape as boundaries and understandings are continually being redefined.

DANODue to the growing number of Protestant congregations, the city of Dano has donated public land for a church to be built. Local church leaders gather in the speckled shade to elect officials who will act as liasons with the town officials.

60

p

p

61

TOWNAs Church of Christ congregations continue to grow, services must move outside in order to accommodate everyone. Most services are typically held under looming trees that provide valuable shade during the noonday gatherings. Wooden crosses made from tree limbs mark the meeting places.

62

63

TOWNIf members only have larger denomination coins, they can make change out of the tithe basket while the service continues behind them.

TOWNAlthough the Church of Christ missionaries speak Dagara, they prefer to have members of the local communities lead services. In an attempt to spread Christianity, the missionaries printed an illustrated Bible in Dagara, which is the first full-color, hardback book written in the language.

DANOIn the boiling afternoon sun, the entire town of Dano pauses to catch its breath. Businesses close their doors and street vendors disappear into the shade. From one to three in the afternoon, the town is silent. It waits to come to life again until evening ushers in cooler air.

66

p

p

67

68

DANOWind whips through the streets of Dano as clouds prepare to release the monsoon rains. Men and women covered in dust streak past in their attempts to get to home, yet despite the hustle, there is a stillness that prevails. The air is charged and the whole town waits, poised for the downpour to begin.

69

DANOFamilies crowd inside the cool darkness of their homes while the landscape outside writhes under the sun. Outside, the heat burns the senses but inside, the smell of damp, rich earth emanates from the walls.

72

DANOThe forms of Mr. Bari and his neighbors appear out of the darkness as they break their fast during Ramadan. Church of Christ missionaries have tried to convert Muslims in Burkina Faso with little success.

BARAGE DE MUTORI, DANOIn one of the poorest countries in the world, the Dagara have found a way to live, but they know that they cannot do it individually. Through their traditional beliefs, they reinforce the idea that strength exists in community. Sometimes that strength is used to help a person push his moped up a steep hill. Other times it is to help care for a person’s child or to help farm another’s land. Such harmony is necessary because without each other, the Dagara would not survive.

73

p

p

He is an ancestor,coming back home.You, the leopard!This child is yours, in search of meaning.We will teach him;If reasoning prevails,and if you are all willing.”

— Dagara Bagr Narrative

“