Benefits of Sites of Special Scientific Interest Annex 2 ... · 2 Ashdown Forest 2.1 Introduction...

Benefits of Sites of Special Scientific Interest

Annex 2 – Case Studies

Defra

A report submitted by GHK

Date: 20 June 2011

GHK Clerkenwell House 67 Clerkenwell Road London EC1R 5BL

T +44 (0) 20 76111100 F +44 (0) 20 76111124 [email protected]

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Document Title Benefits of Sites of Special Scientific Interest – Case Studies

Job number 7619

Prepared by Charlotte Slater, Vanessa Foo, Rick Minter, Linh Tran, Sophie Bragg, Richard Hall,

Mavourneen Pieterse, Jeppe Graugaard, Matt Rayment

Checked by Matt Rayment

Date 20 June 2011

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Contents

1 Introduction and Methods ................................................................................... 5

2 Ashdown Forest ................................................................................................... 10

3 Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries ............................................................. 14

4 Dark Peak ............................................................................................................ 17

5 Dyfi SSSI .............................................................................................................. 21

6 Glannau Ynys Gybi (Holy Island Coast) ............................................................ 29

7 Hatfield Moor ..................................................................................................... 35

8 Humber Estuary ................................................................................................. 39

9 King’s Sedgemoor ............................................................................................... 43

10 Lower Usk ........................................................................................................... 47

11 Malltraeth Marsh ................................................................................................ 51

12 North York Moors .............................................................................................. 55

13 Richmond Park................................................................................................... 59

14 River Avon System ............................................................................................. 64

15 South Pennine Moors ......................................................................................... 69

16 Stone Field ......................................................................................................... 74

17 Sutton Park ......................................................................................................... 78

18 Thompson Water, Carr and Common ............................................................... 83

19 Walthamstow Reservoirs ................................................................................... 86

20 Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods...................................................................... 90

21 Wren’s Nest ........................................................................................................ 93

22 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 99

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1 Introduction and Methods

1.1 This Report

GHK Consulting Ltd and partners were commissioned by Defra to assess the benefits of

Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) in England and Wales. One of the key research

tasks was to prepare a series of 20 case studies examining the benefits, ecosystem services

and values of individual SSSIs.

This report presents the 20 case studies.

1.2 Methods

1.1.1 Objectives of the Research

The case studies aimed to examine the benefits of a selection of individual SSSIs in different

regions of England and Wales, with varying characteristics and different levels of

designations.

The case study research aimed to combine qualitative and available quantitative and

monetary information to examine:

▪ The benefits of SSSI designation for the site and its biodiversity and geodiversity;

▪ The ecosystem services delivered by the site to a range of stakeholders, and the extent

that these services are affected by SSSI designation;

▪ The condition of the site, and the extent to which this affects its benefits and delivery of

different services;

▪ The links between SSSI designation and other designations and initiatives, and the

relative benefits and value added of each;

▪ The possible value of the ecosystem services delivered.

The case studies aim to provide supporting information for the other parts of the study, such

as the literature review and the economic evaluation of the benefits of SSSIs, and to provide

illustrative examples of the different types of benefits assessed, to complement the

quantitative analysis.

1.1.2 Approach to sample selection

The case studies are intended to provide a general overview of the benefits of SSSIs and

how these vary between different types of sites.

In order to optimise the research findings, the sampling strategy sought to include both sites

that were known to be of interest and for which information was expected to be available,

and randomly selected sites more likely to be representative of the wider SSSI population. It

was considered that a purely random sample would result in many sites being chosen for

which little information would be available.

Therefore the following sampling approach was employed:

▪ 15 sites were positively selected (11 England, 4 Wales) in consultation with the client

group;

▪ 5 sites were chosen at random (4 England, 1 Wales).

A set of criteria was established to guide the selection of sites, and to ensure that the sample

as a whole covered the different types, characteristics and locations of SSSIs across

England and Wales.

While the sample will not necessarily be representative of SSSIs as a whole, by

understanding the characteristics of a wider population of sites, we are able to examine how

the sample relates to the wider picture, and what it tells us about ecosystem service delivery

across SSSIs in general.

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1.1.3 Criteria applied to case study selection

Selection of sites employed the following criteria:

1 Geographical Distribution:

▪ 15 sites in England

▪ 5 sites in Wales

▪ At least one site in each of the 9 English regions.

2 Designations:

The sample aimed to cover a variety of designations, including:

▪ Sites which are SSSI only – at least 10 including 8 in England and 2 in Wales;

▪ Natura 2000 sites – at least 2 in England and 1 in Wales, including at least 2 SACs and 1

SPA

▪ National Nature Reserves – at least 1 in England and 1 in Wales

▪ Ramsar sites – at least one in sample.

3 Habitat Types

The sample was designed to include at least one site from each of the following habitat

types:

Grassland;

Lowland heathland;

Upland;

Lowland peatbog;

Woodland;

Open water;

Freshwater wetland;

Inland rock; river;

Estuary;

Coastal.

4 Size:

The sample was selected to cover sites of a variety of sizes:

1. under 1 ha;

2. 1-10 ha;

3. 10-100 ha;

4. 100-1000 ha;

5. 1,000-10,000 ha;

6. 10,000 ha and above

5 Conservation Status:

The sample aimed to cover sites in a variety of conditions. It was proposed that this should

include:

▪ Favourable condition (at least 7 sites)

▪ Unfavourable recovering condition (at least 7 sites)

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▪ Unfavourable no change (at least 1 site)

▪ Unfavourable declining (at least 1 site)

6 Public Access and Use:

The sample included sites with a selection of public uses, including:

▪ Sites of major recreational interest, with significant visitor numbers and infrastructure

▪ Sites with public access supporting informal recreation on a smaller scale

▪ Sites with little public use or access.

7 Other Uses and Development Pressures:

The sample includes sites in areas with potential conflicts, alternative uses and development

pressures, such as from:

▪ Agriculture and/or forestry

▪ Minerals and peat extraction

▪ Local development pressures

▪ Leisure and tourism pressures.

8 Evidence of Services and Benefits

For the 15 “positively selected” sites, there should be some evidence of the benefits of the

site and its designation as SSSI, including one or more of:

▪ Benefits of designation for biodiversity, geodiversity, ecosystem functioning

▪ Ecosystem services (at least qualitative and preferably some quantitative evidence of

provisioning, regulating and/or cultural services)

▪ Economic benefits – e.g. through tourism and recreation, regulating services,

provisioning services. It was recognised that this was likely to be available for only a

minority of sites.

Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference. summarises the different characteristics of

sites with regard to different criteria.

Research for one originally selected site, Pine Lodge Meadow, Wales, proved to be

impossible and this was replaced by Stone Field, a similar site nearby.

1.2.2 Case Study Research Methods

Two days of research time was allocated to each case study enabling the following tasks to

be undertaken:

▪ Brief background research into the site and its characteristics

▪ A site visit and/or meeting with the relevant case officer and where appropriate

landowner/site manager/any other key local stakeholders

▪ Review of published information

▪ Write-up of case study.

The above research methods were thought to be most effective in gaining the quantitative

and qualitative information necessary for the case study in the time available.

Visits were made to 19 of the case study sites. In one case (North York Moors) a lack of

case officer time meant that a visit could not be arranged, and the case study is based purely

on desk research.

1.3 Structure of this Report

The following sections 2-21 present the individual SSSI case studies.

Section 22 presents a short summary and conclusions from the research.

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Table 1-1 Characteristics of Case Study Sites

Site Region Main Habitat Condition Designation Size band

Ashdown Forest SOUTH EAST Dward shrub heath- lowland

Unfavourable recovering SSSI, SAC, SPA

5

Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries NORTH EAST Earth heritage Favourable SSSI 3

Dark Peak NORTH WEST Bogs- upland Unfavourable recovering SSSI, SAC, SPA,

National Park

6

Dyfi WALES Coastal Favourable SSSI, SAC, RAMSAR,

SPA, NNR

5

Glannau Ynys Gybi WALES Lowland heathland Unfavourable no change SSSI, SAC, SPA,

AONB

4

Hatfield Moors YORKSHIRE & HUMBERSIDE

Bogs- lowland Unfavourable recovering SSSI, SAC, SPA, NNR

5

Humber Estuary EAST MIDLANDS/ YORKSHIRE & HUMBERSIDE

Littoral sediment Favourable SSSI, RAMSAR, SAC,

SPA, NNR

6

King's Sedgemoor SOUTH WEST Neutral grassland- lowland

Unfavourable no change SSSI, RAMSAR, SPA,

NNR

4

Malltreath Marsh/Cors Ddyga WALES Grazing marsh Unfavourable recovering/ unfavourable no change SSSI

5

North York Moors YORKSHIRE & HUMBERSIDE

Dwarf shrub heath- upland Unfavourable recovering SSSI, SAC, SPA,

National Park

6

10

Richmond Park

LONDON Acid grassland- lowland Unfavourable no change SSSI, SAC, NNR

4

River Avon System SOUTH EAST Rivers and streams Unfavourable declining SSSI, SAC

4

River Usk (lower usk) WALES River Favourable SSSI, SAC

4

South Pennine Moors NORTH WEST Bogs- upland Unfavourable recovering SSSI, RAMSAR, SAC,

SPA

6

Stone Field (changed from Pine Lodge Meadow)* WALES Grassland Favourable SSSI 2

Sutton Park WEST MIDLANDS Dward shrub heath- upland

Unfavourable recovering SSSSI, NNR

4

Thompson Water, Carr And Common EAST OF ENGLAND Broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland- lowland

Unfavourable recovering SSSI, SAC

4

Walthamstow Reservoirs LONDON Standing open water and

canals Unfavourable recovering

SSSI, RAMSAR, SPA

4

Wormley-Hoddesdonpark Woods North EAST OF ENGLAND Broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland- lowland

Favourable SSSI, SAC, NNR

4

Wren's Nest WEST MIDLANDS Earth heritage Favourable SSSI, NNR

3

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2 Ashdown Forest

2.1 Introduction to site

Originally a deer hunting forest in Norman times, Ashdown Forest is now the largest free

public access space in the South East, and is most well-known as the home of Winnie the

Pooh, the fictional bear.

The SSSI is located in Wealden, in East Sussex, and is 3,145 hectares in size. The main

type of habitat in the SSSI is dwarf shrub lowland heath; such heathlands give the Forest its

distinctive open landscapes and wildlife habitats. The site has also been designated as a

Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and a Special Protection Area (SPA). 97% of the SSSI

is in unfavourable recovering condition.

Ashdown Forest was notified of its original SSSI status in 1953 and again in 1986. It was

given this status because it supports several uncommon plants, a rich invertebrate fauna,

and important populations of heath and woodland birds. Ashdown Forest was submitted to

be classified in 2005 as an SAC in March 2001 and achieved that status and was awarded

this because it has one of the largest single continuous blocks of lowland heath in south-east

England.

The SSSI is largely owned by the Wealden District Council and managed by the

Conservators of Ashdown Forest, an independent body originally set up in 1885. The Forest

is also partly owned and managed by the Sussex Trust for Nature Conservation and small

private land owners.

The site has an annual operating budget of £554,000.

2.2 Conservation benefits of the site

Ashdown Forest is one of the largest single continuous blocks of heath, semi-natural

woodland and valley bog in south-east England, and it supports several uncommon plants, a

rich invertebrate fauna, and important populations of heath and woodland birds.

Although the area of heathland has declined over several decades due to cessation of

grazing and frequent fires, there remain extensive areas of dry heath dominated by heather

(Calluna vulgaris) with bell heather (Erica cinerea) and dwarf gorse (Ulex minor). This

heathland supports important lichen communities including Pycnothelia papillaria. However,

bracken is now dominant over large areas.

The heath and bracken communities form a mosaic with acid grassland dominated by purple

moor-grass and species such as the local petty whin. Wet areas provide suitable conditions

for several species of Sphagnum moss, together with bog asphodel, common cotton-grass

and specialities such as marsh gentian, ivy-leaved bell flower, white-beaked sedge and the

marsh clubmoss.

The older woodlands consist of beech and sweet chestnut. These contain bluebell, bilberry,

hard fern, and honeysuckle with birds-nest orchid and violet helleborine, found particularly

under beech.

There are some conifer and sweet chestnut coppice plantations scattered throughout the

forest, with rides of particular importance for heathland plants, and various woodland birds

such as sparrowhawk.

The aquatic habitats support a diverse fauna, including a range of water beetles, a rare

midge (Dixella filiformis), a diversity of dragonfly and damselfly species (Odonata) and a

locally uncommon snail (Vertigo substriata). Some of the ponds also have large amphibian

populations, including the great-crested newt. The heathlands and woods support many

uncommon beetles, moths and butterflies and there are still several populations of the rare

silver-studded blue (Plebejus argus) on the open heath.

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Scrub, woodlands and coppice together support a wide range of breeding woodland birds,

and are a refuge for the dormouse, which has become scarce over large areas of the country

in recent years.

The SPA designation is due to the presence of a number of different species protected under

Article 4.1 of the Birds Directive, namely the European nightjar and Dartford warbler.

Centuries of grazing and cutting by farming commoners have prevented extensive

reforestation and have maintained the open heathland on the „forest‟. The decline of the

farming commoner since World War II has led to an increase in woodland cover, from less

than 10% in 1947 to 40% in 2000 and a subsequent decline of the internationally important

heathland habitats. As a result, conservation work under the guidance of the Ashdown

Forest Conservators has taken place, aiming to restore the heathland. This represents a

more interventionist role in forest affairs for the Conservators. A ten-year Higher Level

Stewardship (HLS) agreement signed in August 2006 required the Conservators to restore

the Forest heathland to favourable condition. Carried out in more or less traditional ways,

with a small number of stock per hectare, grazing is seen as the most cost-effective way of

managing large heathland areas like Ashdown Forest – for example, a commoner already

grazes 500 ha of heathland in Ashdown Forest with cattle and sheep. Sheep are particularly

useful because they will preferentially eat coarse grass and scrub and will ignore heather;

they will also graze in places that are difficult to mow.

Natural England recently funded a three year project (within HLS) to trial the close-

shepherding model found on the continent in countries such as Holland, where shepherded

flocks on heathlands are a common sight. This type of management relies on using a full-

time shepherd and dogs to manage a sheep flock, which will graze the heathland thus

eliminating the need for stock-fencing. The flock is carefully managed in order that the flock

does not curtail use of the forest for leisure activities. In 2010, following completion of the

project, the Conservators decided to continue close-shepherded grazing as an integral part

of their management of the Forest's heathland, marking a return to traditional management

practices within the forest. The flock has now grown to over 300 sheep.

Figure 2.1 Ashdown Forest

Source; East Sussex County Council

In 1996, the Secretary of State for the Environment gave permission for a 550 ha (1359

acre) fenced enclosure, representing about one-third of the Forest's 1500 ha of heathland, to

be created in the south and west Chases to allow Commoners to graze their livestock in

safety.

The HLS agreement provides the Conservators with £350,000 each year to spend on

heathland management, including clearance of bracken to enhance floristic diversity. Without

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the SSSI designation, it would have been more challenging for the Conservators to remove

bracken on the heathland area, as it is unlikely that the appropriate amount of resources

would have been available to do so.

2.3 Ecosystem services

The main ecosystem services provided by Ashdown Forest are summarised in the table

below.

Table 2.1 Ecosystem Services provided by Ashdown Forest

Cultural Regulating Provisioning

Traditional conservation methods

such as the close-shepherding

scheme undertaken in the Forest

have helped to raise public

awareness about the importance of

heathland management, which has

education benefits. Wider publicity

took the form of 'sheep days' at the

Ashdown Forest Centre with up to

150 visitors following the flock onto

adjacent heath, demonstrations of

shearing, and school visits,

amongst other things.1

Ashdown Forest is the largest area

of open countryside in South-East

England, and its common land is

freely open to the public2. It attracts

750,000 visitors a year3, many of

whom are walkers and road cyclists.

Its appeal to the public is enhanced

by its international reputation as the

'home' of Winnie-the-Pooh, which

could be considered as a separate

cultural service relating to the

history of the site.

The most substantial income from

the amenity use of the Forest

comes from riding permits (which

cost £85 per year), although it is

unclear how much revenue is raised

yearly from this. In excess of

£25,0004 has been generated from

the sale of memorial seats in the

Forest, which in part signifies the

spiritual value of the Forest.

Ashdown Forest also has a golf club

- The Royal Ashdown Forest Golf

Club, founded in 1888, which

occupies a large area of leasehold

land in the northern part of the

Appropriate heathland management

can improve the soil condition and

help the soil absorb water during

flood events. Heathland cover will

also decrease peak surface water

flows.

Ashdown Forest can also have a

potentially positive effect on climate

regulation. 1,000 hectares of

woodland can help store 5,400

tonnes of CO2. It is not yet known if

the change in heathland

management has helped to improve

carbon storage, however.

The forest also generates a direct

atmospheric cooling effect through

vegetation evapo-transpiration and

shade effects from trees and

shrubs.

Few provisioning services have

been identified.

Income might be enhanced through

improved marketing of Hebridean

sheep products, i.e. wool, meat,

skins and horn, although sales of

wool so far have been lower than

hoped. When the flock has reached

its maximum manageable size,

currently estimated to be 500 to

600, there is potential for the sale of

animals. Hebridean sheep are also

a traditional breed, so a genetic

conservation service is also

provided.

The site may contribute towards

freshwater supply either as

groundwater or surface water, as

tributaries of the River Medway flow

through points of Ashdown Forest.

1 This also included articles in journals, a detailed sheep blog on the Ashdown Forest website, interviews on three local radio programmes and the national BBC Open Country radio programme and interest from TV programmes including Countryfile. See: „Findings from the Close-shepherded Grazing Feasibility Project on Ashdown Forest 2007-2010‟ http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/Findings_Close_shepherded_grazing.pdf 2 These include prohibitions on activities that are detrimental to the forest environment such as off-road cycling (mountain

biking) and other wheeled vehicles, horse-riding (except by permit), camping and the lighting of fires. 3 Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016

4 Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016

http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/Findings_Close_shepherded_grazing.pdf

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Forest near Forest Row. The club is

working with the Conservators to

restore the golf courses to their

original heathland character.

Ashdown Forest has high tourism

value, and has a hotel and llama

park situated nearby - the llama

park operates as a visitor attraction

to educate the public about these

animals. The park has a gift shop,

coffee shop and tourist information

point for which there is no

admission charge.

According to the most recent (2004/2005) visitor survey, the most valued qualities of the

Forest include its open spaces, views, tranquillity and the sites of Winnie-the-Pooh‟s

adventures, mostly round Gills Lap. On top of popular informal activities such as walking,

dog-walking and riding, the Forest hosts numerous organised events (70 in 2006/2007),

such as orienteering, sponsored charity walks, model aircraft flying and cross-country runs

and use for training and trekking by, for example, Scouts, Guides, Duke of Edinburgh award

students and Ministry of Defence. Increasing leisure time and opportunities for pursuing

interests in outdoor activities for educational, recreational or health reasons mean it is highly

likely that visitor pressure on the Forest will continue to rise. However, this poses two main

challenges: how to reconcile this use with protection of the Forest‟s environment and wildlife

and how to minimise conflicts between different user groups.

Although the Board does not actively promote the Forest as a visitor destination it is

concerned with visitor management and works in partnership with other organisations, such

as ESCC, WDC and the Ashdown Forest Tourism Association (with 140 members), who

have strong economic reasons for promoting the forest.

2.4 Valuation of the benefits

According to the Strategic Forest Plan, the value of tourism to the local economy has been

estimated at £2.34 million per year. No further information is available.

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3 Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries


Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries are located on the slope of Sherburn Hill north of

Shadforth in Durham. The geological SSSI covers 23.2 hectares and sits within a limestone

and sand quarry owned by Sherburn Stone Company Ltd. The site was established as of

national importance in the Geological Conservation Review (GCR) and is one of the most

important sites on the Lower Permian Yellow Sands. The formation passes up through Marl

Slate Raisby and Ford formations with Lower Magnesian Limestone deposited above. The

interdigitating Yellow Sand structures are Seif (sharp-crested) dune deposits and the

formation is thought to be from the late Early Permian, approximately 270 million years old.

Biodiversity on the site is limited but the exposure provides a habitat for the peregrine falcon,

which returns to nest on an annual basis.

Figure 3.1 Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries

Permian Yellow Sand formation

Source: British Geological Survey (2009) Limestone Landscapes - a geodiversity audit and action plan for the

Durham Magnesian Limestone Plateau

All of the SSSI is in favourable condition and the quarrying company is managing the site to

maintain the geodiversity. Sherburn Stone is obliged to ensure that no damage is caused to

the site, by avoiding a series of operations considered harmful to the SSSI including

extraction of minerals, dumping or storage of materials or water, introducing trees into the

site, modifying natural or man-made features, infilling of pits and quarries, erection of

temporary structures and construction or removal of earthworks.

However, the SSSI is being moved due to redevelopment of the quarry. The current site will

be infilled and a replacement SSSI in the eastern area of the quarry exhibiting the same

geological sequence will be restored. Although this is an apparent development conflict,

geodiversity is maintained by moving the exposure and Natural England is satisfied that the

replacement site will achieve a similar standard. Without the quarry‟s existence, there would

be no rock exposure in the first place and it thus contributes to geodiversity directly through

its activities. In addition to relocating the geological SSSI, restoration will enhance the variety

of landscapes and habitats in the quarry including magnesian limestone grassland and

create a network of public footpaths through the restored SSSI.

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The main feature of the site is the exposure of Lower Permian Yellow Sands – the principal

reason for SSSI designation – and the excellent view it provides of Marl Slate Raisby and

Ford formations and Lower Magnesian limestone.

The most significant benefit of the SSSI designation has been the role it has played in

protecting the exposure, obliging the company to „replace‟ the exposure affected by infilling

(e.g. with domestic or other waste) with an alternative exposure. The company has recently

begun to use the designation more actively, for example for educational purposes and as

more of a „cultural asset‟. However, there are still few activities of this type taking place.


In terms of ecosystem services, there are no immediate provisioning services (quarrying is

disallowed) and few regulating services.

The main services provided are cultural and relate to the aesthetic, educational and scientific

value of the formation. An audit of Durham‟s geodiversity5 identified various links between

quarrying and geodiversity and suggests developing the benefits and services provided,

through:

▪ research into social history and links with industrial archaeology;

▪ establishing a quarry trail;

▪ permanent viewing area and interpretation;

▪ education, including school visits; and

▪ involvement of local communities in conservation and enhancement projects.

Some of these benefits apply to the Crime Rigg SSSI. A quarry trail will be established with

the replacement exposure, as well as a permanent viewing area and interpretation, although

visitors will still require permission to access both of these. School visits are taking place but

are limited in number, and are reported to have only totalled two or three to date.

Crime Rigg Quarry is recognised as a principal geodiversity site with capacity for exploiting

these potential benefits. Sherburn Stone is involved with the Limestone Landscapes

Partnership, developing projects to enhance knowledge and use of limestone geodiversity.

The quarry has on occasion received school visits although not specifically to view the

Yellow Sand formation.


There is no valuation evidence regarding Crime Rigg and Sherburn Hill Quarries SSSI.

Three key values of geodiversity sites are their intrinsic (existence), ecological (natural

processes) and human-centred (cultural) values6. In the context of Crime Rigg and Sherburn

Hill Quarries, intrinsic value is currently likely to comprise the largest of the three. There are

few natural processes related to the site and it still has limited use as an educational site,

although there are plans to develop projects in this regard.

5 British Geological Survey (2009) Limestone Landscapes - a geodiversity audit and action plan for the Durham Magnesian

Limestone Plateau

6 Scott, P., Roche, D., Nicholas, C., Lawrence, D. and Ambrose, K.: „Creating environmental improvements through

geodiversity‟, Theme 3 – creating environmental improvements, Sustainable Aggregates. http://www.sustainableaggregates.com/rprts_revs/rr_theme3.htm

17

Although it is not possible to provide an estimation of the magnitude of this value, it derives

almost entirely from its designation as a SSSI as it is likely that the exposure would not exist

without the site being protected and maintained in favourable condition.

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4 Dark Peak


The Dark Peak SSSI occupies an area covering 31,823 hectares, and is situated at the

southern end of the Pennines between the conurbations of Manchester, Huddersfield and

Sheffield, and to the north and east of the limestone dome of the White Peak, falling largely

within the Peak National Park. The Dark Peak is an upland area characterised by extensive

wild, open and more or less continuous moorland. It is surrounded by enclosed farmland and

dissected by deep river valleys.

Blanket peat stretches the length and breadth of the Dark Peak, with natural breaks only on

the steep slopes below the Kinder Scout plateau and along the Longdendale valley. It has

formed since the last glaciation and peat development has been more substantial here than

elsewhere in Britain, probably because deforestation occurred here earlier than elsewhere.

The present extent of peat was probably reached some 4,000 years ago, although

degeneration of the peat to an erosion complex has been accelerated by man-induced

factors including pollution, burning and over-grazing. Atmospheric pollution has led to the

loss of practically all Sphagnum moss. Peat formation and erosion has been studied quite

extensively in the Dark Peak by a number of researchers and the area is renowned for a

wide range of erosion facies including linear, reticulate and sheet erosion, and extensive

areas of characteristic grough and hagg topography.

Yorkshire Water, which owns land in the Dark Peak SSSI, has, in association with Natural

England, undertaken active management of the site. This includes:

▪ A peat restoration project involving the restoration of bare peat using heather brash,

lime, seed and fertiliser, to establish a vegetation cover. Sheep are excluded from this

area to prevent damage to the grass restoration through grazing, although they will be

reintroduced within several years when the moss is restored, as they aid the control of

vegetation.

▪ The use of Sphagnum seeds (contained within a nutrient ball) to encourage growth of

moss on the adjoining moor as a trial site.

▪ The blocking of drainage grips dug in the 1950s-70s, to help raise the water table and

„rewet‟ the moor, which is beneficial for the bogs and ameliorates flood risk further

downstream by keeping the water there (although this can also contribute to the release

of more methane). It also prevents the colouration of water, which is the most expensive

factor for Yorkshire Water to treat.

▪ Addition of dwarf scrub to areas currently dominated by grass, to provide a more diverse

habitat.

A number of other issues are visible in the Dark Peak which require active management.

These include soil erosion caused by recreational activity, unauthorised access by vehicles

and uncontrolled fires. Development pressures include overgrazing due to sheep farming,

which was driven by government policy to produce more food post-war; anti-social

behaviour, such as cutting fences and trespassing by motorbikes, which exacerbates air

pollution; wildfires and urban pressures to use the facilities.


The vast tracts of blanket bog are poor in higher plants and bog mosses, having been

affected by atmospheric pollution and historic management. However, the Dark Peak

continues to have several characteristic features of nature conservation and landscape

interest. The SSSI supports nationally important breeding populations of golden plover and

dunlin, as well as significant numbers of meadow pipit. Merlin, short-eared owl and twite

breed in nationally important numbers and curlew is the most common wader. Some moors

are regularly burnt to promote new heather growth, providing young heather shoots as food

for red grouse or sheep. Where overgrazing and historic peat cutting has occurred around

19

the edges, moorland has been replaced with acid grassland dominated by purple moor grass

or mat grass, and varying amounts of bracken. These edge habitats hold most of the Dark

Peak‟s breeding whinchat and twite. Areas of ancient oak woodland still survive below the

gritstone edges and in steep sided ravines („cloughs‟), and reservoirs are surrounded by

conifer trees.

A rich mixture of dwarf shrubs, especially bilberry, heather and in places cowberry, has

developed on some steeper valley sides, although few other plants grow due to the acidic

nature of the soil. The banks and cobble margins of the streams support small numbers of

breeding dipper, grey wagtail and common sandpiper. Many of the streams are unpolluted.

Small moorland springs and flushes are numerous and support some of the most botanically

rich communities of the Dark Peak. The moorlands act like sponges, soaking up the high

rainfall and feeding it into streams and rivers.

In addition to its designation as an SSSI in 1993, Dark Peak is also designated as a Special

Area of Conservation (SAC) and a Special Protection Area (SPA). Due to the Dark Peak‟s

significant landscape character, it has been designated as a National Park as well. 89% of

the SSSI is in “unfavourable recovering” condition. Numerous adverse impacts include

fertiliser use, inappropriate stock-feeding, overgrazing and undergrazing, air pollution, fire,

moor burning, forestry and woodland management, drainage, game management,

inappropriate ditch management and weed control and public access and disturbance.

Without SSSI designation, the site would still provide gathering grounds for water protection,

and restrictions on agricultural tenancies would continue to protect water quality. These

areas would continue to provide employment through agricultural activities, grouse shooting

and tourism (further detail provided below). However, if the land was not designated as

SSSI, this might affect land managers‟ ability to gain funding through the Environmental

Stewardship scheme, and in turn, the viability of managing the land. Without this

management of the uplands, there is a potential that water quality could therefore

deteriorate, suggesting that SSSI designation can have positive benefits for water quality.

Also important in the area is MoorLIFE, a LIFE-funded project initiated and managed by

Moors for the Future, part of the Peak District National Park Authority. It involves the active

restoration of blanket bog at two major sites in the Peak District National Park and two in the

South Pennine Moors. Over £5.5m was received from the European Commission to reduce

the erosion of degraded peatland between April 2010 and April 2015 and help restore

blanket bogs.


The table below outlines the key ecosystem services provided by the Dark Peak SSSI.

Table 4.1 Ecosystem Services provided by Dark Peak


All of the SSSI is open to public

access, and as a result, has a high

recreational value. Cyclists and

walkers regularly visit from

neighbouring areas such as

Huddersfield and Sheffield. Rock

climbing is also a popular pastime in

the northern part of the Dark Peak,

especially in remains of old

quarries. Other recreational

activities include sailing, fishing,

shooting and riding, with some of

these occurring on open access

land and others needing formal

agreements with landowners.

Blanket bogs of an active healthy

condition provide opportunities for

the Dark Peak moors to contribute

significantly to carbon

sequestration. However, some

areas at present are contributing to

net carbon release.

Sphagnum in the blanket bog helps

to restore water tables, contributes

to flood defence/flood risk mitigation

through affecting the quantity and

timing of water discharge.

Sheep and beef cattle are reared on

the higher, rough grazing land of the

Dark Peak. Edges of plateaus are

used by farms for winter grazing

and lambing. There are more than

400,000 sheep in the Peak District

National Park and 85,000 cattle, but

precise figures for those sheep and

cattle grazing only on the Dark Peak

are not available.

There are no natural lakes in the

Peak District National Park, but its

relatively high rainfall (average 100

centimetres a year) and shale

valleys (shale is impermeable to

20

Visitors contribute nearly £225

million directly to the local economy

of the Peak District National Park,

but it is difficult to distinguish what

proportion of this relates to the Dark

Peak SSSI.

The Dark Peak can offer

opportunities for solitude and

tranquillity that surrounding, more

settled landscapes, cannot offer.

These are highly valued

characteristics, providing an

important cultural resource7.

There is some amenity value from

the clough woodland.

Three-quarters of the world‟s

heather moorland is in the UK, with

around 19,000 hectares in the Peak

District National Park, the majority

of which is found in the Dark Peak

SSSI. The heather is a crucial food

source for red grouse, which are

popular in the grouse shooting

industry. A 2010 survey on the

economics of grouse shooting found

that the Peak District has the

equivalent of 80 potential shooting

days (in which an average of over

400 grouse are shot)8, 11 full-time

equivalent keepers and £1,488,000

of potential revenue is ploughed

back into land management. Visitor

expenditure on accommodation and

catering amounted to £172,8009.

There are many historic monuments

and similar features and the peats

are an archive of environmental

information.

The area is the subject of classic

scientific research and ongoing

research especially relating to

peatlands and upland fauna.

water) make it ideal for water

gathering and an important water

catchment area. Many shale valleys

have been dammed and flooded to

create reservoirs to supply

surrounding towns and cities such

as Sheffield, Manchester, Leicester

and Nottingham. The reservoirs of

the Peak District produce 450

million litres of water every day.10


According to the Land and Programme Manager at Yorkshire Water11

, the cost of water

treatment (MIAX) plants is estimated at £6 million per plant12

, with several possibly required

to address the increasing colour water quality problems for water companies unless

catchment management trials now in place can bring significant improvements to the

problem.

Yorkshire Water is also undertaking „willingness to change‟ work and other research into the

quantification of the ecosystem services provided by the Dark Peak, although this was not

available at the time of writing.

7 Peak District National Park Authority, Dark Peak Landscape Character Assessment

8 The Guardian, 8 August 2010, „Oh what a glorious day it is – except for the grouse‟

9 The Moorland Association (2010), Economics of Grouse Shooting survey 10

http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/index/learning-about/factsheets/factsheet01-peak-district-national-park.htm

11 Statement made at site visit to Dark Peak SSSI as part of Major Landowners Group meeting, May 14 2010

12 It must be noted that the MIAX plants vary in cost according to size

http://www.peakdistrict.gov.uk/index/learning-about/factsheets/factsheet01-peak-district-national-park.htm

21

22

5 Dyfi SSSI


5.1.1 Location and characteristics

Dyfi SSSI is a large, varied, and high profile site on the west Wales coast. It covers a range

of habitats either side of the Dyfi estuary at Cardigan Bay. The majority of the fringing

saltmarsh and dunes are on the south side of the estuary. The estuary itself contains

sandbanks, mudflats, saltmarsh, river channels and creeks. The south side also includes the

varied sand dune formations at Ynyslas peninsula, the extensive raised bog of Cors Fochno,

and diverse flood plain habitats which together resemble a fenland landscape.

The site is a SSSI due to the size, range, and quality of its habitats and their transitions, and

for its botanical, entomological, and ornithological interest. In addition, the site has two main

geological interests within its SSSI status. First, Ynyslas and Borth provide a detailed record

of coastal and environmental changes during the Holocene epoch. Second, the area at

Ynyslas is significant for studying estuarine sedimentation and the links with spit

development at the estuary mouth. The sand dunes at Ynyslas demonstrate all the stages

involved in dune formation and growth.

The site has a wide range of functional, educational and recreational uses. Beyond the

wildlife and geological value, people are able to enjoy the area‟s dunes and sandy beaches,

its sense of space and its tranquil setting. The area, particularly around Ynyslas, receives

substantial numbers of local visitors and of holidaymakers from across Britain.

The SSSI covers 3,792 hectares, with the habitats and species having different condition

status: many are in favourable state or are unfavourable recovering. An example of the latter

is the Cors Fochno, illustrating that the pro-active efforts to improve the management of the

bog are starting to have a positive effect. The RSPB manages the Ynys-hir reserve, which

covers a range of habitats from woodland to grazing marsh, saltmarsh and bog, across 600

ha within the site.

As well as its SSSI status the site is an SAC (Special Area of Conservation) and has a raft of

additional designations, as follows:

▪ Biosphere Reserve: Recognised under UNESCO's Programme on Man and the

Biosphere, a Biosphere Reserve is an area in which people work to balance the

conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They have three main functions:

conservation - to preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes;

development - to foster sustainable economic and human development; logistic - to

support research, monitoring, education and information exchange on conservation and

development.

▪ National Nature Reserve: Large parts of the site are make up the Dyfi National Nature

Reserve consists of three separate areas: Ynyslas sand dunes; Dyfi estuary mudflats;

and Cors Fochno (Borth Bog).

▪ Ramsar site and candidate Special Protection Area: The area supports important

populations of waterfowl and wading birds, including nationally important numbers of

wintering Greenland white-fronted goose and wigeon.

5.1.2 Costs and resources for site management

Expenditure:

▪ Visitor centre and office maintenance, and capital work on site13

, 2009-10: £108,000

13

Approximately 40 contractors and businesses, provided goods and services required for the management of Dyfi

NNR. This included office and workshop services and supplies; estate infrastructure and habitat management

works. The total expenditure was around £121,000 as above (excluding vehicle costs and capital purchases). Over

80% of expenditure went to local businesses.

23

▪ Marsh restoration management works, 2009-10: £13,000

▪ Payments for management agreements and leases, 2009-10: £13,710

Staff costs:

▪ X1 Senior Reserve Manager

▪ X1 Reserve Manager

▪ X1 Assistant Reserve Manager

▪ X1 Part time Education & Interpretation Officer

▪ X3 six month casual staff for visitor management

Income:

▪ Grazing licences and agreements, 2009-10: £3,711

▪ Moorings and slipway licences, 2009-10: £710

▪ Ynyslas Car park, visitor centre shop, & ice cream tender, 2009-10: £20,623

In considering the above expenditure, the scale, accessibility and intensive use of the site

needs to be recognised, as illustrated by the visitor figures below, which exclude the main

formal educational visits:

▪ 36,696 people visited Ynyslas Visitor Centre in 2009

▪ 90,000 car visits were made to Ynyslas in 2009, which equates to c.243,000 visitors

▪ The Cors Fochno (Borth Bog) boardwalk received 177 visits in 2009.

5.1.3 Grant aid due to the SSSI and SAC status

The RSPB cites the following funds which have been harnessed at its Ynys-hir reserve within

the site due to the SSSI and SAC status of the area:

▪ Heritage Lottery Fund - Wetlands for Wales (2000 onwards) and Lower Dyfi project

(2009)

▪ Covert Coch funding CCW (Phoenix European project through WEFO) £50,000

▪ CCW grant for dams £4,500

▪ Objective 1 grants: 2001 £13,000; 2002 £12,000

▪ FC grant initiating the Covert Coch project 96/97 £2,300

▪ Environment Agency Wales saltmarsh restoration project starts in 2010

Figure 5.1 Dyfi SSSI

A view north across the core area of Cors Fochno (Borth Bog), and showing the Dyfi estuary beyond, fringed by saltmarsh which is also an important habitat within this extensive SSSI.

24

5.2 Conservation benefits of the site The key biodiversity assets of the site are summarised in the previous section. The estuary

is of outstanding physiographic interest, supports important habitats such as an area of sand

dunes and an extensive tract of unmodified actively growing raised mire, and these are

collectively important for plants, insects and wintering wildfowl.

The focus of effort on improving habitat condition across the site, from both CCW and RSPB,

is a significant task across such a large extent and complex range of habitats. However,

signs of success are evident and indicate the value of active management. For example,

populations of reptiles and amphibians are currently increasing, otter and dormouse

populations are increasing, many wading bird species are stable or increasing. At least 70ha

of degraded raised bog have been restored to favourable condition.

Figure 5.2 Dyfi – SSSI site

A view along the shingle dune ridge at Ynyslas peninsula on the south side of the Dyfi SSSI. Although only a small area of the overall SSSI, the complex of dunes at Ynyslas are a major draw for both local visitors and for holiday makers from across Britain.


The main ecosystem services provided by the Dyfi SSSI are outlined in the table below.

Table 5.1 Ecosystem services from Dyfi SSSI


Recreation, wildlife

observation / green

tourism - Ynyslas dunes

and Aberdyfi beach and

dunes and the estuary

are additional important

recreation and tourism

venues. Surveys

indicate 250,000 visitors

are attracted to Ynyslas

every year. These range

from specialist visitors

and bird watchers, to

local dog walkers, and

holiday makers visiting

Carbon storage - Cors

Fochno is the fourth

largest lowland raised

bog in the UK in extent,

equivalent to c7% of the

total resource area. Given

the relatively low level of

peat removal the volume

of „active‟ peat-forming

bog is likely to be greater

than 10% of the UK total..

The recent „Assessment

on Peatlands, Biodiversity

and Climate Change‟

carried out by Wetlands

Livestock farming

Grazing licences -

Controlled grazing

is carried out

across c235ha

(580ac.) of

secondary and

archaic bog;

involving 27 CCW

rare breed Welsh

mountain ponies;

plus c145 cattle

and c300 sheep

grazed under

licence agreements

25

from well beyond the

region. The high quality

environment, the

wildlife, tranquil setting

and natural

surroundings draw a

wide sample of visitors.

The tourism element of

the recreation supports

several caravan and

holiday parks adjacent

to the SSSI and a wide

range of holiday-

business ventures in

and around the

settlements of Borth on

the south side of the

estuary and Aberdovey

on the north side. See

„local business‟ and

„visitor expenditure‟

sections below.

International and the

Global Environment

Centre with support from

UNEP-GEF etc.

concluded:

“ Conservation,

restoration and wise-use

of peatlands are essential

and very cost-effective

measures for long-term

climate change mitigation

and adaptation as well as

biodiversity conservation”.

The saltmarshes of the

Dyfi (largest in mid-

Wales) are a further

important carbon store.

with five local

farmers.

At least 2 local

graziers with tidal

marsh in the SSSI

market Saltmarsh

lamb sold locally.

Mown rushes

supplied to local

farm for animal

bedding.

Research, education

and learning - The site

is visited routinely for

field visits from locations

throughout England and

Wales. As well as the

wildlife, student visits

focus on the dune and

coastal processes, the

estuary dynamics and

the hydrology of the

bog. In addition, the site

continues to be the

focus of several

substantive research

projects examining

aspects of the dynamics

of the bog, the estuary

and the dunes.

Cors Fochno: Currently,

in 2009 scientists from 8

UK universities are

using the site for field

studies mostly related to

the issue of carbon

cycling. The studies

include 1 UK-wide

DEFRA contract; 5 post-

doctorate studies; 3

Ph.D‟s; 1 M.Sc.; and 4

undergraduate

dissertations.

An International

workshop took place

from 6-10th

July during

which various aspects of

the internal structure

and functioning of the

mire were explored

using novel geophysical

Water storage and flood

management - The raised

mire is able to store

significant quantities of

freshwater, and reduce

flood potential on

surrounding land and

property. These

processes are being

researched and modelled

to inform understanding

of this important

regulating role.

Some of the research

projects underway are

studying and modelling

the hydrology of the bog

in its water management

role, and in its ability to

store carbon. Other

research has been

studying the dynamic

processes of the dunes

and the estuary, and their

„natural engineering‟ role

in buffering the area from

environmental change.

The outcomes from these

research studies will

provide important lessons

and tangible evidence on

the role of wildlife sites in

providing some of these

important regulating

services.

Intertidal habitats also

important in removing

nutrients and toxins from

water by sequestration.

26

methods. This was

attended by wetland

scientists from Canada,

USA, Germany and 5

UK universities.

Educational groups: FE

and specialist groups: 5

university groups (125

students), Jan-July

2009. School groups: 6

secondary and 2 local

primary schools (c200

students), Jan-July

2009.

Archaeology & cultural

history - Recently

discovered medieval

wooden trackway

crossing the bog is

unique in Wales and

important in a GB

context. The presence

of Roman metalworking

remains nearby is also

of significant interest.

Some of the earliest

evidence of metal

mining and working in

Britain, preserved in the

peat and dating from the

Bronze Age, has also

been reported recently.

The drainage

reclamation and peat

cutting history have

local cultural

importance.

Ynyslas dunes are a key

site in Wales for WWII

military history.

Borth, Aberdyfi and the

Dyfi estuary have local

maritime history &

traditions

The Ynyslas shingle &

dune spit performs

important sea defense

functions, protecting the

settlement of Ynyslas.

Aberdyfi dunes provide

similar coast protection

On the south side of the

estuary, the mudflats and

saltmarshes play an

additional role to the

protective Ynyslas spit in

protecting developments

and road and rail

infrastructure from

inundation.

Environmental

monitoring - Cors

Fochno is part of CCW

all-Wales‟ ECBN

(Environmental Change

& Biodiversity Network).

Wide range of biological

feature monitoring

programmes, some

extending back over 20

yrs. Likewise for key

„factor‟ monitoring eg

hydrology.

Habitat connectivity &

restorability - Estuarine

complex with range of

habitat transitions and

good connectivity of

wetland and coastal

habitats. Number of

rare/scarce multiple

habitat use species.

Open and wild

Landscape character -

The Dyfi-Cors fochno

estuarine complex is a

27

unique and striking

landscape feature. One

of most natural

landscapes in Wales.

High wilderness value.

Exemplar site - Core

conservation area of

Wales‟ only Biosphere

Reserve. Important

examples of lowland

raised bog restoration

work (on both

secondary and archaic

bog areas);

International workshop:

„Raised mire research

and restoration – the

Cors Fochno‟

experience, in

September 2010. The

programme includes

presentations by leading

UK mire specialists from

six UK universities.


The first steps in valuing some of these benefits are shown as follows.

Visitor statistics

▪ 2009/10: 36,696 people visited Ynyslas Visitor Centre in 2009, during the six-month

season April-September, compared with 32,550 in 2008. 90,000 car visits were made to

Ynyslas in 2009, which equates to c 243,000 visitors. The Cors Fochno visitor boardwalk

received 1277 visits.

Student visits

▪ 2009/10: One hundred and five educational groups, totalling 2900 students visited

Ynyslas in 2009. Fifty six groups received on-site summer staff support and around 1560

students used the sand dune transect. An additional 8 school groups & 6 FE groups

visited Cors Fochno.

Specialist group visits

▪ Around 8-10p.a. local interest and natural history groups receive escorted tours to NNR.

Access and interpretation provision

▪ 2009/10: New wheelchair access ramp installed at Visitor Centre and gate access to

disabled car park improved with wider gate. New audio (listening post) and tactile (tactile

map) exhibits outside the Centre installed to provide more for out-of-season and

impaired ability visitors.

▪ New temporary displays created to supplement permanent exhibits in Visitor Centre.

▪ New dog walkers leaflet produced. Self-guided trail of military history in preparation.

▪ Planning in progress to route All- Wales coastal footpath on the periphery of Cors

Fochno, with interpretation and viewing facilities.

Guided walks and events

▪ 2009/10: A programme of 35 walks/events based at Ynyslas attracted 401 people

including 136 children. Thirty people attended National Bog Day and National Moth Night

events.

28

Staff training and career development

▪ 2009/10: Four 6-month „casual‟ summer wardens employed at Ynyslas dunes, from

Easter- September Comprehensive, eight and a half days of training were provided for

the 2009 Ynyslas summer staff team between 23 March and 15th May. This includes

visitor management skills, first aid, off-road driving, wardening and wildlife monitoring

skills.

▪ Over the last two decades at least 30 „summer wardens‟ have progressed into full-time

employment in countryside management. 10 with CCW or WAG; 4 with NE/FC; 7 with

LAs; 8 with RSPB/Wildlife Trusts; 2 as Environmental consultants.

Student placements and volunteers

▪ 2009/10 Three university HND placement students were provided with work experience

for a total of 16 weeks, and one school placements for a 1 week. Two volunteers worked

a total of 34 days, and Aberystwyth Conservation Volunteers carried out 2 day long tasks

(c18 people).

Local business

▪ At least 90 nights of B&B were contributed to the local economy by visiting research

workers in 2009/10. In addition many school groups using Ynyslas dunes for field studies

stay at the Youth Hostel in Borth, which is dependent upon such usage for staying in

business. Locally produced goods e.g. postcards, books, T-shirts are sold from Ynyslas

Centre which also provided information on local events and attractions. An annual

tender for ice cream sales at Ynyslas is issued to a local vendor.

▪ A study of „The economic impact of Welsh NNR‟ Christie M. Kierle I & Scott A. (1998),

concluded that Ynyslas generated revenues of £2.09 million within the local economy

and that visitor expenditures would create the equivalent of 386 full-time equivalent local

jobs.

Visitor expenditure and recreation use

▪ In addition to walking, dog walking, wildlife observation and informal beach-based

recreation, other activities facilitated include: horse riding (trotting race training, pony

club events and trans-Wales trek finish site); kite flying & kite boarding; filming venue,

beach fishing and potentially orienteering.

▪ A local birdwatching holiday company uses the site regularly and benefits from the

information exchange and facilities including bird hide at Aberleri.

▪ Moorings and slipway use

▪ Annual licences granted to local boatyard business for 9 boat moorings and control of

slipway to Afon Leri. Licence fees currently £560 p.a. Slipway used for launching of

waterski boats, jetskis and non powered pleasure craft.

Research

▪ 2009/10: Five post-doctoral studies two Ph.D. one M.Sc. and 3 undergraduate research

projects active at Cors Fochno and four post-doctoral and one M.Sc. project at Dyfi

estuary. Most studies are on aspects of physical processes and at least seven are

related to climate change issues including a major Defra funded project. In 2010 a four

day geophysical research workshop was held at Cors Fochno involving scientists from 5

UK and 3 overseas universities in carbon/climate related studies.

▪ A CCW funded report entitled „Development of a morphodynamic model of the Dyfi

estuary to inform future management decisions‟ was published. This along with the

recently published „Cors Fochno hydrological research and management study‟ provides

a significant contribution towards defining the problems and potential responses to

climate change and sea level rise around the Dyfi estuary.

Shellfish harvesting

29

▪ 2009/10: Cockle harvesting was carried out from October to April. c75 tonnes of cockles

were harvested. An average valuation of £450/tonne yields a value of £33,750. Four men

were harvesting most of the time and another 2-3 occasionally.

Benefits of designation on SSSI units

▪ B&Y Golf Course: damaging mowing & chemical use averted; positive management

adopted

▪ Hen Afon Leri; beneficial grazing regime adopted

▪ Morfa Borth: destructive plans averted; positive grazing & hydrological management

regime achieved

▪ Lerry fields: „Improvement‟ plans averted; beneficial grazing regime in place; burning

stopped.

▪ Chapman field: beneficial grazing regime adopted

▪ Ynyscapel fields: Tir gofal grazing plan adopted but hydrological regime negative

▪ Llancynfelyn & Taliesin commons: no positive management but burning stopped.

▪ Ynys Eidiol common: beneficial grazing regime re-instated; scrub control carried out

▪ Lodge Farm, Hen Hafod & Penrhyngerwen: bought by RSPB, positive grazing &

hydrological management resulting

▪ Dyfi Junction mire: beneficial grazing regime adopted.

30

6 Glannau Ynys Gybi (Holy Island Coast)

6.1 Introduction to the site

Glannau Ynys Gybi (Holy Island Coast) covers 399.4 ha at Holy Island on the west of

Anglesey. The site has spectacular coastal heaths and cliffs, with botanical, geological and

ornithological interest. It includes land managed by RSPB, the National Trust and Anglesey

County Council, and it contains part of a Country Park. It is within the Anglesey AONB and

the site is also a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and a Special Protection Area (SPA),

due to its chough population.

The site is a prominent destination for holiday makers and day visitors nationally and

regionally. It also attracts different specialist visitors attracted by the sea birds, the geological

features, the botanical interest, and outdoor activities including rock climbing and

coasteering.

In determining the different benefits of such a multi-functional site with such an array of

environmental qualities, a key challenge is to clarify those benefits which more directly relate

to the SSSI. This point is developed in the final section below.

The SSSI has 11 special features:

▪ Precambrian rocks exposed in coastal cliffs and outcrops

▪ Vegetated coastal cliffs and cliff-top grassland

▪ Maritime heath

▪ Lowland dry heath

▪ Chough

▪ South Stack (Spathulate) fleawort

▪ Spotted rockrose

▪ An assemblage of scarce vascular plant, including pale heath violet, golden samphire,

rock sea-lavender and Portland spurge.

▪ Golden hair lichen and ciliate strap lichen

▪ Silver studded blue butterflies

In addition, the site has a mixture of habitats of scrub, ponds and rock outcrops which host a

variety of plant and animal species and create many specialist niche habitats.


Due to its variety of habitats including its geological interest, its panoramic views, and its

accessibility for a range of uses, the site has a range of benefits, prominent of which are:

Accessible experiencing of wild nature: The site offers opportunities, especially in the

South Stack area, for close up and spectacular experience of coastal cliffs and seabirds, just

a short walk from car parks. This can be a memorable sensation for many visitors, and can

provide an introduction to birds such as choughs and puffins, which can often be readily

viewed. The colonies of nesting seabirds also include guillemot, razorbill, fulmar, kittiwake

and peregrine.

Accessible experience of nesting sea birds: Visitors to the RSPB land at South Stack can

watch the seabirds using binoculars and telescopes or via live TV pictures at Ellin‟s Tower

visitor centre. From the reserve, visitors can climb down the 400 steps to access South

Stack Island and the Lighthouse (owned by the Isle of Anglesey County Council which

charges an admission fee).

Geological vintage: The site is notable for the recorded history of its geological features,

especially its folded Precambrian rock formations which have been visited and studied by

generations of geologists and geographers.

Special biological interest: The coastal cliffs and the associated grasslands are of major

botanical interest. For example the site supports the endemic South Stack fleawort, rare

31

lichens including ciliate strap-lichen and golden hair lichen, the nationally rare spotted

rockrose, and a good range of invertebrates including the silver-studded blue butterfly.

Diversity of recreation opportunities: The site is used by a great variety of visitors from a

local to a national catchment, including:

▪ specialist visitors for its biological and geological interest

▪ outdoor activity users, including rock climbing and coasteering

▪ passive recreation such as sea-watching and picnicking

▪ holiday makers from a national and international catchment, day visitors from throughout

the region, and by local residents from nearby Holyhead.

Field study and educational visits: The site is routinely visited for field study and

educational purposes by groups and schools from a local to a national catchment, for its

biological, geological and recreational interest.

Figure 6.1 Glannau Ynys Gybi

The spectacular cliffs at South Stack are a prominent part of Glannau Ynys Gybi SSSI. This part of the SSSI has

4,000 breeding seabirds including puffins and choughs, and is important for the recorded history of its geological

features, including the folded Precambrian rocks, which draw educational field visits from throughout Britain.


The main ecosystem services provided by Holy Island Coast are outlined in the table below.

Table 6.1 Ecosystem services from Holy Island Coast


Education: More than 4,000

seabirds breed on the cliffs,

including guillemots, puffins and

razorbills, while in the autumn

passing Manx shearwaters can

be seen. Visitors can watch

them all using binoculars and

telescopes or via live TV

pictures at Ellin‟s Tower visitor

Carbon absorption: the site is of

a large extent, with mostly thin

acidic soils, thus will have

modest carbon absorbing

properties. Research has been

undertaken on the scale of this

but the results are unknown to

the site‟s managers.

Water management: The site is

Sea fishing: A modest amount

of sea fishing occurs from the

lower rock ledges at specific

locations around the coastal

site. However, there is no direct

connection between this fishing

and the site‟s SSSI status and

management.

Sheep grazing: A limited

32

centre. From the reserve,

visitors can climb down the 400

steps to access South Stack

Island and the Lighthouse. The

educational benefits will

translate to inspiration and

therapeutic benefits for a

proportion of the visitors.

Passive outdoor recreation: The

site has a remarkable diversity

of passive recreational uses,

from sea watching and

picnicking, through to short-

distance walking, long-distance-

walking, local dog walking, and

birdwatching.

Active outdoor recreation:

Various locations at the site are

routinely used for active outdoor

pursuits both by small group

and individuals on a private

basis and by companies and

organisations on an organised

and commercial basis. Rock-

climbing and coasteering are

the main active outdoors

pursuits, with sea kayaking

occurring in the immediate

coastal waters. The rugged and

wild environment and the rich

variety of wildlife will enhance

the experience of these

activities.

Tourism: Many of the above

recreation activities occur as

part of tourism use of this area

of Anglesey. Due to its range of

natural assets and its natural

and constructed visitor facilities,

the site is an important tourism

destination, catering for active

and passive activities and

affording a range of

experiences. Visitor use and

numbers, and visitor spend

information below thus partly

relate to this tourism use.

Recorded history: The

geological interest of the

Precambrian cliffs creates a

type case which is referred to,

visited and studied by

geologists and geographers

throughout Britain and through

generations. Maintaining this

vintage of the site, for its

continued study and

educational role is a prime

objective of the site‟s

management.

Personal development and

skills: the RSPB has a regular

programme of volunteers who

not known to play a significant

role in water holding and water

absorption, but due to its scale

and its vegetation structure it

will offer some water absorption

properties which prevent abrupt

water run off. This will

particularly be the case for

surface water flows which on

coastal sites can be very

erosive.

amount of conservation grazing

occurs through the shepherding

project at the Holyhead

Mountain area

Possibly genetic conservation

as a high proportion of Crop

Wild Relatives are coastal.

33

play an integral role in

managing the South Stack area

of the site. Skills acquired by

these volunteers include:

wardening, survey work, visitor

management, practical land

management, and personal

confidence. Many of the

volunteers have been able to

apply the skills learnt later in

their career.

Quantification of Ecosystem Services

Overall visitor use and numbers

A range of surveys and visitor counts have been undertaken at the site, which allow some

appreciation of the scale of visitor use, especially at the heart of the area at South Stack and

Holyhead Mountain, and the neighbouring Breakwater Country Park. These figures are set out

below – the main headline figures to note are for the main two distinct destinations:

180,000 annual visits to South Stack Cliff Reserve (2004 Figures), of which the figures below

for the South Stack Lighthouse and the Ellis Tower Visitor centre will be subsets

120,000 annual visitors to Breakwater Country Park

In addition, there are locations elsewhere along the site which attract visitors both along the

coast path and at small car parks, but at which no counts are undertaken.

Annual visitor numbers for specific areas of the site:

South Stack Lighthouse 2009, between April and end of September: 18,428

South Stack Cliffs 2009, between April and end September: 43,862

RSPB visitor centre at Ellins Tower on South Stack annual approx: 30,000

Breakwater Country Park: 120,000

A large proportion of the Country Park‟s visitors are from the immediate locality, and many

people travel by foot from Holyhead.

An unknown proportion of the above figures will include repeat and regular visitors, including

local people.

Quality of experience

The above figures serve to indicate the popular nature of the site, which attracts tens of

thousands of people a year. However, it is important to recognise that the quality of each

person‟s experience is a significant factor in considering the site‟s benefits – the area is a

spectacular wild setting where the sea, the dramatic cliffs, the geological formations and the

seabirds, including choughs and puffins, can all be experienced up close. RSPB staff mention

that for some visitors the experience can be a unique one, and may inspire interest in similar

environments and wildlife of this type. The experience is enhanced for many people by the

availability of viewing scopes and a web cam in Ellin‟s Tower.


Set out below is the main summary information available on quantified use and benefits

associated with Glannau Ynys Gybi/Holy Island Coast.

Employment and business supplies

The RSPB reserve at South Stack employs six members of staff through the course of the

year. The RSPB also runs the site‟s only café, which employs some of these staff and

procures many of its provisions from local businesses.

34

Local businesses have been used for substantial contracts, such as refurbishing the visitor‟s

centre in 2007. Welsh companies were used to install solar panels on the roof, create an

artificial model of the cliffs, and provide rope-work for CCTV-related installation.

A local artist was also hired to illustrate the information on the information boards, which

further demonstrates the reserve‟s local cultural links.

Economic impacts of visitor spend

Based on an RSPB survey of 534 visitors, visitor spending in the local area amounted to

£223,000 in 2009, attributable directly to tourists and non-local visitors coming to South Stack

because of its experience of seabirds. This is estimated to support more than 6 FTE jobs in

the area in addition to the six employed on the reserve.

The 2009 RSPB survey also asked accommodation businesses in the immediate vicinity, such

as a local B&B establishment and a local farm B&B and campsite, for their view on the

proportion of trade linked to the wildlife and seabird interest at the site. The owners of these

businesses were of the view that the seabirds at South Stack were a significant draw for the

users of their establishments. The farm B&B and campsite advertise in the RSPB magazine

and the B&B establishment cites South Stack reserve as a major feature on its web site.

Visitor spend and employment at South Stack Island & Lighthouse

The iconic South Stack Lighthouse and Island is a dramatic location which affords a close up

experience of the sea and surrounding cliffs and seabirds. The site is managed by Anglesey

County Council. The Lighthouse received 18,428 visitors between Easter and the end of

September 2009. Visitors pay an entrance fee of £4 for adults and £2 for children. The

Lighthouse employs six members of staff during the high season.

Outdoor activity companies

The challenging outdoor environment of the site is harnessed for outdoor activity and outdoor

adventure companies, which bring visitors to the site for rock climbing and coasteering. No

figures on visitor spend or user numbers are available, but nine companies bring groups of

users to the site, some on a routine basis. In addition, two user-based organisations have links

with the site, including the British Mountaineering Council, which supports and promotes the

voluntary restriction of rock climbing at South Stack during seabird nesting season.

Benefits which relate to the wider landscape

The main benefits which have a link to neighbouring sites and the wider landscape can be

summarised as follows:

Coastal footpath: The Anglesey coastal footpath borders the coastline throughout the site.

Perhaps the majority of visitors at the site use discrete small sections of the path, such as the

30,000 people who descend from the car park to the RSPB‟s visitor centre. The path has to be

maintained to high and robust standards for the levels of use at the site. In addition for many

visitors, the path will be an introduction to coastal walking and wildlife and sea watching, and

the branding of the coastal path on the waymarking will serve to promote coastal walking in

Anglesey.

AONB status: due to its popularity and high environmental quality, the site is a prominent part

of the AONB. The combination of the different landscape and nature conservation

designations encourages stringent protection and management standards.

Experimentation and demonstration: Due to its scale and diversity the site has different

management challenges and demands. The site has been used for experimental approaches

to habitat management which can have lessons for elsewhere. Current examples include

gorse cutting programmes on the maritime heathland, and the conservation grazing shepherd

project at Holyhead Mountain.

Overall commentary

Glannau Ynys Gybi is notable for offering a wide range of benefits for people and for

accommodating tens of thousands of visitors a year across various parts of the extensive site.

35

A key question centres on the extent to which the SSSI status itself, influences the benefits

identified above. Three points can be made in relation to this:

Relationship between SSSI status and recreational benefits: For some types of visitor

use and recreation at the site, the presence of the SSSI may not directly influence the benefit.

For example, panoramic views out to sea and along the coast would be available from the

coastal path, and the sense of adventure and challenge from rock climbing and coasteering

would be apparent, regardless of the site‟s SSSI label. However, for these and for other visitor

and recreation experiences, the presence of a rich range of wildlife and of geological features

of interest at the site can heighten the experience for people. In addition, the combination of

landscape and wildlife designations has helped give the site stringent protection from new

infrastructure, built development and intrusive activities which could restrict people‟s ability to

use and enjoy these natural aspects of the site.

SSSI provides the rationale for sensitive land and visitor management: Although the site

has significant visitor numbers, its main rationale for conservation management is the

maintenance of the special wildlife and geology. These management objectives are the central

drivers which keep the focus the integrity of the SSSI. The SSSI status can be viewed as the

foothold and a key part of the rationale for many other land management and visitor

management measures, which result in a wide range of activities and associated benefits at

the site.

SSSI provides the foundation for other resources: The SAC and SPA status of the site

affords a greater weight of protection from potential threats to the wildlife and geological

interest. The SAC and SPA categories also give the location priority over sites without such

higher-level protection when bids for resources are made. However, amongst these levels of

protection, it is the SSSI which provides the foundation from which other tiers of protection can

be justified. Without the foothold provided by the SSSI criteria, further layers of protection

would not be able to be established.

36

7 Hatfield Moor


Hatfield Moor is located 10km east of Doncaster, South Yorkshire. It covers approximately

1,400 hectares, and contains one of the last remaining examples of lowland raised peat bog

in England. There is also a mosaic of other habitats, including lowland heath, scrub

woodland (primarily birch), and a number of medium-sized water bodies, adjacent to wide

swathes of agricultural land.

The presence of the lowland raised peat bog, unique in having been formed on nutrient-

deficient gravels, is the primary reason for the SSSI designation. There are also a number of

other designations attributed to the site:

▪ Special Protection Area (SPA). The presence of a significant breeding population of

nightjars, approximately 2% of the UK total, forms the primary reason for this

designation.

▪ Special Area of Conservation (SAC). The site is designated for the presence of

„degraded raised bog still capable of natural regeneration.‟

▪ National Nature Reserve (NNR).

The condition of the SSSI is currently rated as „unfavourable recovering‟, with approximately

88% of the total area assessed as such. The restoration regime focuses on continuous and

targeted management of natural water levels on the site, using methods such as bunding,

the strategic blocking and re-routing of surrounding ditches, and water-control points situated

throughout the site. The aim is to gradually restore the levels of peat, previously removed by

peat-cutting and other forms of habitat degradation; this will also assist in the natural

regeneration of a floral community typical of this bog habitat. The carefully controlled

management of water levels also serves to flood the roots of invasive birch trees at the

edges of the bog, making it easy to remove them and avoid excessive drying and reversion

of the habitat to scrub woodland. Low-intensity sheep grazing is a secondary management

tool: a small herd is frequently moved around the site, and is useful in keeping unfavourable

grasses and birch saplings in check.

The main adverse pressure on the site originates from the surrounding agricultural land:

drainage and water abstraction from the surrounding ditches and water bodies for

agricultural purposes can have a significant effect on the water table, and subsequently on

the efforts to maintain the correct levels for peat restoration. Agreements have been drawn

up between the site managers, water companies, the Environment Agency, and the owners

of adjacent farms, with the aim of ensuring that the needs of all parties are met without

threatening the integrity of the habitat.

Other adverse pressures include occasional agricultural run-off, which could have a

significant effect on soil nutrient levels and therefore vegetation structure, as well as

occasional recreational use, such as scrambler bikes and small four-wheel-drive vehicles.

The local police have been advised on the latter issue, and patrols of the site and

surrounding areas have reduced this problem.

There was no data available to indicate a breakdown of the costs devoted to site

management. There is one full-time Natural England officer responsible for the site, and he

works with a small team of staff and volunteers to carry out the required management

regime, and to continuously monitor the habitats and species present.

7.2 Benefits of the site

The site supports England‟s second largest remaining area of lowland raised peat bog. Mire vegetation communities include typical species such as cotton grasses (Eriophorum spp.), bog mosses (Sphagnum spp.), and locally uncommon species such as cranberry, bog myrtle and bog rosemary. The associated system of drainage ditches also plays host to a notably species-rich collection of Potamogeton pondweeds, and the nationally-rare short-leaved

37

water starwort has been recorded on the site. There are also significant areas of lowland dry and wet heath, and birch scrub woodland, containing species typical of these habitats.

Figure 7.1 Hatfield Moor

An area of restored peatland at Hatfield Moor. Typical mire vegetation is beginning to recolonise from the periphery.

The nightjar, a bird of national conservation concern, is a regular breeder on the site. The

species favours a habitat mosaic featuring low heath-type vegetation and scattered trees/

scrub woodland. This confers the optimum conditions required for breeding, and can be

found covering significant areas of Hatfield Moor. The SPA designation is attributable to the

nightjar population, but the site also plays host to breeding populations of a variety of other

bird species of local and national conservation concern, including nightingale and cuckoo.

The site is subject to regular survey and monitoring, particularly of its notable species, by a

team of professional ecologists and volunteers. A significant body of literature has

accumulated over several decades, and includes data on trends in populations found in and

around the site. The results of these trend analyses are generally positive, with the nightjar

population holding at roughly optimum levels for the habitat available, and mire vegetation

diversity showing a slight increase. A number of bird and invertebrate populations have

declined, but these may be a reflection of national declines and are not necessarily specific

to the site. Notable invertebrate species, such as bog bush cricket and large heath butterfly,

have been shown to be holding their numbers in recent years.

The SSSI designation is clearly a driver for the current management regime on the site, and

has certainly bolstered the available resources for continued monitoring and improvement of

habitats and species present. Although the site does benefit from some degree of isolation, it

is likely that urban encroachment, and the subsequent pressures from development,

resource use, and recreation, would have degraded the habitat far beyond that which is

capable of natural regeneration. Pressures from surrounding agricultural operations would

also have continued unabated, lowering the area‟s water table and allowing birch scrub to

encroach over the entire area. It is highly unlikely that the water management regime would

have been instigated in the absence of the SSSI designation.

The additional designations have served to provide additional legal protection against development or inappropriate resource use. The SPA and NNR designations in particular are important to ensure a protected buffer habitat and preserve the wider mosaic, which brings further protection from development pressure to the lowland bog.

38


The main ecosystem services provided by Hatfield Moors are outlined in Table 7-11.

Table 7-1: Ecosystem services for Hatfield Moors


As a whole, the site itself is

popular locally for a variety of

recreational uses, such as

walking and birdwatching.

These uses are primarily

associated with other areas of

the site rather than the lowland

raised peat bog habitat.

The biodiversity value of the

Moors is internationally

recognised and is an important

cultural service. Peats preserve

artefacts of past environments

Much of the cultural value has

been degraded but restoration

will likely increase most cultural

values – e.g. re wetting will help

preserve artefacts in peat; re-

vegetation will give a better

sense of peatland landscape.

The maintenance of the local

water table and the buffering

nature of the habitat provide

protection against flooding and

relative stability in the water

supply.

Peat bogs are also widely

recognised for their quality of

storing carbon and preventing

its escape to the atmosphere,

thereby providing a vital service

in regulating climate change.

There is little evidence of

provisioning services provided

by the SSSI. Sheep grazing has

taken place on Hatfield Moors

since 2004, but this is

connected largely with

management of the land as

opposed to meat production.

There is no clear data which would allow a fully accurate quantification of these various

services. With no visitor centre or manned entrance, visitor numbers are currently impossible

to quantify. Additionally, with the peat bog currently in its restoration phase, a full appraisal

on its carbon-storage capability, or its flood protection value, is very difficult to undertake.

However, the potential for significant benefits, especially when comparing the nature of other

sites across the country, is clear. Were the site not designated as a SSSI, it is likely that

water table fluctuations and the removal and degradation of peat bog would render these

benefits negligible at best.


For the reasons stated above, a full and quantitative evaluation of the services provided by

this site is very difficult to produce.

There are plans to construct a visitor centre on the site, which will boost Natural England‟s

ability to attract visitors and monitor trends in visitor numbers. The site is very popular with

local residents, and to a lesser extent with visitors from the rest of South Yorkshire and

bordering counties.

There are some conflicting political pressures related to the running of the site. Cuts in

funding at a national level are likely to hinder plans for a visitor centre. A steering committee

incorporating a variety of stakeholders has previously questioned plans to popularise the site

to the wider public, fearing degradation of the habitat with increased visitor numbers and

unsuitable recreational use. However, existing events, such as seasonal nightjar-watching

walks, have proven very popular. The site does have a strong potential to attract more

paying visitors, which could significantly bolster the management budget and, if modelled on

other successful county reserves such as RSPB Old Moor near Barnsley, will not hinder

efforts to maintain and restore vital habitats.

39

The SSSI, with its clear focus on the lowland raised peat bog, may not immediately appear

to be of benefit in relation to increasing visitor numbers. However, the SSSI designation

drives the management regime, particularly water table control and grazing, across the entire

site, and therefore influences the mosaic of habitats available for nationally-important

species of plant, bird, and invertebrate. Although the other designations confer vital legal

protection and certain management obligations, in this case it is clear that the SSSI is the

primary motivator for management decisions related to all aspects of the site, and its

inherent value.

40

8 Humber Estuary


The Humber Estuary is the second-largest coastal plain estuary in the UK, and the largest on

the east coast. The estuary drains a catchment area of some 24,472 km2, around 20% of the

total land surface of England14

. A significant feature of the Humber is the large tidal range,

due to its position within the North Sea basin, which has led to its classification as a macro-

tidal estuary. Its turbidity15

is due to suspended sediment and transport of this sediment is

vital for the estuary's functioning. The deposited sediments provide essential material to

maintain the estuary's important habitats such as mudflats, sandflats and saltmarsh.

The Humber is a prominent port site with an average of 40,000 ship movements per year.

Industrial activity dominates areas of its shores including chemical works, oil refinery

complexes and power stations. Alongside this industrial and economic activity, biodiversity

flourishes and therefore careful management is required to balance both environmental and

economic activity and the vested interest of ABP and Crown Estate, owners of the port areas

and Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Wildlife Trusts and the RSPB who own and manage a

proportion of the estuary, which holds special interest for birds and seals.

The Humber supports a rich variety of habitats and species and is recognised as one of the

most important estuaries in Europe. It supports 9 species of birds of international

importance, including 22 wintering waterfowl and 9 passage waders, and a nationally

important assemblage of breeding birds of lowland open waters and their margins16

. It is also

nationally important for a breeding colony of grey seals, and for river lamprey and sea

lamprey. The main habitats include saltmarsh, sand dunes, brackish water reedbeds, and

saline lagoons that together provide habitats for a diversity of rare flora and fauna. It is due

to the presence of these important habitats and species that the Humber has been given a

number of nature conservation designations under UK, European and international law,

including SSSI designation in 2004, making it the third largest SSSI in the country (3,404

hectares in size).

To ensure the Humber Estuary and its associated features are maintained in favourable

condition, a Management Scheme has been developed by 30 relevant authorities known as

the 'Humber Estuary Relevant Authorities Group‟. The aim of the scheme is to ensure

activities are managed sustainably and to identify human activities that may have a

detrimental effect on the key features of the site, as well as assessing current management

of these activities and where necessary, prescribing future management actions.


As the Humber Estuary is mostly in favourable condition, little work has been done to

improve the condition of the site or to change the composition of species and habitats.

However, the SSSI designation helps Natural England to focus on monitoring the location of

wintering birds on site, and to decrease the development pressures in the area to conserve

the diversity of species and habitats in the Estuary. The habitats are of importance to

national biodiversity, supporting a range of wildlife and forming key features of the Humber

estuary as detailed below:

▪ Intertidal mudflats & sandflats - the Humber's intertidal areas provide a complex and

highly productive ecosystem that supports a wide range of habitats and species,

including invertebrates such as marine worms and molluscs, which in turn provide a

vital source of food for fish and birds.

▪ Saltmarsh - the saltmarshes of the Humber are predominantly ungrazed and provide

a habitat for nationally rare wildlife. Coastal squeeze is the biggest threat to the

14

Humber Estuary European Marine Site - http://www.humberems.co.uk/humber/ 15

ibid 16

Environment Agency, Appendix C Humber Estuary SSSI Citation

http://www.humberems.co.uk/humber/legislation.php

http://www.humberems.co.uk/management/authorities.php

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/med_sm.jpg

http://www.humberems.co.uk/humber/

41

remaining saltmarsh on the Humber, caused by sea defences that hinder the natural

migration of the salt marsh inland, as sea level rises.

▪ Coastal Lagoons – coastal lagoons are a rare and threatened habitat supporting a rich

variety of unique wildlife e.g. starlet sea anemone and tentacled lagoon worm.

▪ Sand Dunes - sand dunes are important systems illustrating vegetation succession and

coastal physiographic processes.

The main species existing in Humber habitats of national importance include:

▪ Birds - the Humber is one of the 10 most important estuaries in Europe for birds. It

supports internationally important populations of seven waterfowl species that are listed

in Annex I of the Birds Directive. These species are in danger of extinction, rare or

vulnerable, and their habitat is subject to special conservation measures to ensure their

survival and reproduction.

▪ Grey Seals - the Donna Nook area of the estuary supports one of the largest grey seal

breeding colonies in England. Grey seals are amongst the rarest seals in the world and

the UK population represents about 40% of the world population and 95% of the EU

population.

▪ River & Sea Lamprey - the estuary provides an important migration route for lamprey,

which are one of the most primitive of all living vertebrate animals.

Figure 8.1 Mud flats along the Humber Estuary

Source: Archaeology Data Service


The main ecosystem services provided by the Humber Estuary are summarised in the table

below.

Table 8.1 Ecosystem services for the Humber estuary

Cultural

Regulating

Provisioning

The estuary attracts a number of

fishing boats (where fishing is a

pastime) annually due to its prime

location.

An intense population of birds and

seals in the winter attracts a large

Intertidal habitats provide an

important regulating service – flood

risk management – by dampening

the effects of waves by reducing

their energy as they pass over

them.

The estuary serves as a nursery

ground for the local fishing and

angling community. 17

Possibly genetic conservation as a

high proportion of Crop Wild

Relatives are coastal.

17 There is no significant commercial fishing within the Humber Estuary and most of the fishing vessels located in the Estuary operate offshore in the North Sea (ABP Port of Immingham Master Plan 2010-2030, Chapter 9 Environment)

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/lagoon_sm.jpg

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/IECS---Sea-Holly_sm.jpg

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/Avocet_sm.jpg

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/sea-pup_sm.jpg

http://humberems.co.uk/assets/images/features/Lamprey_sm.jpg

42

number of visitors to the area

annually. Spurn Point, at the mouth

of the estuary, attracts migrant birds

and is visited by large numbers of

birdwatchers.

The Humber estuary also provides

high research value due to its high

population of rare wintering birds.

For instance, the estuary provides

the ground for research on birds at

Hull University‟s Institute of Estuary

and Coastal Studies (IECS) and the

University of Leeds.

The Humber Estuary is also popular

for outdoor sports such as jet-skiing

and paragliding. The estuary is also

the ground for the Humber Yaw

club, which adds recreational value

to the site.

The Alkborough Flats site

contributes to water regulation

(timing, scale of run-off, flooding)

and also to natural hazard

regulation (e.g. storm protection)

The bed of the estuary is also

known to capture heavy metal and

other pollutants such phosphorous

produced from local industrial

estates and helps reduce the

amount of heavy metal from water

bodies.

The Alkborough Flats site is the location of a coastal setback scheme in the Humber

Estuary. This £10.2 million realignment scheme brings together stakeholders including the

Environment Agency, Natural England, Associated British Ports and North Lincolnshire

Council18

with the aim of improving flood risk management and biodiversity alongside social

and economic benefits to the local community. The new wetland habitats created at the

Alkborough Flats site met the Environment Agency‟s national Biodiversity Action Plan targets

for saltmarsh and mudflat habitat creation for 2006-07.


The net benefits of the Alkborough Flats managed retreat scheme have been estimated by

the Environment Agency19

(Table 8.2).

Table 8.2: Estimated value of ecosystem services net value of ecosystem services delivered

by Alkborough Flats managed realignment scheme

Ecosystem Service Annual Benefit Assessed

Provisioning Services

Food MINUS £28,075

Fibre and fuel £26,820 (wool minus straw)

Genetic resources £3,000

Regulating Services

Climate regulation £14,553 from carbon sequestration

Natural hazard regulation £408,667

Cultural services

Recreation and tourism £164,830 excluding informal recreation

Provision of Habitat £535,000

Navigation MINUS £5,000

18

Environment Agency (2009), „Ecosystem services case studies‟

19 Environment Agency (2009) Ecosystem Services case Studies. http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/SCHO0409BPVM-e-e.pdf

43

Supporting Services

Primary Production £8,160 (monoculture to complex habitat)

Alkborough Flats comprises 440 ha of low-lying land on the south bank of the Humber

estuary which is currently the UK‟s largest managed re-alignment site. In 2006 a 20 m wide

breach was cut into the flood defence bank and 170 ha of land was converted to inter-tidal

mudflat, saltmarsh and reedbed. The remaining land serves as storage capacity during

extreme storm surges. It is calculated that there is an annual flood protection benefit of

£408,667.

The area has been lost as arable farmland though there is some income from grazing

livestock. The area has become a haven for wildlife with 150 bird species recorded, including

thousands of migratory birds such as lapwing and golden plover in winter. The value of

wildlife and habitat on the site has been valued at £535,000 per year. The restored intertidal

area also plays a role in climate regulation (approximately 539 tonnes per year of carbon are

trapped in sediments worth an estimated £14,553 per year), air quality improvement, nutrient

and pollutant sequestration, and recreation and tourism.

The SSSI designation enables development pressures from the ports and other industrial

industries to be reduced and helps to prioritise environmental protection. The production

activities in the industrial estates, as well as the movement of ships to and from ports, can

create a disturbance which is unfavourable for breeding birds and other species; however,

the SSSI designation provides environmental stakeholders with a tool to limit

environmentally damaging activity. Without the SSSI designation, it is likely that conservation

outcomes would not be as highly considered during planning permission decisions. In

addition to this, the SSSI designation also helps the wildlife trusts and RSPB to obtain

funding which enables these NGOs to carry out conservation activities. The SAC and SPA

designations give greater priority to the protection of the site but are believed to have little

additional effect on its management, compared to the SSSI designation.

44

9 King’s Sedgemoor


King‟s Sedgemoor is part of the Somerset Levels and Moors grazing marsh and ditch

systems, located in the middle of the Altcar series peat basin in the Sedgemoor and South

Somerset district. The Rivers Parrett and Cary are the main waterways in the area. The

drained land is low lying alluvium and surface peat. Covering an area of 822 hectares, King‟s

Sedgemoor SSSI consists of 93.5% neutral grassland and 6.5% standing open water and

canals, which contain a wide variety of neutral grasslands and eutrophic deep-water flora,

typified by the yellow water-lily (Nuphar lutea). A high water table with shallow standing

water on some fields and abundant soil invertebrates makes the area attractive to wintering

birds, such as lapwing and golden plover. King‟s Sedgemoor is also home to a range of

invertebrates and other wildlife and has historic value, as it gives an insight into how

farmland looked and was farmed a hundred years ago. Most of the land is divided into small

fields separated by ditches and hedges. Large parts of the SSSI designated land on King‟s

Sedgemoor are also designated as a Special Protection Area (SPA), Ramsar site and

National Nature Reserve.

Figure 9.1 King‟s Sedgemoor

View of one of the main watercourses on King‟s Sedgemoor

The 2004 review of habitat condition conducted by English Nature (now Natural England)

estimated that around a quarter of King‟s Sedgemoor was in favourable condition, while the

remaining three quarters was in unfavourable condition with no change. The reasons for

these adverse conditions were low water levels owing to inappropriate drainage, water

pollution due to high fertiliser use and intensive agriculture, as well as excessive run off.

Habitat condition has recently been reassessed and results were published in early August

2010. All of King‟s Sedgemoor is now in unfavourable recovering or favourable condition,

which is largely due to recent investments in infrastructure and improved farming practices. It

is expected that, if current improvements planned for the area are undertaken, King‟s

Sedgemoor will achieve favourable condition within the next three years.

The land on King‟s Sedgemoor is mostly privately owned and primarily used for cattle

grazing and provision of winter fodder. Ditches provide drinking water for livestock and

function as wet fences. The drainage systems are managed in part by the Environment

Agency (taking care of the major waterways and infrastructure), Parrett Internal Drainage

Board (managing medium-sized watercourses and ditches) and private land owners

45

(responsible for smaller ditches/rhynes). Under the current management regime, water levels

are kept relatively high during the summer to provide wet fences and support growth of grass

and crops. In the winter, water levels are lowered to hold increased rainfall and runoff as well

as reduce the risk of floods. Managing the ditch system entails regular clearing and dredging

of ditches and rhynes as well as maintenance of control structures.

Cattle grazing takes place on most of the land in the summer months, and is important for

achieving conservation outcomes. In this way, appropriate land use systems balance

agricultural practice and conservation. Agri-environment agreements exist for many plots on

King‟s Sedgemoor and the area is farmed almost entirely without the use of fertiliser. High

phosphate levels in the area are caused by sewage works in and around Taunton as well as

fertiliser from surrounding farms.


The designation of King‟s Sedgemoor and similar land locally as protected areas has been

crucial in their continued existence, due to the allocation of funds to water level management

and subsequent maintenance of ditches and control structures. SPA and SSSI designation

has been particularly helpful in attracting both political attention and funding to the area,

although SPA designation has been viewed to be the more important of the two for gaining

access to EU funding streams such as Leader +, LIFE, and WAVE. With the establishment

of the Somerset Levels and Moors Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme, payment

was initiated to help farmers maintain the character of the landscape. The ESA has now

been superseded by the Environmental Stewardship Scheme.

Had the ESA not been established, securing the continuing maintenance of the drainage

system and the history of the Somerset Levels and Moors would have been very different. It

is likely that one of the two following scenarios would have taken place:

A. Intensification of agriculture; disappearance of ditches and development of larger tracts

of arable land. This would likely lead to peat shrinkage and loss of carbon,

disappearance of wildlife and more damage to water quality. Running costs of farmland

would be higher and larger pumps required. Farming practices in this scenario could be

similar to intensive agriculture seen in the Fens; and/or

B. Abandonment of land; the Environment Agency would stop funding water management

and the area would gradually turn into woodland. More trees would appear, while

ditches would vanish and farming would become increasingly difficult. The wildlife would

change completely, with transformation of habitat occurring. Key transport links cutting

through the area could mitigate against this development but only in limited places.


The main ecosystem services provided by King‟s Sedgemoor are outlined in Table 9.1. This

table is based on the Water Level Management Plan20

and consultation with Natural

England.

Table 9.1: Ecosystem services on King's Sedgemoor


King‟s Sedgemoor serves multiple

recreational purposes including

The peat is an important carbon

sink and the water level

Nearly all of the land is used for

cattle grazing. The grasslands also

20

King’s Sedgemoor and Aller Moor Water Level Management Plan was approved in July 2010 and sets out the management

system and individual responsibilities of each of these agents, assisting the performance of nature conservation duties and

ensuring continuing appropriate investment in infrastructure across the Plan area. The Water Level Management Plan takes a

holistic approach to management, integrating farming practices and conservation objectives.

46

walking, angling, birdwatching,

exercising and photography.

The peat preserves and is an

important sources for

archaeological remains and there

have been numerous finds in the

area, e.g. the Bronze Age find at

Greylake.

King‟s Sedgemoor ensures the

continuation of farming practices

and a natural landscape dating back

more than a hundred years.

management regime prevents peat

shrinkage and subsequent loss of

carbon.

King‟s Sedgemoor is a flood plain

and serves to protect surrounding

properties.

The moors in Somerset form part of

the Council‟s strategy on climate

change adaptation21

.

provide winter fodder. Despite the

restrictions on fertiliser use the

grassland is relatively productive

due partly to periodic flooding.

The drainage system provides

water for cattle and for irrigation.

Ditches also serve to pen in cattle.

As a grassland/ wetland system the

site hosts a wide range of Crop Wild

Relative taxa, most notably forage

and fodder grasses and clovers.

Withies (young willow stems) have

been grown commercially in this

area since the 19th century for

basket making although it is not

clear whether they are grown witin

the SSSI


There is no comprehensive valuation study of any of the ecosystem services on King‟s

Sedgemoor and it is not possible to arrive at a reliable estimate for the net benefit of SSSI

designation. Costs include funding allocated to farmers through agri-environment schemes,

separate funding streams, investments in capital works and maintenance, staff time and

other maintenance costs. Illustrations of these costs are given below.

Table 9.2: Costs associated with the upkeep of King's Sedgemoor

Item Cost Remarks

Agri-Environment

Schemes

Approximately £85k was allocated to King‟s

Sedgemoor through ESA in 2005/622

.

This figure is for illustrative

purposes only; most ESA

agreements have expired and

replaced by Environmental

Stewardship Schemes.

Other funding streams £875,000 was allocated through the „Water

Adaptation is Valuable for Everybody‟ (WAVE)

programme which funded an RSPB and Somerset

Drainage Boards project to increase the resilience

and adaptability of habitats on Kings Sedgemoor23

.

The cost of the King‟s

Sedgemoor project is only part

of this figure.

Capital works and

maintenance

Annual water level and flood management

expenditure in Somerset Levels and Moors is

around £7m24

. Annual maintenance and operating

costs in King‟s Sedgemoor are approximately £50k

a year – includes weed cutting, adjustments of

water levels25

.

Some investments affect areas

beyond King‟s Sedgemoor, e.g.

greylake sluice affects

moorlinch, and serve multiple

purposes such as irrigation and

flood risk management

21

Somerset County Council (2008) Responding to climate change in Somerset. http://www.somerset.gov.uk/irj/go/km/docs/CouncilDocuments/SCC/Documents/Environment/Sustainable%20Development/20080220RespondingToClimateChangeInSomerset.pdf 22

English Nature and Defra: AGRI ENVIRONMENT SCHEMES IN ENGLAND - 2005/6 Data. http://www.natureonthemap.org.uk/agrienvonsssis.html

23 Somerset County Council: Developing more „climate-resilient‟ water systems in Somerset.

http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/content/download/562588/2001567/file/Somerset%20County%20Council_Developing%20

more%20%27climate-resilient%27%20water%20systems%20in%20Somerset.pdf 24

2004 figure. From RPA „Macro-economic assessment of Somerset Levels and Moors – Executive summary‟. Obtained from the Environment Agency. 25

Consultation with Environment Agency.

47

structure.

Staff time Staff time dedicated to maintenance by

Environment Agency, the Internal Drainage Board

and private landowners.

The table below demonstrates some initial steps to valuing some of the ecosystem services

outlined above in Table 9.2.

Table 9.3 Examples of ecosystem service benefits on King‟s Sedgemoor

Ecosystem service Benefit Remarks

Agricultural output Total agricultural output from SSSI. Net benefit likely to be small or

negative as much of benefit would

have occurred anyway in scenario

A.

Carbon storage It is likely that there would be a net carbon loss if

land use changed from current use to Scenario A

(intensification of agriculture) or B (abandonment

of land).

Current level of carbon storage

compared to that of intense

agricultural land or forest.

Flood protection The effect on flood risk locally has not been

quantified. Comparing current level of flood

protection with that in Scenario A or B gives

indication of benefit of reduction of flood risk.

Number of properties and level of

risk reduction determine size of

benefit.

Archaeology 2001 study showed that ESA Tier 1 gave little or

no protection against the threat of peat wastage

and destruction of waterlogged archaeological

remains while SSSI designation provided greater

protection26

The role of SSSI designation has been particularly important, together with SPA designation,

in attracting the funding necessary for the continued maintenance of the drainage system. As

the hydrology, and ultimately the ecosystems, is regulated by the drainage system, the

supporting services, habitat and species are largely determined by the water level

management regime. Therefore, a large share of the net benefit should be allocated to SSSI

designation. The importance of individual SSSIs within the area could then be assessed.

26

Farrow, N. (2001) Archaeology and peat wastage on the Somerset Moors, Environment Agency, North Wessex Region

48

10 Lower Usk


The Lower Usk is a distinct SSSI unit of the River Usk and is the focus of this case study.

For some brief context, the river Usk extends over 120km from source to mouth. The river

has many qualities which contribute to its SSSI status. The Usk is a fine example of a river

running over sandstone and its special interest derives from its important plant and animal

communities. The Lower Usk acts as an unconstrained river in much of its course – it has a

wide floodplain with active meanders and channels, and these form part of the dynamic

biological interest and diversity of the site. The diverse habitats of the Lower Usk include

woodland, grassland, swamp and marginal vegetation, mudflats and saltmarsh. Craneflies

are associated with some of the silty river edges, and much of the river bed is exposed as

mud banks around Newport because of the wide tidal range of the Severn Estuary. The

mudbanks support small shellfish and worms, which in turn attract birds such as redshank

and oystercatchers. The whole river and tributaries are designated as a Special Area of

Conservation. The Lower Usk‟s SAC status derives from the presence of otters and fish

species (Atlantic salmon, twaite shad and allis shad, sea lamprey and river lamprey, brook

lamprey, bullhead) and floating Ranunculus vegetation. There are near-natural flows of water

all year, and the water is relatively free from pollution, allowing salmon to migrate to their

spawning grounds further up the river. The Lower Usk connects to neighbouring SSSIs of

the Upper Usk to the north and Severn Estuary to the south.

The main resources devoted to protection and management of the SSSI relate to staff

resources for case work associated with development pressures, and liaison with

landowners, occupiers and fisheries interests over the control of potentially damaging

activities. Given the extent of development and regeneration in the Newport area, intensive

staff time is often allocated to influencing planning proposals and the design of development

schemes, to ensure the integrity of the SSSI is not harmed.

Other costs for site management are very modest, and relate to:

▪ Control of invasive giant hogweed along stretches of the river bank: volunteers are

mainly used at an annual cost of £1,000 for their training

▪ Modest sums have been spent on management agreements for pollarding

▪ Staff time for commenting on discharge consents.


The main examples of the SSSI and SAC status contributing to the benefits of the site are:

▪ The SSSI status is influential in protecting the river from constraining development

which could impact on habitats and water quality along its course, and could impact on

the course and morphology of the river itself. Thus the Lower Usk has a dynamic state

and exhibits natural processes, and distinct features form naturally, such as cut-off ox-

bow lakes. Good water quality is a key factor in maintaining healthy stocks of fish and in

supporting river habitats of wet woodlands, marshy grassland, swamp and saltmarsh.

▪ The water quality is a benefit in its own right but has many related consequences, in

particular its ability to support fish, amphibians and invertebrates in good numbers,

which also act as food sources for the otter and fish species.

▪ The mudflats in the urban area at Newport are safeguarded and maintained in a healthy

state, at a location where there is intensive development pressure close to the river.

This in turn retains the integrity of the habitat at this course of the river, which helps the

flow of migratory fish, including salmon.

▪ In the more open rural courses of the river, the river has stringent protection from

embankments and stabilisation work, which might be proposed from farming and

49

fisheries interests. This ensures river edge habitats are maintained with benefits

especially for craneflies, otters, and birds.

▪ Gravel extraction does occur on the river but is limited in its extent due to the SSSI and

SPA protection.

▪ Restoration of riparian habitats has been undertaken by bodies including the Wye and

Usk Foundation, making use of funds from EU grant sources. The SSSI and SAC status

of the area helps ensure eligibility for such funds.

There is a small range of water-based activities (such as dinghy and private boat sailing) and

a greater variety of informal recreation activities (including walking and cycling) along the

riverside. These activities attract people both locally based and from a much wider

catchment. For example, people doing parts of the whole of the Usk Valley walk often travel

from London. The undeveloped riverside and the quality of the habitats and wildlife greatly

enhance the experience for visitors.

Figure 10.1 The Lower Usk

The Lower Usk is a prominent feature amongst the urban renewal of central Newport. New development has been

sensitive to the river environment and its mudflats. This ensures the river is an integral feature of the area‟s

regeneration and allows people and visitors to experience the river and its wildlife.

The Lower Usk‟s connectivity both upstream and to the Severn Estuary and the Gwent

Levels, creates a variety of ways in which benefits link to the wider landscape and to

neighbouring wildlife sites. For example:

▪ Bats: Bats have European protection and are more prevalent along the Upper Usk but

they use further stretches on the river in the Lower Usk as feeding sites.

▪ Otters: Otters move between the Lower Usk and the Gwent levels and the river seven.

▪ Bankside vegetation: Control of invasive bankside vegetation in one area can halt the

spread to other areas along the river.

▪ Fisheries: The entire length of the river acts as a passage for migrating fish – impacts at

any stage of the river would affect the fish movements and fisheries use of other parts

of the river.

▪ Walking: Walking routes along the river valley connect both to the South Wales Coast

and to hills (some of which contain other SSSIs) either side of the river valley.

50


The main ecosystem services provided by Lower Usk are outlined in the table below.

Table 10.1 Ecosystem services for the Lower Usk


Fisheries as a cultural service -

“Fishing in superb unspoilt

surroundings”.

Flood management - the natural

flood plain acts as a natural

flood buffer and avoids the need

for major flood defence

schemes.

Fisheries - the river, especially

in a healthy state, provides a

migration corridor for fish, some

of which have a high economic

value such as Atlantic salmon.

Recreation – The river provides

an important setting for informal

recreation for local people, and

for visitors within the region and

beyond. The main recreational

activity is walking along

stretches of the river corridor,

including the Usk Valley Walk.

Some limited boating such as

dinghy and canoe use, occurs

along the river.

Water quality – the natural

water flow and the protection

from development helps

maintain high water quality. The

Usk Catchment Management

Abstraction Strategy is

overseen by the Environment

Agency Wales and helps

influence water flow and water

quality.

Water abstraction – the river

acts as a source of clean water:

two major abstraction locations

occur along the Upper Usk and

several smaller abstractions

elsewhere on the Upper and

Lower Usk. The smaller

abstractions do not create a

problem for the river‟s

hydrological processes, but

natural flow variability, which is

crucial to the migratory fish (for

example influencing spawning

and nursery sites, and

movement of juvenile fish), can

be negatively affected by the

larger abstractions. The

abstractions are conditioned by

consents, which in turn are

informed by the Usk Catchment

Abstraction Management

Strategy.

There is an outdoor education

centre at Newport.

Training and skills e.g. location

of NPC certificates for spraying

of herbicides.

River habitats and wildlife,

including fish, are explained to

visitors at various river-side

interpretation boards, including

at heavily used water-side paths

and footbridges in Newport (see

figure 10.2).

There is a local direct regulatory

effect on climate of

freshwaters.

Gravel abstraction – the river

acts as a source of gravel at

certain locations. Gravel

abstraction can affect the river

profile, thus impeding a natural

water flow regime. It can also

damage fish spawning sites

which depend on gravel, as well

as invertebrate habitats, which

act as important food sources

for fish, and which are based on

gravel deposits along the river.

Strict conditions are maintained

on the amount and the timing of

gravel abstraction, with

consents required from

Environment Agency Wales,

Countryside Council for Wales,

and the local authority.

Riverside arts centre at Newport

makes use of its outlook onto

the river.

51

Figure 10.2 The Lower Usk

A view of the Lower Usk showing the unconstrained and natural channel of the river.


There is little direct evidence available to point to the direct economic worth of the benefits of

the Lower Usk‟s environmental quality and associated high biodiversity value. For example,

the river creates a green lung within the regeneration of Newport, and much new major

commercial development, housing developments and walkways have all been oriented to

benefit from the natural setting of the river. This directly benefits the area‟s image, its

property values, and the quality of people‟s lives and their physical and mental health. Thus

the natural setting of the river in its urban environment would clearly amount to substantial

values if calculated rigorously.

Wider economic benefits associated with the fisheries use of the river, and linked to its

environmental quality, have been calculated. The Wye and Usk Foundation is the main

association for fishing interests which covers the Lower Usk. In 2010 the Foundation carried

out a survey of activities and expenditure associated with a proportion (less than 30%) of the

fisheries resource of the rivers Usk and Wye. The survey was connected to use of the

fisheries licensing for the rivers under the Wye and Usk Passport Scheme. The survey found

that such fisheries use of the two rivers yields revenues of £1.02m to the economy of the

local area. However, the survey suggested that if salmon numbers could be helped to return

to sustainable levels as experienced in former years, the economic gain to the local

economy could be up to eight times greater than the present figure. The Wye and Usk

Foundation conclude: “By establishing the rivers as an economic asset, there is a powerful

incentive to look after them”.

The Lower Usk retains a high quality environment for a variety of wildlife, habitats and

natural resources, and this in turn allows people to benefit from visiting and experiencing

these factors, and from harnessing the fisheries resource. The habitat health and unpolluted

environment is largely a result of the influence of the SSSI. The SSSI helps to ensure there

is protection of the habitats from fragmentation and piecemeal harm, and it is a key driver for

the maintenance of the water quality and the maintenance of the river‟s natural flow

processes.

52

11 Malltraeth Marsh


Malltraeth Marsh/Cors Ddyga is an extensive grazing marsh of 1,366.5 ha in south-west

Anglesey. There are 60 landowners across the site, most of whom are small private farms.

An RSPB reserve has been established at the eastern end of the site to manage and enlarge

areas of reedbed, wet pasture and open water.

The whole marsh was reclaimed from estuarine marshes following the construction of the

large embankment of Malltraeth Cob and the canalisation of the Afon Cefni after 1824. The

original drainage system comprised clay-lined ditches to carry water from higher land across

the floodbanks of the Cefni. This drainage system appears to have been destroyed with the

post-war introduction of heavy drainage machinery, resulting in the lowering of water levels

in summer. This, together with large increases in stocking levels, has led to a major decline

in the area‟s ground nesting birds. Before the post-war agricultural change the site was

clearly a wildlife feature of national significance, as it was identified in the 1947 Huxley

Report, Cmd 7122, which advised government on the setting up of Britain‟s post war

conservation systems and the first candidate nature reserves.

Today, extensive areas of the site are agriculturally improved grassland which although

managed intensively, have strong aquatic and floristic interest along the ditches, drains and

cut-off meanders which are still abundant across most of the site. The collective resource of

these channels and ditches provides one of the main wildlife features of the area. However,

these channels and ditches are largely unmaintained and thus the wildlife value is well below

its potential. Maintenance of wider and deeper ditches would greatly enhance the site‟s

biodiversity but this measure is difficult to incentivise across so many landowners.

The site is in unfavourable condition, and the extent to which it is recovering is unclear,

although the pro-active management of the RSPB holding means its specific part of the site

will be in „unfavourable recovering‟ condition.

As well as the SSSI status, the site contains the Morfa Mawr Regionally Important

Geological Site. The site is also influenced by the water level management plan of the

Malltraeth Marsh Internal Drainage Board.

The main resource commitment devoted to the site involves CCW staff time spent seeking to

influence land owners and stakeholders involved in management of specific parts of the site.

Management agreements currently involve modest annual expenditures of £470.

Capital costs are expended in some years on works to de-silt and de-weed old meanders.

There are no current active schemes, however. RSPB devotes resources to re-engineering

parts of its holding, and enlarging areas of reedbed, open water and wet grassland. The

objective is to create a larger and better quality habitat.

Planning policy, together with AONB status, gives the area stringent protection, officially, and

the site is only 3m above sea level. Consequently it is not a focus for development

pressures.

Himalayan balsam has invaded parts of the NE of the site and may outcompete some of the

native species of interest on bankside habitats. RSPB and volunteers from local

neighbourhoods have been helping keep this invasive non-native plant in check.

53

Figure 11.1 Malltreath Marsh

A aerial view showing part of the extent of Malltraeth Marsh, with the Afon Cefni on the left


The specific main ecological interests of the site can be summarised as:

▪ Open water of the ditches and old river meanders, with associated plants such as reed

canary-grass, water-plantain and branched bur-reed. The aquatic fern pillwort is also

present and although declining at a UK level, is at stable levels across the site.

▪ The site hosts the variable dragonfly, and a water beetle, Hydrochus brevis. Breeding

birds of lowland wet grassland, such as lapwing, snipe, redshank and curlew, are

present but in declining numbers. Nationally important numbers of wintering shoveler

are present, and breeding birds of open water include teal, gadwall and pochard. Water

vole, although declining across the UK, is widespread across this site.

▪ The security provided by the SSSI status has helped the RSPB to decide to acquire and

manage a landholding on the site, which in turn has enhanced the wildlife value of its

specific area, provided some limited but increasing access and education benefits, and

is raising the current level of management standards on the site, demonstrating the

site‟s greater potential for wildlife and associated benefits for specialist interests and the

public.


The main ecosystem services provided by Malltraeth Marsh are outlined in the table below

Table 11.1 Ecosystem services from Malltraeth Marsh

Cultural

Regulating Provisioning

Tranquillity and sense of nature:

The site is an extensive pastoral

environment, with a marked sense

of openness and tranquillity.

Coupled with the experience of

nature, such as hearing insects,

watching birds, hearing the

prominent dawn chorus, these

natural elements of the site are

palpable and are strongly linked to

the SSSI‟s protective provision.

Water regulation: The site is a

large water system with great water

holding capacity. This is largely

influenced by the local IDD and

Environment Agency Wales.

Livestock produce: A majority of

the farm enterprises throughout the

site are engaged in livestock

grazing and associated agricultural

produce from sheep and from cattle.

54

Cycling: The cycleway is a

significant linear feature running

along the banks of the Afon Cefni.

The experience of cycling through

the area is one of tranquillity, open

views and varied wildlife interest.

The SSSI is a major contributor to

this high quality experience.

Carbon absorption: the extensive

wet soils make a genuine rather

than token contribution to carbon

absorption, although no research

and measurement has been

undertaken of this feature of the

site.

Meat from the Marsh: Anglesey

Grazing Project is establishing a

marketing scheme for meat from

conservation grazing. At least two

and up to six Malltraeth Marsh

graziers may be involved in

supplying meat with this premium

brand.

Arts, especially painting: The

south western end of the site

together with the link to

Newborough Warren has a long

tradition of artists, including

celebrated painters, gaining

inspiration from the estuary, wetland

and marsh settings with their big

skies, bird populations and other

wildlife.

Pollination: The extent and

diversity of the site‟s floristic value

means that it will act as a pollination

resource.

Rough shooting: A limited amount

of rough shooting occurs across the

site.

Visitors and tourism:

Neighbouring and local tourism

establishments, including two

holiday and caravan parks, use the

wildlife to market their location.

Survey and monitoring: Plant

species are monitored at the site by

the Botanical Society of the British

Isles and bird counts are

undertaken by the British Trust for

Ornithology for parts of the Birds

Atlas and the wetland birds survey.

Research: The site is used as a

research resource by a variety of

bodies at a regional catchment.

Research topics studied include

paleoecology; hydrology and water

retention; and water beetles. work.

Education: The site has limited

formal education use at present,

although it is visited by the

University of the Third Age. The

RSPB is actively seeking to

introduce some low key visitor

facilities which will provide

interpretation of the main wildlife

interest and a new walking trail

traversing a range of habitats and

experiences within a relatively short

distance.

Land-based skills: Weekly

working parties coordinated by

RSPB undertake survey work,

habitat management and estate

management works.

At its south-western end, Malltraeth Marsh adjoins Newborough Warren National Nature

Reserve. The two sites are distinct in their habitats and their management but together

provide a large tract of protected land. There is also synergy with the AONB landscape

55

designation, which reinforces the stringent approach to new development and helps both

maintain and promote the area‟s undeveloped character and its strong sense of tranquillity.

The SSSI creates a benchmark standard for the environmental management of habitats and

features across the site. Although much of the site remains in unfavourable condition, it

would likely deteriorate without the SSSI establishing these standards. For example, without

the SSSI‟s influence:

▪ Water would drain faster and earlier in summer;

▪ Hedges and reed beds would deteriorate;

▪ The site‟s landscape would become more uniform in character.

The active management of the RSPB on its holding is pointing to a new potential at the site,

including greater reedbed establishment, and possible re-establishment of breeding bittern

population. A more creative approach to conservation at the site is under consideration by

the RSPB, which could see new wetland habitats being shaped at a bigger scale, and

associated new experiences for visitors.


Given the multiple ownership, the different management objectives of landowners, and the

dispersed range of management responsibilities across this extensive site, there has been

no motivation to value any of the distinct benefits.

Valuation evidence could be gained from various factors including the following, which would

offer some of the most tangible forms of value related to the site‟s benefits:

▪ Natural products: Value and amount of „Meat from the Marsh‟ sold.

▪ Visitor spend: Information from holiday businesses, food and drink establishments,

and leisure, and arts-based businesses on their income and employment which is

related to visitors motivated by the wildlife and environmental quality of the site.

▪ Nature’s engineering: Expenditure saved on infrastructure and engineering relating to

water management.

▪ Healthy lifestyles: Expenditure saved in health treatment due to people using the

cycling and walking resources at the site.

▪ Volunteers’ return on investment: Identifying work, livelihoods or income which

volunteers have been able to acquire as a result of skills developed from volunteering at

the site.

▪ Research applications: Identifying income and employment related to research and

monitoring undertaken at the site and research information and research techniques

developed at the site.

56

12 North York Moors


North York Moors SSSI is located in North-East Yorkshire and lies entirely within the North

York Moors National Park. It covers approximately 44,088 hectares, and contains the largest

continuous tract of heather moorland in England. 41% of the North York Moors is designated

as SSSI.27

The national importance of the unbroken heather moorland and mire vegetation communities

is the primary reason for the SSSI designation. There are also a number of other

designations attributed to the site:

▪ Special Protection Area (SPA). The presence of significant breeding populations of

merlin and golden plover forms the primary reason for this designation.

▪ Special Area of Conservation (SAC). Supporting the SSSI designation, this has been

attributed to the site for the presence of both dry and wet (Erica tetralix) heath habitats.

▪ National Park.

The condition of the SSSI is currently rated as „unfavourable recovering‟. Management

techniques vary depending on habitat type, land-use, and local conditions across the site.

Light grazing, controlled burning, and cutting are all approved vegetation management

techniques for the SSSI.

The main adverse pressure on the site originates from inappropriate management related to

recreational use of the moorland, such as vegetation management undertaken for seasonal

grouse shooting, and illegal and/ or incorrect use of vehicles on sensitive habitat. Other

adverse pressures include those related to upland agricultural use, such as overgrazing,

inappropriate fertiliser or herbicide use, and damage to sensitive vegetation from excessive

livestock numbers in certain areas.

Efforts to control and eliminate some of these impacts have included negotiating with local

farmers and land owners and working with them to secure funding from relevant schemes for

environmental management and enhancement. These schemes include the Objective 5b

programme in the mid-1990s, the Wildlife Enhancement Schemes (WES) (2003 – 2010),

Sheep WES (2003-2008) and more recently ELS and HLS schemes. In other cases, the

enforcement of byelaws and the issue of notices against certain activities has been the only

reliable method to prevent excessive damage to species and habitats over such a wide area.

Current inputs via HLS amount to at least £1million annually. Six Natural England officers

work on the site, covering in bye SSSIs and some parts of the moorland SSSI, overseeing

management operations and monitoring the habitats and species present.


The site supports the largest continuous tract of heather moorland in England, with a varied

mosaic of habitat types including dry and wet upland heath, blanket bog, acid grassland, and

native woodland. This forms the basis of the SAC and SSSI designations.

The area also supports nationally-important populations of breeding birds, many of high

conservation concern, including merlin, golden plover, hen harrier, peregrine falcon, and

various waders. This is the reason for the SPA designation.

The site is subject to regular survey and monitoring, particularly of its notable species, by a

team of professional ecologists and volunteers. The moorland is primarily managed by

landowners, many of which are involved in seasonal red grouse shooting. Persecution of

predatory bird species has led to historic declines in species such as hen harrier and

peregrine falcon, but there have been promising recent trends showing that many moorland

27

Defra Agricultural Change and Environment Observatory (2010), „Farming in the English Uplands‟

57

breeding species are actually increasing both their range and population. There is limited

data on trends in vegetation and habitat, although a wide-ranging study by Natural England

has recently been completed, and the data from this is expected soon.

Figure 12.1 The North York Moors

Although management obligations are placed on Natural England as a result of the SSSI

designation, the vast majority of the site is owned and managed by private landowners.

However, the designation has facilitated the targeting of agri-environment schemes in the

area, to facilitate positive management. Natural England plays an important facilitating role

and advisory role and negotiates to ensure that the integrity of the habitat and its species

richness is not negatively impacted by overgrazing, burning into moss and peat layers, or

other inappropriate uses.

Local conditions mean that farming is very marginal and provides low incomes, raising the

threat of under-management and abandonment. A further challenge has been to encourage

farmers to work together in the management of sheep flocks and grazing regimes. Natural

England has invested considerable effort in negotiating such joint working, as a condition for

funding through the Objective 5b Moorland Scheme and more recently Moorland HLS.

Natural England reports that, though this has led to considerable delays in establishing the

schemes, this has been one of their main benefits, repaying the considerable efforts

involved.

Because the SSSI is entirely contained within a National Park, it is difficult to quantify the

actual benefit that the designation confers to the site. Natural England‟s continued

monitoring and engagement with landowners is likely to serve to enhance the species-

richness and integrity of rare and important habitats, meaning that the designation promotes

the biodiversity of the area. However, the other designations are important in maintaining the

overall nature of the habitat and protecting it from development and inappropriate use,

maintaining its essential characteristic of being the largest tract of heather moorland in the

country. In this sense, the effects of the SSSI designation are difficult to separate from those

of the SPA, SAC, and National Park.


The main ecosystem services provided by North York Moors are outlined in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1: Ecosystem services on North York Moors


The whole site is a well-known and

well-visited area, with recreational

uses ranging from walking and

birdwatching to grouse shooting.

The sheer extent of the site makes

it inherently important in regulating

local climate and water supply.

Peat bogs in particular are widely

Provisioning services include

produce from livestock farms,

timber from managed forestry,

water supply for surrounding urban

58

These recreational uses are largely

based on the expanse of the habitat

and its designation as a National

Park, with visitor centres and

educational facilities throughout.

The area has a varied landscape

and high aesthetic value.

The Moors also have prominent

archaeological and historic features,

containing historic abbeys, castle

ruins and churches. A large number

of tourists are likely to visit the

Moors for this reason alone.

Grouse shooting alone is thought to

bring in around £0.5 million per year

in visitor expenditure, and upwards

of £3 million of revenue for land

management

recognised for their quality of

storing carbon and preventing its

escape to the atmosphere, thereby

providing a vital service in

regulating climate change.

Woodlands and other habitats have

a direct effect on climate regulation.

areas, and wild produce such as

deer, hare, and red grouse:

Hill sheep farming takes place on

North York Moors although it is now

in decline (from 1998 to 2005, the

number of moorland sheep flocks

declined from 125 to 100 flocks; this

was further exacerbated by the Foot

and Mouth outbreak in 2001).

According to Defra figures there

were 518 holdings in the North York

Moors representing 4% of the total

number of holdings in the LFA

regions. Output from the sheep

enterprise has increased over

2008/09 (e.g. one farmer averaged

£49 for his lamb sales in 2008/09

and £58 in 2009/10 – a rise of

18%).28

Two-thirds of the woods in North

York Moors were planted in the 20th

century for timber purposes29

. In

2010, 400,000 trees covering 156

hectares (390 acres) were planted

in the Moors, partially making up for

those harvested for timber and to

help broaden wildlife habitats

(towards replacing a million trees

lost in 2005 storms).30

Services such as the regulation of carbon by peat bog habitats, and recreational uses

associated with biodiversity, such as birdwatching, may be associated with the SSSI status

of the site, as this conveys a responsibility to maintain and enhance habitat integrity and

species-richness.

SSSI designation increases the public funding provided to the area through the agri-

environment programme, supplementing the limited budgets of the National Park. Without

this funding it is likely that the North York Moors would be managed more intensively for red

grouse, to the possible detriment of other species and the ecosystem as a whole.

Nevertheless, the sums of money involved are relatively small compared to the often large

incomes and expenditures associated with grouse moor management.


Many of the services provided by the site have not been valued, though some data are

available relating to farm incomes and grouse moor management.

The National Park logs approximately 10 million „visitor days‟ per year, from all parts of the

country and beyond, bringing in almost £300 million of tourism revenues to the area. These

revenues, and the benefits to visitors, reflect the huge value of the landscape and wildlife

habitats of the North York Moors. The protection and management conferred by SSSI status

and other conservation designations contributes to this value, although there is limited

evidence of the value of benefits associated with different management regimes.

28

Askham Bryan College (2010), North York Moors Hill Sheep Economic Study 29

http://www.northyorkmoors.org.uk/modern-plantations/ 30

http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_8504000/8504510.stm

http://www.northyorkmoors.org.uk/modern-plantations/

http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/york/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_8504000/8504510.stm

59

Provisioning services including production of livestock and timber generate further revenue

within the SSSI. There is no clear evidence of the absolute value of regulating services, such

as water supply and carbon storage, but it is likely that replicating these services in other

ways would be practically impossible, due to the sheer extent of the habitat.

The SSSI does have an influence on management practices, mainly in the form of

agreements and negotiation with landowners. Maintaining rare and vulnerable habitats, such

as blanket bog, is a function of the SSSI status, and therefore conveys a clear benefit in

some regulating services and the biodiversity of the site. The status of the site as a National

Park is an important driver for tourism and recreation, and for the maintenance and

management of the heather moorland habitat which covers the majority of the site.

A study of farm incomes by Askham Bryan highlights the significant challenges in farming

marginal land on the North Yorkshire Moors, where conditions compare unfavourably with

other upland areas. These challenges relate to the dryness of the moorland, poor grazing,

and disease problems such as louping ill and tick, leading to poor lamb production. The

latter issues are also captured in reports of past Objective 5b funded projects. Agri-

environment schemes have allowed many of these farmers to survive and continue to graze

the site and „maintain‟ the landscape which attracts tourists. One of the challenges is that

farming does not benefit directly from the income that the landscapes it produces for the

tourism sector and wider local economy. Most farmers only gain indirectly from this, for

example if their wives or other family members are employed in other services.

This highlights a clear imbalance between the value of services provided by the site for

society and the economy as a whole, and the revenues that can be captured by land

managers.

60

13 Richmond Park


Richmond Park is a 856 hectare site in South London, designated SSSI, SAC and NNR. It is

managed by The Royal Parks (TRP) (owned by the Department for Culture Media and

Sport), and provides a range of habitats which are of value to wildlife. The landscape of the

core area of the Park is characterised by its informal, natural and wilderness qualities.

The Park is internationally significant in terms of its nature conservation value and has

numerous local and national designations. It was notified as SSSI relatively recently, in 1992.

The interest features which form the basis of its SSSI designation are its diverse deadwood

beetle fauna associated with veteran trees found throughout the Park, and the most

extensive area of dry acid grassland in Greater London. The assemblage of invertebrates is

nationally significant; it is one of Britain‟s prime sites for beetles associated with dead and

decaying wood, with over 200 species recorded. These lignicolous species have become

restricted to just a few localities in Britain due to the decline in ancient wood and parkland

habitats.

The Park also supports nationally scarce species associated with dung and wetlands.

However these species are generally less threatened by habitat loss as the deadwood

fauna. Nonetheless, the recorded species include the nationally restricted Aphodius zenkeri,

which is rarely found outside deer parks due to its specific association with deer dung.

Broadleaved woodlands, ponds and ditches add to the diversity of habitats.

The site is currently managed as a deer park. The grassland communities in particular

require active management to maintain free-draining acidic soil and to prevent the sward

from reverting to scrub. This necessitates stock grazing, which is thought to be more

appropriate than deer grazing as a management tool. Much of the acid grassland in the Park

has been assessed by Natural England to be in unfavourable condition due in part to the

specific character of a deer park created by centuries of deer grazing. Deer, by preference,

browse woody vegetation whilst cattle, by preference, graze more lush plant species. They

create different sward structures and plant communities.

Furthermore, areas of the Park currently appear to be under-grazed, suggesting that the

deer, though effectively preventing the development of invasive scrub are not exerting

sufficient grazing pressure on the sward in acid grassland areas. As traditional cattle breeds

are successfully used to improve and maintain the biodiversity of acid grassland, Natural

England hopes to reintroduce some cattle or sheep grazing onto the site to protect its

ecological integrity. However, it will be important to ensure that such grazing benefits

biodiversity without any adverse effects being caused to the deer population. An initial small-

scale trial grazing project is under way to establish if such a technique would be beneficial to

the Park‟s grassland.

It is also necessary to avoid inorganic fertilisers and pesticides (both within the site, and in

the surrounding areas), as the habitats are highly sensitive. Perhaps most importantly,

access to the site and any associated recreational activities need to be appropriately

managed especially given the significant numbers of visitors to the Park.

The condition of the site is classified as “unfavourable (no change)”.

61

Figure 13.1 Deer grazing in Richmond Park

The site does not suffer from development pressures per se, given its status as a National

Nature Reserve, its popularity and the important role it plays in London‟s landscape.


Richmond Park is one of the largest and most wildlife-rich sites in Greater London. The Park

has considerable value for nature conservation, as a link to the countryside and for public

enjoyment, especially given its urban location. The Park‟s landscape value and important

role in London‟s spatial character is evidenced by its designation as Metropolitan Open

Land. The designation is unique to London, and protects strategically important open spaces

within the built environment.

The site is also of international importance, since Britain possesses more and larger oak

pasture woodland sites than any other country in Europe, with Richmond Park being one of

the premier sites for this habitat in Britain. Furthermore, due to the increasing diminution of

semi-natural habitats nationally, the Park is becoming increasingly significant for both

biodiversity and historical importance.

The “wilderness” aspect, in contrast to the surrounding urban area, is considered to be one

of the special qualities of the Park, attracting significant numbers of visitors. The social and

cultural value of Richmond Park is significant, evidenced by the fact that it is the most visited

National Nature Reserve (NNR) in England.

Given the Park has several designations it is likely that many of these benefits would still be

present even without the SSSI designation. However, the SSSI designation does ensure that

certain interest features are maintained, protected, and appropriately managed. For

instance, the dependence on the beetle fauna on deadwood ensures the continued presence

of old oak pollards and veteran trees. These features form part of the unique landscape

character of the Park. The visible heritage values of ancient trees, rough grassland textures

and associated wildlife make the Park more visually interesting and appealing to visitors.

The site does not suffer from development pressures per se and, being owned by a public

body, does not qualify for funds under agri-environment schemes (SSSI designation

improves access to agri-environment funds). Instead, the principal additional value given by

SSSI designation is it allows Natural England to influence the site‟s management. For

instance, designation places an obligation on TRP to give notice to Natural England of any

operation likely to damage the SSSI. The operation can then only be carried out with the

consent of Natural England.

62

Figure 13.2 Ancient oak with lying deadwood in Richmond Park

For instance, Thames Water requested to inspect a pipeline that ran through a fairly

sensitive area of the site. This would have required a borehole which could have significantly

affected the rare species associated with the area. Natural England made appropriate

recommendations which meant the operation was far less damaging than might have been

the case without their involvement. Natural England is also consulted on other aspects of the

site‟s features, such as the construction of new paths, or altering the routes of existing

access paths.

Although the requirement to consult Natural England in such cases is beneficial, in practice

the benefits are much smaller than in the case of some other SSSIs given the nature of the

owner. It was noted that this statutory requirement which accompanies SSSI designation is

much more useful and much more important when the client is a private landowner than a

public body. For instance, being a public body, TRP already has an existing statutory duty,

under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 and the NERC Act, to further the

conservation of biological diversity in the UK. Without Natural England‟s advice therefore, the

condition of the site would unlikely be adversely affected as TRP‟s aims are similar to those

of Natural England‟s.

Designation as a SSSI however does raise the park‟s profile, and can be used as a

marketing tool. Not only does it increase the site‟s status, but it can be used as a tool to

encourage visitors to act appropriately once they appreciate the importance and sensitivity of

the site to disturbances.


The main ecosystem services provided by Richmond Park are outlined in 13.1. This table is

based on consultation and desk research and is intended to be purely illustrative.

63

Table 13-1: Ecosystem services on Richmond Park


Perhaps the clearest

contribution of the site to

ecosystem services is through

cultural services. The site

receives approximately 3.9

million visitors every year (not

including the millions who

simply drive through the Park).

Visitor numbers have increased

by approximately 50% since the

1995.

The site provides numerous

facilities and opportunities for

recreation (including two golf

courses, four rugby pitches,

bridle paths, cycle hire, etc).

However, the use of the Park

for sports/recreation can disrupt

the peaceful, historic character

of the landscape, and the TRP

needs to limit more active uses

to less sensitive areas.

There are also on-site facilities

used for education purposes

such as Holly Lodge Centre

which provides community

activities and education for

people of all ages and abilities,

including special needs groups.

The site significantly contributes

towards regulating and

supporting services. Being such

a large green, open space in

London, the Park contributes to

climate regulation, carbon

storage and attenuates the heat

island effect.

A recent programme of creating

small seasonal ponds and

restricting water flow in ditches

also helps contribute to the

ground water resource by

retaining and storing water

within the Park. The site‟s

contribution to these services is

likely to increase. For example,

TRP is exploring potential future

uses of the reservoirs in the

Park, and is hoping to develop

options for the retention of

water to minimise the reliance

on mains supply.

The creation of flood storage

areas will also be supported (as

long as adverse effects on the

site‟s interest features can be

avoided).

Urban greenspaces are also

important in flood regulation by

increased infiltration and

reduced overland flows.

The woodlands of the Park

represent a significant resource.

Whilst a considerable amount of

deadwood is retained within the

Park as deadwood habitat, an

on-site sawmill cuts and uses

timber for a limited range of in-

park uses (tree crates, benches

etc). However, this supply of

timber from the Park does not

currently meet demand within

the Royal Parks and imported,

treated soft wood supplements

this demand. A commercial

timber evaluation is likely to be

undertaken to assess the

potential of the woodlands for

timber production.

One resource that is exported is

venison. Around 150-200 deer

are culled each year, and the

resulting venison is sold to

game wholesalers and

frequently exported abroad.

This above is indicative of the challenge that the site presents in terms of cultural services.

Whilst the characteristics of the site (including its unique biodiversity) are a significant part of

the attraction for visitors, the visitors themselves pose a threat to the very characteristics that

make the site so appealing to visitors, given the sensitive nature of some areas in the Park.

The challenge therefore is to manage the increasing complexity of overlapping restrictions

placed on the way that the Park is managed due to its significant value for both biodiversity,

and the established views of visitors about the Park‟s role, function and character.

Essentially, the Park is “threatened by its own popularity”31

. The increasing pressure placed

on the Park by visitors is leading to erosion of both physical fabric and sense of place, as

well as disturbance to deer and wildlife, and conflicts between different users and user

activities. Nonetheless, the range of activities enlivens the park; providing public enjoyment

and health benefits.

Overall, both the TRP and Natural England believe the resolution to this challenge is less

about reducing visitor numbers, but in implementing good visitor management practices to

reduce conflicts. For instance, voluntary zones have been introduced where dog walkers are

advised to keep their dogs on leads in areas which are particularly vulnerable to disturbance.

This voluntary code of conduct has significantly benefited the wildlife, particularly ground

nesting birds.

31

The Royal Parks & Land Use Consultants (2008) Richmond Park Management Plan Version A (FOL/07/115)

64

The site‟s SSSI designation may be particularly useful in helping manage visitors. By raising

awareness of the site‟s sensitivity and its important role in protecting biodiversity, visitors

may be more willing to change their behaviour to avoid having any detrimental impact on the

landscape character or ecology of the Park.


No evidence of the value of the benefits identified above is available. Therefore, within the

context of this study, a quantified valuation of the benefits of the site has not been possible.

65

14 River Avon System


The River Avon flows through the counties of Hampshire, Dorset and Wilshire in the south

west of England. The river system rises at Pewsey Vale as a network of clay streams fed by

chalk springs which converge on Salisbury Plain forming a chalk river. The river is joined by

the Wiltshire tributaries and becomes a large calcareous river which flows over acidic sands

and clays through the New Forest and Dorset Heaths. The river flows into the sea at

Christchurch.

The River Avon System was designated SSSI in 1996, having been deemed richer and more

varied than a typical chalk stream and possessing more than 180 species of aquatic plants,

a diversity of fish and a wide range of aquatic invertebrates. The River is closely linked to the

Avon Valley SSSI (designated in 1993) which covers much of the floodplain surrounding the

river, and the river is affected by activity taking place on the surrounding valley floor. The

river system was also designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) in 2004. Natural

England has been actively engaged with the SSSI‟s management since 1996.

The River Avon System is currently characterised as „unfavourable declining‟. Since 1940,

flood defence, land drainage, urban development and agricultural intensification (including

over/under grazing, water pollution, siltation and inappropriate ditch management, weed

control and scrub control) have put pressure on the river. Along some stretches there has

been a loss of river channel habitats, bank modification and re-profiling, leaving the river

constrained within fixed channels with a loss of connectivity between the river and its flood

plain32

.

The river system is highly managed. Its primary uses include high quality coarse and game

fishing, fish farming, watercress farming and canoeing (in two confined areas). The

surrounding floodplain and valley are agricultural including dairy systems, beef and sheep

pasture and arable, with small areas of forestry and unmanaged wet floodplain. Whilst the

SSSI boundary is primarily the top of the river bank, the SSSI and SAC regulations apply to

operations that could damage the interests of the SSSI, so extends beyond the immediate

site boundary.

Management by Natural England includes liaising with landowners and fisheries, and the

Environment Agency. The Environment Agency‟s focus is on managing diffuse water

pollution. 3 FTE staff work on the overall management of the River System and River Avon

SSSIs, overseeing the physical management undertaken by local landowners and farmers.

The river system is under private ownership, owned by approximately 40 different

landowners along its stretch. These landowners are bound by a duty to ensure that the river

does not decline, which requires active management by Natural England, particularly given

the number of landowners involved with the system. Works towards bringing the River

System into favourable condition have included the restoration of the river channels and

adjacent floodplain habitat, development of a strategic plan for the restoration of the river,

reduction of point source pollution and programmes to address diffuse pollution and low

flows derived from abstraction33

. At least 10% of the designated river channel has been

restored through individual schemes and projects, with a further programme of restoration

planned. Projects to improve water quality and flow are ongoing and starting to show visible

results, particularly when coupled with restored river channels. These improvements are

seen to improve the quality of recreational fishing, which is worth hundreds of thousands of

pounds to the local economy34

.

32

Wessex Chalk Streams Project Partnership (2009) “Strategic Framework for Restoration of the River Avon System: Non Technical Summary- Final Report” 33

As per information from Dianne Matthews, Lead River Avon advisor, Natural England

34 Individual membership is valued between £70 and £250 per person (as per Dianne Matthews).

66

The SSSI designation has led to the river system and its valley being targeted for Agri-

Environment schemes including Catchment Sensitive Farming, Conservation Enhancement

Schemes and Environmental Stewardship. Higher Level Stewardship options include

resource protection, grazing management, fen, reedbed and wet woodland management and

management of wet grassland for wintering and/or wading birds. Schemes provide an

income to a predominantly rural farming economy in return for environmental management

as well as improving farming practices and reducing ongoing farming costs35

.

In 2003, a Conservation Strategy for the River Avon SAC was published, which identified

measures to address the impacts and gaps where action was required to help restoration

and overcome the impacts of adverse activity. The strategy led to the development of

STREAM36

which focused on the restoration of the River Avon and River Valley between

2005 and 2009. The project gained £1m funding, including £423,000 from the LIFE Nature.

Natural England worked with project participants including the Environment Agency,

Wiltshire Wildlife Trust, Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust and Wessex Water to

deliver the project, the primary focus of which was the restoration of 7 kilometres of river

along 6 stretches to address habitat degradation caused by historical engineering

(£558,000), and the linking of the river to the valley through integrated management of water

levels (£36,000). The project also evaluated the effectiveness of restoration work, and held

open days and seminars to share lessons learnt with the local communities and landowners

(£109,000). The project was managed by 2 FTE staff (£305,000).

The Living River Project aimed to improve areas of the river which could be accessed by the

public, also focusing on education and training to provide information to local communities

about the river between 2006 and 2010. The project was 70% funded by the Heritage Lottery

Fund. The project was designed to complement the STREAM project and focused on the

wider biodiversity of the River Avon System, engaging communities with its conservation,

through partnership to increase awareness and appreciation of the River Avon system.

Activity included:

▪ Biodiversity restoration - at sites the public can access and enjoy

▪ Access and Interpretation - creating and enhancing physical and intellectual access to

the natural heritage across the river system

▪ Education and Training - providing educational events and resources, and offering

training opportunities to help people understand their relationship with the river system

and to take responsibility for it.

The project was estimated to cost £950,000.37

Ranunculus (water-crowfoot) is a dominant species in the river which builds up in the spring

each year. Historically, the Environment Agency has removed the ranunculus annually to

reduce the risk of summer flooding caused by rapid vegetation growth. 2010 was the first

year this activity did not take place as the Environment Agency were under increasing

pressure to cut expenditure, and the river clearance involved the use of public monies for the

protection of private land. Conflict has arisen, with farmers unhappy that their working land

may flood leading to a loss of grazing and arable land.

35

For example, if farmers convert Arable land to unfertilised grassland to prevent erosion and runoff £280 per hectare can be claimed, maintenance of wet grassland for wintering waders and wildfowl £255 per hectare. 36

http://www.streamlife.org.uk/project_overview/ 37

This included biodiversity and access enhancement (£339,000), community events (£20,000), newsletters and dissemination (£66,000), Community arts projects (£56,000), invasive plants project (£81,000) and project management (2FTEs costing £324,000).

http://www.streamlife.org.uk/project_overview/

67

Figure 14.1 Ranunculus growing in the River Avon system

Many parts of the river bank are popular for wild salmon and trout fishing and are leased to

fishing syndicates and individuals. Conflict has arisen between Natural England, which would

like to remove fencing from river banks and allow cattle to access the water‟s edge, and

anglers who want the fishing areas fenced off. There has been some consensus that

allowing cattle to the water‟s edge does not infringe upon the fishing taking place amongst

fishermen, and fencing has been removed in some places.


The River Avon system supports a number of species and habitats both alone and in

partnership with the wider river valley; most importantly these include ranunculus vegetation,

sea lamprey, brook lamprey, Atlantic salmon, bullhead and Desmoulin‟s whorl snail.

One of the largest populations of flowering rush in a British river occurs, as well as the

nationally scarce river water dropwort. Around the river, landscapes include swamp, wet

woodland and flood pasture habitats deemed rare locally and nationally, providing habitats

for invertebrates and fish. Flower rich grasslands are included in the SSSI designation in

some parts, as are areas of fen which are relics of traditional grazing systems once common

throughout Wiltshire‟s river valleys.

The river system and its vegetation provides habitats for a number of breeding, wintering and

migrating birds including the kingfisher, reed warbler and sedge warbler and passage birds

including common sandpiper, green sandpiper and garganey. The rare Cetti‟s warbler can

also be found. Fish are more diverse than in any other British river, including wild

populations of migratory sea trout, brown trout and Atlantic salmon, bullhead, minnow,

stickleback, pike, perch, roach and gudgeon. The system is also notable for its brook

lampreys which have important spawning areas in the river system.

The site‟s designation is primarily due to the variety of fish it supports. Levels of trout and

salmon have been in decline until recently, but are now more static. Fish populations are

dependent on more than just the river habitat including changes in sea conditions and

activity on the river banks and valley floor. The last condition assessment showed the river

condition was such that there had been degradation to aquatic plant communities (including

water crowfoot and starwort), diverse fish fauna (including salmon, brook and sea lamprey

and bullhead), invertebrate fauna (including Desmoulin‟s whorl snail, aquatic gastropod and

dragonfly) and breeding, wintering and migrating birds (including kingfisher, warblers and

common sandpiper).

Without SSSI management, it is likely that areas of fen would deteriorate and the Whorl snail

would disappear completely and there would be less co-ordination of activity between

landowners and the agencies. Furthermore, agri-environment funding would be expected to

68

decline, and it is likely the river would degrade further leading to loss of the employment

which relies upon the river. The SAC designation has also had significant benefits, including

stronger protection against damage, review of extant consents and the eligibility for the site

for EU LIFE funding.

It is unlikely that the River Avon system would have been designated SAC without the SSSI

designation already in place. The SAC designation adds further weight to the obligations

necessitated by the SSSI, acknowledging the site as having international importance and

thereby adding more obligations to both Natural England and the authorities as a whole to

protect and enhance the site.


The river system is highly linked to the activities that take place in the wider Avon Valley

SSSI including agricultural activities which can lead to diffuse water pollution and changes to

the river channel.

Natural England hopes that the river will return to its natural state but the large number of

landowners and stakeholders involved make this a difficult task and there is little obligation

for farm owners to manage their land to help to achieve favourable condition. However,

where areas of fen are included in the designation, farmers can apply for Higher Level

Stewardship funding encouraging active management of these habitats.

While the river flows through urban areas, there are few access points for the general public

and it is difficult to quantify visitor numbers. Where there are urban access points to the river,

they are well utilised by walkers and fishermen. To a certain extent, this means that

recreation and tourism activity around the river is low, but it also provides opportunity for the

wildlife habitats to remain relatively undisturbed in keeping with objectives of the SSSI

designation.

The main ecosystem services provided by the River Avon system are outlined in Table 14.1.

This table is based on consultation and desk research and is intended to be purely

illustrative.

Table 14.1: Ecosystem services for River Avon System

Provisioning Cultural Regulating

The river supports a watercress

farm and several fish farms and

whilst restrictions on industries are

more stringent due to the river

designations, they benefit from

good water quality and can also

provide rural employment.

The main services provided by the

River Avon SSSI are recreational;

with the use of footpaths for walking

and the river banks for fishing.

Several parts of the River Avon (e.g.

Langford and Blashford Lakes) offer

a number of educational activities.

The main recreational activity is

fishing, primarily on leased land,

providing revenue to landowners and

fishing syndicates. The Avon is

considered an exclusive river for

fishing.

The landscape value of the River

Avon is likely to be high as it is a

„natural river system‟.

The river provides regulating services

through its role as a water store,

protecting land from flooding. This

service however is highly dependent

upon activity in the wider river valley

and the condition of the flood plain.

Management of the river and catchment helps the achievement of SSSI objectives as well as

protecting the riverine landscape, which provides a backdrop for towns and villages,

including Salisbury and its Cathedral, important for tourism. In some places, public footpaths

provide access to the riverbanks. The Avon Valley Path runs from Salisbury Cathedral in

Wiltshire to Christchurch Priory in Hampshire, following the valley along a 34 mile path.

69

Following the SSSI designation, the benefits have included:

▪ Restoration of the river system habitats and other attributes towards favourable

condition;

▪ Protection of the river system from damaging operations and projects;

▪ Development of a strategy to address problem species;

▪ Stimulation of dialogue between river users, manager and regulators; and,

▪ Attraction of external funding such as STREAM and Living Rivers.


No evidence of the value of benefits and services is available.

70

15 South Pennine Moors



The South Pennine Moors (SPM) occupy an area covering 20,938 hectares across the

districts of Bradford, Calderdale, Kirklees, Leeds, Craven, Burnley, Pendle, Oldham and

Rochdale in the counties of West Yorkshire, Lancashire, Greater Manchester and North

Yorkshire.

The site occupies part of the Southern Pennines between Ilkley to the North and the Peak

District National Park boundary to the south, primarily in West Yorkshire. It was designated

as an SSSI due to its extensive areas of unenclosed heather moorland, blanket bog, acidic

flushes and mires38

underlain by acidic Millstone Grit. There are also three locations of

special geological interest including two areas of deltaic sedimentary rocks and a locality for

two diagnostic fossils.

In addition to its designation as an SSSI in 1994, it is on the list of Wetlands of International

Importance (RAMSAR), a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and a Special Protection Area

(SPA). The Moors‟ condition is “unfavourable recovering” with numerous adverse impacts

noted since 1997 including fertiliser use, inappropriate stock-feeding, overgrazing and

undergrazing, air pollution, fire, moor burning, forestry and woodland management,

drainage, game management, inappropriate ditch management and weed control and public

access and disturbance.

15.1.2 Site management

The management regime reflects the wide variety of habitats and owners of the SPM, the

latter including individuals and public, private and voluntary bodies. The water catchment

area is owned by water companies and managed by tenant farmers, large private estates

have grouse moors and tenant graziers, and there are small private farms. Very little of the

land belongs to public bodies with the exception of Bradford Council, which uniquely owns a

grouse moor at Ilkley39

.

Much of the blanket bog resource in the South Pennines was affected by pollution from the

Industrial Revolution and past burning, drainage and grazing management regimes. The

bogs, therefore, often do not support the full range of species expected of such a habitat with

focus therefore on restoration over a long timescale40

. Other bogs are in a more favourable

condition and consequently require little intervention other than light grazing to control

invasive vegetation.

15.1.3 Issues and conflicts

A number of issues are visible in the SPM which require active management. These include

soil erosion caused by recreational activity, unauthorised access by vehicles and

uncontrolled fires.

Erosion within the SPM is deemed to be getting worse. Erosion is caused primarily by

recreational activities which include off-road driving, horse riding, cycling, walking and

orienteering which reduces moorland vegetation cover leading to soil erosion and loss of soil

carbon. Peat soils are particularly vulnerable. A number of popular tourist routes traverse the

SPM‟s blanket bogs, including the Pennine Bridleway which is used by walkers, cyclists and

horse-riders. Overgrazing of grasslands can lead to further erosion and the spread of

unwanted vegetation whilst undergrazing can lead to the spread of coarse grasses;

sustainable stocking levels are therefore crucial. Historically, dry upland heaths have a need

38

Lancashire County Council “A Landscape Strategy for Lancashire” http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/landscape/landscapecharacass/charcarea1.asp 39

SCOSPA ”South Pennine Moors Integrated Management Strategy and Conservation Action Programme” 40

Natural England is working with the water industry to restore bogs and to reduce impacts upon water quality

http://www.lancashire.gov.uk/environment/landscape/landscapecharacass/charcarea1.asp

71

for more active management to maintain nature conservation interest and prevent the

invasion of trees and scrub that could dominate the dwarf shrub communities. Through

grazing, a structurally diverse mosaic of dwarf shrub vegetation41

is created which also

provides dung for invertebrates in turn providing food for birds, however this requires careful

control to prevent damage to the habitat. The management of upland acid grassland is also

controlled by grazing, which at appropriate stocking rates can prevent build up of dead plant

material. Where a return to dwarf shrub vegetation is desired, grazing can be halted.

In areas where scree and ledges are prevalent, rare plant and animal communities can be

found. Grazing is used to control invasive scrub whilst protecting scree from being disturbed.

The fencing off of areas and routing of footpaths around scree is also used to reduce

disturbance of the environment. The distinctive breeding bird community within the moors is

also protected through the management of upland habitats. The structural diversity of

vegetation is an inherent element of creating breeding habitats and therefore, sympathetic

grazing and burning regimes are required e.g. taller heather on slopes for merlin, short-eared

owl and twite and shorter vegetation on flatter, gently sloping land to provide nesting and

feeding sites for golden Plover and curlew.

The SPM are rotationally burnt in the winter months to stimulate growth of new heather

shoots for feeding and older heather for bird nesting, preventing the spread of scrub and

reducing the build up of plant litter, as part of upland management for grouse shooting.

However in future it is likely that there will be threats from uncontrolled fires in summer

months, made worse by the drying out of wet bogs which can increase the risk of fire and

carbon release. Uncontrolled wildfires through mistiming of badly controlled burning can

damage delicate upland habitats; such fires are primarily caused by negligence. The Fire

Officers Group (FOG) coordinates activities across the Pennines to train and equip

landowners and fire services to deal with fires on moors, and to deliver Fire Plans to assist in

the fighting of fires where they do arise. The group includes Natural England, Pennine

Prospects, local fire services and landowners. The MoorWatch website has been created to

log anti-social behaviour on and near the SPM, which could include arson and wildfires.

15.1.4 Strategic response

A number of projects aim to overcome issues within the SPM to try to help the moors recover

from past activity and prevent further degradation.

Yorkshire Water is committed to an SSSI Recovery Project for the SPM. This has brought

84% of its 12,200ha of SSSI land (also including the Dark Peaks) to recovering or favourable

status. Focus is now on attaining a level of 95% in recovering or favourable status by 2010.

The project was funded 80% by Natural England and has persuaded tenants to enter agri-

environment agreements. Ecological assessments were taken and Farm Management Plans

drawn up to identify how the ecological, land use and water quality requirements may be

delivered through agricultural practices42

. It is anticipated that there will be a significant

benefit to upland bird populations.

MoorLIFE is a LIFE-funded project initiated and managed by Moors for the Future, part of

the Peak District National Park Authority. It involves the active restoration of blanket bog at

two major sites in the Peak District National Park and two in the South Pennine Moors. Over

£5.5m was received from the European Commission to reduce the erosion of adjacent

degraded peatland between April 2010 and April 2015 and help restore blanket bogs. The

restoration of the favourable condition of the site is heavily dependent upon the re-

establishment of sphagnum rich bog surface43

. The EU funding will help to provide the

41

Views about Management: A statement of English Nature‟s views about the management of South Pennine Moors SSSI” Version 08/11/05 42

“Sustainable Water, State of the Water Sector” http://www.water.org.uk/home/news/press-releases/sustainable-water/state-of-the-sector-case-studies.pdf 43

“MoorLIFE: Active blanket bog restoration in the South Pennine Moors” http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.createPage&s_ref=LIFE08%20NAT/UK/000202&area=1&yr=2008&n_proj_id=3539&cfid=99207&cftoken=2999c452d32e3b33-93A41414-D7B8-CB91-F40C77EAA8E4B36E&mode=print&menu=false

http://www.water.org.uk/home/news/press-releases/sustainable-water/state-of-the-sector-case-studies.pdf

http://www.water.org.uk/home/news/press-releases/sustainable-water/state-of-the-sector-case-studies.pdf

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/project/Projects/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.createPage&s_ref=LIFE08%20NAT/UK/000202&area=1&yr=2008&n_proj_id=3539&cfid=99207&cftoken=2999c452d32e3b33-93A41414-D7B8-CB91-F40C77EAA8E4B36E&mode=print&menu=false



72

conditions required to maintain and support the SPM wildlife habitats, also providing the

correct infrastructure to reduce the risk of flooding to nearby cities by absorbing rainfall. The

regeneration of vegetation is a high priority and will be achieved through the use of

helicopters to spread seed from the air and fly in equipment and fertiliser to remote areas.

The SSSI is one of three sites across England involved in a National Ecosystems Services

Pilot which was launched in November 2009 by Natural England. Other pilot sites include

Bassenthwaite Lake Catchment (Cumbria) and Dartmoor and Exmoor (South West). The

Pilot will use the ecosystems approach to define land management for upland areas and

illustrate the benefits that investment in the natural environment can have for carbon, water,

biodiversity, recreational and health for people and society more generally. The aim is to

work in partnership to deliver an optimal range of ecosystem services on a defined area and

in a cost effective manner44

. The Pilot will evidence benefits and map beneficiaries in key

locations across the SPM. This will be the first time such activity has taken place holistically

at a catchment scale. The work will be mainstreamed in April 2011 with the hope that the

project will transform the economics of upland land management and demonstrate how the

provision of ecosystem services can be turned into genuine business opportunities45

.

In 2010, Pennine Prospects was awarded £1.9m by HLF under the Landscape Partnership

Scheme to support landscape restoration and access and heritage projects in the area,

through the Watershed Landscape Project46

. The project aims to promote the importance

of the landscape, highlight that the SPM provide water resources to a large population and

emphasise peat reserves which act as a major carbon store as well as the physical and

mental health benefits linked to access to nature and the wide range of internationally

important species which reside in the SPM.

The project includes the appointment of a Community Archaeologist and Interpretation

Officer to bring to life the story of the Watershed Landscape, improved footpaths, the

mapping and interpretation of the Bronze Age Landscape at Rombalds Moor, supporting

RSPB initiatives to conserve rare birds, restoring the traditional features of the landscape

(including boundary walls and shooting lodges with focus on training in traditional skills) as

well as research into the history of coal, the commissioning artists to create new visual arts

and archaeology and geology workshops for residents and visitors.


The SPM comprise a mosaic of blanket bog, wet and dry heathlands, wet flushes, crags,

reservoirs, acid grassland, conifer plantations, ancient woodlands, streams and cloughs. The

site is the largest area of unenclosed moorland in West Yorkshire, containing the most

diverse and wide-ranging examples of upland plant communities in the county. Wet and dry

heaths and acid grasslands are rare in Europe and listed in the Habitats Directive.

The variety of habitats supports an assemblage of moorland breeding birds of importance

regionally, nationally and internationally. Scarce plants including the insectivorous sundew

and butterwort are found in the SPM as well as the nationally scarce pale forget-me-not

which are found in only 321 km squares in Britain, including two locations in the SPM.

The Moors support internationally important populations of species listed under Article 4.1 of

the Birds Directive (merlin, golden plover and short-eared owl). They have just under 5% of

the British population of golden plover and numbers are increasing. The site also supports

internationally important populations of migratory species listed under Article 4.2 of the

Directive, including common sandpiper, short eared owl, dunlin, twite, snipe, curlew,

wheatear, whinchat, redshank, ring ouzel and lapwing. The reservoirs within and adjacent to

the site provide feeding areas for moorland nesting birds as well as habitat for the common

sandpiper and grey wagtail. Little ringed plover and shelduck nest on the reservoir.

44

http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/delivering-natures-services2_tcm6-17171.pdf 45

Memorandum from Natural England to Parliament (2010) http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmyork/438/43805.htm 46

http://www.pennineprospects.co.uk/watershed-landscape

http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/delivering-natures-services2_tcm6-17171.pdf

http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmyork/438/43805.htm

http://www.pennineprospects.co.uk/watershed-landscape

73

Between 1990 and 2004/05, the RSPB has noted a considerable decrease in breeding pairs

of twite (-84%), with decreases also found for wheatear (-55%), dunlin (-32%) and redshank

(-42%), and increases for common sandpiper (+114%), lapwing (+80%) and short-eared owl

(+50%)47

.

Without the SSSI designation, it is unlikely that the SPA and SAC designations would have

been granted. Together, the designations put statutory duties on landowners and authorities

to ensure that species and habitats are protected, and have helped to attract EU-level

funding for projects such as MoorLIFE and the Watershed Landscape Project. The SSSI

designation has pushed Yorkshire Water to promote the SSSI Recovery Project, with the

company‟s tenants persuaded to sign up to Farm Management Agreements to meet the

government objectives for 95% of SSSIs to be in favourable or recovering condition by 2010.

Without the designation, there would have been little impetus for the company to undertake

such activity. Other projects such as the Watershed Landscape Project and Ecosystem

Services Pilot are driven by the designation and the importance of the site more generally for

ecosystem services for the North West population.


The SPM provide a number of services including forestry, tourism and grouse shooting on

the heather moorland. More recent land-uses include water storage and supply, recreation,

tourism, wind energy production, carbon storage and defence training. These services are

currently being quantified through the South Pennines Ecosystems Services Pilot, and the

results should be made public in April 2011.

The main ecosystem services provided by South Pennine Moors are outlined in Table 15.1.

This table is based on consultation and desk research and is intended to be purely

illustrative.

Table 15.1 Ecosystem services for South Penine Moors


There is a strong record of

recreational activity and public use

in the SPM due to easy access.

Tourism and recreation contribute

£268m to the South Pennines

Economy but a detailed visitor

profile is difficult to ascertain due to

the open access to the site48

.The

most significant activity is walking.

Formal and informal recreation

include horse-riding, cycling, rock

climbing, orienteering, water sports,

off-road riding, and angling. RSPB

research into the impact of

recreation and access on the

wildlife is inconclusive but appears

to suggest there is a limited impact

due to long established road

communications in the area.

A 2010 survey on the economics of

grouse shooting found that the

South Pennine Moors has the

equivalent of 56 potential shooting

In storing water in its reservoirs and

wider water catchment, the SSSI

plays a role in water regulation and

reduces the impact of heavy rainfall

on the surrounding towns and cities.

Peat bogs in Britain are estimated

to store the equivalent of ten times

the country‟s annual CO2 emissions.

However, due to erosion, in 2008

the SPM were annually leaking as

much CO2 as a town the size of

Altrincham51

. The development of

projects to restore the peat bogs in

the South Pennine Moors will help

to curb these emissions and re-

establish the carbon sinks to help

reduce global warming.

Sheep and cattle livestock are

farmed on the moors. Farming is

primarily in small operations with

little arable activity, with 98% of

farming land comprising rough

grazing and pasture. Land quality is

generally poor with only 3.5%

classified as grade III or higher52

.

Holdings are primarily small (90%

less than 50ha) and just less than

one-third of holdings are classified

as Less Favoured Areas due to

terrain, altitude or climate limiting

the productive capacity of

agriculture.

The site provides water storage,

supplying water to the major

regional population centres.

Energy is provided through 24 wind

turbines situated at Coal Clough

Wind Farm, operational since 1993

and generating enough power each

year to supply electricity to 6,000

47 Pennine Prospects (2008) “Integrated Management Strategy and Conservation Action Programme Review (IMSACAP)”

48 Pennine Prospects (2008) “Integrated Management Strategy and Conservation Action Programme Review (IMSACAP)”

74

days (in which an average of over

400 grouse are shot)49

, 7 full-time

equivalent keepers and £1,041,600

of potential revenue is ploughed

back into land management. Visitor

expenditure on accommodation and

catering amounted to £120,96050

.

homes. A further 26 wind turbines at

Scout Moor Wind Farm will have the

power to supply 40,000 homes with

electricity with displacement of

160,000 tonnes of CO2 per annum.


Whilst the value of the benefits the South Pennine Moors provide has not been quantified,

Natural England‟s Ecosystem Services Pilot should start to measure the ecosystem services

provided. The South Pennines more broadly attract revenues of £268 million annually

through tourism and recreation.

The SPM provide a landscape which supplies water to many homes throughout the north-

west (in the Peak District as a whole, 450 million litres of water per day supply surrounding

towns and villages53

) and protect areas from flooding by acting as a water store. The moors

also provide electricity to over 46,000 homes through wind turbines as well as displacement

of carbon production. In addition, the SPM form a carbon store which help to regulate the

climate within the region and reduce global warming.

51 Moors for the Future Partnership (April 2008)“For peat's sake, help save the planet” www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/.../030408%20_Moorland%20Project%20seeks%20moss-growing%20partners.doc 52 Pennine Prospects (2008) “Integrated Management Strategy and Conservation Action Programme Review (IMSACAP)”

49 The Guardian, 8 August 2010, „Oh what a glorious day it is – except for the grouse‟

50 The Moorland Association (2010), Economics of Grouse Shooting survey 53

http://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/mftf/information/DidYouKnow.htm

http://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/.../030408%20_Moorland%20Project%20seeks%20moss-growing%20partners.doc

http://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/mftf/information/DidYouKnow.htm

75

16 Stone Field 54


Stone Field is a specific SSSI unit within Caea Afon Gwili SSSI, a series of eight enclosed

fields of marshy grassland and neutral grassland in Carmarthenshire. Stone Field is a

neutral grassland meadow of 2.3 ha. An additional 0.3 ha of the fringes of the site are scrub

and woodland. Species rich neutral grassland such as Stone Field was once widespread but

is now very rare. Since around 1960, 97% of this habitat has been lost across Britain to

agricultural change and to development. The diverse plant community includes common

knapweed, rough hawkbit, and meadow vetchling amongst the grassy sward; great burnett is

abundant, and common spotted-orchid, heath spotted-orchid, and southern marsh-orchid all

occur; Royal fern grows in the hedge banks.

Piecemeal building development and agricultural change are apparent in the area but are not

an issue currently relevant to Stone Field. The current grazing regime and hay cropping

ensures the quality of the site is maintained. The site is in „favourable maintained‟ condition,

and the species diversity has recently improved with the emergence of fragrant orchid on the

site. The site is an SSSI and has no additional status.

Stone Field is managed for an annual hay crop. CCW makes an annual payment under a

management agreement with the landowner to assist with this management regime. The

management agreement has been ongoing since 1994. Light stocking of grazing with horses

or cattle is permitted until 28 February each year.

The moderate level of grazing maintains the diversity of plants by restricting the potential of

ranker species becoming dominant and restricting the succession of plants to a scrub layer.

No fertiliser, manure, lime, pesticide, herbicide or fungicide can be applied to the field.

Figure 16.1 Stone Field in Carmarthenshire

This neutral grassland displays bright colours in summer before the July hay cut.


The site provides a remnant example of now scarce neutral grassland. The array of meadow

plants gives the field a colourful appearance in early summer and provides food for large

54 Stone Field has been used as a replacement site for Pine Lodge Meadow SSSI, which was formally selected amongst the samples for the case studies. An explanation for this substitution is provided further on in this case study. Both Pine Lodge Meadow and Stone Field are distinct neutral grassland sites in Carmarthenshire.

76

numbers of insects, birds and small mammals. The insect abundance is to an extent that it is

audible when visiting through spring and summer months and adds a dynamic feel to the

experience of the field.

There is no public access to Stone Field in the form of rights of way or commons access.

However, some botanical and wildlife groups make visits to the site in agreement with the

owner to study and monitor the biodiversity.


The main ecosystem services provided by Stone Field are outlined in the table below.

Table 16.1 Ecosystem services for Stone Field


Local identity: the site is part of

the local character and history

of the area because of its

distinct hay meadow character

and because of the standing

stone which is very evident.

Pollination – the site supports

many bees and other pollinating

insects

An annual hay crop is taken, as

an integral part of the SSSI

management agreement.

Stone Field is a reservoir of

genetic diversity – green hay as

a meadow seed source has

been used from Stone Field to

apply to another site to enhance

its diversity.

Research and monitoring:

Specialist botanical and wildlife

groups (at a national and

regional level) make field visits

to the site to experience and

survey it.

No other regulating services,

other than negligible carbon

storage due to the small scale

of the site.

Bee fodder – the high plant

diversity means the site will be

attractive to bees.

The site has high aesthetic

value –– meadows are iconic

and used not only to promote

nature conservation but by

commercial advertisers as well.

Local climate regulation due to

evapo transpiration.

Water regulation – low levels of

compaction so water infiltration

and surface roughness

impeding surface water flows

are likely to be contributing to

slowing run off.

Semi-natural swards do not

receive many fertilisers and

therefore have residual capacity

for nutrient retention, so

contributing to water

purification.

Green hay - potentially the site

could be harnessed for its

meadow seed source.

Stone Field has a distinct management agreement of its own, but forms part of 8 separate

fields in the locality which collectively constitute Caeau Afon Gwilli SSSI. In this sense, Stone

Field forms part of a fragmented series of marshy grassland, neutral grassland, and related

scrub. There may be some wildlife connectivity amongst these sites but they are generally

fragmented and not a coherent unit. Specialist visits to the area would be able to experience

this range of nearby sites with similar habitats. Beyond this factor, there are no benefits

which spread to or influence the wider landscape.

Benchmark protection: The retention of the site in favourable status ensures that the plant

and insect diversity is maintained – indeed, with the recent emergence of fragrant orchid the

site‟s wildlife interest is currently improving as a result of its management. Without the

current SSSI management agreement, there would be less guarantee of the site retaining its

quality and diversity of wildlife and its favourable status. This also illustrates the bottom-line

protection of the SSSI system, especially as a grassland site like this could be altered very

77

swiftly through land management practices such as ploughing or fertilising, and its wildlife

value greatly diminished or destroyed.

Public access and cultural services: If the site had public access, through for example a

right of way such as a footpath, it is likely that there would be greater provision of cultural

services, such as enjoyment and experience of the field‟s wildlife and education and learning

associated with it.

Intrinsic value: The relatively small and isolated nature of this site also points to issues

concerning the intrinsic worth of wildlife sites such as this. Although there is no regular public

access on the site, specialist groups are able to visit, survey and experience the site, and the

site is providing a habitat for nature, important in the context that 97% of wildlife-rich

grasslands have been lost since the 1960s.


Stone Field is small in scale and has no public access. It is not a location which has been

surveyed or researched in relation to its use and its benefits, and there is little available

information from which proxy values could be observed.

Valuation evidence could be gained from various factors including the following, which are or

could be some of the most tangible forms of value related to the site‟s benefits. Potential

benefits are also considered in the points below:

▪ Research and field visits: Travel to the site is already made by members of wildlife

and botanical bodies on a regional and a national (England and Wales) basis, indicating

there is a significant value and importance in the research and monitoring value of the

site. This is likely to bring a small amount of revenue to the local economy. Any further

use of the site for research, monitoring and education would suggest similar values in

future.

▪ Natural products: The amount and value of any Green Hay (the rich seed source

which can be applied to other sites to enrich their biodiversity) harnessed from the site

in the future.

▪ Wildlife photography: The grassland meadow at Stonefield is not only a rare feature

but is highly photogenic, given its textures and hues, and array of plants and insects.

With agreement and interest of the landowners, the site might offer a suitable location

for wildlife photography tours and training in future, if this activity was undertaken

sensitively.

16.5 Additional information

Whilst making arrangements to visit Pine Lodge Meadow for the case study work, the

owner‟s land agent contacted CCW to inform them that the visit would be inappropriate due

to the owner‟s lack of interest in pursuing the management practices set out in the SSSI

notification. Consequently, the alternative site of Stone Field was selected at short notice, as

a close equivalent within Carmarthenshire.

CCW emphasises that such an announcement from a landowner is rare in present day

circumstances, and negotiation would have to be carried out with the landowner and agent,

given that the owner has a legal obligation to recognise the management requirements for

the site‟s SSSI status.

A brief summary of issues relating to the benefits of Pine Lodge Meadow is set out below.

16.5.1 Introduction to the site

▪ Pine Lodge Meadow SSSI is a 1ha neutral grassland site in Carmarthenshire. It supports

a high cover and rich diversity of flowering plants, including common knapweed,

common bird‟s foot trefoil, eyebright, yellow-rattle, and tormentil, and grasses including

common bent, sweet vernal-grass and red fescue. Heath-grass and sheep‟s fescue are

present locally. Greater butterfly orchid is also present.

78

▪ Grassland is present on 80% of the site. While a very small proportion of scrub can add

wildlife interest and value to such a site, the level of scrub at 20% and increasing is now

detrimental, and the site is now classified as in „unfavourable declining‟ condition. The

important species of moonwort has been lost due to the spread of scrub especially on

the site‟s steeper slopes. The ideal management practice for the site, to ensure

favourable condition, would be an annual cut of hay and associated seasonal light

grazing of horses or cattle. However, a hay meadow is currently impractical on this

unfenced, small isolated site. An alternative management approach of light grazing of

restricted numbers of ponies has occurred, although stock-proof fencing has not been

erected and thus ponies have been able to graze neighbouring swards and not check the

scrub invasion of Pine Lodge Meadow.

16.5.2 Conservation benefits of the site

The benefits of Pine Lodge Meadow relate to the intrinsic value of its biodiversity, especially

given that it is one of the few refuges of neutral grassland in this part of Wales and in Britain,

thus much of its wildlife is of regional importance. If the site was not an SSSI the habitat

(plant communities and associated insects, small mammals and birds) would decline due to

neglect.

16.5.3 Ecosystem services

Pine Lodge Meadow is a remote location and has no public access such as rights of way.

There is no specialist use of the site or visits to it from wildlife bodies or by groups for

educational purposes. There is no promotion of the site for its wildlife value and no research

or monitoring occurs at the site.

79

17 Sutton Park


Sutton Park is located in the West Midlands, lying 10 km from Birmingham city centre and

surrounded by Sutton Coldfield and Walsall. The park is 1,000 hectares in size and was first

declared a public park in 1867. In 1954, 866 hectares of the park were designated as an

SSSI.

It is primarily a tract of unenclosed countryside within an urban area which contains the

largest and richest areas of ancient woodland, heath and wetland in the West Midlands. The

park is split into fifteen units which incorporate broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland, dwarf

shrub heath and standing open water and canals.

The park is in an “unfavourable recovering” condition. Since 1997, the primary adverse

impacts have been water pollution, particularly through agriculture, run off and discharge. In

addition to being a designated SSSI, the site is a National Nature Reserve (NNR) and much

of the park is a Scheduled Ancient Monument (SAM) (2002) due to archaeological interest.

The park is owned by Birmingham City Council with a number of areas leased to other

organisations.

In 2009, Sutton Park entered into a ten-year management agreement with Natural England

under the Higher Level Stewardship scheme (HLS). Under the HLS, a grant is paid annually

to undertake a range of agreed management options with a designated part-time Project

Manager employed (0.2 FTE)55

. The Sutton Park Management Plan (2010 to 2020) sees the

site requiring an integrated management plan “exercising matrix management across 4

disciplines of landscape, archaeology, ecology and community”56

.

The main management options for the park refer to the maintenance and restoration of

heathland and smaller areas of fen and mire communities through grazing of horses and

cattle, and physical management of vegetation through volunteer labourers, site staff and

contractors. A number of processes on site have been identified as requiring control and

reversal. This includes scrub succession and colonisation, bracken consolidation and

expansion, even aged and ageing heather and gorse communities, loss of ericaceous

species from heathland and nutrient enrichment and spread of nitrophile species57

.

Since 1998, the north side of the railway has been grazed by a herd of Exmoor ponies.

Initially 8 ponies were introduced, with 29 present on site more recently. This has involved a

number of associated costs, most notably staff time, the fencing of grazing areas and

veterinary care. To the south of the railway, beef cattle are grazed. Cattle are owned by two

local farmers, grazing on site for 6 months per year. Between 110 to 125 head of cattle are

on site per season, with the HLS scheme hoping to improve annual grazing intensity to 160

per head in due course to stabilise the land‟s condition.

The primary conflict on site is the management of recreation activity to minimise the impact

that the public have on the parkland. The site‟s gates are locked at night time to prevent anti-

social behaviour and reduce crime. The majority of public use is focused on honey pot sites

which are generally close to access points within the park. A legacy of roads exists in the

park which helps to maintain the site, and although these are closed to public cars, they

remain an established route through the park which helps to cater for large sporting events.

Speed bumps and fencing has been introduced to regulate traffic that is allowed on site.

Prior to 2010, the park had received a variety of funding through different streams including a

5 Year HLF scheme for Heathlands between 2002 and 2007, S35 Capital Agreements (4

between 1997 and 2000), Forestry Commission Grants, Woodland Management

Agreements, Storm Damage Grants for Trees. Currently, the primary expenditure for the site

55

This role will be undertaken by a site-based person at a later date, recruited specifically to manage the project. 56

“Sutton Park Management Plan 2010- 2020” 57

“Draft for Consultation: Sutton Park Higher Level Stewardship” received from Dr S Bodnar (PM for Sutton Park HLS) on 17.06.10.

80

is on labour, materials and buildings estimated at £500,000 gross per year, with an income

of £200,000 per year from leases, franchises and grants and charges for non-charitable use

of the park and Section 106 gains. A further £1m is received through the Higher Level

Stewardship (HLS) Scheme annually for the period 2010 to 2020. In 2009, the Education

Services funding previously received by the Park was withdrawn and a schools charge has

consequently been introduced to help pay for the ranger service activity. A number of

rangers are employed on site, however redundancies have taken place and more will be

made in the future as part of Birmingham City Council‟s drive to cut their expenditure by

20%58

.


The park‟s landscapes have been shaped by its historical uses and the effects of grazing

and human management over the centuries59

. The basic landscape derives from a medieval

deer park with visible distinctions between wooded grove areas, open grazed wetlands and

lowland heath; industrial uses and the creation of pools and mills and more recent

recreational uses. Historical uses are visible through archaeological remains including

boundary earthworks and the preservation of prehistoric burnt mounts and a Roman Road.

In the 19th century, the site was used for military training with practice trenches; it was during

this period that a racecourse and golf course were established. The importance of the park

as a historic landscape was acknowledged in 1995 when the site was included in the

Register of Historic Parks and Gardens.

The park is deemed to be of outstanding importance for the Midlands conurbation due to the

diversity and extent of its habitats and the richness in species of its plant communities. The

park encompasses a number of habitats which are characteristic of unimproved acid soils

and have led to the most characteristic biological feature of Sutton Park being its “complex

mosaic of habitats”60

including extensive lowland, wet and dry heathland, acid grassland and

woodland. Species and habitats of importance include the oak-holly-rowan woodland, one of

only a few which exist in Britain with such an abundance of holly in the understorey; an

abundance of common cow-wheat, otherwise a rare plant in the county; heath and acidic

grassland on higher ground; a number of uncommon plants in the heath and wetland

communities and a number of uncommon mosses.

In addition to its plant life, the park is of importance for breeding redstart, green and great

spotted woodpeckers, nuthatch and wood warbler, with concentrations higher than anywhere

else in the West Midlands. Twelve species of dragonfly have also been recorded on site.

Excluding feral birds, 162 bird species have been recorded in the park since 1975 with 75

species seen to breed regularly or occasionally61

. More recently, studies have identified the

site‟s importance for moth species. The site has the most biodiverse heathland in

Warwickshire and a number of national BAP target species are present including freshwater

crayfish, water vole and bullhead.

Generally the ecosystem in the park is stable, although there has been an increase in

eutrophication over time on site in the nutrient pool ecosystem. There has also been a

spread of non-native species, particularly on more utilised sites, where the native species

are trodden down and damaged by recreational activity and dog matter which has led to soils

in parts becoming less acidic. The concentration of visitors in certain parts of the park

however allows this damage to be contained to a certain extent.

The designation of the site as an NNR led to a changed perception by users, who

increasingly appreciated the importance of nature conservation, with a general belief that a

National Nature Reserve is more accessible to the public and easier to understand. The

SSSI designation provides a legal obligation on Birmingham City Council, the land owner, to

58

Consultation with Stefan Bodnar, Parks and Conservation Officer at Birmingham City Council on 24th June 2010.

59 “Sutton Park Management Plan 2010- 2020”

60 “Higher Level Stewardship Farm Environment Plan AG00086549”

61 “Sutton Park Management Plan 2010- 2020”

81

ensure that the Park condition is maintained. HLS financially assists the Council in managing

the site, funding which is particularly important given the recent cuts to public expenditure.

Since there are four designations within the park‟s boundaries, conflict can sometimes occur.

For example, whilst the heathland needs restoration in line with the SSSI designation, its

clearance was bound by the SAM designation and archaeology.

Sutton Park is seen as an „emotional emblem‟ for Sutton Coldfield, established as a

community asset in 1528 through the town charter62

.


The main ecosystem services provided by Sutton Park are outlined in Table 17.1. This table

is based on consultation with Natural England and desk research.

The wide variety of users that the park attracts leads to visitor pressures which are

concentrated on “honey-pot” areas which receive a disproportionately large volume of

visitors. In fact, around 60% of total visitors go to Town Gate due to its facilities, play area

and visitor centre; across the park, 10% of the site receives 90% of visitors. This seemingly

natural zonation allows for management of the site to be devised in those areas which

usually have heavy usage and consequently have the ability to carry the extra capacity, to

help preserve higher nature conservation areas which have a lower carrying capacity. This is

reiterated by patterns of visitor movements across the park, which follows surfaced routes

and established paths.

The SSSI designation has focused the management of the site towards conservation and the

maintenance of its biodiversity. Without the designation, it is likely that the site would be

increasingly used for recreational activity, with less management or control over activities

that took place. Prior to the designation and into the early 1990s, the site was subject to

increased recreational activity and less management, which led to degradation prior to active

management taking place63

.

62

“Sutton Park Management Plan 2010- 2020” 63 Consultation with Stefan Bodnar, Parks and Conservation Officer at Birmingham City Council on 24

th June 2010.

82

Table 17.1 Ecosystem services for Sutton Park


The Park‟s owners, Birmingham

City Council, lease areas of the

Park to other organisations

including Sutton Coldfield Golf Club

to the north of Longmoor Valley. In

addition, the Elisabeth Svendsen

Trust charity is housed on site,

public houses at Park House, Miller

& Carter, two catering outlets and

the Boathouse Restaurant.

Residential leases are located in

three lodges with an on-site apiary

for a local Bee-keeping group. The

businesses located in the park

employ approximately 180 people

in addition to those employed by

the council.

Sutton Park has significant historic

and archaeological significance (for

example it been written about by

Oliver Rackham on several

occasions).

Sutton Park also is aesthetically

important as a landscape.

Sutton Park also has educational

benefits and is intensively used

through a number of formal and

informal activities. It is estimated

that more than 2.5 million people

visit the Park each year, providing

extensive footfall to the Park‟s

businesses. Visitors primarily use

the space for walking, but there are

also a wide variety of local clubs

and societies including golf, sailing,

model aircraft flying, kayaking and

scouting. In addition, educational

uses are promoted through public

guided walks, talks and events led

by the site‟s ranger service, as well

as targeted events held periodically

through partnership projects

including youth intervention work,

healthy living, ethnic minority group

outreach work and Scout Jamboree

Commemorative works. Guided

walks and school visits are free.

The main benefit provided by the

site is recreational and cultural,

impacting upon the quality of life for

those who live in Sutton Coldfield

through the physical and mental

health benefits of accessing a

natural environment.

The park plays a role in reducing

the urban heat island effect and

acts as a carbon store reducing

global warming.

Air quality testing sites throughout

the site illustrate that air quality is

improved due to the gaseous

components of pollution being

absorbed on wet surfaces.

Flooding is reduced to a certain

extent through storage in water

ponds, although once saturated,

some isolated flooding occurs

within the park‟s boundaries. Major

flood relief is also due to infiltration

into the soil; the slowing of surface

water flows due to roughness of the

vegetation and interception from

trees and other vegetation, Given

the urban location of the site, the

flood regulation function may have

a high economic value at this site.

Historically the park‟s timber was

used for Sutton Park and other

parks in the West Midlands, but the

site lacks access routes for

machinery (due to woodland or

archaeology) and timber is of poor

quality which has meant that

commercial production is not

feasible. However, timber is still

used internally for the park

furniture, timber fencing and interior

gating.

In addition to the cattle kept on site,

bees are kept and looked after by

local apiarists.

83

Figure 17.1 Sutton Park

close to the Town Gate

entrance

17.4 Valuation of the Benefits

No existing evidence is available of the value of the benefits and services described above.

The HLS Scheme has acted as a catalyst to lever in additional funding. For example, in

2009 the Neighbourhood Renewal Fund provided fencing materials and a placement student

who helped to collate baseline figures for species dominance, invasive scrub and signs of

nutrient enrichment to monitor and assess the HLS achievements. An application has also

been made by Friends of Sutton Park Association to the Sutton Coldfield Municipal Charities

to support a part time ecologist for an 18 month period to monitor and assist in implementing

the HLS scheme64

.

64

Higher Level Stewardship Farm Environment Plan AG00086549

84

18 Thompson Water, Carr and Common


Thompson Water, Carr and Common, Norfolk, covers an area of 155 hectares, 43% of which

is lowland broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland. 61% of the SSSI is in unfavourable

recovering condition. The site also has SAC designation.

Thompson Water is a shallow lake of 40 acres, artificially created in 1845 by the draining of a

tributary of the River Wissey. Yellow water lily is abundant on the open water, as well as

wintering wildfowl. Thompson Carr is damp woodland with alder and oak is home to a small

number of roe deer.

Thompson Common is lowland grassland, which is enhanced by the open water and fen

communities of the pingos.65

Parts of Thompson Common are grazed by a herd of Shetland

ponies. Thompson Common holds a range of habitats including damp low-lying grassland

studded with small pools, fen, scrub and woodland. The 140 hectares of the nature reserve

lie in a shallow valley with a large lake with Thompson Water, at its western end.66

This

variety of wetlands, woodlands and grasslands supports a great diversity of wildlife including

rare plants and insects. The area is famous for its pingos, a series of 300 or so shallow pools

with a dazzling array of water plants. It is one of the most important sites in Europe for water

beetles and in the UK for dragonflies.

The SSSI is mainly owned by the Norfolk Wildlife Trust (NWT), although some small parts

are owned and managed by private land owners. The SSSI receives approximately £70,000

annually from agri-environment scheme funding.

Figure 18.1 Thompson Water and Common

The SSSI designation enables Norfolk Wildlife Trust to transform woodland to heathland and enhances pingo

conditions in Thompson Water and Common.


The site was originally predominantly woodland, with approximately 20% open grassland.

Since the purchase of the site by Norfolk Wildlife Trust, a proportion of the woodland has

been converted to open grassland, and as the result of this, approximately 60% of the area

is now open grassland and wetland.

65

Natural ponds formed as the result of glacial activity (http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/sone-section3.7_tcm6-4741.pdf) 66

Norfolk Wildlife Trust http://www.norfolkwildlifetrust.org.uk/Wildlife-in-Norfolk/Reserves/Thompson-Common.aspx

http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/sone-section3.7_tcm6-4741.pdf

http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/sone-section3.7_tcm6-4741.pdf

http://www.norfolkwildlifetrust.org.uk/Wildlife-in-Norfolk/Reserves/Thompson-Common.aspx

85

The woodland, although rich in tree species, does not provide the best support for pingos67

.

In particular, the leaf litter produced by trees in the woodland negatively affects the

ecological conditions of these pingos, and therefore, priorities have been given to tree

removal to reduce the effect of leaf litter on pingos.

The SSSI designation and resources provided by NE have improved the condition of habitats

and the number of plant and invertebrate species on the site. Without the SSSI designation,

it is less likely that the NWT would have received funding from Natural England, and actions

such as tree removal, bridge building and fence construction would have been less likely to

have taken place. The SSSI designation has allowed the NWT to access financial resources

to conduct these activities, broadening the range of habitats from mainly woodland to a mix

of woodland, grassland and wetland, as well as increasing the number of species that these

vast types of habitats support.

In comparison, there are local non-SSSI sites in Norfolk with pingos which are predominantly

surrounded by woodland. As these sites do not hold the SSSI designation, they attract less

funding. As a result, relatively little tree removal has been performed, and as a consequence

of this, pingos are not often exposed. This results in a lack of variation in terms of types of

habitats, and subsequently, a lower number of plant and invertebrate species being

supported. Less work, such as bridge building, is also carried out to enable public access to

the site. Although visitors to these sites are not recorded, it is estimated that these non-SSSI

sites attract fewer visitors than Thompson Water, Carr and Common. Thompson Common

has also been designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC).


The main ecosystem services provided by Thompson Water, Carr and Common are outlined

in Table 18.1 below.

Table 18.1 Ecosystem Services for Thompson Water, Carr and Common


15,000 visitors are estimated to visit

the site via the Great Eastern Pingo

Trail, a footpath which was put in

place by the NWT following its

acquisition of the site.

The cultural value of the site may be

boosted by the connection between

the Great Eastern Pingo Trail and

the National Walking Trail, providing

further opportunities for tourism and

recreation.

Pingos are a breeding ground for

pool frogs, and the site has a

scientific research value in this

context.

The rich plant species on the site

help to purify water, though this

benefit is likely to be highly localised

Woodlands and other habitats

contribute to carbon storage.

Infiltration and the roughness of

surface impeding surface water

flows, as well as interception by

vegetation are likely to play a role in

water regulation.

No provisioning services – grazing

is by Shetland ponies (although

some genetic conservation here)

Most of the services provided by Thompson Common are accounted for by the SSSI

designation and funding. Without the resources provided by Natural England, the Great

Eastern Pingo Trail would not have been put in place, and public access to the site would

have been more limited. There are examples of non-SSSI sites with similar habitat features

such as pingos and woodland that do not attract a similar number of visitors due to the lack

of public access. This highlights the importance of the SSSI designation to Thompson

Common and illustrates how the SSSI designation enables the site to provide cultural and

regulating services.

86


Although the benefits that the SSSI designation provides are well recognised, it is difficult to

value these benefits without dedicated, site specific research. The cultural value provided by

tourism activities is difficult to measure, and the value of the water regulation services is

likely to be local and site-specific. Indirect benefits of the SSSI designation include job

creation in the area. The resources provided by Natural England enable Norfolk Wildlife

Trust to contract employees to carry out work such as putting the Great Eastern Pingo Trail

in place, building fences or removing trees, suggesting that an economic value, although

small, is generated in the local area. It is hoped that funding will continue to be provided to

Thompson Common, which will indirectly have a positive effect on employment in the area.

87

19 Walthamstow Reservoirs


Walthamstow Reservoirs are owned and operated by Thames Water as a working reservoir,

part of the Lea Valley Reservoir Chain. They comprise ten relatively small, shallow, water

storage basins, several of which are fringed by sloping earth banks. Together with the

presence of wooded islands, these form distinctive habitat features. These features support

one of the country‟s major heronries (one of England‟s five largest sites) and a particularly

large concentration of breeding wildfowl. The site also supports the greatest variety and

number of breeding wetland birds of all of London‟s drinking water reservoirs. These are the

main interest features which led to the site being designated a SSSI in 1986.

The shores, banks and fenland vegetation are of added interest for species uncommon in

Greater London. Nearly 300 plant species have been recorded from the wooded areas,

grass banks, fen and open water habitats of the site.

Notably, the site forms part of a network of protected areas. The site adjoins, for instance,

Walthamstow Marshes, and neighbours Chingford Reservoirs to the north, both of which are

also SSSI. Walthamstow Reservoirs SSSI is 178.3 hectares in size. It is also designated as

a RAMSAR site and Special Protection Area (SPA).

The management of the site to protect the interest features mentioned above includes

sympathetic management of water levels to maintain optimal water depths, the maintenance

of habitats associated with the shallowly sloping margins, the maintenance of appropriate

water quality, protection against invasive species, and active management of the habitats

surrounding the open water to ensure appropriate nesting and feeding conditions are

maintained.

Despite these efforts, the site‟s condition is still considered „unfavourable (no change)‟. This

is a result of low populations of wetland birds (the main interest feature) found by ongoing

bird population counts. Low bird numbers could be due to a variety of reasons, such as

vegetation characteristics, operational disturbance, external factors influencing populations,

other water bodies being favoured instead, and so forth. Moreover, bird population counts

are done relatively infrequently (every few years or so), so up-to-date data on which to judge

the condition of the interest features are often not available.

The site does not suffer from development pressures per se, given that it needs to be

maintained in its current function as an operational reservoir to continue to generate income

for Thames Water.


The benefits of the site to biodiversity are highlighted above in the reasons for notification.

Together with other protected sites in the area, Walthamstow Reservoirs provides habitats

for nationally significant populations of wildfowl and other wetland birds, particularly herons.

The benefits to wildlife are magnified by the fact that the site forms part of a „green network‟

in an otherwise industrial part of London.

Being an operational storage reservoir, the site also serves as a key source of London‟s

drinking water supply as part of the Lea Valley Reservoir Chain. Additionally, the site offers

extensive coarse and fly-fishing opportunities for recreational anglers, as well as being

accessible to birdwatchers and naturalists. However, any access to the site is by permit only.

Many of these benefits, such as water supply and fishing, are not directly linked to the site‟s

designation as SSSI. It is also likely that wetland birds would still benefit from the site, given

that is it is a reservoir and therefore has habitat features that support these types of

populations.

Importantly, the legal protection that the SSSI designation affords against development

pressures are not considered hugely important given that the site‟s use as a reservoir is

thought unlikely to change. The improved access a SSSI designation may give to agri-

88

environment funds is also not applicable. Higher Level Stewardship payments could be

allocated to a very small part of the site, such as the wooded areas. However, the size and

purpose of the site limits the possibilities. For instance, payments could be received for the

banks of the reservoirs, but even here the opportunities are limited as these have to be kept

a certain length so any leaks or operational faults can be easily identified. Most significantly

however, payments cannot be received for large water bodies, which heavily restricts the

options available in terms of agri-environment funds.

Nonetheless, a key benefit of the designation is the authority it gives Natural England to

influence the site‟s management. The designation allows Natural England to work closely

with Thames Water to ensure the site is managed in a way that is favourable to the wildlife

and vegetation. One of the most important elements of this protection for instance, is the

requirements that Natural England be consulted in the case of any damaging operations.

In practice however, this is rarely required given the nature of the site and the nature of the

owner. Thames Water‟s existing Corporate Social Responsibility aims require that the SSSI

is managed appropriately and require that the company takes its duties seriously towards

such designations and to biodiversity in general.

Nonetheless, whilst the site would still be beneficial to wildlife without the SSSI designation,

the designation aims to ensure that these benefits are maintained and enhanced.


The main ecosystem services provided by Walthamstow Reservoirs are outlined in 19.1.

This table is based on consultations and desk research and is intended to be purely

illustrative.

Table 19.1: Ecosystem services for Walthamstow Reservoirs


The site is accessible to

recreational anglers, birdwatchers

and naturalists, and provides

significant cultural services to these

groups. However, access is

restricted to other groups (unless a

permit is issued for a specific

purpose such as fishing or bird

watching, the public cannot access

the site).

Nonetheless one of the main

potential benefits of the site is that it

could provide important „green

space‟ in an otherwise industrial

area.

Regulating and supporting services

are largely limited to the site‟s

contribution to flood attenuation.

However this service is provided as

much because of the context of the

site (as part of the Lea Valley‟s

flood relief channels), as by the site

itself.

Overall, the site‟s contribution to

other regulating and supporting

services (including climate

regulation through the site‟s small

role in mitigating the heat island) is

also more a consequence of where

the site is located than as a result of

any particular features of the site

itself.

Supply of fresh water is the site‟s

main purpose.

The reservoirs also provide fish for

anglers.

The restrictions on access are partly a result of the site‟s main purpose as a working

reservoir, in that Thames Water has an interest in limiting the number of visitors for

operational reasons (e.g. so that the public‟s presence does not complicate engineering or

maintenance tasks). Moreover, the designation as a SSSI and the sensitive nature of the

interest features of the site also mean that visitor numbers have to be carefully managed.

Currently Natural England is working with Thames Water on a project designed to open up

the site so that local people can use it for access and recreation. Different options are being

explored to determine the best way of increasing access without compromising the

sensitivity of the site‟s interest features, and without interfering with the operation of the

reservoir itself. The project aims to have a visitor centre on site to inform people about the

site‟s important wildlife, as well as fulfilling Thames Water‟s corporate social responsibility

aims to educate people about water resource management and Thames Water‟s activities.

89

This option would also have commercial value as there would likely be an entry charge to the

visitor centre. The model of access that is eventually adopted will determine the extent to

which the site delivers cultural services.

The effect of the site‟s designation on cultural service delivery is therefore complicated.

Although the site‟s designation provides a reason for people to visit and for access to be

increased, access itself might compromise the site‟s interest features and therefore must be

managed with caution. In terms of other ecosystem services, the site‟s designation appears

to have a limited impact (for instance, without designation the site would still function as a

reservoir and provide fresh water and also flood attenuation capabilities).

It is likely that the main regulating services of the site would be maintained in line with its

core purpose, irrespective of the SSSI designation.

Figure 19.1 Path running between Number Four and Number Five reservoirs


Within the context of this study, a valuation of the benefits of the site is restricted to evidence

of the cultural and recreational services that the site provides and the nominal charges

associated with access to the site. Examples of the cost of access permits are given in the

table below. It is estimated that 25 fishermen per day access the site for recreational

purposes.

Coarse fishing permits

Permit type Price

Two-rod day £10 (£8 concessions*)

Two-rod evening £5

Extra rod (third rod) £4

West Warwick Reservoir

Season £130

Half season £75

Maynard & Lockwood Reservoirs

Season £150

Trout fishing permits

Permit type Price

Number Four & Number Five reservoirs

90

Six-fish £25 (£20 concessions*)

Four-fish £20 (£15 concessions*)

Two-fish £15 (£10 concessions*)

75 fish season £300

35 fish season top-up £150

East Warwick Reservoir

Walthamstow Fly Fisher's Club members season £180

Other permits

Permit type Price

Birdwatching (annual) £10

Day visitor £1

Bird hide key £3

* Concessions available to OAPs over 65, and registered disabled.

91

20 Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods


Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods is located in Bayford, Hertfordshire. They comprise 143

hectares of lowland mixed broadleaved and yew woodland. The site was most likely

converted to high forest in the 18th century from wood pasture, and contains a moated site,

which is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The site is predominantly ancient woodland, of

high historic significance, with blocks of more modern plantations within it. The SSSI is

divided into 16 units, with the largest units owned and managed by Hertfordshire County

Council, the Wildlife Trust and the Woodland Trust. The other smaller units are owned and

managed by the Scouts and private land owners. The SSSI also has SAC and NNR

designation.

Danemead nature reserve is also part of the Wormley/Hoddesdon Park Wood SSSI and Special Area of Conservation (SAC). This woodland is cited as being one of the two outstanding localities in the UK for oak-hornbeam forest. Danemead consists of valley mire, unimproved damp acid grassland, scrub, stream and Hornbeam woodland. The wood in which Danemead is located also holds significant archaeological and historic interest. The site is bounded by the major Roman road, Ermine Street and by the north end of Martins Green.

68.


The woods consist of a series of discrete woodland blocks developed from ancient wood-

pasture and heaths, and retain many large oak and hornbeam pollards. Unified blocks of

ancient woodland of this size are considered to be quite unusual. In contrast, neighbouring

non-SSSI sites have experienced extensive clearance and replanting with conifers.

Small ponds and streams are important habitats for bryophyte species dependent on shady,

wet and acidic conditions. Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods therefore have a wide range of

habitats that support a variety of invertebrate species including the green tiger beetle, which

is of limited distribution in Hertfordshire, and several local species of butterfly and moth. The

woodland bird community also exhibits equivalent diversity, with all three woodpeckers,

woodcock and hawfinch known to breed.

The SSSI designation has helped preserve hornbeams, oak trees, ancient pollards and

coppice. It also helps to maintain a diverse woodland structure with some open space, some

areas of dense understory and an overstorey of more mature trees to support a wide range

of plant, invertebrate, butterfly and bird species.

It is difficult to distinguish the differences between the effects of the SSSI designation and

other designations such as NNR and SAC. It is likely that the greatest benefit of the SSSI

designation is to provide legal protection against development pressure, especially in relation

to private units. As Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods North is relatively close to London, the

area does experience some development pressures. The Woods‟ SSSI designation enables

Natural England to be involved in the consultation process to make sure that any

development activity does not negatively affect the site.

The SSSI designation also allows Natural England to help landowners add an extra level of

protection against vandalism or the inappropriate use of land. For instance, in one of the

privately-owned SSSI units, incidents have been occurring where landscaping has been

damaged in the unit due to the public access provided by the Roman road. Natural England

can now work in conjunction with the landowner to file an application to the Council to apply

for an installation of a gate to prevent this from re-occurring and to help the landowner to

protect his SSSI unit.

The SSSI designation also helps Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods North to obtain funding

from sources such as the Forestry Commission and Natural England. A Higher Level

68

Herts and Middlesex Wildlife Trust http://www.hertswildlifetrust.org.uk/NatureReserves/small/danemead

http://www.hertswildlifetrust.org.uk/NatureReserves/small/danemead

92

Stewardship agreement covers the cost of felling conifer trees, putting up fences and

grazing, either by hiring contractors or buying livestock.

Figure 20.1 Woodland in Wormley Hoddesdonpark

Source: Natural England


The main ecosystem services provided by Wormley Hoddesdon Park Woods are outlined in

Table 20.1.

Table 20.1 Ecosystem services for Wormley Hoddesdon Park Woods


Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods

has a relatively high tourism value

being situated close to London and

large populations. It attracted at

least 110,000 visits in 2007/8,

mainly due to its large oak and

hornbeam pollards and the many

bird and butterfly species

associated with these trees.


also provides health and well-being

benefits. Access to the site is well

developed, and the woods attract

volunteer wardens (approximately

200 person days annually), scouts,

joggers, runners, and dog walkers.

Disabled groups also come to the

site to relax and do coppicing work.


also has educational and research

value e.g. school visits and

research groups performing

woodpecker studies or pollen

analysis. Its historic landscape, (e.g.

Roman road and ancient moated

site) also draws visitors.

Conservation of the woods can

The woods can provide climate

regulating services and are

estimated to store up to 200 tonnes

of carbon annually.69

There is likely to be a role in water

regulation by infiltration (woodland

soils typically have high porosity),

surface water flow impedance by

surface roughness and interception

by vegetation canopies.

Very small scale - tree branches or

stems as the result of coppicing

activities are often used for fencing.

Historically, the site has provided

fuel and food (through grazing of

wood pasture). Greater fuel wood

provision could occur through

increased coppicing although there

is little evidence of this on this site.

69

Based on average values for UK woodlands of 5.4 tonnes of carbon dioxide per hectare per year (or 1.4 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year) for broadleaved and unproductive woodlands. http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/6_planting_more_trees.pdf/$FILE/6_planting_more_trees.pdf

93

promote more business in local

stables e.g. horse riding activities in

the woods.

20.4 Valuation of benefits

There was no available information quantifying benefits for this site.

94

21 Wren’s Nest



Wren‟s Nest is located in Dudley in the West Midlands and covers an area of 34.1 hectares.

The site derives its name from the English word „Wrosne‟, meaning “the link”, possibly

relating to its topographical position on the boundary between the Severn and Trent

watersheds70

.

It was designated as SSSI in 1990 due to its exceptional palaeontological importance,

particularly Silurian Limestone from the Wenlock age which has led to the site being

renowned internationally for the abundance, variety and well preserved nature of Silurian

limestone fossils. The site is one of the most notable geological locations in the British Isles.

Over 600 fossil species are known at Wren‟s Nest, and Dudley was the first place in the

world where one-third of these fossils, including the trilobite (or „Dudley Bug‟) were found71

.

Around 80 of the fossils have only ever been found at Wren‟s Nest.

Historically, the site was quarried for limestone which was used for building stone and

agricultural fertiliser. At the peak of the industrial revolution, up to 20,000 tonnes was

removed from the site annually72

. As a result of this activity, the site has been left

“honeycombed” by caverns and quarries. The quarrying ceased in 1924 and the hill was left

to nature, colonised by grasses, shrubs and woodland, with its primary habitat “earth habitat”

providing for birdlife, bats and butterflies. Whilst the quarrying left the site fragmented,

without the Industrial Revolution, the rocks at Wren‟s Nest might not have been exposed nor

the fossils discovered.

The site is deemed to be in favourable condition and in addition to being designated an SSSI

was designated a National Nature Reserve (NNR) in 1956, the UK‟s first NNR for geology73

.

In 2004, Wren‟s Nest and Castle Hill were also declared a Scheduled Ancient Monument

(SAM), seen as the best surviving remains of the limestone quarrying, mining and

processing industry in Dudley. The site also contains the last remaining surface opening

limestone cavern in the world, the Seven Sisters.

21.1.2 Site management

The Wren‟s Nest is managed by a team of three full time members of staff and two

permanent volunteers. The senior warden‟s position is 50% funded by grant contributions

from Natural England, with the remaining 50% and 2 other salaries being paid by the site‟s

owners, Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council (DMBC). The wardens‟ work is wide ranging

including practical nature conservation management and habitat creation in addition to

estate maintenance (fence, path, stile and step repairs).

The work of the wardens is helped by the Friends of Wren‟s Nest Association, founded in

2002, to help with litter picking and fundraising. More recently, four Friends have gained

extensive training in First Aid and the geological and industrial background to the site and

health and safety, so that they can guide walkers around the site to take some of the

pressure away from the warden service at peak times.

Grasslands on the reserve are cut once a year towards the end of summer to enable wild

flowers and grasses to grow74

; during the summer the wardens also focus on butterfly

transects, vegetation clearance, path maintenance, Japanese knotweed treatment and

70

“Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve” Source: http://www.dudley.gov.uk/environment--planning/countryside/nature-reserves/wrens-nest-national-nature-reserve Accessed 21.06.10 71

“The geology of Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve” leaflet 72

“Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve” http://www.dudley.gov.uk/environment--planning/countryside/nature-reserves/wrens-nest-national-nature-reserve Accessed 10th June 2010 73

Note that the site was not designated as SSSI until long after it was designated an NNR – this is because the requirement to notify NNRs as SSSI was not introduced until the 1982 Wildlife and Countryside Act 74

“The Wildlife of Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve” leaflet

http://www.dudley.gov.uk/environment--planning/countryside/nature-reserves/wrens-nest-national-nature-reserve




95

limestone grassland management. Winter months are characterised by scrub clearance to

maintain and enhance views of the geological exposures in addition to dangerous tree

management, dead elm removal, sycamore thinning and traditional hedge laying.

Figure 21.1 Grassland growing on the edge of a limestone escarpment

Disused quarries are seen as an important geological resource in England as they are often

in areas where natural geological exposures are rare or absent and sites provide more

exposure of geological features than natural exposures75

. Consequently active management

is required to maintain exposure of important geological features including periodic clearance

of vegetation and rock debris. Vegetation growth is seen as a problem for geological

conservation in many disused quarries; whilst it may not be practical to maintain full

exposure of rock features, site management may lead to a specific area being defined and

subsequently left clear of vegetation.

In June 2010, a Heritage Lottery fund (HLF) £1.1 million improvement project76

began at

Wren‟s Nest77

with the objective of allowing visitors to get closer to the geological features of

the reserve, including the reopening of a footpath leading to the Seven Sisters Mines,

disability friendly footpaths, single level viewing platforms and a colour coded route which will

guide visitors from the new car park to the site. The funding will also fund a 3 year post for a

Community and Learning officer to further engage schools and the local community in the

reserve and its activities.

The site receives £8,500 funding per annum from DMBC which is used for all training,

protective clothing and uniforms, equipment and tools to maintain the site. Previously, the

reserve also received an additional £1,300 from the Woodland Management Scheme which

finished in September 2009. Following the removal of this funding stream, the reserve chose

to apply for the HLS scheme for 3 ex-horse grazing fields which provides £1,280 per annum.

In exchange for this funding, the fields are managed and the wardens are trialling

experimental plots to increase floral diversity and control bracken.

The budget for the site is obviously strained. Whilst it is supplemented to some extent by

donations from some groups who visit (circa £300 per annum from groups including

Women‟s Institutes, Rotary etc), most visitors (including school trips) visit the site for free.

The Friends Association fundraise for the reserve, but often these monies are used to fund

their activities at the site. Section 106 agreements in theory provide some capital towards the

75

“Views about Management: A statement of English Nature‟s views about the management of Wren‟s Nest SSSI” Version 08/01/04 76

In September 2008, the Council received a Stage 1 pass from the Heritage Lottery Fund for nearly £800,000 for the Ripples through Time project, which includes a development grant of £88,500. The overall project cost of the five year project is approximately £1.1million with additional funding from DMBC, Natural England and AWM. 77

“Time for a Fresh Look at the ancient Seven Sisters” 2nd

June 2010 http://www.dudleynews.co.uk/news/8196690.Time_for_a_fresh_look_at_the_ancient_Seven_Sisters/ Accessed 10/06/10

http://www.dudleynews.co.uk/news/8196690.Time_for_a_fresh_look_at_the_ancient_Seven_Sisters/

96

site; however, this is often siphoned off by the larger projects such as the HLF improvement

project, with little received for day-to-day site management.

Figure 21.2: The urban environment surrounding Wren's Nest

The site is open and accessible to the public 24 hours a day, 7 days per week with

approximately 15 access points around the reserve. It is located in the middle of Dudley and

within a social housing estate, which puts additional pressures on the reserve staff to

maintain the site and reduce anti-social behaviour, including littering and graffiti. The staff

work on site between Monday and Friday. With the exception of guided walks and activity

days, during weekends the site is unmanned leading to some management conflicts. Over

time, the warden service has chosen to focus its time on the day-to-day management of the

site, its habitats and species with the hope that the anti-social behaviour that takes place will

be curbed by PCSOs and other means. Furthermore, lone worker policy and health and

safety issues would mean that each day of the weekend would need to be manned by 2 staff

patrolling the site, reducing the amount of time given to the weekly work programme of the

site and reducing the amount of site management that could take place. It is hoped that the

Community and Learning Officer role, funded through the HLF project, will enable the

community to be engaged more actively in the site and education of it improved, to reduce

the impact of anti-social behaviour that damages the reserve.

The industrial background of the site has led to it being unstable in parts with issues of public

safety. Whilst the HLF grant will open up the vista to the Seven Sisters, it is impossible to

allow visitors into the mines and this has led to some disappointment amongst local people.

A number of crisis meetings have taken place over the site‟s history regarding safety

concerns, engineering options to address instability and the need to increase the number of

wardens to manage the site and deal with fly tipping and littering78

. Prior to the designations,

in 1975 for example, gypsy encampments and fly-tipping on the site led to an unfriendly

atmosphere. Antisocial behaviour is a difficulty on the site, including an arson attack in 2006

78

Prosser, C. D & Larwood, J. G (2008) “Conservation at the cutting-edge: the history of geoconservation on the Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve, Dudley, England” Geological Society v 300. p 217-235

97

which destroyed the warden‟s base and classroom. Plans for a visitor centre remain a core

objective but priorities are currently focused on opening the Seven Sisters caverns79

.

Natural England would like the limestone grassland to be extended at Wren‟s Nest, but given

the limited resources this has been identified as unfeasible. The habitats provided by the site

and the species supported are of great importance to the region and nation but do not occur

in a vacuum. The site is part of the wider Limestone Way linking Dudley borough to South

Staffordshire which is part of an important migratory corridor for the site‟s bat population.

Whilst Wren‟s Nest is protected from development and is maintained by the warden service,

some sites to the north are more vulnerable to infill development and damaging activity

which could have a detrimental impact on the Wren‟s Nest SSSI and the species it supports.

Pressure is increasing on the Wren‟s Nest senior warden to widen her remit and undertake a

wider role across the Limestone Way, but there is no increase in budget to support such

activity.


Since quarrying on the site ceased, it has become colonised by grassland, shrub and ash-

elm woodland. It supports a variety of rare flora and fauna with county rarities living off the

limestone including autumn gentian, small scabious and bee orchid. Recently, bee orchids

are struggling to survive, but this is largely down to natural variations rather than a site-

based issue, exemplified by the common spotted orchid which has recently thrived with 340

counted so far in 2010 compared to 234 in 2009.

On the southern part of the reserve, trees including ash, beech and sycamore can be found.

A range of shrubs and mosses, ferns and other plants are found on the woodland floor.

Some of the West Midlands‟ last sightings of plants have been in Wren‟s Nest, including the

hairy violet.

The woodland provides habitat for stock dove, tawny owl, green/great spotted woodpeckers,

nuthatch and sparrowhawk. Caverns provide roost sites for 7 of the 16 native UK bats,

including 4 of the 8 more threatened species. In 2005, the bats‟ hibernaculum was identified

as being unstable (with previous collapses in 2002). £0.25m from English Partnerships‟ Land

Stablisation Fund allowed the hibernaculum to be moved to another cavern which was not

previously accessible from above ground, allowing the Seven Sisters caverns to be

stabilised through infilling with rocks and boulders. This infilling is now being reversed to

open up the caverns to the public. The locally uncommon white-letter hairstreak butterfly

has also been found living off the elms of Wren‟s Nest80

.

The ecological condition has not been greatly altered by the SSSI designation in 1990, with

the management principles primarily unaltered, although there has been more pressure to

ensure that the site is maintained and anti-social behaviour curtailed. More recently, the

SAM designation has led to the reserve needing to apply for Scheduled Monument consent

for all works undertaken on the site to manage and maintain its condition, despite being

works which are essential to maintain the site up to SSSI standard.

The NNR is a premier educational site for all ages and a unique outdoor teaching facility.

Education focuses on principles of stratigraphy and palaeontology, and the interlinked

features of the site‟s industrial history, geology and wildlife. In essence the site bridges

natural history and industrial heritage disciplines, providing an opportunity for the local

community to learn more about the area‟s history. Educational features will be enhanced

through HLF funded plans which will enable visitors to learn about the site including how the

geology of the Black Country led to it becoming the „workshop of the world‟ through site wide

interpretation. Learning resources will include on-site and outreach programmes,

downloadable learning packages, guided walks/talks and special events and the

79

Prosser, C. D & Larwood, J. G (2008) “Conservation at the cutting-edge: the history of geoconservation on the Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve, Dudley, England” Geological Society v 300. p 217-235 80

“Wren‟s Nest National Nature Reserve” http://www.dudley.gov.uk/environment--planning/countryside/nature-reserves/wrens-nest-national-nature-reserve Accessed 10th June 2010



98

employment of a Learning and Community Development officer to encourage volunteer

development and help establish a community partnership group.

The site‟s SSSI designation puts more impetus on ensuring that the reserve is maintained to

a certain standard. It has not however led to an increased funding stream from its owners

DMBC, nor has it actively changed the way the reserve is managed. The new designations,

including SAM, have led to more bureaucracy which must be adhered to in order to the site

to be managed. Whilst the SSSI designation illustrates the important part that the site plays

in the nation‟s biodiversity, the NNR designation is a more understandable designation to the

wider public, yet both play a part in the management of Wren‟s Nest.


The main ecosystem services provided Wren‟s Nest are outlined in Table 21.1. This table is

based on consultation and desk research and is intended to be purely illustrative.

Table 21.1: Ecosystem services for Wren‟s Nest


The main services provided by the

site are cultural, particularly related

to education. Approximately 12,000

visitors are received by the site

annually, including around 3,000

school children. Investment at the

site is hoped to raise visitor

numbers to 15,000 per year.

The site‟s wardens supervise and

develop a range of volunteers and

work experience placements,

including conservation tasks for

adults with learning difficulties. The

warden service runs a programme

of guided walks, slide talks, school

visits and special events including

junior angling competitions in the

school holidays.

The reserve‟s Senior Warden

worked with Bramford primary

school to run a Wildlife Group as an

after-school club to involve children

in activities at both school and the

nature reserve, although this activity

ceased recently due to a lack of

involvement from the school and a

lack of warden time.

As part of the corridor linking Dudley

to South Staffordshire, the site is

part a „green lung‟81

for an otherwise

densely populated area. The site is

therefore seen to improve air quality

and potentially reduces the urban

heat island effect.

Likely also to regulate water by

infiltration and surface water flow

reduction due to roughness and

possibly purify water due to the low

nutrient levels and high pH, which

provides a high buffering capacity.

The site no longer delivers

provisioning services, although

historically it played a significant

role through its limestone quarrying

which was used for construction

(building stone) and agriculture

(fertiliser).


No one pays to enter the site (Dudley MBC policy) and there is limited council funding with

nominal donations received. There is no visitor centre on site due to an arson attack in 2006,

so no expenditure occurs. Approximately £300 per annum is received through donations in

addition to the limited council funding received by the wardens service for their activity.

Wren‟s Nest is important for the educational resources it provides (history, science, geology)

and for the recreational spaces it provides for local communities. The site is an accessible

outdoor learning facility providing children with an insight into the history and geology of the

West Midlands. Wren‟s Nest provides a green lung to part of the Black Country providing

81

http://cmis.dudley.gov.uk/CMISWebPublic/Binary.ashx?Document=13745

99

educational and health benefits to the communities living around it. However, the proximity to

urban areas leads to detrimental impact through anti-social behaviour.

The recreational benefits of Wren‟s Nest were valued in a report on the social and economic

value of geodiversity by Aberystwyth University (Webber et al, 2006) for English Nature. The

choice experiment method was used to assess how much people would be willing to pay to

protect and enhance two geological sites: Wren‟s Nest NNR and the Jurassic Coast World

Heritage Site (WHS, which comprises 14 SSSIs). The value of „knowledge‟ of geodiversity

was explored by comparing the value of access to different geological sites both with and

without the provision of interpretative material.

At Wren‟s Nest NNR, access to the whole site with educational material was valued at

£21.26 per household per year compared to £7.83 per household per year without the

provision of educational material. Similarly, access to the geologically-rich Seven Sisters

caverns within the NNR with extensive interpretation was valued at £13.95 per household

per year compared to £12.22 per household per year without.

Similar findings were also found at the Jurassic Coast WHS where access with extensive

interpretative material was valued at £62.35 per household per year compared to a value of

£23.69 per household per year for access without educational material.

In all three cases, the provision of educational material on geodiversity (and hence

„knowledge‟) clearly enhances the value that people attain from visiting a geodiversity site.

The value that people placed on the opportunity to collect fossils was also explored at both

case study sites. People expressed a positive willingness to pay to be able to collect fossils,

provided that this was accompanied by sufficient protection of rare and important fossils.

100

22 Conclusions

The following general conclusions can be drawn from the case studies.

SSSI designation provides substantial and wide-ranging benefits for the conservation

of biodiversity and geodiversity.

The case study sites together support a wide variety of habitats, species and geological

features of national and international importance.

The case study research as a whole has illustrated that SSSI status assigned to these

individual sites has helped to conserve the biodiversity and geodiversity of the sites and

balance these needs with different pressures and uses. It is likely that, without SSSI status,

these benefits would be lost or severely depleted at some sites. Examples of sites where

SSSI status has helped to protect against or mitigate other pressures include the Lower Usk

and Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods (where designation affords protection against built

development); the River Avon System (helping to tackle by pollution from agriculture); King‟s

Sedgemoor (maintenance of water levels and appropriate farming systems); Humber

Estuary (balancing conservation, river use and port activities); Crime Rigg (maintenance of

the quarry exposure, otherwise at risk of neglect or infilling); North York Moors (balancing

conservation, farming and grouse interests); and Hatfield Moor (protection from peat

extraction and agricultural pollution).

The case study research also suggests that in the absence of SSSI designation, parts of

some sites and possibly the entirety of others might have been destroyed. For example, for

small natural grassland meadow sites such as Stone Field, 97% of this habitat has been lost

across Britain to agricultural change and development.

SSSI status has also proved to be a key stimulus in focusing attention on the condition of

sites and in facilitating the allocation of resources to improve site condition. Examples

include Ashdown Forest, Dark Peak, Hatfield Moor, North Yorks Moors and South Pennine

Moors.

It is often difficult to disentangle the benefits linked to SSSI status from those of other

designations.

Many of the case study sites have other designations (especially as SPA, SAC and/or NNR).

In the case of those sites with SAC and SPA designations, the main benefit for these sites is

from affording access to funding for management of the sites through the European Union‟s

environmental fund, LIFE+. It is often difficult to assess the relative importance of these

designations in contributing to benefits and ecosystem services. This is especially true for

the more significant and important sites which are more likely to have multiple designations.

It is important to recognise that SSSI status often pre-dates other designations and has

played a major role in protecting and maintaining sites which have subsequently received

other designations.

Higher level designations can bring additional benefits to SSSIs. For example, Natura 2000

designations at Hatfield Moor and the Lower Usk are believed to enhance the level of

protection from built development and other potentially damaging activities. Natura 2000

status has also helped to attract EU funding to King‟s Sedgemoor, the Lower Usk, the River

Avon System and the South Pennine Moors.

A further benefit from higher level designations can be the greater focus for public access

and recreation, especially related to NNR or National Park status. Examples include Wren‟s

Nest NNR, the North York Moors National Park, Richmond Park NNR and Sutton Park NNR.

In the latter case NNR status is believed to have led to a changed perception by users, who

increasingly appreciate the importance of nature conservation, with a general belief that a

National Nature Reserve is more accessible to the public and easier to understand than a

site with SSSI status alone. It is possible that AONB designation may also have a similar

effect on perception by users to the NNR status, although more research is required to

understand further the role of AONBs.

101

SSSIs provide a variety of ecosystem services, with service delivery varying

according to site location and habitat type.

The case studies demonstrate that a range of ecosystem services are provided by these

sites, benefiting a wide range of people and interests. The case studies collectively cover a

range of provisioning, regulating and cultural services and each contribute to societal

wellbeing in the surrounding local areas, and in England and Wales as a whole, as well as

globally in the case of carbon storage and greenhouse gas mitigation.

Cultural Services:

All 20 sites provide cultural services, though the extent of these varies widely according to

the use of the site. Most of the case study sites are open to visitors with some providing a

very significant resource for recreation and tourism (e.g. Sutton Park, Richmond Park, North

Yorks Moors, South Pennine Moors, Dark Peak).

Scientific research and education are important at many of the sites, with examples including

Stone Field, the Humber Estuary, Dyfi and Wren‟s Nest.

Other sites are important in defining sense of place and contributing to our understanding of our natural and cultural history and the inter-relationships between them. For example at Thompson Carr the cultural value of the site may be boosted by the connection between the Great Eastern Pingo Trail and the National Walking Trail, providing further opportunities for tourism and recreation. The Stone Field site is considered to be part of local identity: the site is part of the local character and history of the area because of its distinct hay meadow character and because of the standing stone, which is very evident. Crime Rigg is important in contributing understanding to cultural history and research occurs here into social history and links with industrial archaeology.

SSSI status often provides a focus for research and education and has helped the

understanding of these benefits. For example, Wren‟s Nest is important for the educational

resources it provides and has an outdoor learning facility providing children with an insight

into the history and geology of the West Midlands. The Living River Project at the River

Avon has aimed to improve public access, education and training to provide information to

local communities about the river. Dyfi and the Humber Estuary are the focus of ongoing

research work that has improved scientific knowledge of the sites and helped to inform their

management.

Regulating services:

Most of the case study sites provide regulating services to some degree, with the majority

contributing to climate regulation and water regulation. In areas with low air quality, most of

which are situated near towns, urban fringe sites such as Sutton Park, Wren‟s Nest and

Richmond Park especially contribute to the improvement of air quality and provide “green

lungs” for nearby conurbations. Protection against storms and coastal flooding is an

important service provided by the Humber Estuary and also Dyfi, where the Ynyslas shingle

spits, dunes and in particular intertidal habitats, perform important sea defence functions,

protecting the settlement of Ynyslas. However, pollination appears to be less significant

among the case study sites (but potentially important in flower rich meadows such as Stone

Field), while no evidence was found that any of the sites were important for regulation of

pests or diseases. It should be noted, however, that much more needs to be learnt about

regulating services, which are poorly understood and little studied at most sites.

Provisioning services:

Provisioning services are important at some sites. Several sites play an important role in the

provision of fresh water. An important distinction can be made between upland sites such as

Dark Peak and the South Pennine Moors, where the natural ecosystem is important in

providing fresh water, and engineered sites such as Walthamstow Reservoirs where

construction of water supply infrastructure gave rise to the nature conservation interest.

Food and timber production is important at some sites, though rarely on a very large

102

commercial scale. In some cases (e.g. Humber Estuary), conservation management has

reduced the value of provisioning services, whereas in others it has reintroduced traditional

production methods such as coppicing and grazing into otherwise unproductive sites, albeit

on a small scale. An example is at Ashdown Forest where grazing has been reintroduced to

restore the heathland, and is expected to lead to production of meat and wool.

Supporting services:

Supporting services are important in underpinning the delivery of other services, rather than

providing benefits directly to people. As a result, they are often not visible to site managers.

Little evidence was available of the supporting services delivered by the case study sites.

Table 22-1 provides a summary of ecosystem services provided by the case study sites. The

table is not comprehensive, but indicates the services known to be delivered by each site,

based on existing evidence.

The condition of sites affects the benefits they provide and their delivery of different

services.

The condition of the case study sites varies widely. Sites can reach unfavourable condition

due to numerous adverse impacts including fertiliser use, overgrazing and under-grazing, air

pollution, fire, moor burning, forestry and woodland management, inappropriate ditch

management and weed control and public access and disturbance. SSSI designation, and

the goal of achieving favourable condition, has provided an impetus for addressing these

issues and providing the conditions for recovery.

The focus of effort on improving habitat condition across sites is a significant task,

particularly when a complex range of habitats, interest groups and pressures are involved,

as in several of the case studies. However, signs of success are evident and indicate the

value of active management and SSSI designation in improving the conservation status of

the site. Examples of sites where conservation effort is improving the status of the site, with

visible conservation benefits, include Dyfi, where populations of reptiles, amphibians, otter,

dormouse and wading bird species are increasing; the South Pennine Moors, where the

SSSI is recovering from past habitat degradation, and King‟s Sedgemoor, which is now all in

unfavourable recovering or favourable condition, largely due to recent investments in

infrastructure and improved farming practices.

The link between site condition and ecosystem service delivery is not always clear.

However, it is clear that at certain sites, unfavourable condition has led to a reduction in the

delivery of regulating services such as the ability to store carbon and regulate water flows,

while action to achieve favourable condition should help to improve service delivery.

Examples include Dark Peak, Hatfield Moor, Malltreath Marsh and the South Pennine Moors.

Cultural services are not always directly linked to site condition. For example some sites in

unfavourable condition have remained important for recreation and tourism such as Sutton

Park and Richmond Park. For other sites dependent on more specialist recreational activities

such as angling and birdwatching, recreational demand is more intimately linked to site

condition. The Holy Island coast, for example, attracts many visitors specifically to observe

its sea birds, geological features and botanical interest.

In other cases, damage to sites (for example due to disturbance, vandalism and anti-social

behaviour) may directly affect the site‟s attractiveness to visitors. Examples where such

pressures have had to be addressed include Wormley Hoddesdonpark Woods and Wren‟s

Nest.

It is also important to note that cultural services are linked to site facilities and interpretation.

SSSI status can provide a focus for opening access and improving interpretation, hence

enhancing cultural services. Examples include Wren‟s Nest, Wormley Hoddesdonpark

Woods, Dyfi, Lower Usk, Hatfield Moor and Malltreath Marsh.

103

Evidence of the value of ecosystem services provided is limited or non-existent for

most sites.

The case studies illustrate the ongoing challenge of assigning economic values to nature

and its services, and although quantification in certain sites is possible, in other case study

sites the information is simply not available. For example sites that are smaller in scale and

that have no public access are unlikely to have been surveyed or researched in relation to

use and benefits, and therefore there is little available information on which to base

assessments of value.

Often there is a greater challenge in quantifying the ecosystem services delivered, than in

assigning economic values to these benefits. For example, at no site was evidence

available of the effects of the site and its management on flood risk – where such

assessments are available, the valuation of benefits (based, for example, on value of

property at risk from flooding) would be feasible.

Where possible we have attempted to quantify benefits or provide an indication of how future

assessments could be made where no information is currently available. The ecosystem

services framework provides a good framework for quantification and valuation of benefits,

but a lack of scientific evidence is often a constraint, especially where services are very

localised or site specific.

Evidence of the value of the services provided by case study sites can be summarised as

follows:

▪ Humber Estuary – an assessment has been made of the value of changes in a variety of

provisioning, regulating and cultural services resulting from a management realignment

scheme at Alkborough Flats;

▪ Wren‟s Nest – a choice experiment survey was conducted in 2006 to assess the public‟s

willingness to pay to protect the site, and the added benefits of interpretation and

education. These are largely cultural services;

▪ Evidence of the value of provisioning services is available or can relatively easily be

made at several sites. Examples include agricultural output (e.g. North York Moors),

fisheries (e.g. Lower Usk) and water supply (e.g. Dark Peak).

▪ For several sites, estimates are available of the value and impact of expenditures by

visitors in local economies. Examples include the South Pennine Moors, North York

Moors, Holy Island and Ashdown Forest. These measure the economic impacts of the

sites rather than the value of ecosystem services themselves.

Box 22.1 summarises available evidence of the economic values and impacts of the case

study sites.

The patchy evidence of the value of services provided by SSSIs highlights the need for

further research in this area, such as that being undertaken as part of the current study.

104

Box 22.1: Evidence of Economic Values and Impacts of Case Study Sites

Ashdown Forest - the value of tourism to the local economy has been estimated at £2.34 million per year.

Dark Peak - visitors to the Peak District National Park as a whole spend nearly £225 million annually in the local economy.

Dyfi – the annual value of shellfish harvested from the estuary is estimated at £33,750.

Holyhead Coast – spending by visitors to South Stack RSPB reserve was estimated to amount to £223,000 in 2009,

supporting more than 6 FTE jobs in the area in addition to the six employed on the reserve.

Humber Estuary – the net annual values of ecosystem services resulting from the managed realignment scheme at

Alkborough Flats were estimated at £409,000 for natural hazard regulation, £165,000 for recreation and tourism, and

£535,000 for habitat provision.

Lower Usk – the recreational salmon fishery of the rivers Usk and Wye is estimated to bring annual visitor spending of

£1.02 million to the local economy.

North Yorks Moors – spending by visitors to the National Park as a whole is estimated to bring annual revenues of £300

million to the local economy.

South Pennine Moors – The South Pennines as a whole attract revenues of £268 million annually through tourism and

recreation.

Wren’s Nest – A choice experiment study found that the general public was willing to pay £21.26 per household per year

to access the site if educational material was provided, compared to £7.83 per household per year without the provision of

educational material.

105

Table 22-1 Summary Matrix for Ecosystem Services

Cultural Services: Regulating Services: Provisioning Services:

Site Recreation

and

ecotourism

Research

and

Education

Aesthetic,

spiritual

and

existence

values

Air

quality

Climate

Regulation

Water

regulation

Water

purification

and waste

treatment

Pest

regulation

Pollination Natural

hazard

regulation

Food, fibre,

fuel

Genetic

resources

Fresh

water

Ashdown

Forest √ √ √ √ √

Crime Rigg and

Sherburn Hill

Quarries

√ √

Dark Peak √ √ √ √ ? √ √ √

Dyfi √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ?

Hatfield Moors √ ? √ √ √

Holy Island

Coast √ √ √ ? √ ?

Humber

Estuary √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

King‟s

Sedgemoor √ √ √ √ √ ? √ ?

Lower Usk √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Malltreath

Marsh √ √ √ √ √ √ √ ?

North York

Moors √ √ √ √ √ ? √

Richmond Park √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

106

River Avon

System √ √ √ √ ? √

South Pennine

Moors √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Stone Field √ √ √ ? ? √ √ √

Sutton Park √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Thompson

Water, Carr

and Common

√ √ √ √ ? √ ?

Walthamstow

Reservoirs √ √ √ √ √

Wormley-

Hoddesdonpark

Woods

√ √ √ √ √ ? √

Wren‟s Nest √ √ √ √ ? ?

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