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Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction 00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page i
Berkshire Encyclopedia of
Human-ComputerInteraction
00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page i
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Berkshire Encyclopedia ofHuman-Computer
InteractionVOLUME1
William Sims BainbridgeEditor
Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.www.berkshirepublishing.com
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Copyright © 2004 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elec-tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval sys-tem, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover photo: Thad Starner sporting a wearable computer.Photo courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology.
Cover background image: Courtesy of Getty Images.
For information:Berkshire Publishing Group LLC314 Main StreetGreat Barrington, Massachusetts 01230www.berkshirepublishing.com
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publishing Data
Berkshire encyclopedia of human-computer interaction / William Sims Bainbridge, editor.p. cm.
“A Berkshire reference work.”Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-9743091-2-5 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Human-computer interaction--Encyclopedias. I. Bainbridge, William Sims. II. Title.
QA76.9.H85B46 2004004'.01'9--dc22
2004017920
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BERKSHIRE PUBLISHING STAFFProject Director
Karen Christensen
Project CoordinatorsCourtney Linehan and George Woodward
Associate EditorMarcy Ross
CopyeditorsFrancesca Forrest, Mike Nichols, Carol Parikh, and Daniel Spinella
Information Management and ProgrammingDeborah Dillon and Trevor Young
Editorial AssistanceEmily Colangelo
DesignerMonica Cleveland
Production CoordinatorJanet Lowry
Composition ArtistsSteve Tiano, Brad Walrod, and Linda Weidemann
Composition AssistancePam Glaven
ProofreadersMary Bagg, Sheila Bodell, Eileen Clawson, and Cassie Lynch
Production ConsultantJeff Potter
IndexerPeggy Holloway
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CONTENTS
vii
List of Entries, ixReader’s Guide, xvList of Sidebars, xixContributors, xxiiiIntroduction, xxxiiiPublisher’s Note, xli
About the Editor, xliii
EntriesVolume I: A–L
1–440Vol II: M–W
441–826
Appendix 1: Glossary, 827Appendix 2: Master Bibliography of Human-Computer Interaction, 831
HCI in Popular Culture, 893Index, 931
•Index repeated in this volume, I-1
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Artificial IntelligenceRobert A. St. Amant
Asian Script InputWilliam Sims BainbridgeErika Bainbridge
Atanasoff-Berry ComputerJohn Gustafson
Attentive User InterfaceTed Selker
Augmented CognitionAmy KruseDylan Schmorrow
Adaptive Help SystemsPeter Brusilovsky
Adaptive InterfacesAlfred Kobsa
Affective ComputingIra CohenThomas S. HuangLawrence S. Chen
AltairWilliam Sims Bainbridge
AltoWilliam Sims Bainbridge
AnimationAbdennour El RhalibiYuanyuan Shen
Anthropology and HCIAllen W. Batteau
AnthropometryVictor L. PaquetDavid Feathers
Application Use StrategiesSuresh K. Bhavnani
ArpanetAmy KruseDylan SchmorrowAllen J. Sears
LIST OF ENTRIES
ix
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X ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Augmented RealityRajeev SharmaKuntal Sengupta
AvatarsJeremy BailensonJames J. Blascovich
Beta TestingGina Neff
BrailleOleg Tretiakoff
Brain-Computer InterfacesMelody M. MooreAdriane D. DavisBrendan Z. Allison
BrowsersAndy Cockburn
Cathode Ray TubesGregory P. Crawford
CAVEThomas DeFantiDan Sandin
ChatroomsAmanda B. Lenhart
Children and the WebDania Bilal
ClassroomsChris Quintana
Client-Server ArchitectureMark Laff
Cognitive WalkthroughMarilyn Hughes Blackmon
CollaboratoriesGary M. Olson
CompilersWoojin Paik
Computer-SupportedCooperative WorkJohn M. CarrollMary Beth Rosson
Constraint SatisfactionBerthe Y. Choueiry
Converging TechnologiesWilliam Sims Bainbridge
CybercommunitiesLori Kendall
CybersexDavid L. DelmonicoElizabeth Griffin
CyborgsWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Data MiningMohammad Zaki
Data VisualizationKwan-Liu Ma
Deep BlueMurray Campbell
Denial-of-Service AttackAdrian PerrigAbraham Yaar
Desktop MetaphorJee-In Kim
Dialog SystemsSusan W. McRoy
Digital CashJ. D. Tygar
Digital DivideLinda A. Jackson
Digital GovernmentJane E. FountainRobin A. McKinnon
Digital LibrariesJose-Marie Griffiths
Drawing and DesignMark D. Gross
E-businessNorhayati Zakaria
Education in HCIJan Stage
Electronic JournalsCarol Tenopir
Electronic Paper TechnologyGregory P. Crawford
ElizaWilliam H. Sterner
E-mailNathan Bos
Embedded SystemsRonald D. Williams
ENIACWilliam Sims Bainbridge
ErgonomicsAnn M. Bisantz
Errors in Interactive BehaviorWayne D. Gray
EthicsHelen Nissenbaum
00v1_HCI_FM_i-xliv.qxd 8/16/04 5:58 PM Page x
LIST OF ENTRIES ❚❙❘ XI
EthnographyDavid Hakken
Evolutionary EngineeringWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Expert SystemsJay E. Aronson
Eye TrackingAndrew T. Duchowski
Facial ExpressionsIrfan Essa
Fly-by-WireC. M. Krishna
FontsThomas DetrieArnold Holland
GamesAbdennour El Rhalibi
Gender and ComputingLinda A. Jackson
Geographic Information SystemsMichael F. Goodchild
Gesture RecognitionFrancis Quek
Graphical User InterfaceDavid England
Grid ComputingCavinda T. Caldera
GroupwareTimothy J. HickeyAlexander C. Feinman
HackersDouglas Thomas
Handwriting Recognition andRetrievalR. ManmathaV. Govindaraju
HapticsRalph L. Hollis
History of Human-ComputerInteractionJonathan Grudin
Hollerith CardWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Human-Robot InteractionErika Rogers
Hypertext and HypermediaDavid K. Farkas
IconsStephanie Ludi
Identity AuthenticationAshutosh P. DeshpandeParag Sewalkar
ImpactsChuck Huff
Information FilteringLuz M. QuirogaMartha E. Crosby
Information OrganizationDagobert Soergel
Information OverloadRuth Guthrie
Information RetrievalDagobert Soergel
Information SpacesFionn Murtagh
Information TheoryRonald R. Kline
Instruction ManualsDavid K. Farkas
Internet—Worldwide DiffusionBarry WellmanPhuoc TranWenhong Chen
Internet in Everyday LifeBarry WellmanBernie Hogan
Iterative DesignRichard BaskervilleJan Stage
KeyboardAlan Hedge
Language GenerationRegina Barzilay
Laser PrinterGary Starkweather
Law and HCISonia E. Miller
Law EnforcementRoslin V. Hauck
Lexicon BuildingCharles J. Fillmore
Liquid Crystal DisplaysGregory P. Crawford
Literary RepresentationsWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Machine TranslationKatrin Kirchhoff
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XII ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Markup LanguagesHong-Gee Kim
Mobile ComputingDharma P. Agrawal
MosaicWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Motion Capture and RecognitionJezekiel Ben-Arie
MouseShumin Zhai
MoviesWilliam Sims Bainbridge
MUDsRichard Allan Bartle
Multiagent systemsGal A. Kaminka
Multimodal InterfacesRajeev SharmaSanshzar KettebekovGuoray Cai
Multiuser InterfacesPrasun Dewan
Musical InteractionChristopher S. RaphaelJudy A. Franklin
Natural-Language ProcessingJames H. Martin
NavigationJohn J. Rieser
N-gramsJames H. Martin
Olfactory InteractionRicardo Gutierrez-Osuna
Online EducationRobert S. StephensonGlenn Collyer
Online QuestionnairesJames WitteRoy Pargas
Online VotingR. Michael AlvarezThad E. Hall
OntologyChristopher A. Welty
Open Source SoftwareGregory R. Madey
Optical Character RecognitionV. GovindarajuSwapnil Khedekar
Peer-to-Peer ArchitectureJulita Vassileva
Pen and Stylus InputAlan Hedge
Personality CaptureWilliam Sims Bainbridge
PhysiologyJennifer Allanson
PlanningSven KoenigMichail G. Lagoudakis
Pocket ComputerWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Political Science and HCIJames N. DanzigerMichael J. Jensen
PrivacyJeffrey M. Stanton
Programming LanguagesDavid MacQueen
PrototypingRichard BaskervilleJan Stage
Psychology and HCIJudith S. Olson
Recommender and ReputationSystemsCliff LampePaul Resnick
Repetitive Strain InjuryJack Tigh Dennerlein
Scenario-Based DesignJohn M. Carroll
Search and RescueHowie Choset
Search EnginesShannon Bradshaw
SecurityBhavani Thuraisingham
Semantic WebBhavani Thuraisingham
Smart HomesDiane J. CookMichael Youngblood
Sociable MediaJudith Donath
Social InformaticsHoward Rosenbaum
Social ProxiesThomas EricksonWendy A. Kellogg
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LIST OF ENTRIES ❚❙❘ XIII
Social Psychology and HCISusan R. Fussell
Sociology and HCIWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Socio-Technical System DesignWalt Scacchi
Software CulturesVaclav Rajlich
Software EngineeringRichard Kazman
SonificationDavid M. LaneAniko SandorS. Camille Peres
SpammingJ. D. Tygar
Speech RecognitionMary P. HarperV. Paul Harper
Speech SynthesisJan P.H. van Santen
SpeechreadingMarcus Hennecke
Spell CheckerWoojin Paik
SphinxRita Singh
Statistical Analysis SupportRobert A. St. Amant
SupercomputersJack Dongarra
Tablet ComputerWilliam Sims Bainbridge
Task AnalysisErik Hollnagel
TelecommutingRalph David Westfall
TelepresenceJohn V. Draper
Text SummarizationJudith L. Klavans
TheoryJon May
Three-Dimensional GraphicsBenjamin C. Lok
Three-Dimensional PrintingWilliam Sims Bainbridge
TouchscreenAndrew L. SearsRich Goldman
Ubiquitous ComputingOlufisayo OmojokunPrasun Dewan
UnicodeUnicode Editorial Committee
Universal AccessGregg Vanderheiden
Usability EvaluationJean Scholtz
User ModelingRichard C. Simpson
User SupportIndira R. Guzman
User-Centered DesignChadia Abras
Jenny PreeceDiane Maloney-Krichmar
Value Sensitive DesignBatya Friedman
VideoImmanuel Freedman
Video SummarizationA. Murat Tekalp
Virtual RealityLarry F. HodgesBenjamin C. Lok
VirusesJ. D. Tygar
Visual ProgrammingMargaret M. BurnettJoseph R. Ruthruff
Wearable ComputerThad StarnerBradley Rhodes
Website DesignBarbara S. ChaparroMichael L. Bernard
WorkChristine A. Halverson
WorkforceBrandon DuPontJoshua L. Rosenbloom
World Wide WebMichael Wilson
WYSIWYGDavid M. Lane
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This list is provided to assist readers in locating en-tries on related topics. It classifies articles into tengeneral categories: Applications; Approaches;Breakthroughs; Challenges; Components; Disciplines;Historical Development; Interfaces; Methods; andSocial Implications. Some entries appear in morethan one category.
ApplicationsClassroomsDigital GovernmentDigital LibrariesE-businessGamesGeographic Information SystemsGrid ComputingLaw EnforcementMobile Computing
NavigationOnline EducationOnline VotingPlanningRecommender and Reputation SystemsSearch and RescueStatistical Analysis SupportSupercomputersTelecommutingUbiquitous ComputingVideo
ApproachesApplication Use StrategiesBeta TestingCognitive WalkthroughConstraint SatisfactionEthics
READER’S GUIDE
xv
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XVI ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
EthnographyEvolutionary EngineeringInformation TheoryIterative DesignOntologyOpen Source SoftwarePrototypingScenario-Based DesignSocial InformaticsSocio-Technical System DesignTask AnalysisTheoryUniversal AccessUsability EvaluationUser ModelingUser-Centered DesignValue Sensitive DesignWebsite Design
BreakthroughsAltairAltoArpanetAtanasoff-Berry ComputerCAVEConverging TechnologiesDeep BlueElizaENIACHollerith CardMosaicSphinx
ChallengesDenial-of-Service AttackDigital DivideErrors in Interactive BehaviorHackersIdentity AuthenticationInformation FilteringInformation OverloadPrivacyRepetitive Strain InjurySecuritySpammingViruses
ComponentsAdaptive Help SystemsAnimationBrailleCathode Ray TubesClient-Server ArchitectureDesktop MetaphorElectronic Paper TechnologyFontsKeyboardLaser PrinterLiquid Crystal DisplaysMouseN-gramsPeer-to-Peer ArchitectureSocial ProxiesSpell CheckerTouchscreenUnicodeWYSIWYG
DisciplinesAnthropology and HCIArtificial IntelligenceErgonomicsLaw and HCIPolitical Science and HCIPsychology and HCISocial Psychology and HCISociology and HCI
Historical DevelopmentAltairAltoENIACHistory of HCI
InterfacesAdaptive InterfacesAffective ComputingAnthropometryAsian Script InputAttentive User InterfaceAugmented CognitionAugmented RealityBrain-Computer Interfaces
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READER’S GUIDE ❚❙❘ XVII
CompilersData VisualizationDialog SystemsDrawing and DesignEye TrackingFacial ExpressionsFly-by-WireGraphical User InterfaceHapticsMultimodal InterfacesMultiuser InterfacesMusical InteractionOlfactory InteractionOnline QuestionnairesPen and Stylus InputPhysiologyPocket ComputerSmart HomesTablet ComputerTelepresenceThree-Dimensional GraphicsThree-Dimensional PrintingVirtual RealityWearable Computer
MethodsAvatarsBrowsersData MiningDigital CashEmbedded SystemsExpert SystemsGesture RecognitionHandwriting Recognition and RetrievalHypertext and HypermediaIconsInformation OrganizationInformation RetrievalInformation SpacesInstruction ManualsLanguage GenerationLexicon BuildingMachine Translation
Markup LanguagesMotion Capture and RecognitionNatural-Language ProcessingOptical Character RecognitionPersonality CaptureProgramming LanguagesSearch EnginesSemantic WebSoftware EngineeringSonificationSpeech RecognitionSpeech SynthesisSpeechreadingText SummarizationUser SupportVideo SummarizationVisual ProgrammingWorld Wide WebSocial ImplicationsChatroomsChildren and the WebCollaboratoriesComputer-Supported Cooperative WorkCybercommunitiesCybersexCyborgsEducation in HCIElectronic JournalsE-mailGender and ComputingGroupwareHuman-Robot InteractionImpactsInternet—Worldwide DiffusionInternet in Everyday LifeLiterary RepresentationsMoviesMUDsMultiagent systemsSociable MediaSoftware CulturesWorkWorkforce
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Adaptive Help Systems Farewell “Clippy”
Adaptive Interfaces Keeping Disabled People in the Technology Loop
Anthropology and HCI Digital Technology Helps Preserve Tribal Language
Anthropology and HCI Eastern vs. Western Cultural Values
Augmented Cognition Putting Humans First in Systems Design
BrailleEnhancing Access to Braille Instructional Materials
ChatroomsLife Online
Classrooms History Comes Alive in CyberspaceLearning through Multimedia
Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Internet Singing LessonsSocial Context in Computer-Supported
Cooperative Work
Cybercommunities Welcome to LamdaMOO
Cybersex Cybersex Addiction
LIST OF SIDEBARS
xix
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XX ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Digital DivideHomeNetToo Tries to Bridge Digital Divide
Digital LibrariesVannevar Bush on the Memex
Education in HCIBringing HCI Into the Real World
Eliza Talking with ELIZA
E-mail The Generation Gap
Errors in Interactive Behavior To Err Is Technological
Fonts Our Most Memorable Nightmare
Gender and Computing “Computer Girl” Site Offers Support for
Young Women Narrowing the Gap
Geographic Information Systems Geographic Information Systems Aid Land
Conservation
Groupware Away Messages The Wide World of Wikis
History of HCIHighlights from My Forty Years of HCI History
Human-Robot Interaction Carbo-Powered Robots
Hypertext and Hypermedia Ted Nelson on Hypertext and the Web
Impacts Therac-25 Safety Is a System Property
Internet in Everyday Life Finding Work Online Information Technology and Competitive
Academic Debate
Law Enforcement Fighting Computer Crime
Literary Representations Excerpt from Isaac Asimov’s I, RobotExcerpt from “The Sand-Man” (1817) by
E. T. A. Hoffman
Machine Translation Warren Weaver on Machine Translation
Movies HAL’s Birthday Celebration
MUDs The Wide World of a MUD
Online Education An Online Dig for Archeology Students Virtual Classes Help Rural Nurses
Political Science and HCI Washington Tales of the Internet
Psychology and HCI Human Factors Come into the Forefront Virtual Flight for White-Knuckled Travelers
Repetitive Strain Injury The Complexities of Repetitive Strain
Scenario-Based Design The Value of a Devil’s Advocate
Social Psychology and HCI Love and HCI
Sociology and HCI “Who’s on First” for the Twenty-First
Century
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LIST OF SIDEBARS ❚❙❘ XXI
Spell Checker Check the Spell Checker
Task Analysis Excerpt from Cheaper by the Dozen
Unicode History and Development of Unicode Relationship of the Unicode Standard to
ISO_IEC 10646
Usability Evaluation Global Usability Is Usability Still a Problem?
Work Software Prescribes Break Time for Enhanced
Productivity
Workforce Cultural Differences Employee Resistance to Technology
World Wide Web “Inventing” the World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee on the Web as Metaphor
WYSIWYG The Future of HCI
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Abras, Chadia Goucher College
User-Centered Design
Agrawal, Dharma P.University of Cincinnati
Mobile Computing
Allanson, Jennifer Lancaster University
Physiology
Allison, Brendan Z.Georgia State University
Brain-Computer Interfaces
Alvarez, R. Michael Caltech-MIT Voting Technology Project
Online Voting
Aronson, Jay E.University of Georgia
Expert Systems
Bailenson, Jeremy Stanford University
Avatars
Bainbridge, Erika Harvard University, Center for Hellenic Studies
Asian Script Input
CONTRIBUTORS
xxiii
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XXIV ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Bainbridge, William Sims National Science Foundation
Altair Alto Asian Script Input Converging Technologies Cyborgs ENIAC Evolutionary Engineering Hollerith Card Literary Representations Mosaic Movies Personality Capture Pocket Computer Sociology and HCI Tablet Computer Three-Dimensional Printing
Bartle, Richard Allan Multi-User Entertainment Limited
MUDs
Barzilay, Regina Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Language Generation
Baskerville, Richard Georgia State University
Iterative Design Prototyping
Batteau, Allen W.Wayne State University
Anthropology and HCI
Ben-Arie, Jezekiel University of Illinois, Chicago
Motion Capture and Recognition
Bernard, Michael L.Wichita State University
Website Design
Bhavnani, Suresh K.University of Michigan
Application Use Strategies
Bilal, Dania University of Tennessee
Children and the Web
Bisantz, Ann M.State University of New York, Buffalo
Ergonomics
Blackmon, Marilyn Hughes University of Colorado, Boulder
Cognitive Walkthrough
Blascovich, James J.University of California, Santa Barbara
Avatars
Bos, Nathan University of Michigan
Bradshaw, Shannon University of Iowa
Search Engines
Brusilovsky, Peter University of Pittsburgh
Adaptive Help Systems
Burnett, Margaret M.Oregon State University
Visual Programming
Cai, GuorayPennsylvania State University
Multimodal Interfaces
Caldera, Cavinda T.Syracuse University
Grid Computing
Campbell, Murray IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
Deep Blue
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CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXV
Carroll, John M.Pennsylvania State University
Computer-Supported Cooperative WorkScenario-Based Design
Chaparro, Barbara S.Wichita State University
Website Design
Chen, LawrenceEastman Kodak Research Labs
Affective Computing
Chen, WenhongUniversity of Toronto
Internet – Worldwide Diffusion
Choset, Howie Carnegie Mellon University
Search and Rescue
Choueiry, Berthe Y.University of Nebraska, Lincoln
Constraint Satisfaction
Cockburn, Andy University of Canterbury
Browsers
Cohen, Ira Hewlett-Packard Research Labs,University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Affective Computing
Collyer, GlenniDacta, Inc.
Online Education
Cook, Diane J.University of Texas, Arlington
Smart Homes
Crawford, Gregory P.Brown University
Cathode Ray TubesElectronic Paper TechnologyLiquid Crystal Displays
Crosby, Martha E.University of Hawaii
Information Filtering
Danziger, James N.University of California, Irvine
Political Science and HCI
Davis, Adriane D.Georgia State University
Brain-Computer Interfaces
DeFanti, Thomas University of Illinois, Chicago
Cave
Delmonico, David L.Duquesne University
Cybersex
Dennerlien, Jack Tigh Harvard School of Public Health
Repetitive Strain Injury
Deshpande, Ashutosh P.Syracuse University
Identity Authentication
Detrie, Thomas Arizona State University
Fonts
Dewan, Prasun Microsoft Corporation
Multiuser InterfacesUbiquitous Computing
Donath, Judith Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Sociable Media
Dongarra, Jack University of Tennessee
Supercomputers
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XXVI ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Draper, John V.Raven Research
Telepresence
Duchowski, Andrew T.Clemson University
Eye Tracking
DuPont, Brandon Policy Research Institute
Workforce
El Rhalibi, Abdennour Liverpool John Moores University
AnimationGames
England, David Liverpool John Moores University
Graphical User Interface
Erickson, Thomas IBM T. J. Watson Research Center
Social Proxies
Essa, Irfan Georgia Institute of Technology
Facial Expressions
Farkas, David K.University of Washington
Hypertext and HypermediaInstruction Manuals
Feathers, David State University of New York, Buffalo
Anthropometry
Feinman, Alexander C.Brandeis University
Groupware
Fillmore, Charles J.International Computer Science Institute
Lexicon Building
Fountain, Jane E.Harvard University
Digital Government
Franklin, Judy A.Smith College
Musical Interaction
Freedman, Immanuel Dr. Immanuel Freedman, Inc.
Video
Friedman, Batya University of Washington
Value Sensitive Design
Fussell, Susan R.Carnegie Mellon University
Social Psychology and HCI
Goldman, RichUniversity of Maryland, Baltimore
Touchscreen
Goodchild, Michael F.University of California, Santa Barbara
Geographic Information Systems
Govindaraju, V.University at Buffalo
Handwriting Recognition and RetrievalOptical Character Recognition
Gray, Wayne D.Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Errors in Interactive Behavior
Griffin, Elizabeth J.Internet Behavior Consulting
Cybersex
Griffiths, Jose-Marie University of Pittsburgh
Digital Libraries
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CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXVII
Gross, Mark D.University of Washington
Drawing and Design
Grudin, Jonathan Microsoft Research
Computer Science History of HCI
Gustafson, John Sun Microsystems
Atanasoff-Berry Computer
Guthrie, Ruth California Polytechnic University of Pomona
Information Overload
Gutierrez-Osuna, Ricardo Texas A&M University
Olfactory Interaction
Guzman, Indira R.Syracuse University
User Support
Hakken, David State University of New York Institute of
TechnologyEthnography
Hall, Thad E.Century Foundation
Online Voting
Halverson, Christine IBM T. J. Watson Research Center
Work
Harper, Mary P.Purdue University
Speech Recognition
Harper, V. Paul United States Patent and Trademark Office
Speech Recognition
Hauck, Roslin V.Illinois State University
Law Enforcement
Hedge, Alan Cornell University
KeyboardPen and Stylus Input
Hennecke, Marcus TEMIC Telefunken Microelectronic GmbH
Speechreading
Hickey, Timothy J.Brandeis University
Groupware
Hodges, Larry F.University of North Carolina, Charlotte
Virtual Reality
Hogan, BernieUniversity of Toronto
Internet in Everyday Life
Holland, Arnold California State University, Fullerton
Fonts
Hollis, Ralph L.Carnegie Mellon University
Haptics
Hollnagel, Erik University of Linköping
Task Analysis
Huang, Thomas S.University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
Affective Computing
Huff, Chuck Saint Olaf College
Impacts
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XXVIII ❘❙❚ BERKSHIRE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Jackson, Linda A.Michigan State University
Digital DivideGender and Computing
Jensen, Michael J.University of California, Irvine
Political Science and HCI
Kaminka, Gal Bar Ilan University
Multiagent systems
Kazman, Richard Carnegie Mellon University
Software Engineering
Kellogg, Wendy A.IBM T. J. Watson Research Center
Social Proxies
Kendall, Lori State University of New York, Purchase College
Cybercommunities
Kettebekov, Sanshzar Oregon Health and Science University
Multimodal Interfaces
Khedekar, Swapnil University at Buffalo
Optical Character Recognition
Kim, Hong-Gee Dankook University
Markup Languages
Kim, Jee-In Konkuk University
Desktop Metaphor
Kirchhoff, Katrin University of Washington
Machine Translation
Klavans, Judith L.Columbia University
Text Summarization
Kline, Ronald R.Cornell University
Information Theory
Kobsa, Alfred University of California, Irvine
Adaptive Interfaces
Koenig, Sven Georgia Institute of Technology
Planning
Krishna, C. M.University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Fly-by-Wire
Kruse, Amy Strategic Analysis, Inc.
ArpanetAugmented Cognition
Laff, Mark IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
Client-Server Architecture
Lagoudakis, Michail G.Georgia Institute of Technology
Planning
Lampe, CliffUniversity of Michigan
Recommender and Reputation Systems
Lane, David M.Rice University
SonificationWYSIWYG
Lenhart, Amanda B.Pew Internet & American Life Project
Chatrooms
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CONTRIBUTORS ❚❙❘ XXIX
Lok, Benjamin C.University of Florida
Three-Dimensional GraphicsVirtual Reality
Ludi, Stephanie Rochester Institute of Technology
Icons
Ma, Kwan-Liu University of California, Davis
Data Visualization
MacQueen, David University of Chicago
Programming Languages
Madey, Gregory R.University of Notre Dame
Open Source Software
Maloney-Krichmar, DianeBowie State University
User-Centered Design
Manmatha, R.University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Handwriting Recognition and Retrieval
Martin, James H.University of Colorado, Boulder
Natural-Language ProcessingN-grams
May, Jon University of Sheffield
Theory
McKinnon, Robin A.Harvard University
Digital Government
McRoy, Susan W.University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
Dialog Systems
Miller, Sonia E.S. E. Miller Law Firm
Law and HCI
Moore, Melody M.Georgia State University
Brain-Computer Interfaces
Murtagh, Fionn Queen’s University, Belfast
Information Spaces
Neff, Gina University of California, Los Angeles
Beta Testing
Nissenbaum, Helen New York University
Ethics
Olson, Gary M.University of Michigan
Collaboratories
Olson, Judith S.University of Michigan
Psychology and HCI
Omojokun, Olufisayo University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Ubiquitous Computing
Paik, Woojin University of Massachusetts, Boston
CompilersSpell Checker
Paquet, Victor L.State University of New York, Buffalo
Anthropometry
Pargas, Roy Clemson University
Online Questionnaires
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Peres, S. CamilleRice University
Sonification
Perrig, Adrian Carnegie Mellon University
Denial-of-Service Attack
Preece, Jenny University of Maryland, Baltimore County
User-Centered Design
Quek, Francis Wright State University
Gesture Recognition
Quintana, Chris University of Michigan
Classrooms
Quiroga, Luz M.University of Hawaii
Information Filtering
Rajlich, Vaclav Wayne State University
Software Cultures
Raphael, Christopher S.University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Musical Interaction
Resnick, Paul University of Michigan
Recommender and Reputation Systems
Rhodes, Bradley Ricoh Innovations
Wearable Computer
Rieser, John J.Vanderbilt University
Navigation
Rogers, Erika California Polytechnic State University
Human-Robot Interaction
Rosenbaum, Howard Indiana University
Social Informatics
Rosenbloom, Joshua L.University of Kansas
Workforce
Rosson, Mary Beth Pennsylvania State University
Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
Ruthruff, Joseph R.Oregon State University
Visual Programming
Sandin, DanUniversity of Illinois, Chicago
CAVE
Sandor, AnikoRice University
Sonification
Scacchi, Walt University of California, Irvine
Socio-Technical System Design
Schmorrow, Dylan Defense Advanced Projects Agency
ArpanetAugmented Cognition
Scholtz, Jean National Institute of Standards and Technology
Usability Evaluation
Sears, Andrew L.University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Touchscreen
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Sears, J. AllenCorporation for National Research Initiatives
Arpanet
Selker, Ted Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Attentive User Interface
Sewalkar, ParagSyracuse University
Identity Authentication
Sengupta, Kuntal Advanced Interfaces
Augmented Reality
Sharma, Rajeev Advanced Interfaces
Augmented RealityMultimodal Interfaces
Shen, Yuan YuanLiverpool John Moores University
Animation
Simpson, Richard C.University of Pittsburgh
User Modeling
Singh, Rita Carnegie Mellon University
Sphinx
Soergel, Dagobert University of Maryland
Information OrganizationInformation Retrieval
St. Amant, Robert A.North Carolina State University
Artificial IntelligenceStatistical Analysis Support
Stage, Jan Aalborg University
Education in HCIIterative DesignPrototyping
Stanton, Jeffrey M.Syracuse University
Privacy
Starkweather, Gary Microsoft Corporation
Laser Printer
Starner, Thad Georgia Institute of Technology
Wearable Computers
Stephenson, Robert S.Wayne State University
Online Education
Sterner, William H.University of Chicago
Eliza
Tekalp, A. Murat University of Rochester
Video Summarization
Tenopir, Carol University of Tennessee
Electronic Journals
Thomas, Douglas University of Southern California
Hackers
Thuraisingham, Bhavani National Science Foundation
SecuritySemantic Web
Tran, Phuoc University of Toronto
Internet — Worldwide Diffusion
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Tretiakoff, Oleg C.A. Technology, Inc.
Braille
Tygar, J. D.University of California, Berkeley
Digital CashSpammingViruses
Unicode Editorial CommitteeUnicode
van Santen, Jan P.H.Oregon Health and Science University
Speech Synthesis
Vanderheiden, Gregg University of Wisconsin, Madison
Universal Access
Vassileva, Julita University of Saskatchewan
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Wellman, Barry University of Toronto
Internet - Worldwide DiffusionInternet in Everyday Life
Welty, Christopher A.IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
Ontology
Westfall, Ralph David California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Telecommuting
Williams, Ronald D.University of Virginia
Embedded Systems
Wilson, Michael CCLRC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
World Wide Web
Witte, James Clemson University
Online Questionnaires
Yaar, AbrahamCarnegie Mellon University
Denial of Service Attack
Youngblood, Michael University of Texas, Arlington
Smart Homes
Zakaria, Norhayati Syracuse University
E-business
Zaki, Mohammad Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Data Mining
Zhai, Shumin IBM Almaden Research Center
Mouse
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In hardly more than half a century, computers havebecome integral parts of everyday life, at home,work, and play. Today, computers affect almostevery aspect of modern life, in areas as diverse ascar design, filmmaking, disability services, and sexeducation. Human-computer interaction (HCI) isa vital new field that examines the ways in whichpeople communicate with computers, robots, in-formation systems, and the Internet. It draws uponseveral branches of social, behavioral, and infor-mation science, as well as on computer science andelectrical engineering. The traditional heart of HCIhas been user interface design, but in recentyears the field has expanded to include any scienceand technology related to the ways that humansuse or are affected by computing technology.HCI brings to the fore social and ethical issues that
hitherto existed only in the pages of science fic-tion. For a sense of the wide reach of HCI, considerthe following vignettes:
� Gloria, who owns a small fitness training busi-ness, is currently trying out a new system in whichshe and a client dance on sensor pads on the floor,while the computer plays rhythms and scoreshow quickly they are placing their feet on thedesignated squares.
� Elizabeth has made friends through chatroomsconnected to French and British music groupsthat are not well known in the United States. Sheoccasionally shares music files with these friendsbefore buying CDs from foreign online distrib-utors, and she has helped one of the French bandstranslate its website into English.
INTRODUCTION
By William Sims Bainbridge
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� Carl’s work team develops drivers for new colorprinters far more quickly and effectively than be-fore, because the team comprises expert design-ers and programmers who live in differenttime zones around the world, from India toCalifornia, collectively working 24 hours a day,7 days a week, by means of an Internet-based col-laboration system.
� Bella is blind, but her wearable computer usesInternet and the Global Positioning System notonly to find her way through the city safely butalso to find any product or service she needs atthe best price and to be constantly aware of hersurroundings.
� Anderson, whose Internet moniker is Neo, dis-covers that his entire life is an illusion, main-tained by a vast computer plugged directly intohis nervous system.
The first three stories are real, although the namesare pseudonyms, and the scenarios are duplicatedmillions of times in the modern world of personalcomputers, office automation, and the World WideWeb. The fourth example could be realized with to-day’s technology, simply given a sufficient investmentin infrastructure. Not only would it revolutionize thelives of blind people like Bella, it would benefit thesighted public too, so we can predict that it will infact become true over the next decade or two. Thestory about Mr. Anderson is pure fiction, no doubtrecognizable to many as the premise of the 1999 filmThe Matrix. It is doubtful that HCI ever could (orshould) become indistinguishable from real life.
Background on HCIIn a brief history of HCI technology published in1996, the computer scientist Brad Myers notedthat most computer interface technology began asgovernment-supported research projects in univer-sities and only years later was developed by corpo-rations and transformed into commercial products.He then listed six up-and-coming research areas:natural language and speech, computer-supportedcooperative work, virtual and augmented reality,three-dimensional graphics, multimedia, and com-
puter recognition of pen or stylus movements ontablet or pocket computers.
All of these have been very active areas of researchor development since he wrote, and several are fun-damental to commercial products that have alreadyappeared. For example, many companies now usespeech recognition to automate their telephone in-formation services, and hundreds of thousands ofpeople use stylus-controlled pocket computers everyday. Many articles in the encyclopedia describenew approaches that may be of tremendous impor-tance in the future.
Our entire perspective on HCI has been evolvingrapidly in recent years. In 1997, the National ResearchCouncil—a private, nonprofit institution that pro-vides science, technology, and health policy adviceunder a congressional charter—issued a major re-port, More Than Screen Deep, “to evaluate and sug-gest fruitful directions for progress in user interfacesto computing and communications systems.” Thishigh-level study, sponsored by the National ScienceFoundation (NSF), concluded with three recom-mendations to the federal government and univer-sity researchers.
1. Break away from 1960s technologies and para-digms. Major attempts should be made to findnew paradigms for human-machine interac-tion that employ new modes and media for in-p u t a n d o u t p u t a n d t h a t i nvo lve n e wconceptualizations of application interfaces.(192)
2. Invest in the research required to provide the com-ponent subsystems needed for every-citizen in-terfaces. Research is needed that is aimed at bothmaking technological advances and gainingunderstanding of the human and organizationalcapabilities these advances would support. (195)
3. Encourage research on systems-level design anddevelopment of human-machine interfaces thatsupport multiperson, multimachine groupsas well as individuals. (196)
In 2002, John M. Carroll looked back on the his-tory of HCI and noted how difficult it was at first toget computer science and engineering to pay atten-tion to issues of hardware and software usability. He
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technological revolution is likely to give computertechnology an additional powerful boost: nanotech-nology. The word comes from a unit for measuringtiny distances, the nanometer, which is one billionthof a meter (one millionth of a millimeter, or one mil-lionth the thickness of a U.S. dime). The verylargest single atoms are just under a nanometer insize, and much of the action in chemistry (includingfundamental biological processes) occurs in the rangebetween 1 nanometer and 100–200 nanometers. Thesmallest transistors in experimental computerchips are about 50 nanometers across.
Experts working at the interface between nano-technology and computing believe that nanoelec-tronics can support continued rapid improvementsin computer speed, memory, and cost for twentyto thirty years, with the possibility of further progressafter then by means of integrated design approachesand investment in information infrastructure. Twodecades of improvement in computer chips wouldmean that a desktop personal computer bought in2024 might have eight thousand times the powerof one bought in 2004 for the same price—or couldhave the same power but cost only twenty cents andfit inside a shirt button. Already, nanotechnologyis being used to create networks of sensors that candetect and identify chemical pollutants or biologi-cal agents almost instantly. While this technologywill first be applied to military defense, it can beadapted to medical or personal uses in just a few years.
The average person’s wristwatch in 2024 couldbe their mobile computer, telling them everythingthey might want to know about their environment—where the nearest Thai restaurant can be found, whenthe next bus will arrive at the corner up the road,whether there is anything in the air the person hap-pens to be allergic to, and, of course, providing anyinformation from the world’s entire database thatthe person might want to know. If advances in nat-ural-language processing continue at the rate theyare progressing today, then the wristwatch could alsobe a universal translator that allows the person tospeak with anyone in any language spoken on theface of the planet. Of course, predictions are al-ways perilous, and it may be that progress will slowdown. Progress does not simply happen of its own
argued that HCI was born as the fusion of four fields(software engineering, software human factors, com-puter graphics, and cognitive science) and that it con-tinues to be an emerging area in computer science.The field is expanding in both scope and importance.For example, HCI incorporates more and more fromthe social sciences as computing becomes increas-ingly deeply rooted in cooperative work and humancommunication.
Many universities now have research groupsand training programs in HCI. In addition to the de-signers and engineers who create computer interfacesand the researchers in industry and academia who aredeveloping the fundamental principles for successin such work, a very large number of workers in manyindustries contribute indirectly to progress in HCI.The nature of computing is constantly changing. Thefirst digital electronic computers, such as ENIAC (com-pleted in 1946), were built to solve military problems,such as calculating ballistic trajectories. The 1950s and1960s saw a great expansion in military uses and ex-tensive application of digital computers in commerceand industry. In the late 1970s, personal computersentered the home, and in the 1980s they developedmore user-friendly interfaces. The 1990s saw the trans-formation of Internet into a major medium of com-munications, culminating in the expansion of theWorld Wide Web to reach a billion people.
In the first decade of the twenty-first century,two trends are rushing rapidly forward. One is theextension of networking to mobile computers andembedded devices literally everywhere. The other isthe convergence of all mass media with computing,such that people listen to music, watch movies, takepictures, make videos, carry on telephone conversa-tions, and conduct many kinds of business on com-puters or on networks of which computers are centralcomponents. To people who are uncomfortable withthese trends, it may seem that cyberspace is swal-lowing real life. To enthusiasts of the technology, itseems that human consciousness is expanding to en-compass everything.
The computer revolution is almost certainlygoing to continue for decades, and specialists inhuman-computer interaction will face many newchallenges in the years to come. At least one other
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accord, and the field of human-computer interac-tion must continue to grow and flourish if comput-ers are to bring the marvelous benefits to human lifethat they have the potential to bring.
My Own Experience with ComputersComputer and information technologies have pro-gressed amazingly over the past fifty years, and theymay continue to do so for the next half century.My firstcomputer, if it deserves that word, was a Geniac I re-ceived for my sixteenth birthday in 1956. Costing only$20, it consisted of masonite disks, wires, light bulbsand a vast collection of nuts,bolts, and clips.From theseparts I could assemble six rotary switches that could beprogrammed (by hardwiring them) to solve simplelogic problems such as playing tick-tack-toe. I devel-oped a great affection for the Geniac, as I did for thefoot-long slide rule I lugged to my high schoolclasses,but each was a very far cry from the pocket com-puter or even the programmable calculator my sixteen-year-old daughter carries in her backpack today.
Geniac was not really an electronic computer be-cause it lacked active components—which in 1956meant relays or vacuum tubes, because transistorswere still very new and integrated circuits had notyet been invented. The first real computer I saw, inthe early 1960s, was the massive machine used by myfather’s company, Equitable Life Insurance, to keepits records. Only decades later did I learn that myuncle, Angus McIntosh, had been part of a team inWorld War II that seized the German computer thatwas cracking Soviet codes, and that the secret Colossuscomputer at Bletchley Park where he worked hadbeen cracking German codes. In the middle of thetwentieth century, computers were huge, rare, andisolated from the general public, whereas at the be-ginning of the twenty-first century they are essen-tial parts of everyday life.
My first experience programming computerscame in 1974, when I was a graduate student in thesociology department at Harvard University, and Ibegan using the machines for statistical analysis ofdata. Starting the next year at the University ofWashington, where I was a beginning assistantprofessor, I would sit for hours at a noisy keypunchmachine, making the punch cards to enter programs
and data. After a while I realized I was going deaffrom the noise and took to wearing earplugs. Later,back at Harvard in a faculty position, I began writ-ing my own statistical analysis programs for my firstpersonal computer, an Apple II. I remember that onekind of analysis would take a 36 hours to run, withthe computer humming away in a corner as I wentabout my daily life. For a decade beginning in 1983,I programmed educational software packages in so-ciology and psychology, and after a series of com-puter-related projects found myself running thesociology program at the National Science Founda-tion and representing the social and behavioralsciences on the major computing initiatives ofNSF and the federal government more generally.After eight years of that experience, I moved to theNSF Directorate for Computer and InformationScience and Engineering to run the NSF’s programsin human-computer interaction, universal access,and artificial intelligence and cognitive science be-fore becoming deputy director of the Division ofInformation and Intelligent Systems, which containsthese programs.
My daughters, aged sixteen and thirteen, haveused their considerable computer expertise to cre-ate the Center for Glitch Studies, a research projectto discover and analyze programming errors in com-mercial video games. So far they have documentedon their website more than 230 programming errorsin popular video games. The hundreds of people whovisit the website are not a passive audience, but sende-mail messages describing errors they themselvesdiscovered, and they link their own websites into agrowing network of knowledge and virtual socialrelationships.
A Personal Story—NSF’s FastLaneComputers have become vastly more important atwork over recent decades, and they have come to playincreasingly more complex roles. For example,NSF has created an entire online system for re-viewing grant proposals, called FastLane, and thou-sands of scientists and educators have becomefamiliar with it through serving as reviewers or prin-cipal investigators.
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the institution, and the abstract is posted on the webfor anyone to see. Each year, the researcher submitsa report, electronically of course, and the full recordof the grant accumulates in the NSF computer sys-tem until the work has been completed.
Electronic systems connect the people—researcher, program director, and reviewers—into asystem of information flow that is also a social sys-tem in which each person plays a specific role. Be-cause the system was designed over a number of yearsto do a particular set of jobs, it works quite well, andimprovements are constantly being incorporated.This is a prime example of Computer-SupportedCooperative Work, one of the many HCI topics cov-ered in this encyclopedia.
The Role of the Berkshire Encyclopediaof Human-Computer InteractionBecause the field of HCI is new, the BerkshireEncyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction breaksnew ground. It offers readers up-to-date informationabout several key aspects of the technology and itshuman dimensions, including
� applications—major tools that serve humanneeds in particular ways, with distinctive usabilityissues.
� approaches—techniques through which scien-tists and engineers design and evaluate HCI.
� breakthroughs—particular projects that markeda turning point in the history of HCI.
� challenges—problems and solutions, both tech-nical and human, especially in controversialareas.
� components—key parts of a software or hard-ware system that are central to how people use it.
� disciplines—the contributions that various sci-ences and academic fields make to HCI.
� interfaces—hardware or software systems thatmediate between people and machines.
� methods—general computer and informationscience solutions to wide classes of technicalproblems.
� social implications—technological impacts on so-ciety and policy issues, and the potential of multi-user HCI systems to bring about social change.
A researcher prepares a description of the proj-ect he or she hopes to do and assembles ancillaryinformation such as a bibliography and brief biog-raphies of the team members. The researcher sub-mits this material, along with data such as the dollarrequests on the different lines of the formal budget.The only software required is a word processorand a web browser. As soon as the head of the in-stitution’s grants office clicks the submit button, thefull proposal appears at NSF, with the data alreadyarranged in the appropriate data fields, so nobodyhas to key it in.
Peer review is the heart of the evaluation process.As director of the HCI program, I categorize pro-posals into review panels, then recruit panelistswho were experts in the field with specializations thatmatched the scope of the proposals. Each panelist re-views certain proposals and submits a written reviewelectronically.
Once the individual reviews have been submit-ted, the panel meets face-to-face to discuss theproposals and recommend funding for the best ones.The panelists all have computers with ElectronicPanel System (EPS) groupware that provides easy ac-cess to all the proposals and reviews associated withthe particular panel. During the discussion of a par-ticular proposal, one panelist acts as “scribe,” keep-ing a summary of what was said in the EPS. Otherpanelists can read the summary, send written com-ments to the scribe, and may be asked to approve thefinal draft online.
Next the NSF program officer combines all theevaluations and writes a recommendation in the elec-tronic system, for approval by the director of the di-vision in which the program is located. More oftenthan not, unfortunately, the decision is to decline tofund the proposal. In that case, the program officerand division director processes the action quickly ontheir networked computers, and an electronic no-tification goes immediately to the principal inves-tigator, who can access FastLane to read the reviewsand summary of the panel discussion.
In those rarer and happier situations when agrant is awarded, the principal investigator and pro-gram officer negotiate the last details and craft anabstract, describing the research. The instant theaward is made, the money goes electronically to
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These categories are not mutually exclusive; manyarticles fit in two or more of them. For example, theshort article on laser printers concerns an output in-terface and explains how a laser printer puts wordsand pictures on paper. But this article also concernsa breakthrough, the actual invention of the laserprinter, and it was written by the inventor himself,Gary Starkweather.
ContributorsThe 175 contributors to the encyclopedia possess thefull range and depth of expertise covered by HCI,and more. They include not only computer scien-tists and electrical engineers, but also social andbehavioral scientists, plus practicing engineers, sci-entists, scholars, and other experts in a wide rangeof other fields. The oldest authors were born aroundthe time that the very first experimental digital elec-tronic computer was built, and the entire historyof computing has taken place during their lives.
Among the influential and widely respected con-tributors is Jose-Marie Griffiths, who contributedthe article on digital libraries. As a member of theU.S. President’s Information Technology AdvisoryCommittee, Griffiths understands the full scope andsocial value of this new kind of public resource.Contributors Judith S. Olson, Gary M. Olson, andJohn M. Carroll are among the very few leaders whohave been elected to the Academy of the SpecialInterest Group on Computer-Human Interaction ofthe Association for Computing Machinery (SIGCHI).In 2003 Carroll received the organization’s Life-time Achievement Award for his extensive accomplish-ments, including his contributions to the BlacksburgElectronic Village, the most significant experimenton community participation in computer-mediatedcommunication. Jack Dongarra, who wrote the con-tribution on supercomputers, developed theLINPACK Benchmark, which is used to test the speedof these upper-end machines and which is thebasis of the annual list of the five hundred fastestcomputers in the world.
Building the Encyclopedia: Computer-Supported Cooperative WorkThe creation of this encyclopedia is an example ofcomputer-supported cooperative work, a main area
of HCI. I have written occasional encyclopedia arti-cles since the early 1990s, when I was one of sev-eral subject matter editors of The Encyclopedia ofLanguage and Linguistics. Often, an editor workingon a specialized encyclopedia for one publisher oranother would send me an e-mail message askingif I would write a particular essay, and I wouldsend it in, also by e-mail. I had a very good experi-ence contributing to the Encyclopedia of Community,edited by Karen Christensen and David Levinsonof Berkshire Publishing. I suggested to Karen thatBerkshire might want to do an encyclopedia ofhuman-computer interaction and that I could re-cruit excellent authors for such a project. Berkshirehas extensive experience developing high-quality ref-erence works, both in partnership with other pub-lishing houses and on its own.
Almost all the communication to create theencyclopedia was carried out online. Although I knowmany people in the field personally, it was a greathelp to have access to the public databases placed onthe Web by NSF, including abstracts of all grantsmade in the past fifteen years, and to the online pub-lications of organizations such as the Association forComputing Machinery and to the websites of all ofthe authors, which often provide copies of their pub-lications. Berkshire created a special password-protected website with information for authors anda section where I could review all the essays as theywere submitted.
For the ReaderThere are many challenges ahead for HCI, and manyare described in this encyclopedia. Difficult prob-lems tend to have both technical and human aspects.For the benefit of the reader, the articles identify stan-dard solutions and their ramifications, both positiveand negative, and may also cover social or politicalcontroversies surrounding the problem and its pos-sible solutions. Many of the articles describe how aparticular scientific discipline or branch of engi-neering approaches HCI, and what it contributes tothe multidisciplinary understanding of and im-provement in how computers, robots, and informa-tion systems can serve human needs. Other articlesfocus on a particular interface, modality, or mediumin which people receive information and control the
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computer or system of which it is a part. These articlesexplain the technical features of the hardware or soft-ware; they also explain the way humans perceive,learn, and behave in the particular context. Still otherarticles concern how computer and information sci-ence has developed to solve a wide class of problems,using vivid examples to explain the philosophy ofthe method, paying some attention as well to the hu-man side of the equation.
Many articles—sometimes as their central focusand sometimes incidentally—examine the social im-plications of HCI, such as the impact of a particularkind of technology, the way that the technologyfits into societal institutions, or a social issue involvingcomputing. The technology can strengthen eithercooperation or conflict between human beings, andthe mutual relations between technological changeand social change are often quite complex.
For information technology workers, this ency-clopedia provides insight into specialties other thanthe one they work in and offers useful perspectives onthe broad field. For policy makers, it provides a basisfor thinking about the decisions we face in exploit-ing technological possibilities for maximum humanbenefit. For students, this encyclopedia lays out howto use the technology to make a better world and of-fers a glimpse of the rapidly changing computer-as-sisted human world in which they are living their lives.
To illuminate and expand on the articles them-selves, the encyclopedia includes the following spe-cial features:
� Approximately eighty sidebars with key primarytext, glossary terms, quotes, and personal storiesabout how HCI has had an impact on the workand lives of professionals in the field.
� Some seventy-five diverse illustrations, which rangefrom “antique”photos of the ENIAC computer (c.1940s) to cutting-edge computerized images.
� A bibliography of HCI books and journalarticles.
� A popular culture appendix that includes morethan 300 annotated entries on books, plays,movies, television shows, and songs that haveconnections to HCI.
William Sims Bainbridge
The views expressed are those of the author and do notnecessarily reflect the position of the National ScienceFoundation
F U R T H E R R E A D I N G
Asher, R. E., & Simpson, J. M. Y. (Eds.). (1994). The encyclopedia oflanguage and linguistics. Oxford, UK: Pergamon.
Bainbridge, W. S. (1989). Survey research: A computer-assisted intro-duction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Bainbridge, W. S. (1992). Social research methods and statistics: Acomputer-assisted introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Carroll, J. M. (Ed.). (2002). Human-computer interaction in the newmillennium. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
Christensen, K., & Levinson, D. (2003). Encyclopedia of community:From the village to the virtual world. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Myers, B. A. (1996). A brief history of human computer interactiontechnology. ACM Interactions, 5(2), 44–54.
National Research Council. (1997). More than screen deep. Washington,DC: National Academy Press.
Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. S. (2001). Societal implications ofnanoscience and nanotechnology. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. S. (2003). Converging technologies forimproving human performance. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
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The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-ComputerInteraction (HCI) is our first independent title. We’vedone many other award-winning encyclopedias butHCI will always have a unique place in our heartsand in our history.
Even though most of our work has been in thesocial sciences, when William Bainbridge at theNational Science Foundation wrote to suggest thetopic of HCI, I knew instantly that it was the righttopic for our “knowledge and technology” company.I grew up with the computer industry. My father, acomputer engineer in the Silicon Valley, tried veryhard to explain the fundamentals of computing, andeven built a machine out of plywood and blinkinglights to show my sixth-grade class that informationcan be captured and communicated with nothingmore than a combination of on-off switches. I wasa reader, much more interested in human stories and
relationships than in binary code; but it was books—and a career in publishing—that at last brought hometo me that computers can support and expand hu-man connections and improve our lives in myriadways. Berkshire Publishing Group, based in a tinyNew England town, depends on human-computerinteraction to maintain working relationships, andfriendships too, with many thousands of expertsaround the world. We are convinced, in fact, that thistopic is central to our development as a twenty-firstcentury publishing company,
The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-ComputerInteraction takes computing into new realms, intro-ducing us to topics that are intriguing both in theirtechnical complexity and because they present us—human beings—with a set of challenging questionsabout our relationship with “thinking”machines. Thereare opportunities and risks in any new technology, and
PUBLISHER’S NOTE
By Karen Christensen
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HCI has intrigued writers for many decades becauseit leads us to a central philosophical, religious, and evenhistorical question: What does it mean to be human?We’ll be exploring this topic and related ones in fur-ther works about technology and society.
Bill Bainbridge was an exceptional editor: or-ganized, focused, and responsive. Working with himhas been deeply rewarding, and it’s no surprisethat the hundreds of computer scientists and engi-neers he helped us recruit to contribute to the en-cyclopedia were similarly enthusiastic and gracious.All these experts—computer scientists and engineersas well as people working in other aspects of HCI—truly wanted to work with us to ensure that theirwork would be accessible and understandable.
To add even greater interest and richness to thework, we’ve added dozens of photographs, personalstories, glossary terms, and other sidebars. In addi-tion to article bibliographies, there is a master bib-liography at the end, containing all 2,590 entries inthe entire encyclopedia listed together for easy ref-erence. And we’ve added a characteristic Berkshiretouch, an appendix designed to appeal to even themost resolute Luddite: “HCI in Popular Culture,” adatabase compilation listing with 300 sci-fi novels,nonfiction titles, television programs and films fromThe Six-Million Dollar Man to The Matrix (per-haps the quintessential HCI story), and even a hand-ful of plays and songs about computers andtechnology.
The encyclopedia has enabled us to develop anetwork of experts as well as a cutting-edge resourcethat will help us to meet the needs of students,professionals, and scholars in many disciplines. Manyarticles will be of considerable interest and value tolibrarians—Digital Libraries, Information Filtering,Information Retrieval, Lexicon Building, and muchmore—and even to publishers. For example, we havean article on “Text Summarization” written by JudithKlavans, Director of Research at the Center forAdvanced Study of Language, University ofMaryland. “Summarization is a technique foridentifying the key points of a document or set ofrelated documents, and presenting these selectedpoints as a brief, integrated independent represen-tation” and is essential to electronic publishing, a keyaspect of publishing today and in the future.
The Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-ComputerInteraction provides us with an essential groundingin the most relevant and intimate form of technol-ogy, making scientific and technological researchavailable to a wide audience. This topic and other as-pects of what Bill Bainbridge likes to refer to as “con-verging technologies” will continue to be a core partof our print and online publishing program. And, asbefits a project so closely tied to electronic tech-nolog y, an onl ine vers ion of the B erkshireEncyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction will beavailable through xrefplus. For more information,visit www.xreferplus.com.
Karen ChristensenCEO, Berkshire Publishing Group
Editor’s AcknowledgementsKaren Christensen, cofounder of the BerkshirePublishing Group, deserves both thanks andpraise for recognizing that the time had come whena comprehensive reference work about human re-lations with computing systems was both possibleand sorely needed. Courtney Linehan at Berkshirewas both skilled and tireless in working with the au-thors, editor, and copyeditors to complete a mar-velous collection of articles that are technicallyaccurate while communicating clearly to a broadpublic. At various stages in the process of develop-ing the encyclopedia, Marcy Ross and GeorgeWoodward at Berkshire made their own indispen-sable contributions. Among the authors, MaryHarper, Bhavani Thuraisingham, and Barry Wellmanwere unstinting in their insightful advice. I wouldparticularly like to thank Michael Lesk who, as di-rector of the Division of Information and IntelligentSystems of the National Science Foundation, gaveme the opportunity to gain invaluable experiencemanaging the grant programs in Universal Accessand Human-Computer Interaction.
William Sims BainbridgeDeputy Director,
Division of Information and Intelligent SystemsNational Science Foundation
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William Sims Bainbridge is deputy director of theDivision of Information and Intelligent Systems ofthe National Science Foundation, after having di-rected the division’s Human-Computer Interaction,Universal Access, and Knowledge and CognitiveSystems programs. He coedited Converging Tech-nologies to Improve Human Performance, whichexplores the combination of nanotechnology, bio-technology, information technology, and cognitivescience (National Science Foundation, 2002;www.wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies). He has rep-
resented the social and behavioral sciences on five ad-vanced technology initiatives: High PerformanceComputing and Communications, Knowledge andDistributed Intelligence, Digital Libraries, InformationTechnology Research, and Nanotechnology.
Bil l Bainbridge is also the author of tenbooks, four textbook-software packages, and some150 shorter publications in information science,social science of technology, and the sociology ofculture. He earned his doctorate from HarvardUniversity.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
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