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1228 WESTERN EUROPE, 1945-1965 sentenced to life imprisonment. Baldur von Schirach and Albert Speer were sen- tenced to 20 years imprisonment, Kon- stantin von Neurath to 15 years, Admiral Karl Doenitz to 10. Hjalmar Schacht, Franz von Papen, and Hans Fritsche were acquitted. Ten of the convicted war crimi- nals were hanged (October 15, 1946); Goering committed suicide by swallowing poison 2 hours before scheduled to be hanged. 1947, January 14. Beginning of Talks for German and Austrian Peace Treaties. In London, deputies of the Big-Four foreign ministers opened preliminary talks. Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949 1948, March-June. Soviet Harassment of Western Powers in Berlin. This began when the Soviet delegation walked out of the Allied Control Council (March 20). Soon thereafter, the Soviets began inter- ference and harassment of American and British access to Berlin from West Ger- many (April 1). The Soviet representa- tive walked out (June 16) of the K o m - mandatura (4-power military commission in Berlin), virtually cutting off the Soviet military command in Berlin from the 3 western powers. 1948, June 22. Beginning of the Blockade. Soviet occupation authorities halted all railroad traffic between Berlin and the west. There was less than 1 month's food supply for the 2 million inhabitants of the western sectors of Berlin. U.S. General Lucius D. Clay, commanding U.S. occu- pation forces in Germany, urged that the Western Allied garrisons stay put, and that Berlin be supplied by air. His recommen- dations were upheld. 1948-1949, June 26-September 30. Opera- tion "Vittles." Immediate mobilization of all Western Allied military aircraft avail- able began, while Clay rallied Berlin civil- ian help to expand the 2 available air- fields. (A third was soon built.) Air Lift Task Force (Provisional), commanded by U.S. Major General William H. Tunner and composed mainly of U.S. planes and pilots, with smaller increments of British and French air forces, accomplished the most extraordinary military peacetime ef- fort in history. Running on split-second schedule, through all sorts of weather, and harassed from time to time by "buzzing" of Soviet fighter planes, 277,264 flights were made, lifting a total of 2,343,315 tons of food and coal. The record day's lift was on Easter Sunday, April 16, 1949, when 1,398 flights brought 12,940 tons into Berlin. The operation cost the lives of 75 American and British airmen, in- cluding a collision when a Soviet pilot, bedeviling a passenger-loaded British plane, misjudged his distance and brought both aircraft down in the crash. 1948, July 26. Western Powers Halt All Trade with East Germany. This was re- taliation for the blockade. 1949, M a y 12. Soviets End Blockade. So- viet authorities, conceding defeat, officially lifted the blockade, but the air supply operation continued until September 30. 1949, April 14. End of the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials. 1949, September 7. The Federal Republic of Germany Established. Its capital was at Bonn. Dr. Konrad Adenauer was elected chancellor (September 15). The U.S., Britain, and France guaranteed the de- fense of West Germany (September 19) and ended their military government (Sep- tember 21). 1949-1965. Intermittent Berlin Incidents. The U.S.S.R. and the East German Com- munist regime frequently tested Western Allied will and determination, and at- tempted to erode the occupation and ac- cess rights of the Western Allies to Berlin. 1952, March 1. Britain Returns Heligoland to West Germany. 1953, March. Allied-Soviet Air Incidents. An American plane was shot down over the U.S. zone (March 10), and a British bomber was shot down over the British zone (March 12). The U.S. ordered 25 of its latest Sabrejets to Germany, to counter the threat, while secret conciliation talks began between Britain and Russia (March 31) which later were attended by France and the U.S. 1954, October 23. Rearmament of Germany within NATO. The N A T O Council ad- mitted Germany to NATO. Next day, France specifically recognized the sover- eignty of West Germany. 1955, M a y 5. Federal Republic of Germany Becomes a Sovereign State. 1961, July. Renewed Berlin Crisis. Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev, renewing de-
Transcript
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1228 W E S T E R N E U R O P E , 1945-1965

sentenced to life imprisonment. Baldur von Schirach and Albert Speer were sen­tenced to 20 years imprisonment, K o n -stantin von Neurath to 15 years, Admiral Kar l Doenitz to 10. Hjalmar Schacht, Franz von Papen, and Hans Fritsche were acquitted. T e n of the convicted war crimi­nals were hanged (October 15, 1946); Goering committed suicide by swallowing poison 2 hours before scheduled to be hanged.

1947, January 14. Beginning of Talks for German and Austrian Peace Treaties. In London, deputies of the Big-Four foreign ministers opened preliminary talks.

Berlin Blockade, 1948-1949

1948, March-June. Soviet Harassment of Western Powers in Berlin. This began when the Soviet delegation walked out of the Allied Control Council (March 20). Soon thereafter, the Soviets began inter­ference and harassment of American and British access to Berlin from West Ger­many (April 1). The Soviet representa­tive walked out (June 16) of the K o m -mandatura (4-power military commission in Berlin), virtually cutting off the Soviet military command in Berlin from the 3 western powers.

1948, June 22. Beginning of the Blockade. Soviet occupation authorities halted all railroad traffic between Berlin and the west. There was less than 1 month's food supply for the 2 million inhabitants of the western sectors of Berlin. U .S . General Lucius D . Clay, commanding U.S. occu­pation forces in Germany, urged that the Western Allied garrisons stay put, and that Berlin be supplied by air. His recommen­dations were upheld.

1948-1949, June 26-September 30. Opera­tion "Vittles." Immediate mobilization of all Western Allied military aircraft avail­able began, while Clay rallied Berlin civil­ian help to expand the 2 available air­fields. (A third was soon built.) Air Lift Task Force (Provisional), commanded by U.S . Major General William H . Tunner and composed mainly of U.S. planes and pilots, with smaller increments of British and French air forces, accomplished the most extraordinary military peacetime ef­fort in history. Running on split-second schedule, through all sorts of weather, and harassed from time to time by "buzzing"

of Soviet fighter planes, 277,264 flights were made, lifting a total of 2,343,315 tons of food and coal. The record day's lift was on Easter Sunday, Apri l 16, 1949, when 1,398 flights brought 12,940 tons into Berlin. The operation cost the lives of 75 American and British airmen, in­cluding a collision when a Soviet pilot, bedeviling a passenger-loaded British plane, misjudged his distance and brought both aircraft down in the crash.

1948, July 26. Western Powers Halt Al l Trade with East Germany. This was re­taliation for the blockade.

1949, M a y 12. Soviets E n d Blockade. So­viet authorities, conceding defeat, officially lifted the blockade, but the air supply operation continued until September 30.

1949, Apri l 14. E n d of the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials.

1949, September 7. The Federal Republic of Germany Established. Its capital was at Bonn. Dr. Konrad Adenauer was elected chancellor (September 15). The U.S., Britain, and France guaranteed the de­fense of West Germany (September 19) and ended their military government (Sep­tember 21).

1949-1965. Intermittent Berlin Incidents. The U.S .S .R. and the East German Com­munist regime frequently tested Western Allied will and determination, and at­tempted to erode the occupation and ac­cess rights of the Western Allies to Berlin.

1952, March 1. Britain Returns Heligoland to West Germany.

1953, March. Allied-Soviet A i r Incidents. A n American plane was shot down over the U.S . zone (March 10), and a British bomber was shot down over the British zone (March 12). The U.S . ordered 25 of its latest Sabrejets to Germany, to counter the threat, while secret conciliation talks began between Britain and Russia (March 31) which later were attended by France and the U .S .

1954, October 23. Rearmament of Germany within N A T O . The N A T O Council ad­mitted Germany to N A T O . Next day, France specifically recognized the sover­eignty of West Germany.

1955, M a y 5. Federal Republic of Germany Becomes a Sovereign State.

1961, July. Renewed Berlin Crisis. Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev, renewing de-

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SPAIN 1229

mands for Allied withdrawal from Berlin, announced suspension of planned troop re­duction and an increase in the Soviet mil­itary budget (July 8). Britain, France, and the U .S . rejected Khrushchev's terms for the settlement of the Berlin and Ger­man questions (July 17). President Ken­nedy directed a build-up of U .S . military strength and mobilized 4 National Guard divisions (see p. 1272).

1961, August 12-13. The Wall . The East German government closed the borders between East and West Berlin to East Germans. A wall, built overnight, split the city. The Soviet Union rejected western protests against the sealing of the border (September 11). Soviet and U.S. tanks confronted one another at "Checkpoint Charlie," but tension died. The division continued at the end of the period.

S C A N D I N A V I A N S T A T E S

A l l Scandinavian states were preoccupied during the period with the question of national security against C o m m u n i s t infiltration or outright aggression. While D e n m a r k , Norway, and Iceland became members of N A T O , Sweden maintained a strict—though western-oriented—neutrality. F i n l a n d — w h i c h clearly demonstrated an equally pro-western orientation—also maintained a neutral status, but was forced by geography a n d power realities to maintain closer relations with the U . S . S . R .

A U S T R I A

After 10 years of A l l i e d occupation marked by inability of the Big F o u r to agree on a peace treaty, the nation regained its independence by a treaty signed at V i e n n a by the U . S . , U . K . , France , a n d U . S . S . R . ( M a y 15, 1955), restoring Austria's fron­tiers existing January 1, 1938. U n d e r the treaty a small army and air force (about 60,000 strong) were permitted. T h e treaty requirement for neutrality was confirmed by Austria's official proclamation of permanent neutrality (act of October 26, 1955).

I T A L Y

1946, M a y 9. Abdication of K i n g Victor Emmanuel III. He abdicated in favor of his son, Humbert II.

1946, June 2. Italian People Vote to E n d the Monarchy. The Italian government declared Italy a republic (June 2). After some outbreaks of violence between roy­alists and republicans, K i n g Humbert left the country (June 13).

1946, July 29. Peace Conference Opens in Paris. Treaties were negotiated between the World War II victors and Italy, H u n ­gary, Bulgaria, Rumania, and Finland. These allied peace treaties were eventually signed in Paris (February 10, 1947).

1947, September 16. Crisis at Trieste. A Yugoslav military force, menacing Trieste, was deterred by the deployment of an American battalion for combat. Tension remained high; incidents, including occa­sional small-arms fire, were frequent.

1947, December 14. E n d of Allied Occupa­tion of Italy. British and U.S . units re­

mained in Trieste, however, to prevent Yugoslav seizure.

1953, October 8-December 5. De Facto Set­tlement at Trieste. Britain and the U.S . announced that they would withdraw their occupation forces (4,000 U.S. and 3,000 British) and return Zone A of T r i ­este to Italy. After an increase of tension between Italy and Yugoslavia, the 2 na­tions agreed to withdraw their troops from the border (December 5). A n agreement was later signed between them (October 5, 1954).

1963, January. Nuclear Weapons Agreement with U.S. (See p. 1236.)

S P A I N

1949, August 4. Spain's Application for Mar­shall Plan Aid Rejected. The U.S. Sen­ate refused to include such aid in the Marshall Plan appropriations.

1953, September 26. Ten-Year Defense Agreement with U.S . This gave the U.S. rights to Spanish naval and air bases in return for economic and military aid.

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E A S T E R N E U R O P E , 1945-1965 1230

E A S T E R N E U R O P E

S O V I E T B L O C A N D W A R S A W

P A C T N A T I O N S

1947, July. Communist Nations Reject the Marshall Plan. Although Poland and Czechoslovakia initially indicated an inter­est in joining in the Marshall Plan, they later rejected the offer, obviously under Soviet pressure, as did the other East E u ­ropean nations: Hungary, Rumania, A l ­bania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Finland.

1947, October 5. Establishment of the Corn-

inform. At a meeting in Moscow of the Communist parties of 9 European nations, a new Communist International, the Corn-inform, was established.

1955, M a y 14. The Warsaw Pact. The So­viet Union and its satellites—Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bul­garia, East Germany, and Albania—signed a treaty of mutual friendship and defense at Warsaw. Yugoslavia refused to join. This nominally mutual-defense treaty was the Communist bloc's answer to N A T O and the remilitarization of West Germany. This actually caused no changes in the re­lationship between Soviet and satellite forces.

S O V I E T U N I O N

Despite near-catastrophic losses of m a n power, materials, and production facili­ties, at the close of W o r l d W a r II the U . S . S . R . was without question the second great power in a bipolar world. Soviet armies occupied all of Eastern E u r o p e , much of Centra l Europe, northern Iran, M a n c h u r i a , a n d northern K o r e a . W h i l e the West­ern Allies demobilized their armies as quickly as possible after the war, Soviet military forces were maintained close to their wartime strength. A t the same time, the Soviets were increasingly truculent in and out of the U . N . , refused to carry out postwar agreements for the liberation of Eastern E u r o p e , and were obviously determined to extend Soviet power and influence in any direction at any opportunity. This threatening and aggressive attitude was combined with the Soviet-directed efforts of international C o m m u n i s m to take advantage of postwar chaos a n d dislocation to gain control of the governments of many nations in Europe and Asia .

It soon became evident that the combination of Soviet threats of external ag­gression and of internal subversion by indigenous Communists was creating pressures that few of the war-weakened nations in the world could withstand by their own individual efforts. Subservient C o m m u n i s t satellite governments were established throughout East Europe. Britain's sudden a n d unexpected decline caused the U . S . to undertake economic and military measures to assist nations threatened by Soviet Communist aggression ( T r u m a n Doctrine , M a r s h a l l P l a n ) . T h i s U . S . response to Soviet moves, with the aim of blocking Soviet expansion, triggered the so-called C o l d W a r .

T h w a r t e d by American counteraction—initial ly supported by the American monopoly of nuclear weapons and long-range bombardment capabil i ty—the U . S . S . R . devoted itself to unceasing efforts to improve a n d modernize its military capability in an effort to offset and, if possible, surpass that of the U . S . T h e result was unex­pectedly early Soviet detonation of atomic a n d hydrogen bombs. A g a i n the poten­tially more powerful U . S . slowly reacted to meet the armament challenge a n d So­viet-inspired aggression of N o r t h K o r e a against South K o r e a (see p. 1208). As a result, despite rapid modernization a n d sophistication of its weapons and armed forces, by the end of the period the Soviet U n i o n h a d failed to achieve its a i m of military parity or superiority over the U . S . (save possibly in the fields of rocket power and space exploration). Nevertheless, its substantial capability i n nuclear weapons, and possession of long-range missiles to deliver such weapons, h a d brought

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S O V I E T U N I O N 1231

the U . S . S . R . to a position of nuclear stalemate with the U . S . , and permitted con­tinuation of its policy of encouraging and supporting Communist subversion in u n ­derdeveloped nations throughout the world.

In the development of its nuclear capability, the U . S . S . R . had obviously come to understand the unprecedented destructive power of nuclear weapons, and appar­ently realized that an all-out nuclear exchange would result in the virtual destruc­tion of the U . S . S . R . T h i s , combined with serious ideological and nationalistic differ­ences with increasingly powerful Communist C h i n a , had led to some diminution in the intensity of the C o l d W a r (particularly after the C u b a n missile crisis), though there was no evidence of any change in basic Soviet Communist objectives. T h e u n ­declared conflict continued at lower levels, and in different forms, as Communist agents fomented a n d carried on low-intensity "wars of national l iberation" wher­ever the opportunity presented itself around the world. T h e principal military events of the period were:

1945, August 14. Treaty with China. (See p. 1255.)

1945-1946. Intervention in Azerbaijan. (See p. 1243.) This was the real beginning of the Cold War.

1945-1947. Soviet Bloc Established. De­spite World War II agreements at Yalta and Potsdam, and subsequent peace trea­ties with Nazi East European satellite states, the U.S.S .R. established its own satellite governments in areas occupied by its forces: Albania, Bulgaria, Czecho­slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Rumania, eastern Austria, and East Germany (in­cluding the eastern sector of Berlin). Y u ­goslavia, under Tito's Communist gov­ernment, was initially included in this East and Central European Communist satellite bloc.

1947, March 4. Norway Rejects Soviet De­mands on Spitsbergen. The U.S.S.R. had requested rights to establish a military base.

1947, July 7. Russia Rejects the Marshall Plan.

1948, Apri l 6. Treaty with Finland. A 10-year alliance was agreed.

1948-1949. Berlin Blockade. (See p. 1228.) 1948, June. Dispute with Yugoslavia.

Amidst violent denunciation and counter-denunciation, Yugoslavia withdrew from the Soviet Bloc (see p. 1234).

1949, September 23. Russia Explodes Its First Atomic Bomb. This ended the U.S. nuclear monopoly.

1950-1953. Korean War. The U.S.S.R. supported North Korea and (later) Com­munist China in the Korean War (see p. 1208).

1953, M a r c h 5. Death of Stalin. He was

succeeded by a triumvirate of Georgi Malenkov, Lavrenti Beria, and Nikita Khrushchev. Beria, who apparently con­templated seizing power, was later over­thrown (July) by his colleagues (with army support) and executed (December 23).

1953, June 16-17. Suppression of Uprising in East Berlin. (See p. 1233.)

1953, August 12. U.S.S.R. Detonates Its First Hydrogen Bomb.

1955, May 14. Establishment of the Warsaw Pact. (See p. 1230.)

1955, December 28. Soviet Defense Budget Reduction Announced. Later (May 14, 1956) it was announced that armed forces would be cut by 1,200,000 men over the following year.

1956, February 14-25. De-Stalinization. At the 20th Party Congress in Moscow, K h r u ­shchev, by now unquestioned leader of the U.S.S.R., attacked the memory of Stalin, and to some extent liberalized life and governmental policy in the U.S.S.R. and in the satellites. This revived hopes of personal liberty which created a wave of unrest in the U.S.S.R. and in the satel­lites.

1956, June 6. Bulganin Demands Reduction of Western Forces in Germany. President Eisenhower rejected the Soviet premier's demand (August 7).

1956, June 28. Unrest in Poland. (See p. 1233.)

1956, July 10. Charges of U.S . Military Air­craft Violation in Korea. A complaint was made to the U . N . Security Council. The U.S. denied the charges.

1956, October 23-November 4. Hungarian

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1232 E A S T E R N E U R O P E , 1945-1965

Revolt Suppressed by Soviet Forces. (See below.)

1957, October 4. Soviet Space Triumph. Soviet artificial satellite, Sputnik I, made the first successful penetration of space. It established Soviet pre-eminence in space exploration, which was being challenged, and perhaps overtaken, at the end of the period by belated American efforts to catch up. It also evidenced a Soviet mili ­tary pre-eminence in long-range rocketry, and particularly in the power of its rocket boosters.

1958, March 27. Khrushchev Seizes Control. Ousting Bulganin as premier, he became virtual dictator.

1960, January 20. Soviet Ballistic Missile Achievement. The U.S.S.R. claimed it fired a missile 7,752 nautical miles to within 1.24 miles of its target in the Cen­tral Pacific.

1960, May 1. U-2 Incident. Soviet air-de­fense missiles in central Russia shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance plane pi ­loted by F . G . Powers, employee of the U.S. CIA . (See p. 1272.)

1960, May. Khrushchev Wrecks Summit Conference. (See p. 1272.)

1961, April 12. First Manned Space Flight. Soviet Major Yuri Gagarin became the

first human to travel in space. He landed safely in the Soviet Union after 1 circuit of the globe.

1961, August 12-13. The Berlin Wall . (See p. 1229.)

1961, December 9. Soviet Superbombs. At the close of the Soviet Union's post-mor­atorium test series (see p. 1223), Khru­shchev publicly boasted that the Soviet Union had nuclear bombs more powerful than 100 megatons. American analysis of fallout seemed to substantiate the claim.

1962, October 17. Khrushchev Reveals So-viet-Sino Rift. During the 22nd Soviet Communist Party Congress in Moscow, Khrushchev revealed the existence of a Soviet-Sino ideological rift, mainly by at­tacking Albania, ideological ally of Com­munist China.

1962, October-November. Cuban Missile Crisis. (Seep. 1272.)

1963, July 25. Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. (See p. 1223.)

1964, October 12. First Multimanned Space Flight. The Soviet Union orbited a spacecraft, carrying 3 men, for 16 orbits.

1964, October 14-15. Khrushchev Deposed as Soviet Leader. He was replaced by Leonid I. Brezhnev and Aleksei N . Kosy-gin.

H U N G A R Y

Despite overwhelming anti -Communist popular sentiment, a C o m m u n i s t satel­lite government was installed with the assistance and protection of Soviet occupation forces (1945-1947). Communist control was unchallenged unti l a wave of unrest swept over Eastern Europe in 1956, following Khrushchev's de-Stalinization speech (seep. 1231).

1947, May 30. Communist Coup. The gov­ernment of Premier Ferenc Nagy was overthrown.

1956, July 18-22. Shake-up in Communist Government. This was evidence of seri­ous internal unrest in the party and the nation.

1956, October 23. Outbreak of Popular Re­volt against Communism. This followed security police attempts to suppress a pop­ular demonstration in Budapest. Soviet occupation forces fired on demonstrators (October 24-25). Revolutionary Councils sprang up throughout the country. The Communist government was toppled in a surprising constitutional parliamentary up­

heaval (October 25). Erstwhile moderate Communist Imre Nagy established a pro-western government. Erno Gero, ousted party secretary, called for Soviet troops. Fighting involving Hungarian Communist forces and Soviet troops spread across the country.

1956, October 28. Nagy Announces Soviet Agreement to Withdraw Troops. A lull in the fighting followed.

1956, November 1-4. Soviet Suppression of Revolt. By a combination of treachery and surprise, Soviet forces—with some 200,000 troops and 2,500 tanks and ar­mored cars—surrounded Budapest. Nagy

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E A S T G E R M A N Y 1233

appealed for U . N . a i d . T h e Soviets at­tacked , captured N a g y a n d his govern ­ment ( N o v e m b e r 4 ) , a n d swept through Budapest despite the v a l i a n t resistance of H u n g a r i a n troops a n d c i v i l i ans . A p p r o x i ­mate ly 25,000 H u n g a r i a n s a n d 7,000 R u s ­sians were k i l l e d . O n e unfor tunate aspect of the debacle was the s t imulus of A m e r ­

i can broadcasting programs that led the patriots to believe that the U . S . w o u l d come to their a id .

1956, November 5-30. Unrest and Flight. Resistance and strikes persisted despite ruthless Soviet suppression. B y the end of the m o n t h over 100,000 refugees had fled to the West.

P O L A N D

A C o m m u n i s t people's republic since 1947, when Stalin's repudiation of the free election promised at the Potsdam Conference brought a Communist puppet government into being, under the protection of Soviet occupation forces, Poland was an uneasy satellite of the U . S . S . R . during the period. Persecution of the Catholic C h u r c h a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t — u n t i l 1956—of Stefan C a r d i n a l Wyszynski added to the tension between the Polish people a n d their government.

1949. Russian Commands Army. Soviet M a r s h a l Konstantin Rokossovski was ap ­po inted M i n i s t e r of Defense a n d C o m ­mander i n C h i e f of the P o l i s h a r m y .

1950, June 7. Frontier Agreement with East Germany. T h e O d e r - N e i s s e l ine was ac­cepted as the off ic ial boundary .

1956, June 28-29. Workers' Revolt in Poz-nan. T h i s was suppressed by R u s s i a n troops a n d brought death to over 50, i n ­j u r y to hundreds more , a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t of more than 1,000 persons. U n r e s t i n P o l a n d cont inued a n d tension m o u n t e d between people a n d Soviet o c cupat ion a r m y .

1956, October. Wladyslaw Gomulka Be­comes Premier. T h e moderate P o l i s h C o m m u n i s t leader was released f r o m j a i l a n d restored to p a r t y leadership . T h i s re­duced tension a n d unrest, brought a m e l ­i o r a t i o n of condit ions , a n d s lacken ing of Soviet restrictions. G o m u l k a defied K h r u ­shchev's warnings that democrat i za t i on was too r a p i d . C a r d i n a l W y s z y n s k i was released; c u l t u r a l a n d f inanc ia l relations w i t h the West were in i t i a ted . Soviet M a r ­shal Rokossovsk i was dismissed as P o l i s h defense minister .

1956, November 18. Agreement with U.S .S .R. P o l a n d was g iven greater independence .

1957, October 3. Riots in Warsaw. S u p ­pressed by pol ice a n d troops.

E A S T G E R M A N Y

1949, October 7. Establishment of German Democratic Republic. Otto Grotewohl

was established as C h a n c e l l o r of this new Soviet satellite.

1953, June 16-17. Anticommunist Riots in East Berlin and East Germany. These were suppressed by the Soviet A r m y .

1953, August 23. Soviet Moves to Strengthen Ties with East Germany. T h i s inc luded release of war prisoners, l ower ing of occu­pat ion costs, and a n intensive propaganda campaign. T h e U . S . S . R . returned to East G e r m a n y 30 factories w h i c h had been seized as reparations after W o r l d W a r I I (December 31) . I t was announced that a l l reparations were ended, and that further occupation costs w o u l d be l i m i t e d to 5 per cent of East G e r m a n y ' s nat ional i n ­come.

1954, March 26. U . S . S . R . Announces East German Sovereignty. Soviet troops were to r emain only for security functions and for the fu l f i l lment of Soviet obligations under the Potsdam Agreement .

1955, January 10. Defections to West. T h e West G e r m a n Refugee M i n i s t r y reported that 184,198 persons h a d left East G e r ­many for the West i n 1954.

1956, January 18. East Germany Rearms. Par l iament approved creation of a de­fense min is t ry a n d a people's a rmy .

1964, January-March. Air Incidents. So ­viet aircraft shot d o w n an unarmed U . S . reconnaissance p lane ( M a r c h 10) and an A i r Force jet t r a i n i n g plane w h i c h by mis ­take flew over East G e r m a n y (January 28) . B o t h the U . S . and the U . S . S . R . p ro ­tested.

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1234 M E D I T E R R A N E A N A N D S O U T H E A S T E R N E U R O P E , 1945-1965

C Z E C H O S L O V A K I A

1948, February 24. Communist Coup d'Etat. President Eduard Benes was forced to ac­cept an ultimatum of Premier Klement Gottwald, putting Communists in charge of all branches of the government except the Foreign Ministry, where Jan Masaryk remained Foreign Minister, but all his aides were Communists.

1948, March 10. Death of Jan Masaryk. The Communist government announced this was suicide. There is little doubt that he was murdered by the Communists.

Y U G O S L A V I A

1946, M a r c h 24. Capture of General Draja Mikhailovich. He was tried and executed by a firing squad in Belgrade (July 17). (See p. 1074.)

1946-1948. Intervention in Greece. Yugo­slavia supported the rebels in the Greek Civil War (see below).

1948, June 28. Yugoslav-Soviet Rift. The Cominform denounced Marshal Tito and the Yugoslav Communist party for putting national interests above party interests. Tito and the Yugoslav Communist party, insisting that they were still Communists, also insisted that they were Yugoslav Communists and not Russian satellites. This marked the end of Yugoslavia's role as a Soviet satellite and the beginning of completely independent existence, al­though under President Tito the nation remained definitely, although individual-istically, Communist.

1949, August-September. Yugoslav-Soviet Crisis. Each nation accused the other of preparing for war, and Russia denounced the 1945 treaty of friendship and mutual assistance with Yugoslavia (September 29) .

1953, June 1. Political Commissars Abol­ished in the Armed Forces. This was an­nounced by Marshal Tito personally.

1956, October 15. U .S . Assistance. Eisen­hower authorized continuance of U .S . economic aid to Yugoslavia, but withheld heavy military equipment pending fur­ther study.

1956, November 11. Renewed Difficulties with U.S .S .R. This resulted from a Tito speech at a party meeting.

1961, October 13. U .S . Military Assistance.

The U .S . confirmed that it was granting military aid to Yugoslavia, to include 130 jet fighter planes, and the training of Yu­goslav fighter pilots in the United States.

A L B A N I A

1946, October 22. Corfu Channel Incident. Two British destroyers were damaged by Albanian mines in the Corfu Channel, with 40 men killed or missing. (Earlier in the year, Albanian shore batteries had fired at British and Greek warships in the channel.) Britain cleared the mines from the channel, under naval protection, de­spite Albanian protests to the U . N . (No­vember 12 -13) . The U.S .S .R. vetoed a Security Council resolution blaming A l ­bania for the damage (March 25, 1947). In subsequent litigation before the Court of International Justice, Albania was found at fault (April 9, 1949).

1961, December 19. Diplomatic Relations with U.S .S .R. Broken. This was a pro­test against de-Stalinization. Albania be­came the first European satellite of Com­munist China.

M E D I T E R R A N E A N A N D S O U T H E A S T E R N

E U R O P E

G R E E C E

1944, December 3-January 11, 1945. Guer­rilla Warfare. Communist resistance groups attempted to overthrow the re­established legal government of Greece, then under the protection of British occu­pation forces. British troops suppressed the uprisings and established an uneasy truce between the rival factions.

1945, September 1. Monarchy Restored. The Greek people voted to return King George II to the throne.

1946, May-1949, October. Greek Civi l War. Communist rebels under General " M a r -kos" Vafiades, with support from Albania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria, seized control of major northern border regions, while fighting flared throughout the nation. The Greek government received some support from Britain at the outset, but was barely

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able to maintain control of major cities and some portions of the countryside. Fighting was particularly intensive in the Vardar Valley.

1946, December 10. U . N . Begins Investiga­tion. The Security Council began an in­vestigation into Greek charges that Yugo­slavia, Bulgaria, and Albania were sup­porting guerrilla forces on Greece's north­ern frontier. The Balkans Investigating Committee reported to the Security Coun­cil (May 23, 1947) that Yugoslavia, Bul­garia, and Albania had violated the U . N . Charter by aiding guerrilla uprisings in Greece.

1947, March 12. Truman Doctrine. Brit­ain, close to economic collapse, was forced to suspend its assistance to Greece. Presi­dent Truman announced American deter­mination to assist Greece and Turkey against internal and external Communist threats. This resulted in extensive eco­nomic aid and provision of military equip­ment to the strife-torn nation. A n Amer­ican military advisory group trained the Greek Army in employment of U .S . mili­tary equipment, and also rendered com­bat advice. The Greek Army slowly re­gained the initiative, and suppressed the revolt throughout all of Greece (1947) save in the northern border regions, where rebels obtained direct assistance from the neighboring Soviet satellites.

1948, January 1. Relief of Konitsa. Greek government troops relieved Konitsa, long under rebel siege, driving the defeated guerrilla forces into Albania. A subsequent rebel effort to capture Konitsa was re­pulsed (January 25).

1948, June 19. Greek Army Offensive Be­gins. Greek efforts to capture the rebel stronghold of Vafiades were partially suc­cessful. Intensive fighting continued for several months in the M t . Grammos re­gion.

1948, November 27. U . N . Condemns Greece's Neighbors. The General Assem­bly condemned Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia for continuing to give assist­ance to the Greek guerrillas. In fact, how­ever, Yugoslav assistance had declined rapidly after her expulsion from the Corn-inform (see p. 1234). This greatly facili­tated the task of government troops.

1949. General Markos Replaced. Markos

Vafiades was replaced as commander of the Greek guerrillas by John Ioannides.

1949, June 25. U . N . Charges against Bul­garia. The U . N . Special Committee on the Balkans accused Bulgaria of permit­ting Greek guerrillas to establish fortifica­tions within Bulgaria from which to fire on Greek troops in Greek territory.

1949, August 28. Greek Troops Clear Mt . Grammos. The principal rebel resistance in Greece was broken by a government as­sault which captured the northern ridge of Mt . Grammos.

1949, October 16. E n d of the Civil War. 1951, September 20. Greece Joins N A T O . 1954, August 9. Treaty with Turkey and

Yugoslavia. This was a 20-year treaty for military assistance and political co-op­eration, and marked a remarkable rap­prochement among old enemies.

1955-1965. Strained Relations with Turkey. This was due to the Cyprus issue (see p. 1236).

1955-1959. Strained Relations with Britain. This was due to Cyprus (see p. 1236).

T U R K E Y

1945-1947. Tension between Turkey and U.S.S.R. The Soviets unsuccessfully used diplomatic pressure and threats of force to gain concessions from Turkey in the Straits area and in Turkish Caucasus re­gions.

1946, August 12. Soviet Demands Darda­nelles Rights. The U.S.S.R. demanded joint control of military bases along the Dardanelles, and proposed to Turkey that only Black Sea countries share in the ad­ministration of the Turkish Straits. T u r ­key rejected the Soviet demands (Octo­ber 18).

1947, March 12. Truman Doctrine. Amer­ican economic assistance and military equipment greatly strengthened Turkish resistance to Russian pressures.

1950, September 20. Korean War. Turkey sent a major contingent (initially 4,500 men, later increased to about 8,000) to join the U . N . forces in Korea.

1951, September 20. Turkey Joins N A T O . 1955-1965. Strained Relations with Greece

over Cyprus. (See p. 1236.) 1955, September 6. Anti-Greek Riots. Riots

against the Greeks broke out in Istanbul

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and Izmir as a result of troubles between the Greek and Turkish inhabitants in C y ­prus and anti-Turkish demonstrations in Greece.

1963, January 21. Nuclear Weapons Agree­ment with U.S. Turkey accepted U.S .

offers to station Polaris missiles submarines in the Mediterranean Sea to replace Ju­piter missiles stationed on Turkish soil. (Italy simultaneously agreed to the with­drawal of Jupiter missiles from Italian soil.)

C Y P R U S

F o r more than 70 years Cyprus was a British dependency or colony. T h e popu­lation of this east-Mediterranean island is about 80 per cent Greek a n d nearly 20 per cent T u r k i s h . L o n g before W o r l d W a r II, there was a strong sentiment among the Greek population for enosis, or union with Greece. T h i s was bitterly opposed by the T u r k i s h minority, who believed that if under Greek control they would be de­prived of the rights they enjoyed under British rule.

1952-1959. Guerrilla Warfare. Greek agi­tation for enosis was translated into ter­rorism directed against the Turkish mi ­nority, and guerrilla warfare combined with terrorism waged against the British occupation forces. Principal guerrilla leader was a Greek war hero, Colonel Grivas. Complete support to the enosis movement was given by Greek Orthodox Archbishop Makarios, who was exiled by the British.

1959, March 13. Cease-Fire in Cyprus. This followed an agreement between the British government and the Greek and Turkish communities on Cyprus, with the approval of Greece and Turkey (Febru­ary 19). A n independent republic of C y ­prus was to be established, in which the rights of the Turkish minority would be clearly and constitutionally protected. Britain was to retain military bases on the island.

1959, December 14. Makarios Elected First President of Cyprus.

1960-1963. Agitation for Enosis Continues. Tension increased between the Greek and Turkish communities.

1963, December 21. Outbreak of Conflict. As a result of Makarios' efforts to reform

the constitution and thus reduce the rights of the Turkish minority, armed clashes be­tween Greeks and Turks spread through­out the island. Britain sent reinforcements to attempt to restore order, but wide­spread fighting continued.

1964, January-February. Unsuccessful Me^ diation. British and American efforts to establish an international peace-keeping force, under N A T O or the U . N . , were all rejected by Makarios, who meanwhile was building up his military forces.

1964, March 4. U . N . Intervention. After an impasse had been reached in U . N . dis­cussion, the Security Council authorized Secretary General U Thant to establish a peace force and to appoint a mediator.

1964, M a r c h 27. A U . N . Peace Force Be­comes Operational.

1964, August 7-9. Turkish A i r Attacks. Following Greek Cypriote attacks on Turkish Cypriote villages, Turkish planes attacked Greek Cypriote positions. With Greece and Turkey close to war, the U . N . was able to get agreement of the Turkish and Cypriote governments to a cease-fire.

1964-1965. Stalemate. No solution to the impasse appeared to be in sight at the end of the period.

T H E M I D D L E E A S T

Unrest permeated the entire area, due to a unique combination of powerful and emotional forces: C o l d W a r pressures, manifested i n all parts of the world , par­ticularly intense in this region due to its strategic geographic location and the untold wealth of vast oil reserves; aspirations of new nations breaking away from western

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colonialism; and the particularly virulent and irreconcilable strife between Israel a n d the A r a b world . Least affected by these swirling tides within the region were the 2 n o n - A r a b M o s l e m states of the region, Iran and Turkey .

T H E A R A B L E A G U E

T h e A r a b League was established shortly before the end of W o r l d W a r II ( M a r c h 22, 1945) by the governments of Egypt , Iraq, J o r d a n , Lebanon , Saudi A r a b i a , Syria, a n d Y e m e n . T h e principal purpose was to prevent the British m a n ­date i n Palestine from becoming a separate and independent Jewish state. Later the League was joined by Algeria , K u w a i t , L i b y a , Morocco , the Sudan, and T u n i s i a . C a i r o has been the headquarters for the Secretary General of the League.

1947, January 5. Palestinian Talks. The Arab League accepted a British proposal to participate in a conference on the Pal­estinian problem to begin on January 26.

1948-1949. War with Israel. (See p. 1238.)

1950, June 17. Collective Security Pact. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen signed a collective security pact in Alexandria. Iraq and Jordan did not join.

1954, June 11. Egypt and Saudi Arabia Re­ject Baghdad Pact. Under the terms of the Arab League Collective Security Pact, Egypt and Saudi Arabia agreed to pool

defenses and military resources, rejecting western plans for a Middle East Defense Treaty against Communism (see below).

1956, March 3-11. Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia Plan United Defense. Plans for combined action against Israel were agreed on by the heads of state at Cairo. King Hussein of Jordan refused to give up Brit­ish subsidy.

1964, January 13-17. Arab League Confer­ence. Leaders of the 13 Arab League na­tions met in Cairo and agreed to set up a joint military command for possible action against Israel.

C E N T R A L T R E A T Y O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F T H E M I D D L E E A S T

T h e Centra l Treaty Organizat ion of the M i d d l e East is a successor organization to the M i d d l e East T r e a t y Organization, or Baghdad Pact, established (1955) as a result of initiatives begun by the U n i t e d States (1954).

1954, Apri l 2. Turkey-Pakistan Treaty. Signing a 5-year mutual-defense pact, the 2 nations invited neighboring nations, par­ticularly Iraq and Iran, to join.

1955, February 24. Turkey-Iraq Treaty. A 5-year mutual-defense pact with a 5-year renewal clause, joined by Britain (April 4), to establish so-called Baghdad Pact.

1955, November 21. First Meeting of the Baghdad Pact. Representatives of Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and Great Britain met in Baghdad to establish the Middle East Treaty Organization ( M E T O ) . The U.S . did not join, but sent official observ­ers to the meeting.

1956, April 19. U . S . Partial Participation. At a meeting in Teheran, the U .S . agreed to establish a permanent liaison office, and to help support the permanent M E T O secretariat.

1959, March 5. U .S . Treaties with the "Northern Tier . " The U.S. signed sepa­rate defense treaties with Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan, in Ankara, to assure the na­tions of the Baghdad Pact that the U.S. would come to their support in need of any Communist aggression.

1959, October 7. Reorganization of the Al l i ­ance. In view of the withdrawal of Iraq (see p. 1242), the remaining members— Britain, Turkey, Pakistan, and Iran— changed its name to Central Treaty O r ­ganization ( C E N T O ) .

P A L E S T I N E A N D I S R A E L

1945-1948. Guerrilla Warfare in Palestine. This bitter and bloody struggle was waged mainly by Jewish Zionists against the Arab

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population and against British occupation forces, in their efforts to achieve an inde­pendent Jewish nation. U . N . efforts to solve rival aspirations of Jews and Arabs proved futile.

1947, November 29. U . N . Decision to Par­tition Palestine. The General Assembly approved a plan presented to it by a spe­cial committee to partition Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states effective

October 1, 1948. The Arab states refused to accept the decision, and announced their determination to fight if necessary.

1948, M a y 14. Independence of Israel. Britain surrendered her mandate over Pal­estine and withdrew her armed forces. The Israeli nation, immediately recognized by the U.S. , was at once attacked and invaded by troops of Egypt, Iraq, Leba­non, Syria, and Transjordan (or Jordan).

Arab-Israeli War, May 14, 1948-January 5, 1949

T h e entire Jewish nation, which h a d systematically and efficiently prepared itself for war prior to its official existence, immediately rose in arms. T h e 3 major invasion forces (Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian) were halted, a n d those of Egypt a n d Syria were hurled back beyond the original frontiers of Palestine. T h e more formidable British-trained A r a b Legion of Jordan fought the Jews on more or less even terms, with a stalemate ensuing after the bitter struggle for Jerusalem, part of which was held by each side. By the end of the year, Israel h a d established her frontiers by force of arms over virtually all of the terrain which h a d been allotted her before the war by the U . N . , and in addition held most of western Galilee a n d the modern portion of Jerusalem. Jordan had seized practically all of the eastern A r a b i a n portion of Palestine, adjacent to the Jordan River . A r a b refugees from the Israeli-held por­tions of Palestine flocked mostly to J o r d a n a n d Egypt , where they were kept for years in refugee camps near the Israel frontier, a source of continuing friction and bitterness between the A r a b world and Israel. T h e principal events of the war were:

1948, May 18. Battle for Jerusalem Begins. Israeli troops and those of the Jordan Arab Legion began a prolonged struggle for the ancient capital of Palestine. The Israeli garrison of the O l d City of Jeru­salem surrendered to the Arab Legion after a siege of 11 days (May 28). The Arab Legion was simultaneously repulsed from modern Jerusalem, but isolated the Israelis from Tel Aviv.

1948, May 20. U . N . Mediator Appointed. The U . N . Security Council appointed Count Folke Bernadotte of Sweden as me­diator between the Jews and Arabs.

1948, M a y 22. Egyptian Troops Enter Beth­lehem.

1948, June 11. Temporary Truce. Israel and the 7 states of the Arab League agreed to a 4-week cease-fire and truce.

1948, June 20. First U . N . Police Force. The U . N . Secretary General sent 49 uni­formed U . N . guards, the first international police force, from New York to Israel.

1948, July 8. Fighting Renewed. Arab spearheads struck for Tel Aviv, while Is­raeli troops attempted to relieve isolated Jerusalem.

1948, July 13. Israeli Victories. The Isra­elis drove off Arab threats to T e l Aviv and reopened communications with the garrison of modern Jerusalem. A cease­fire was agreed in Jerusalem with the Jor­danians (July 16).

1948, July 16. Israelis Capture Nazareth. 1948, July 18. New Cease-Fire with the

Arab League. 1948, August 15. Renewal of Fighting. 1948, September 17. Assassination of Ber­

nadotte. He was killed by Jewish terror­ists opposed to U . N . mediation.

1948, October 21. Israeli Forces Capture Beersheba.

1948, October-December. Fruitless U . N . Mediation.

1949, January 3-5. Israeli Invasion of Egyp­tian Territory. A n Israeli armored col­umn raided 35 miles into Egyptian territory and returned without serious op­position. The Jews then halted hostilities in response to U . N . mediation efforts.

1949, January-July. Peace Talks on Rhodes. In prolonged peace negotiations, cease-fire and armistice agreements were signed be­tween Israel and the principal neighboring

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Arab states; discussions with Egypt (be­ginning January 13) resulted in the first armistice (February 23). Agreements fol­lowed with Jordan (April 3) and with Syria (July 20). The state of war between Israel and her Arab neighbors continued, despite the cease-fire agreements.

1950, M a y 19. Egypt Closes Suez Canal to Israel. Israeli ships and Israeli commerce were banned.

1953-1956. Intermittent Frontier Clashes. Both sides appear to have been responsi­ble for these various small and large out­breaks along the entire length of Israel's frontiers. However, the initiative appears in most cases to have been with the Arabs.

Israeli punitive reprisals were largely stim­ulated by Arab breaches of the truce or by clandestine raids of Arab terrorists into Israel.

1951, April 5-16. Border Hostilities with Syria. A cease-fire was later re-estab­lished (May 8).

1955, December-1956, October. Increasing Tension along Israel's Borders. Raids of Arab terrorists and guerrillas were met by stern Israel punitive strikes at Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian border positions. Arab states, supported by the U.S.S.R. , complained in the U . N . , as tempers and emotions rose (see p. 1222). Both Israel and Arabs complained of U.S . arms ship­ments to the other side.

Sinai Campaign, October 29-November, 1956

Preparations for A r a b invasion by Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, under command of M a j o r General A b d a l H a k i m A m e r , Egypt ian Defense Minister, became ominous (October 25) as Egypt ian troops concentrated in the Sinai peninsula.

1956, October 29. Israel Strikes First. Hast­ily mobilized Israeli forces, commanded by General Moshe Dayan, plunged into the Sinai. Efficient mechanized columns scattered 4 Egyptian divisions in dismal, headlong rout. At cost of 180 men killed, the Israeli invasion pushed toward the Suez Canal, halting only 30 miles away when France and Britain gave both Egypt and Israel a 12-hour ultimatum to end hostilities (October 30), and then inter­vened (see p. 1240). U . N . denunciation of Israel, Britain, and France followed. Egyptian losses reported by Israel were 7,000 prisoners and an estimated 3,000 dead. Practically all the Egyptian equip­ment and materiel (worth $50 million) in the Sinai fell into Israeli hands.

1956, November 15. U . N . Intervention. (See p. 1222.) A curtain of U . N . troops moved into the Sinai between the adversaries. The Israeli invaders slowly retired to the Negev (March 1957), only after U .S . as­surances of rights to use the Gulf of Aqaba as an international waterway. A U . N . unit occupied Sharm el Sheikh, overlooking the gulf entrance, which had been captured by the Israelis.

1956-1965. Continuing Tension. Frontier skirmishing continued along Israel's fron­tiers, with the economic boycott of the

Arab League continuing, and growing threat of war over water rights in the Jor­dan River system. The Arab states, par­ticularly Egypt, were already building up strength in hopes of revenge, obtaining plentiful Soviet equipment.

1962, September 26. U .S . Assistance to Is­rael. The State Department announced that the United States had agreed to sell defensive missiles to Israel in order to re­store the threatened balance of power in the Middle East.

E G Y P T - U N I T E D A R A B

R E P U B L I C

1945-1952. Internal and Anti-British U n ­rest. Egypt called for an end to British military occupation and abrogated its trea­ties with Britain (October 27, 1951). The U . K . acquiesced and began withdrawal, but rioting at Port Said and Ismailia, en­dangering Suez Canal operations, necessi­tated British military action and continued occupation.

1948- 1949. Arab-Israeli War. (See p. 1238.) 1949- 1956. Continuous Friction and Inci­

dents along Israeli Border. (See above.) 1952, July 22. Military Coup d'Etat. King

Farouk was dethroned by a military up-

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1240 T H E M I D D L E E A S T , 1945-1965

rising under the leadership of General Mohammed Naguib, his right-hand man being Colonel Gamal Abdal Nasser.

1953, June 18. Egypt Proclaimed a Repub­lic. Naguib became first president and premier.

1954, February 25-November 14. Naguib-Nasser Struggle for Control. After con­siderable internal maneuvering, Naguib was finally ousted and replaced by Nasser (November 14).

1955, September 27. Agreement with Czech­oslovakia. Nasser announced a commer­cial agreement to exchange Egyptian cot­ton for armaments. He stated that western nations had refused Egyptian requests for arms and that Israel was buying French warplanes.

1955, October 20. U.S . Offers to Finance Aswan Dam. Egypt accepted financing by the International Bank for Recon­struction and Development and the U.S . (December, 1955-February, 1956), reject­ing Soviet offers to supply more than one-third of the $.6- to $1.2-billion cost.

1956, June 13. Britain Completes With­drawal from Egypt. This ended 74 years of British military occupation in Egypt.

1956, June 18. Soviet Renews Offer to Finance Aswan Dam. This time the U.S.S.R. agreed to furnish about $1.0 bil­lion at 2 per cent interest. President Nas­ser began to reopen bargaining with the U.S. , Britain, and I R D B to get better terms.

1956, July 19. U.S. Withdraws Offer to F i ­nance Aswan Dam. Disgusted by Egyp­tian anti-U.S. propaganda and negotia­tions with the U.S.S.R., Secretary Dulles withdrew the offer; Britain supported the U.S. action.

1956, July 26. Nationalization of Suez Canal. Egypt seized control of the canal from the private (primarily British) Suez Canal Corporation, announcing its nationaliza­tion. Hot debate in and out of the U . N . followed; France and Britain particularly considered the action as a threat to world peace. The U.S. was gravely concerned and began negotiations to achieve interna­tional control. The Communist bloc sup­ported the Egyptian seizure. Nasser turned down western proposals and began to op­erate the canal (September 14).

1956, October 29. Israeli Invasion of Sinai. (See p. 1239.)

1956, October 31. Franco-British Interven­tion. Following Israel's assault in the Si­nai, France and Britain issued an ultima­tum calling on Israel and Egypt to cease fire in 12 hours. Israel accepted subject to Egyptian acceptance (October 30). Egypt rejected the ultimatum. Franco-British air forces began bombardment of Egyptian air bases.

1956, November 5-7. Franco-British Inva­sion of Canal Zone. British paratroops, flown by helicopter from Cyprus, made vertical combat landings at Port Said while Franco-British warships bombarded the port and landed troops in an amphibi­ous assault. One day of street fighting brought the port into the attackers' hands, and the advance continued along the ca­nal. Egyptian resistance concentrated on the sinking of stone-laden barges and other vessels in the canal itself, completely blocking it. Immediate U . N . reaction fol­lowed, with the U .S . and U.S .S .R. for once in agreement. A cease-fire demand was reluctantly obeyed by France and Britain (November 7). By this time the northern half of the canal, from Port Said to Ismailia, had fallen into the invaders' hands. Allied losses were 33 dead and 129 wounded; Egyptian losses are unknown. Following U . N . pressure and unilateral U .S . efforts, the Franco-British forces evac­uated Egyptian territory (November 19-December 22).

C O M M E N T . While U.S. denunciation of this bilateral assault, and the threats of the U.S.S.R. to use missiles against Britain and France and to furnish a "volunteer" army for the relief of Egypt, both played dominant roles in causing France and Brit­ain to withdraw, a very practical military reason also underlay the decision. What might have become a fait accompli, had the operation been properly prepared, became a disastrous fumble when, due to inadequate warning and preparation, 5 inactive days elapsed between the initial air bombings and the amphibious assault. World opinion had time to react. The net result was a strength­ening of Nasser's domination in Egypt and his affiliation with the U.S.S.R., and a weak­ening of accord amongst NATO members. 1957, March 7. Suez Canal Reopens. U . N .

salvage crews took only 69 days to clear hulks from the channel, sunk there by Egyptians during the crisis.

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1958, February 1. Union with Syria. The United Arab Republic was established with Yemen as another partner. This was Nasser's next move to dominate the M i d ­dle East by a powerful Arab state. Anti -Egyptian opposition in Syria broke up the short-lived partnership (September 30, 1961), but Nasser's Egypt continued as the United Arab Republic.

1961-1965. Involvement in Yemen. Break­ing relations with the monarchical gov­ernment of Yemen (December 26, 1961), Egypt began subversive support of a re­publican movement, followed by active military support of the republican gov­ernment against the Imam (see below). Egyptian losses were heavy; the experi­ence was frustrating and costly to Egypt.

Y E M E N

1948, February 19. Revolt. K i n g Hamid was overthrown and replaced by Imam Ahmed.

1950, June 17. Yemen Joins Arab League Collective Security Pact. (See p. 1237.)

1956, Apri l 3. Claim to Britain's Aden Pro­tectorate. The nebulous boundary line became theater of a sporadic war contin­uing to the end of the period.

1957-1962. Communist Arms Provided to Yemen. This was through negotiations with the U.S.S.R. and later with Red China. The U.S.S.R. began extensive port construction at Hodeiya (Port Ahmed).

1961, December 26. U . A . R . Breaks Rela­tions with Yemen. (See above.)

1962, September 19. Death of Imam Ahmed. Crown Prince Saif al-Islam Mohammed al Badr assumed the crown. A republican uprising followed.

1962, September 27. Proclamation of "Free Yemen Republic." The rebel govern­ment, supported by the U . A . R . , was also recognized by Communist-bloc nations (September 29). Heading the rebels was

Colonel Abdullah al-Sallal (proclaimed president, October 31).

1962-1965. Civil War. The rebel govern­ment was assisted by the U . A . R . Egyptian troops entered the country to assist the rebels. With Egyptian forces waxing to some 35,000 strength by the end of the period, Yemen became a battleground for pro- and anti-Communist Arabs. Saudi Arabia provided active military support to the monarchical faction, while British forces resisted a republican Yemenite in­vasion of Aden.

L E B A N O N

1945-1956. Precarious Existence. The re­public strove to maintain independent sta­tus despite the coaxing and threats of its neighbors to force its participation in the Pan-Arab movement. There was constant friction with Syria.

1949, July 8. Brief Rebellion Suppressed. 1956, January 13. Military Defense Treaty

with Syria. 1958, April 14-July 14. Insurrection. This

was inspired by the U . A . R . Fighting spread to the streets of Beirut (June 14). U . N . observers, with Dag Hammarskjold, sec­retary general, arrived.

1958, July 14. Lebanese Appeal for Help* President Camille Chamoun appealed to the U.S. , Britain, and France, urging troop aid to seal the Syrian border as the revolution in Iraq (see p. 1242) set the Middle East aflame and stimulated re­newed unrest in Lebanon.

1958, July 15. U.S. Intervention. Respond­ing to Chamoun's appeal, a U.S. force of Marines and Army troops arrived by sea and by air from Europe and the U.S. to protect Lebanon from U . A . R . or Com­munist invasion.

1958, August 21. U . S . Begins Withdrawal. Stabilization of the situation having been effected, withdrawal of 14,300 U.S. troops began (completed October 25).

S Y R I A

T h i s was a period of constant unrest and inner turmoil i n Syria, with frequent revolts, mutinies, a n d coups d'etat, and equally constant border friction and skir­mishing with Israel along the upper Jordan River and Sea of Galilee. Briefly, Syria was joined in a p a n - A r a b national union with Egypt (February 1, 1958-September 30, 1961; see above).

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1242 T H E M I D D L E E A S T , 1945-1965

I R A Q

Internal affairs in Iraq were chaotic throughout the period. T h e central gov­ernment (in its various manifestations) was more or less constantly at war with the K u r d i s h minority in the northwestern mountain region. Principal military events of the period were:

1946, Apri l . Uprising in Kurdistan. The K u r d rebellion had not been suppressed by the close of the period.

1948-1949. Arab-Israeli War. (See p. 1238.) 1955, November 21. Baghdad Pact. (See p.

1237.) 1958, July 14. Army Revolt. A n army offi­

cer revolt, led by Brigadier General Abdul Karim el Kassim, overthrew the mon­archy. K i n g Faisal II and Premier N u r i es Said were brutally murdered. Initially closely tied to the U . A . R . and pan-Arab unity, Kassim's Republic of Iraq soon di ­verged from policies followed by Nasser's U . A . R .

1958, December. Iraq-Soviet Agreement Verified. U.S. sources determined that Premier Kassim had accepted Soviet arms and had entered into a working agreement with the U.S.S.R.

1959, March 8-9. Revolt Suppressed. This was an attempt by a group of officers in Masul.

1959, March 24. Iraq Withdraws from the Baghdad Pact. Soon after this, Iraq abrogated her agreements with the U . S . and refused further U.S. military aid (June).

1961, December 27. Britain Supports K u ­wait. Britain dispatched naval reinforce­ments to the Persian Gulf to deter Kas­sim's threatened annexation of Kuwait (December 24).

1963, February 8. Revolt. Kassim was de­posed and executed; his estranged part­ner in the 1958 revolt, Abdul Salam Arif, became the new president.

1963, November 18. Military Coup. The government was overthrown; President Arif, who had been a figurehead, seized control and pledged support to Nasser of Egypt.

J O R D A N

1946, March 22. Independence of Trans Jor­dan. This former League of Nations

mandate was granted independence by Britain. Emir Abdullah became the first king.

1948-1949. Arab-Israeli War. Transjor-dan, due mainly to its British-trained Arab Legion, was the only Arab state to per­form creditably against the Jewish Army of Israel (see p. 1238).

1949, June 2. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Established. This change of name was a step in the process of annexation of Ara­bic Palestine (April 24, 1950), occupied by the Arab Legion during the Arab-Isra­eli War. This annexation was strongly protested by most other Arab League states.

1951, July 20. Assassination of Abdullah. Murder of this moderate ruler by an Arab extremist was applauded in many other Arab countries. They feared that he was moving to an accommodation with Israel. H e was briefly succeeded by his eccentric son, Emir Tallal (September 5).

1952, M a y 2. Accession of K i n g Hussein. This young king (only 17 when he came to the throne) proved himself a wise, tough, durable ruler, who maintained con­trol over his volatile nation (with the help and support of his Arab Legion), despite continued and overt efforts of Nasser and most other Arab League leaders to have him overthrown or assassinated (1955-1962). By the end of the period, Hussein and Nasser, however, had temporarily re­solved their differences and were at least nominally in accord on their strong anti-Israel policies.

1954, M a y 2. Jordan Rejects British Sugges­tion of Peace Talks with Israel.

1956, March 2. Dismissal of Glubb. British Lieutenant General John Bagot Glubb, commander of the British-subsidized Arab Legion, was dismissed by Hussein for fail­ure to prepare for an Israeli attack. Upon

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I R A N 1243

his return to Britain, Glubb was knighted (March 9).

1958, July 17-October 29. British Support to Hussein. Following the revolt in Iraq, and as combined U . A . R . and Communist pressure and threats against Hussein and Jordan mounted, British paratroops landed in Jordan, at Hussein's request, shortly after the landings of U .S . forces in Leb­anon (see p. 1241). This strong Anglo-

American co-operation restored compara­tive stability to the Middle East.

1962. Military Co-ordination of Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Merger of the armed forces of the 2 countries was announced as a show of strength and unity against the U . A . R . and other Arab League mem­bers. Though never officially abrogated, this merger was apparently never fully ac­tivated and was quickly ignored.

S A U D I A R A B I A

Involved like all the other nations in the M i d d l e East i n pan-Arab , anti-Jewish movements, Saudi A r a b i a , one of the great oil centers of the area, could be consid­ered as at least part ly amenable i n policy to the Arabian A m e r i c a n O i l C o m p a n y ( A R A M C O ) , which operated the fields and was the sole source of financial revenue. T h e death (November 9 , 1 9 5 3 ) of K i n g Ibn Saud, a firm supporter of the West, momentari ly loosed its ties with the Free W o r l d . His sons, S a u d Ibn Aziz ( 1 9 5 3 -1 9 6 5 ) a n d Faisal (who deposed his brother in 1 9 6 5 ) , continued, however, in at­tempts to maintain at least neutrality in the C o l d W a r .

1952. Saudi Forces Invade the Buraimi Oa­sis. This territory was also claimed by the Sultan of Muscat and Oman. A clash with British interests in that area ended with the ousting of the invaders (October 26, 1955) by British-led troops of Muscat and Oman.

1956. Military Alliance with Egypt and Yemen. (See p. 1237.)

1957-1962. Friction with U . A . R . This brought about closer ties between Saudi Arabia and Jordan (see above).

1962-1965. Saudi Arabian Support of Roy­alists in Yemen. (See p. 1241.) This inten­sified friction with the U . A . R .

S O U T H E R N A R A B I A

B r i t a i n retained a shaky hegemony over the southern a n d southeastern regions of A r a b i a , from A d e n to the Persian Gulf . British troops were involved in frontier fighting between Y e m e n a n d the A d e n Protectorate, in suppressing internal disor­ders in A d e n , a n d o n the southeastern fringes of the A r a b i a n Desert in desultory warfare between the Sultanate of M u s c a t and O m a n and Saudi Arabia , centering around the disputed B u r a i m i Oasis. British troops also helped the Sultan of Muscat a n d O m a n suppress a serious revolt (July -August , 1 9 5 7 ) .

I R A N

A t the close of W o r l d W a r II, the U . S . , British, and Soviet governments agreed to withdraw their forces f rom Iranian territory. T h e withdrawals were to be com­pleted by M a r c h 2, 1946.

1945, November 18. Rebellion in Azerbaijan. A Communist-inspired revolt by the T u -deh party broke out. Efforts of the gov­ernment to repress it were hampered by Soviet troops still in Iran. Prime Minister Qavam protested to the U . N . Security

Council (January 19, 1946). The firm stand of the U .S . government in support of Iran brought withdrawal of Soviet troops (May 6), and the rebellion was later put down (December 6-11).

1946, September 15-October 7. Rebellion in

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1244 S O U T H ASIA, 1945-1965

Southern Iran. This was settled by agree­ment between government and rebellious tribesmen.

1951, April 29. Nationalization of Oi l Indus­try. Mohammed Mossadegh, new Ira­nian premier, ordered nationalization of the oil industry. Violent repercussions in Britain and the U.S. followed, and oil production virtually ceased.

1953, August 19. Mossadegh Overthrown. The pro-Communist dictatorial prime

minister was ousted and imprisoned by a coup supported by Shah Mohammed Riza Pahlavi, who became virtual prime minis­ter himself.

1954, August 5. Iranian O i l Production Re­newed. European and American oil in­terests agreed to operate the former A n ­glo-Iranian oil plant on a new royalty basis.

1955, November 21. Baghdad Pact. (See p. 1237.)

S O U T H A S I A

B R I T I S H I N D I A

T h e post -World W a r II events in South A s i a were shaped almost entirely by the division of the Indian subcontinent o n religious lines at the time Bri ta in relin­quished her colonial E m p i r e of India in 1947: the essentially H i n d u D o m i n i o n of India and the essentially Moslem D o m i n i o n of Pakistan, the latter being divided into 2 separate portions, about 1,000 miles apart, separated by H i n d u India. Strife and bloodshed occurred across the country d u r i n g the year before partition, and intensified immediately upon independence a n d partition. T h e pr incipal events were:

1946-1947. Violence and Unrest Sweep In­dia. With Britain clearly preparing to give independence, violence flared inter­mittently across all of India between H i n ­dus and Moslems. The fighting was par­ticularly intense and bloody in the Punjab, almost equally divided between Moham­medan and Hindu inhabitants. During one 4-month period (July-October, 1946), the British government announced that 5,018 persons had been killed and 18,320 injured in the Hindu-Moslem rioting. The toll was even heavier in the early months of 1947.

1947, August 14. Independence of India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan both re­ceived their independence simultaneously, and both became dominions within the British Commonwealth of Nations. Riot­ing, violence, and death increased through­out both nations, and particularly in the Punjab. Mobs of religious majorities in both nations began to terrorize, rob, and murder the minority groups, most of whom took refuge beyond the partition frontier. After about 6 weeks of slaughter, relative peace returned, mostly because the perse­cuted minorities had been wiped out or chased away. No reliable statistics exist,

but it is probable that close to a million people were massacred, while 10-15 mil­lion people were forced to flee from their homes.

K A S H M I R D I S P U T E ,

1947-1965 1947, October. Moslem Uprising in Kash­

mir. The decision of the Hindu Raja of Kashmir to have his state join India (Oc­tober 26) precipitated an uprising of the predominantly Moslem population, who wished to join Pakistan. Indian troops were flown into Kashmir to quell the uprising (October 27). Intensive fighting broke out between air and ground forces of the Indian government and the rebel­lious Moslems (October 28-30).

1947, November-1949, December. Unde­clared War in Kashmir. Pakistani troops crossed the border into Kashmir to assist the Moslem rebels, precipitating an unde­clared war between India and Pakistan.

1948, February 8. Pathan Uprising in Kash­mir. This was suppressed by Indian troops.

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1949, January 1. Cease-Fire. U . N . media­tion brought about an uneasy truce along the righting front in Kashmir, ending 14 months of warfare.

1949-1954. Intermittent Negotiations Be­tween India and Pakistan. No firm agreements were reached.

1953, August 20. Plebiscite Agreement. Mohammed A l i , prime minister of Kash­mir, and Jawaharlal Nehru, prime minis­ter of India, agreed to a plebiscite to set­tle the dispute over the state of Jammu in Kashmir. India later withdrew its agree­ment and imprisoned Mohammed A l i .

1954, May 14. India Formally Annexes Jammu. Pakistan protested.

1954, October 4. Pakistan White Paper. This declared that negotiations with India had failed and asked the Security Coun­cil to settle the problem.

1957, January 26. India Annexes Kashmir. Pakistan protested; the U . N . disapproved.

1959, February 25. U . S . Arms A i d Accepted by Pakistan, Rejected by India. Presi­dent Eisenhower reported that Pakistan would receive arms aid from the U .S . to strengthen the defensive capabilities of the Middle East. India refused American aid, and Prime Minister Nehru demanded the withdrawal of U .S . members of the Cease-Fire Commission in Kashmir.

1959-1965. Continued Unrest in Kashmir. 1965. Renewed Hostilities. (See below.)

No settlement was in sight at the end of the period.

I N D I A , 1947-1965 1947, August 14. Independence. 1948, January 30. Assassination of Gandhi

in New Delhi. Rioting broke out across India.

1948, September 15-17. Indian Occupation of Hyderabad. After the Nizam of H y ­derabad had refused to join the Dominion of India, Indian troops invaded and forced unconditional surrender.

1950, January 25. India Becomes a Repub­lic. She retained membership in the Brit­ish Commonwealth.

1950. Medical Unit to Korea. This was in support of the U . N . war effort (see p. 1220).

1953. Revolt in Nepal. Indian troops as­sisted in the suppression of a Communist-inspired revolt in Nepal.

1954-1965. Naga Revolts. India consist­ently refused demands for autonomy by these primitive tribesmen of the Northeast Frontier.

1954, April 29. Nonaggression Treaty with Communist China. This was de facto recognition of the Chinese seizure of Tibet (see p. 1260).

1954, July-August. India-Pakistan Dispute over Indus Valley Water. The dispute was settled by mediation by the Interna­tional Reconstruction and Development Bank (August 5).

1954, July 22-1955, August 15. Border Clashes around Goa. Indian nationalists attempted to seize parts of the Portuguese possession, but were ejected by Portuguese troops (July-August, 1954). After further violence around Goa (August 1955), In­dia broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal.

1959, April 3. Arrival of the Dalai Lama in India. He was seeking refuge from Chi ­

nese persecution of Tibetans (see p. 1260). 1959, August 28. Border Dispute with

China. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru reported Chinese violations of India's frontiers with Tibet and China in the Longju and Ladakh areas.

1960, June 10. Himalayan Border Clash. India claimed Chinese troops were occu­pying Indian territory.

1961, March 14. Troops to the Congo. In­dia sent troops to join the U . N . effort in the Congo (see p. 1265). The Indians were airlifted by U.S. cargo planes.

1961, December 18. Seizure of Goa. India seized the Portuguese enclaves of Goa, Damao, and Diu , which had been Portu­guese possessions for four and a half cen­turies. There was little opposition.

Hostilities with China, October-November, ig62

1962, October 20. Chinese Invasion. Chi ­nese troops in massive surprise attacks de­feated Indian frontier forces in Jammu and in the northeastern frontier region, on fronts 1,000 miles apart. The eastern drive, in particular, was spectacularly suc­cessful, and all Indian resistance north of the Brahmaputra Valley was overrun.

1962, November 21. Chinese Unilateral Cease-Fire. Having gained all of the bor­der regions they had claimed, the Chinese

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1246 S O U T H ASIA, 1945-1965

suddenly declared a unilateral cease-fire and withdrew to lines which would assure their retention of these regions. Nehru re­jected the Chinese terms for settling the dispute, but since the defeated Indians had no desire to renew the war, informal truce prevailed along the Himalayan fron­tiers at the end of the period.

1962-1965. Military Reform. India, receiv­ing considerable military assistance from the U.S. and from other Commonwealth nations, attempted to revitalize her armed forces and remedy the many defects disclosed in the disastrous war with China.

Hostilities with Pakistan, May-September, 7965

1965, A p r i l - M a y . Undeclared War in the Rann of Kutch. A frontier dispute with Pakistan, in a desolate region where the frontier had not been clearly defined, broke into full-scale hostilities for approx­imately 2 weeks. The Pakistanis seem to have had slightly the better of the strug­gle before monsoon rains ended opera­tions.

1965, August 5-23. Border Clashes in Kash­mir and Punjab. Military and irregular infiltrators on both sides crossed the Kash­mir cease-fire line and the nearby Punjab border in raids and counterraids.

1965, August 24. Indian Raid. Indian troops crossed the cease-fire line in con­

siderable force; fighting raged along the northern frontier. U . N . truce observers in Kashmir brought about a temporary cease­fire.

1965, September 1-25. Major Hostilities. In retaliation for the Indian raid, Pakistan initiated a major invasion across the cease­fire line in Kashmir (September 1). Both sides undertook minor air raids against nearby Punjab cities, as well as against Karachi and New Delhi. Indian troops launched a major attack against Lahore (September 6). The attacks on both sides soon bogged down. In large-scale armored battles, Indian units achieved marginal success over Pakistani tanks. O n balance, however, a stalemate resulted.

1965, September 8. Communist China Threatens India. In the face of quiet but determined American and British di­plomacy, China failed to carry out threat­ened actions against Indian border posi­tions in the Himalayas.

1965, September 27. U . N . Cease-Fire De­mands Honored. After accepting, then ignoring, an earlier U . N . demand (Sep­tember 22), both sides agreed to abide by a Security Council cease-fire and began withdrawal to lines held on August 5. A new U . N . India-Pakistan Observation Mission (independent of the U . N . Ob­server Group in Kashmir) was established (September 25), and 75 observers from 8 nations came to the Punjab to supervise the cease-fire.

P A K I S T A N

T h e military history of Pakistan d u r i n g this period has been essentially that of her continuing friction with India. T h e r e have also been sporadic border disputes with Afghanistan. Pakistan is a member of the C e n t r a l T r e a t y Organizat ion (see p. 1237) a n d Southeast Asia Treaty Organizat ion (see p. 1247).

1947, August 14. Independence. Viscount Mountbatten turned over the government of Pakistan to Mohammed Al i Jinnah in a ceremony in Karachi, as rioting, violence, and death spread through the Punjab and elsewhere along the border regions of In­dia and Pakistan (see p. 1244).

1948, January 8. Unrest and Rioting in K a ­rachi. A result of popular dissatisfac­

tion with the government, the economic and political unrest generally increased during the following 10 years.

1954, M a y 19. U . S . Military A i d . Agreement between the U.S . and Pakistan for Amer­ica to provide military supplies and tech­nical assistance. Pakistan agreed to use the aid only for defense and participation in U . N . collective-security arrangements; In-

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SOUTHEAST ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION (SEATO) 1247

dia, however, proclaimed bitterly that this was giving Pakistan assistance for possible war with India.

1955, September 19. Pakistan Joins Baghdad Pact. (Seep. 1237.)

1956, March 23. Pakistan Becomes a Repub­lic. It remained in the British Common­wealth.

1958, October 7-27. Bloodless Coup d'Etat. Acting through President Iskander Mirza, General Ayub K h a n dismissed the govern­ment, annulled the constitution, and estab­lished a "benign martial law." He im­mediately began sweeping economic and political reforms, re-establishing stability. Mirza soon resigned (October 27). Ayub K h a n was elected president under a new constitution (February 17, 1960).

1965, May-September. Hostilities with In­dia. (See p. 1246.)

A F G H A N I S T A N

1949-1965. Strained Relations with Pakistan. Pakistani refusal to honor Afghan claims for frontier revision resulted in tension and occasional border clashes.

1956, August-October. Soviet Military Aid . The U.S.S.R. provided guns, ammunition, and airplanes.

N E P A L

1961, March-December. Civil War. The revolt was suppressed.

S O U T H E A S T A S I A

T h e area became the eastern battleground for the warring ideologies—Com­m u n i s m vs. the Free W o r l d . T h e Communists , checked at least temporarily by the armistice in K o r e a , shifted their efforts to support existing, indigenous struggles already under way in Indochina , M a l a y a , and Indonesia. After the collapse of F r e n c h colonial rule in Indochina (1954; see below), the U . S . took the lead in sponsoring an a n t i - C o m m u n i s t regional organization to prevent further Communist gains i n the area.

S O U T H E A S T A S I A T R E A T Y O R G A N I Z A T I O N ( S E A T O )

T h i s treaty was established as part of the American effort to create a group of mutual-security pacts a r o u n d the world after the 1954 Geneva Conference (see below). T h e 8 members were Austral ia , France , New Zealand, Pakistan, the P h i l ­ippines, T h a i l a n d , the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , and the U n i t e d States. T h e treaty was set up for the purpose of providing for collective defense and economic co-operation i n Southeast A s i a , a n d to protect the weak nations of the region against aggression. Theoretical ly patterned after N A T O , S E A T O has been relatively helpless and i n ­effective, due to 3 major factors: lack of widespread support among Southeast Asian nations fearful of angering C o m m u n i s t C h i n a ; skillful Communist subversion, d i ­plomacy, and " a g i t p r o p " ; a n d F r e n c h foot-dragging.

1954, September 8. Manila Treaty. The de­fense treaty for Southeast Asia was signed in Manila by representatives of the par­ticipating governments. This followed dip­lomatic initiatives by the A N Z U S nations (Australia, New Zealand, and the U.S. , beginning June 30).

1955, February 19. Southeast Asia Defense Treaty into Effect.

1964, April 15. S E A T O Supports South Vietnam. The Ministerial Council of S E A T O , meeting in Manila, issued a dec­laration of support of South Vietnam mil­itary efforts against the Viet Cong guer­rillas. France abstained.

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B U R M A

Independence sentiment among the people, combined with results of Burmese independence activities during the war, directed against both the British a n d the Japanese (see pp. 1133 and 1187), led to Brit ish agreement to grant independence to B u r m a .

1945-1946. Guerrilla Warfare. British troops were forced to wage a sporadic guerrilla warfare against armed dissidents, most of whom were bandits, throughout Burma.

1947, January 28. Britain Announces Plans for Burma's Independence.

1947, July 19. Assassination of General Aung San. The premier of Burma, the nation's war hero, and 5 members of his cabinet were assassinated by intruders dur­ing a cabinet meeting in Rangoon. The assassins were apprehended, tried, and ex­ecuted (December 30).

1948, January 4. Independence of the Union of Burma. Burma, under Prime Minis­ter U N u , refused to join the British Commonwealth.

1948, March. Outbreak of Communist Re­volt. This began in south-central Burma, mainly in the Irrawaddy Delta.

1948, August. Outbreak of Karen Revolt. The objective was to achieve an autono­mous Karen state. At first successful, the Karens, in somewhat reluctant co-opera­tion with the Communists, gained control of much of south-central Burma. They proclaimed their independence (June 14, 1949), with capital at Toungoo.

1949, January-February. Karen Rebels at Outskirts of Rangoon. They cut the Ran-goon-Mandalay railroad and were within artillery range of parts of the area within Rangoon city limits.

1949- 1950. Government Counteroffensive. 1950, March 19. Government Forces Cap­

ture Toungoo. The Karen revolt began to collapse. The Burmese government re­established control over most of central Burma.

1950, May 19. Government Forces Capture Prome. This was the main Communist center of south-central Burma.

1950- 1965. Continuous Guerrilla Warfare in Burma. After barely surviving collab­

oration between nationalistic and com­munistic rebels (1948-1949), loyal Bur­mese forces under General Ne Win, in methodical guerrilla warfare, re-estab­lished law and order in most parts of the country (1954). Endemic rebellion and guerrilla warfare continued throughout many of the outlying provinces, however.

1953, Apri l 23. U . N . Calls for Withdrawal of Chinese Nationalists. These were Chi­nese Nationalist refugee troops who were defying Burmese government authority in the northeastern portions of Burma, where they had withdrawn after the defeat of the National Government in China. Burma had complained to the U . N . (1950). The refugees refused to withdraw and the Na­tional Government of China refused to recognize them. However, after consider­able U.S. pressure, some 2,000 of these Chinese Nationalist guerrillas were evacu­ated from Burma to Formosa (Novem­ber). Early next year, 6,400 guerrillas and dependents were evacuated to Formosa (May) . It was estimated, however, that at least 6,000 remained in the jungle re­gion.

1956, July 31. Border Dispute with Com­munist China. Chinese troops seized 1,000 square miles of territory in northeast Burma.

1958, September 26. Military Coup. De­terioration of government control and a threatened Communist coup led General Ne Win to seize control of the govern­ment. He restored civil rule after national elections (February 6, 1960), after signing a nonaggression treaty with Communist China (January 28).

1962, March 2. Second Military Coup. De­terioration of civilian government again led Ne Win to establish a military dicta­torship.

T H A I L A N D

Despite considerable political turbulence, leading to several coups d'etat and the murder of a king, T h a i l a n d as a nation has remained relatively stable, more

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I N D O C H I N A , 1945-1954 1249

so than any other i n the region. It has been steadfastly anti -Communist , and is a member of S E A T O (see p. 1247). A s the period ended, T h a i l a n d was giving sub­stantial assistance, inc luding base rights, to the U . S . effort i n V i e t n a m .

1946, M a y 26-30. Franco-Thai Frontier Dis­pute. After clashes along the Mekong River, Thailand appealed to the U . N . Se­curity Council to halt French aggression, but France insisted that the so-called mili­tary activity was simply pursuit by Chi ­nese troops of bandits from the Siamese side of the river that had been raiding east of the river.

1946, June 9. K i n g Ananda Dies Under Sus­picious Circumstances. He was succeeded by his brother, Phumiphon.

1947, November 9. Military Coup d'Etat. Field Marshal Luang Pibul Songgram seized control of the government in Bang­kok. Prime Minister Pridi Phanomyong fled the country.

1951, June 29-July 1. Naval Revolt Sup­pressed.

1951, November 29. Military Uprising Sup­pressed. In the confusion, however, a po­litical coup forced Pibul to amend the constitution.

1957, September 17. Bloodless Coup d'Etat. Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat seized con­trol; Field Marshal Pibul fled to Cam­bodia. Sarit later retired, establishing a caretaker government (April, 1958).

1958, October 20. Sarit Seizes Control Again. He retained power and became prime minister (January, 1959).

1964-1965. Communist Disorders in Frontier Regions.

I N D O C H I N A , 1945-1954

B y the close of W o r l d W a r II, the guerrilla forces of Vietnamese nationalists a n d Communists , combined i n a n organization known as the V i e t M i n h , under the over-al l political leadership of C o m m u n i s t H o C h i M i n h a n d the military leader­ship of initially nationalist guerril la leader V o Ngyuen G i a p , had gained control of m u c h of the jungle region of north V i e t n a m . This success h a d been achieved with the largely unwitting assistance of the Chinese National Government and of the U . S . , both happy to receive assistance from the Vietnamese against Japan, and both wil l ing to see F r a n c e eliminated from Indochina, but neither fully realizing the international C o m m u n i s t ties of H o . T h e Viet M i n h declared their independ­ence when J a p a n collapsed at the close of the war but the F r e n c h , through their o w n efforts, a n d with some Brit ish assistance, moved immediately to re-establish their colonial rule over the area. T h e resultant conflict touched off the most pro­longed warfare of the entire period since W o r l d W a r II.

1945, September 2. Vietnam Republic Pro­claimed by H o C h i M i n h .

1946, March 6. France Recognizes Independ­ence of Vietnam. This was only as a free state within the Indochinese Federation and the French Union. Meanwhile, French military strength built up rapidly. French-imposed limitations on independence prov­ing unacceptable to the Viet M i n h , guer­rilla warfare broke out, mostly in north­ern Vietnam, later in the year.

1947, January-February. Siege of Hue. After a siege of several weeks, French troops relieved the besieged garrison of Hue, driving off the Viet M i n h guerrillas

surrounding the ancient capital of the country.

1950, January. Viet M i n h Recognized by Communist China and the U.S.S.R. In­creasing military assistance was given to the Viet Minh guerrillas by China. Viet Minh troops received intensive training in southern China. American military aid to French Vietnam increased with the inten­sity of guerrilla warfare.

1950, October. French Setbacks. Well-trained, well-equipped Viet M i n h troops, operating partly from China and partly from the jungled highlands of northern Vietnam, mounted a major assault against

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the French cordon of defenses in north­ern Tonkin, covering the Chinese border. French troops were badly defeated at Fort Caobang, near Langson (October 9). This, combined with increased activity by the Communist Pathet Lao insurgents in Laos (see p. 1252), forced the French to aban­don most of northern Vietnam (October 21) and to establish a fortified perimeter around the Red River Delta in the north (December). The situation in southern and central Vietnam was not much better, with much of the Mekong Delta in Com­munist hands.

1950, December. De Lattre de Tassigny to Command. France sent her leading sol­dier to try to restore the situation. He soon re-established French morale, re­gained the initiative, and reoccupied most of the areas lost in late 1950.

1950, December 23. Vietnam Sovereign within French Union. A treaty was signed at Saigon.

1951-1953. Continued Guerrilla Warfare. This was combined with anti-French ter­rorism in the major cities. Despite De Lattre's military successes, French con­trol could be asserted only where major French forces were stationed.

1952, September. De Lattre Relieved. Seri-iously ill , he returned to France via the U.S. , where he pleaded for more aid. He died a few months later.

1953, January-February. Intensified French Operations. In the biggest naval opera­tion of the war, French troops (now under General Raoul Salan) seized Quinhon, a rebel base, and destroyed several Viet Minh war factories concealed in the jun­gles of south Vietnam.

1953, March-September. Increased U.S . A i d to France for the Indochina War.

1953, May 8. Navarre Relieves Salan. Pe­destrian General Salan was relieved by pedestrian General Henri-Eugene Navarre.

1953, July 6. Increased Independence for Vietnam and Laos. They accepted a French offer to negotiate for greater self-government in the Associated States of Indochina. Cambodia refused.

1953, August-October. Negotiations between France and Cambodia. France gave the government of King Norodom Sihanouk almost complete military, political, and economic sovereignty, although France re­tained operational control of some mili­

tary forces in eastern Cambodia for pur­poses of prosecuting the war against the Viet Minh .

1953, October-1954, Apri l . Intensified Viet M i n h Operations. French premier Joseph Laniel said his government would accept "any honorable" solution to the war in In­dochina, and was not trying to force the Viet M i n h to unconditional surrender (November 12).

1953, November 20-1954, M a y 7. Siege of Dienbienphu. General Navarre, hoping to decoy the Communists into one large pocket and then crush them, permitted Brigadier General Christian de la Croix de Castries, with some 15,000 men— French regulars, Foreign Legion, and in­digenous troops—to fortify and hold the village and an airstrip, situated 220 miles west of Hanoi and near the Laotian bor­der. General Giap, with 4 divisions of Chi ­nese-trained Viet M i n h troops, surrounded Dienbienphu with 2 divisions while the remainder of his force sealed it off and swept into Laos. Against the French artil­lery—24 105-mm. and 4 155-mm. howitz­ers—Giap assembled the overwhelming fire power of over 200 guns, including an­tiaircraft artillery and rocket launchers. A trickle of supply by air from Hanoi, little enough when the defenders still held the air field, ceased with its capture (March 27). Attempts at air drop failed; the Viet M i n h antiaircraft artillery was too good. Of 420 French aircraft available for this purpose, 62 were shot down and 107 oth­ers damaged. One by one the outlying strong points of the Dienbienphu defense complex fell to a combination of mining, well-directed artillery fire, and direct as­sault. A final assault overran the starving defenders as their last ammunition was expended (May 7). Only 73 of the 15,094-man garrison escaped. Some 10,000—half of them wounded—were captured; the re­mainder were dead. Viet M i n h losses were estimated at 25,000.

C O M M E N T . The fall of Dienbienphu virtually ended French control over Indo­china. At the same time, it proved the fal­lacy of cordon defense in jungle warfare, par­ticularly when the opponents are well trained, armed, and supplied. French military thought in this instance was still clinging to methods used against guerrillas in North Africa and, in 1882-1885, in this very area. (See p. 864;

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the French garrison of Tuyen-Quang success­fully resisted besiegement by "Black Flag" indigenous guerrillas from November 23, 1884, to February 28, 1885. But the "Black Flags," while fanatically brave, had neither discipline nor resources, and were unable to hold up the French relief column advancing from Hanoi, only 50 miles away.) 1954, Apri l 26-July 21. Geneva Conference.

The Conference on Far Eastern Affairs of 19 nations (including Communist China) resulted in an agreement for a cease-fire and divided Tonkin and Annam into North (Communist) and South (anti-Communist) Vietnam as independent na­tions divided at the 17th parallel of North Latitude. Cambodia, which had pro­claimed its independence of France (No­vember 9, 1953), and Laos, its independ­ence proclaimed (July 19, 1949), were both recognized as neutral independent states. The United States accepted the agreements, but refused to sign them, and reserved the right to take whatever action was necessary in the event that the agree­ments were breached. France withdrew her troops from Indochina, but continued military direction and instruction in South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, while the U.S. assumed the chore of providing mili­tary equipment and instruction as well as economic aid.

1954, December 29. Independence of Indo­china. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia signed agreements with France, giving them economic independence and virtually ending foreign control. The states granted each other freedom of navigation on the Mekong River.

V I E T N A M , 1954-1965 1954, June 17. Ngo Dinh Diem Appointed

Premier. 1955, January 20. U . S . Military A i d . The

U.S. , France, and Vietnam agreed to reor­ganize the Vietnamese Army with 100,000 active troops and 150,000 reserves. The U.S . was to send a training mission to op­erate under the direction of General Paul Ely , new French commander in Indochina.

1955, October 26. Republic Proclaimed. Diem was inaugurated president.

1956-1964. Continuous Insurrection. This was sponsored by the Communist bloc, despite efforts of the government to con­trol rebellious factions (Viet Cong) sup­

ported by troops and equipment from North Vietnam in turn aided and sup­ported by Communist China. U.S. efforts to strengthen the Vietnamese military force consistently increased, without re­trieving the situation.

1960, November 4. Military Revolt against Diem. This was suppressed.

1961, October 11. U .S . Assistance Pledged. The U.S. agreed to support the govern­ment of South Vietnam against attacks by Communist Viet Cong guerrillas. General Maxwell D . Taylor was sent to Vietnam by President John F . Kennedy to deter­mine the most effective means of help. President Kennedy sent a personal mes­sage to President Diem with a pledge to continue assistance (October 26).

1961, December 11. First U .S . Support Units Arrive. Two U.S . Army helicopter com­panies, the first direct military support for South Vietnam, arrived in Saigon aboard a U.S. aircraft carrier.

1962, February 8. U .S . Military Assistance Command Established. The purpose was to demonstrate U.S . determination to pre­vent a Communist takeover.

1963, November 1-2. Military Coup d'Etat. The government of President Diem was overthrown; he and his brother were killed. A provisional government was established under former Vice-President Nguyen Ngoc Tho, and was recognized by the U.S. Ac ­tual control was under a military junta led by Major General Duong Van Minh .

1964, January 30. Military Coup d'Etat. The government was overthrown by M a ­jor General Nguyen Khanh.

1964, August 2-4. Action in the Gulf of Tonkin. Three North Vietnamese P T boats attacked a U.S . destroyer. The P T boats were repelled and damaged or sunk by the destroyer and U.S. planes. A simi­lar incident occurred 2 days later (Au­gust 4).

1964, August 5. U . S . . Air Strikes against North Vietnam. American carrier-based strikes against naval bases were ordered by President Johnson in retaliation for the PT-boat attacks.

1964, August 7. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Congress approved a resolution giving President Lyndon B. Johnson authority to take "al l necessary measures to repel any armed attack" against U.S. armed forces. It also authorized him to take "a l l neces-

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sary steps, including the use of armed forces," to help any nation requesting aid " i n defense of its freedom" under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty.

1964, August-September. Political Turmoil . The government of General Khanh sur­vived riots and demonstrations, but only by promising to give early control to a civilian government and suppressing an attempted military revolt (September 13).

1964, November 4. Civilian Regime In­stalled. General Khanh resigned as T r a n V a n Huong became premier.

1964, December 19. Military Uprising. A Military Council retained Premier Huong in nominal control.

1965, January 27. Khanh Returns to Power. The Armed Forces Council deposed Pre­mier Huong and returned General Nguyen Khanh to the head of the government.

1965, February 7. U .S . Air War Begins against North Vietnam. North Vietnam having ignored U.S. warnings to cease its direct assistance to, and control of, the Viet Cong, and having instituted a Viet Cong campaign of terrorism and murder against American advisers in South Viet­nam, U.S . Air Force and Navy carrier units began a systematic but limited aerial bombardment offensive against carefully selected military targets in North Viet­nam. In response, the Viet Cong intensi­fied its terrorism and sabotage against U .S . installations and personnel.

1965, February 21. Khanh Deposed. After a complicated series of moves, in which civilian Phan H u y Quat was installed as premier, with Khanh retaining behind-the-scenes control, the Armed Forces Council voted to oust Khanh as council chairman and armed forces commander. Quat remained premier.

1965, March 8. U . S . Combat Forces Arrive. A U .S . Marine brigade was committed to Vietnam to guard U.S . air installations, both to assure better security of the main U.S . air base at Danang and to release Vietnam forces for offensive activity against the Viet Cong. By midsummer, U .S . ground combat forces had increased to about 25,000, with another 50,000 American military personnel (including A i r Force combat units) stationed in Viet­nam performing other support and advi­sory roles. By the end of the year the total American strength in Vietnam was close to 190,000. Greater U.S . involvement was expected. By the end of the period total U.S . casualties since 1961 were 1,484 killed and 7,337 wounded.

1965, June 12-19. Bloodless Government Upheaval. Premier Quat resigned as a result of religious turmoil involving Bud­dhists and Catholics. The military took over and elected Air Vice-Marshal Nguyen Cao K y (age 36) as premier. This was the eighth government since the overthrow of Diem (November, 1963).

L A O S

Its independence proclaimed (July 19, 1949), and recognized as a neutral na­tion by the Geneva Conference (see p. 1251), L a o s nevertheless became the center of a maelstrom of Communist - inspired outbreaks by the indigenous Pathet L a o , supported by both the U . S . S . R . a n d C o m m u n i s t C h i n a . U . S . support of the Royal L a o t i a n A r m y (July 9, 1955) was temporarily suspended (October, 1960) as the country seethed in a 3-cornered conflict—rightist forces under General Phoumi Nosavan, neutralist troops under Premier Prince Souvanna P h o u m a , a n d the C o m ­munist Pathet L a o under Souvanna's half -brother, Prince Souphanouvong.

T h e Plaine des Jarres area in north-central Laos was the arena for most of the fighting, an endless series of inconclusive clashes. Stepped-up assaults by the Pathet L a o brought a concentration of 5,000 U . S . troops into T h a i l a n d ( M a y 19, 1962) to protect that nation's border. T h i s force was withdrawn (July 30), its mis­sion accomplished. U . S . military advisers to the L a o t i a n A r m y were withdrawn by October 7. D u r i n g 1962, L a o t i a n territory became a convenient communications channel for North Vietnamese troops infiltrating South V i e t n a m in support of the V i e t C o n g . O n M a y 17, 1964, the U . S . instituted a continuous aerial reconnaissance sweep of Laos by jet planes. T h e principal events were:

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1953, Apri l 14. Viet M i n h Invades Laos. They seized a base abandoned by the French at Samneua. Joining with rebel Laotians, the Viet M i n h advanced toward the capital of Luang Prabang, capturing Xiengkhouang (April 20). Laos mobilized military forces, and the U .S . rushed mili­tary aid. Vietnamese forces began to re­treat (early M a y ) . French forces retook Xiengkhouang.

1953, October 22. Independence of Laos. France and Laos signed a treaty giving the state full independence and sovereignty within the French Union.

1954, July 21. Geneva Accord. (See p. 1251.) 1959, July 30-31. Communist-Led Guerrillas

Attack Laotian Army Posts. Communist-led Pathet Lao guerrillas, armed by North Vietnam, attacked Laotian Army posts throughout northern Laos.

1959, September 7. U . N . Investigation. The Security Council voted to inquire into the Laos government's charges of aggression by North Vietnam.

1961, March 23. U . S . Warnings. President Kennedy announced that the U .S . would not stand idly by and permit Laos to be taken over by advancing externally sup­

ported pro-Communist rebel forces. A previous warning had been made without effect by the Eisenhower administration (December 31).

1961, April 3. Cease-Fire between Govern­ment and the Pathet Lao.

1962, May 12. U .S . Troop Deployments. As a result of Pathet Lao violation of the 1961 cease-fire agreement and the overrun­ning of most of northern Laos, President Kennedy ordered a task force of the U.S . Seventh Fleet to move toward the Indo­china peninsula. He then ordered 4,000 more U.S. troops to Thailand (where some 1,000 U.S. troops were already sta­tioned, May 15).

1962, July 23. Geneva Agreement on Laos. Fourteen nations guaranteed the neutrality and independence of Laos.

1962, October 5. Withdrawal of U . S . M i l i ­tary Advisers. This was in compliance with the Geneva Agreement. There were approximately 800 U.S . advisers and tech­nicians withdrawn.

1963, April . Renewed Conflict. Major fight­ing between neutral and Pathet Lao forces stopped after 3 weeks by a cease-fire agree­ment. Small-scale warfare continued.

C A M B O D I A

After its recognition by the Geneva Conference (see p. 1251) as a " n e u t r a l " state, C a m b o d i a was in continual friction with her neighbors a n d with the U . S . as the country veered ever more strongly toward the Communist bloc under its head of state (and ex-king) Prince N o r o d o m Sihanouk. N o r o d o m accepted mil i tary a id from the C o m m u n i s t bloc, while placing restrictive conditions upon the recep­tion of U . S . aid. E a r l y ( F e b r u a r y 18, 1956) he renounced the protection of S E A T O . Border clashes with South V i e t n a m were frequent; free movement through C a m ­bodia of V i e t C o n g guerrillas was apparently permitted or condoned. Relations with T h a i l a n d were equally b a d throughout the period.

1953, June 14. King Norodom Sihanouk into Voluntary Exile. He went to Thailand to promote his fight for complete inde­pendence from the French Union.

1963, November 12. Cambodia Refuses U .S . Assistance.

1963, December 12. Cambodia Withdraws Embassy from Washington.

M A L A Y S I A

1948, February 1. Federation of Malaya Es­tablished. This comprised British colo­nies on the Malay Peninsula.

1948, February-May. Communist Revolt Be­gins. This was mainly among the pre­dominantly Chinese element of the popu­lation.

1948, June 16. State of Emergency Pro­claimed. Guerrilla warfare flared through the Federation. U . K . , Australian, and New Zealand troops reinforced the garrison. Terrorism became endemic.

1952, February 7. British Offensive Begins. General Sir Gerald Templer, High Com­missioner and commander of government forces in the Federation, instituted a con­certed, well-planned anti-insurgency cam-

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paign. Some 45,000 troops—regulars and special local forces—began warfare against the rebels, combat and psychological.

1954, February 8. Communist High Com­mand Withdraws. British authorities in Kuala Lumpur announced that the C o m ­munist party's tiigh command in Malaya had moved to Sumatra. While this was a victory for Britain in their 6-year war, it was also an indication of an attempt to establish a Communistic Indonesian front.

1957, August 31. Federation Becomes a Con­stitutional Monarchy. It remained within the Commonwealth. By this time, the re­volt had been suppressed for all practical purposes, though a few pockets of resist­ance remained in remote jungle areas.

1960, July 31. Emergency Officially Ended. The government announced that the crush­ing of revolt was completed. Total casual­ties: Communist rebels, 6,705 killed, 1,286 wounded, 2,696 surrendered; government troops, 2,384 killed, 2,400 wounded.

1962, December 8. Revolt in Borneo. This Indonesian-supported rebellion was quickly suppressed.

1963, September 16. Federation of Malaysia Proclaimed. This included Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak added to the Federa­tion of Malaya. The new state, a Free World bastion against Communist ag­gression and encroachments in Southeast Asia, at once became target for attack by Communist-oriented Indonesia (see p. 1255). British military support bolstered the Malaysian defense against interior terrorism and Indonesian raids.

1964, M a y 3. Sukarno Announces Intent to Crush Malaysia. As the period ended, sporadic fighting continued (see below).

1964, July 22. U.S. Pledges Support for M a ­laysia. This was to bolster the new na­tion against Indonesian threats.

I N D O N E S I A

1945, August 17. Independence of Republic of Indonesia. This was declared by Achmed Sukarno and Mohammed Hatta after the collapse of Japan, in an effort to forestall Dutch reoccupation.

1945, September 29. British and Dutch Troops Arrive in Batavia. They began to disarm and repatriate Japanese forces, and to re-establish Dutch control over Nether­lands East Indies.

1945, October 14. Hostilities Begin. The Indonesian People's Army declared war against occupying British and Dutch forces.

1945, November 6. Negotiations Rejected. Indonesian republicans rejected the Dutch offer of dominion status and home rule.

1945, November 29. Fall of Surabaya. Brit­ish troops captured the rebel capital after an intensive battle with Indonesian na­tionalists.

1946, November 13. Cheribon Agreement. The Dutch recognized the Indonesian Re­public (Java, Sumatra, and Madura) and U.S . of Indonesia—to include Borneo, Celebes, Sunda, and Molucca Islands—all under the Netherlands Crown. Clashes with the Dutch continued.

1947, M a y 4. Nationalists Proclaim Inde­pendence of West Java.

1947, July 20. Dutch Offensive on Java. U . N . intervention called for a cease-fire (August 4), but fighting went on despite continuing mediation efforts of the U . N . committee and of U.S . diplomats (1947-1948).

1948, December 19. Dutch Airborne Troops Capture Jogjakarta. This was the capital of the Indonesian rebels. The Dutch soon gained effective control of the entire island of Java (December 25).

1948, December 21. Cease-Fire. 1949, January 28. U . N . Security Council

Orders Transfer of Sovereignty. The Netherlands refused, and sporadic hostili­ties continued.

1949, M a y 7. Cease-Fire. Dutch troops withdrew from Jogjakarta and Djakarta, new capital of the Indonesian Republic (June 30).

1949, November 2. The Netherlands Grants Ful l Sovereignty.

1950, August 15. Republic of Indonesia Is Proclaimed.

1950-1961. Endemic Civi l War. Unrest, turmoil, and revolt throughout Indonesia, particularly on Sumatra and Celebes.

1955, Apri l 18-27. Bandung Conference. Delegates from 29 Asian and African na­tions met at Bandung, and announced their aims as elimination of colonialism, independence and self-determination for all peoples, and membership for all na­tions in the U . N .

1957-1963. Indonesian Harassment against West New Guinea. The Indonesians claimed that this territory (called by them

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West Irian) should be given to them by the Dutch.

1962, January-August. Sporadic Hostilities. Indonesian torpedo boats off the coast of Dutch New Guinea were attacked by Netherlands forces (January 16). Soon aft­erward, a guerrilla campaign on Nether­lands New Guinea was started by Sukarno (February 20).

1962, August 15. The Netherlands Agrees to Abandon West New Guinea. Formal transfer to Indonesia followed (May 1, 1963).

1962, December. Indonesian-sponsored Re­volt in Brunei. The insurgency was sup­pressed by British troops.

1963, September 15. Harassment of Malaysia Begins. Following proclamation of the Federation of Malaysia, Sukarno refused to recognize the new federation, saying "we will fight and destroy i t . " Continual diplomatic and guerrilla harassment fol­lowed, with frequent infiltrations of Indo­nesian guerrillas into Malaysian territory (see p. 1254).

1965, October 1. Communist Coup Effort. The Indonesian Army defeated the Com­munist effort, and a wave of anti-Com­

munist, anti-Chinese violence swept the islands. Control was seized by Army Gen­eral Suharto. The powers of Sukarno were sharply reduced by the army.

P H I L I P P I N E S

1946, July 4. Republic of the Philippines Es­tablished.

1946-1954. Hukbalahap Rebellion. This Communist-led peasant party, dominating central Luzon, conducted civil war against government troops for nearly a decade be­fore being subdued. Primary responsibility for success of the antiguerrilla operations was that of Ramon Magsaysay, minister of defense.

1947, March 14. Agreement with U.S . Ninety-nine-year base agreement between the United States and the Philippines.

1952, April 15. H u k Leader Captured. Philippine troops captured William J . Pomeroy, leader of the Communist-led Hukbalahaps.

1954. The Philippines Join S E A T O . (See p 1247.)

EAST ASIA

C H I N A ( N A T I O N A L R E P U B L I C )

T h e civil war between the Nat ional Government (of the K u o m i n t a n g party) a n d the Chinese C o m m u n i s t party , which began in 1926, a n d which was only par­tially interrupted by the war against Japan , burst into even fiercer flames at the time of the Japanese surrender. C h i a n g Kai-shek's National Government, decisively defeated, withdrew from the m a i n l a n d to Formosa (1949), where with U . S . support it defiantly continued to c la im to be the legal government of C h i n a , now ruled from Peking by M a o T s e - t u n g . T h e principal events were:

1945, August 14. Treaty with U.S .S .R . This pledged friendship and alliance between Soviet Russia and Chiang Kai-shek's Na­tionalist Government (see p. 1231). The Manchurian Railway and the port of Dai -ren were to be held in joint ownership for 30 years. Port Arthur was to become a Soviet-Chinese naval base and the inde­pendence of Outer Mongolia recognized.

1945, August. Renewed Chinese Civi l War. Chinese Communist forces moved to take over as much of the Japanese-occupied

areas as possible, ignoring Chiang's orders to halt. T o permit Nationalist compliance with agreed Allied terms of Japanese sur­render, and to forestall Communist take­over of all North China, General Albert C . Wedemeyer, still Chiang's Chief of Staff, provided American sea and air lift (August-October) to move Nationalist forces to Central and North China. By mid-October about 500,000 Nationalist troops had been so moved.

1945, August 28. American-Sponsored Na-

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tionalist-Com*_aiiist Negotiations. After persuading Chiang to issue an invitation, U.S. Ambassador Patrick J . Hurley per­sonally escorted Mao to Chungking for a peace conference. After nearly two months, this broke down, when Nationalists dis­covered that a large Communist force un­der General L i n Piao was quietly moving into southwest Manchuria.

1945, September 30. Arrival of U.S . Marines. To prevent an expected clash of National­ist and Communist forces, the U.S. First Marine Division and other units were landed in eastern Hopei and Shantung. This force soon grew to about 53,000 men. They occupied Peiping, Tientsin, and coastal areas of both provinces.

1945, November 15. Nationalist Offensive in Southwest Manchuria. Nationalist re­quests to move troops into Manchuria by sea through the Liaotung Peninsula were rejected by Soviets, who occupied the re­gion under agreed Allied terms for Japa­nese surrender. Nationalist troops were landed at Chinwangtao, in the area held by U.S. Marines. They attacked across the Great Wall into regions held by Commu­nists, outside the Russian zone of occupa­tion. The well-trained, well-equipped N a ­tionalists pushed aside the Communists and soon held the region as far as Chin-chow (November 26).

1945, November 30. Communist Offensive in Shantung. Chen Yi's New Fourth Army occupied much of the province not already held by U.S. Marines.

1945, December 5. Hurley Accuses Foreign Service Officers. Disappointed by fail­ure of his negotiation efforts, Hurley had resigned (November 26). He now charged that his failure had been largely due to obstructive efforts of pro-Communist American Foreign Service officers.

1945, December 14. Marshall as Mediator. U.S. General of the Army George C. M a r ­shall, recently retired as U.S. Army Chief of Staff, was sent to China as personal representative of President Truman, with mission of mediating the dispute.

1946, January 14. Truce in China. Achieved as a result of Marshall's mediation. De­spite frequent violations, and nonapplica-tion in Manchuria, this truce remained in effect in most of China for nearly six months.

1946, February 25. Nationalist-Communist

Accord. National Government and Com­munist representatives, meeting with Gen­eral Marshall and other U .S . mediators, agreed to unify the Chinese armed forces into one national army with 50 Nation­alist and 10 Communist divisions. This agreement broke down within a few weeks.

Operations in Manchuria, 1946-1948

1946, March 1. Soviet Forces Begin With­drawal from Manchuria. Chinese Com­munist troops, scattered about the coun­tryside, moved toward the cities, as Na­tionalist troops advanced up the main roads and railroads from the southwest. The Soviets had completely dismantled all Japanese-built factories and industrial facilities, and moved the equipment to Siberia. Vast stores of captured Japanese military equipment, however, were left behind by the Russians where they could be seized by the Chinese Communists, enough to equip the entire Chinese Com­munist Army.

1946, March 10-15. Battle for Mukden (Shenyang). The day following the Rus­sian withdrawal from the city, a battle broke out for control. The Nationalists were successful; they pushed northward.

1946, March 17. First Battle of Szeping. A massive Chinese Communist counterattack drove Nationalist spearheads back. The Communists entrenched this important rail center.

1946, Apri l 14-18. First Battle of Ch'ang-ch'un. A Nationalist contingent of 4,000, airlifted into Ch'angch'un, was driven out by numerically superior Communists.

1946, Apri l 16-May 20. Second Battle of Szeping. The Nationalist New First Army, 70,000 veterans of the Burma Cam­paigns under Sun Li-jen, drove out 110,-000 well-entrenched Communists, who claimed they had been attacked by Amer­ican planes. The Nationalists immediately pushed north toward Ch'angch'un.

1946, Apri l 25-28. Communists Seize Har­bin and Tsitsihar. The National Govern­ment made no effort to seize these north­ern cities as the Russians completed their withdrawal from Manchuria (May 3).

1946, M a y 22. Communists Evacuate Ch'ang­ch'un. Nationalist troops seized the city

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C H I N A ( N A T I O N A L R E P U B L I C ) 1257

and continued their northward drive against ineffectual resistance.

1946, June 1. Crossing the Sungari. The Nationalists continued their drive toward Harbin, as Communist resistance stiffened.

1946, June 7-30. Cease-Fire in Manchuria. Brought about by efforts of General M a r ­shall. The Nationalists halted at Shuang-cheng. When negotiations broke down, hostilities resumed.

1946, June-December. Stalemate in M a n ­churia. During the truce the Communists had strengthened their defenses south of Harbin; the Nationalist advance was stalled. The Nationalists, now over 200,000 strong, held the principal centers of south­ern and central Manchuria, a bridgehead north of the Sungari, and controlled the railroads. The drain of garrisoning these areas precluded assembling and support­ing forces large enough to continue the drive toward Harbin. The Communists, who had recruited the disbanded M a n -chukuan army, had a strength of over 500,000 and held the countryside, but were unable to mount effective attacks against the Nationalists. After cessation of U.S . military assistance (see p. 1258), Na ­tionalist forces in Manchuria went com­pletely on the defensive, to conserve sup­plies and to permit Nationalist offensives elsewhere in China (see below).

1947, January-March. Communist Sungari River Probes. General L i n Piao, com­manding Communist forces in Manchuria, launched three offensives across the Sun­gari, southwest of the Nationalist bridge­head. A l l were repulsed.

1947, May-June. Sungari River Offensive. Some 270,000 Communists converged on Ch'angch'un, K i r i n , and Szeping. A l l three cities were isolated, and supplied by air. The Nationalists evacuated their bridgehead. Two Nationalist armies were rushed north from Liaotung.

1947, June-July. T h i r d Battle of Szeping. The Communists briefly occupied the rail center (June 16), but were finally re­pulsed. A lull followed, as both sides pre­pared for further action (July-August).

1947, September 20. Communists Begin L i -aosi Corridor Offensive. The purpose was to cut off Mukden from overland communications to North China. Counter-offensive by Nationalist field commander

in Manchuria, Cheng Tung-kuo, finally secured the corridor (October 10).

1948, January-February. Renewed Liaosi Corridor .Offensive. Chiang Kai-shek flew to Mukden to take personal com­mand. Nationalist counterattacks again se­cured the corridor. Chiang returned to Nanking.

1948, March-September. Nationalist Ero­sion. Steady Communist pressure eroded the Nationalist defenses. Nationalists evac­uated Kir in to strengthen isolated Ch'ang­ch'un. The defensive attitude and psychol­ogy adversely affected Nationalist morale.

1948, September 12. Renewed Liaosi Corri ­dor Offensive. The Communists seized the corridor, repulsing all Nationalist ef­forts to reopen the line of communications to the south. Chiang flew to Peking to as­sume command. Finding the situation in Manchuria to be hopeless, he ordered the garrisons to withdraw, fighting their way south. Ch'angch'un was evacuated (Octo­ber 21).

1948, October 27-30. Battle of Mukden-Chinchow. Retreating Nationalist col­umns, 3 armies, were struck by a massive Communist counteroffensive. A l l were killed, captured, or dispersed. The Na­tionalist commander, General Liao Yueh-hsiang, competent Burma veteran, was killed.

1948, November 1. Fal l of Mukden. The small remaining Nationalist garrison sur­rendered. By the end of the year the Com­munists held all of Manchuria. The Na­tionalists had lost 300,000 of their best troops.

Operations in North and Central China, 1946-1949

1946, May 1. National Capital to Nanking. The Chinese Government officially re­turned to Nanking from Chungking.

1946, May 5. Hostilities at Hankow. This was one of many breakdowns in the cease­fire established in January (see p. 1256).

July-November. Nationalist North China Of­fensive. Claiming the provocation of fre­quent Communist truce violations, Chiang ordered a major offensive to seize North China, hoping to prevent Communists from entrenching themselves. The offen­sive was highly successful. The National­ists recovered most of Kiangsu, reopened

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the Tsinan-Tsingtao railway in Shantung, occupied Jehol and much of Hopeh. The Communists undertook minor counterof-fensives, winning temporary successes along the Lung-Hai Railway (Sian-Kaif eng-Hsuchow) and in north Shansi.

1946, July 29. U.S . Halts Military Equip­ment Assistance. General Marshall, an­noyed by the Nationalist offensive, and under strong Communist propaganda at­tack for U .S . assistance to the National­ists, ordered an embargo of all U.S. mili­tary assistance to both sides. This actually only affected the U.S.-equipped armies of the National Government. Chiang ordered units in Manchuria to go on the defensive, but continued the North China offensive in belief he could win before supplies ran out. This U .S . action had serious psycho­logical as well as practical effects on the National military situation.

1946, September. U.S. Marines Begin With­drawal. This was interpreted by many Chinese as further evidence of U.S. aban­donment of the National Government.

1946, November 8. Chiang Orders National­ist Cease-fire. He informed General M a r ­shall that he was willing to resume nego­tiations. Nationalist overtures and U.S . mediation efforts were rejected by the Communists.

1947, January 6. Failure of the Marshall Mission. At Marshall's request, he was recalled by President Truman. Marshall left China, criticizing both sides (January 7). Remaining U.S. Marines in North China (about 12,000) were ordered to withdraw, save for one regiment left in Tientsin under terms of 1901 Boxer Proto­col.

1947, January-December. Nationalists on the Defensive. They held the towns and main railroads. Elsewhere the Commu­nists seized the initiative, save for one con­tinuing Nationalist offensive in Shensi.

1947, March 19. Nationalists Capture Yenan. The Nationalist offensive in Shensi cap­tured the Communist capital; Mao Tse-tung was forced to flee. Elsewhere the Communists held the initiative, and Mao refused to call back any troops from more important theaters of the war to defend his capital.

1947, October. Communist Offensives. Co­ordinated with offensives in Manchuria, L i u Po-ch'eng's Central Plains Army

and Chen Yi's East China Field Army were active in the area between the Yang­tze River and the Lung-Hai Railway and in Shantung. Chen Yi's forces cut the railroad line north of Kaifeng, cutting the main line of coxnmunications of National­ist armies in North China.

1948, M a r c h - A p r i l . Communist Offensive in Shensi. Troops of General P'eng Teh-huai recaptured Yenan (April) .

1948, May-September. Communist Offen­sives in Yellow River Valley. Armies of Chen and L i u steadily reduced National­ist holdings north of Yellow River. This offensive culminated in the Battle of Tsi -nan (September 14-24), in which 80,000 Nationalist troops defected or were cap­tured.

1948-1949, November-January. Battle of the Hwai H a i . Under over-all command of Chen Y i , his army and L i u Po-ch'eng's attacked the Nationalist Seventh and Sec­ond Army groups, deployed along the Lung-Hai Railway generally east of K a i ­feng. About 500,000 troops were involved on each side. While the East China Field Army pinned down the Seventh Army Group, between Hsuchow and the sea, the Central Plains Field Army smashed into and through the flank of the Second Army Group, west of Hsuchow toward the Hwai River. Efforts of the Seventh and Second Army Groups to retreat to the Hwai were blocked. M u c h of the Second Army Group broke through, but the Sev­enth Army Group was destroyed. Total Nationalist casualties exceeded 250,000 men; among those killed were the com­manders of both Nationalist Army groups.

1949, January 21. Chiang Resigns. Vice President L i Tsung-jen became Acting President.

1949, January 22. Fall of Peking. Nation­alist General Fu-Tso-yi surrendered to the Communists after a long siege. Mao Tse-tung soon thereafter moved the Commu­nist capital to Peking from Yenan.

1949, February. Evacuation of Last U.S. Troop Contingent. Withdrawal of the U.S . 3d Marine Regiment from Tientsin was considered by both sides to indicate American abandonment of the National Government.

1949, Apri l 1. Nationalist Peace Effort. L i Tsung-jen sent a delegation to Peking to seek Communist agreement to a division

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C H I N A ( N A T I O N A L R E P U B L I C ) 1259

of China at the Yangtze. The Communists rejected this, insisting upon Nationalist surrender.

1949, Apri l 20. Communists Cross the Yang­tze River. L i u Po-Ch'eng's redesignated Second Field Army and Chen Yi's Third Field Army crossed on a broad front be­tween Nanking and Wuhan. During the crossing two British warships on the Yang­tze were attacked and severely damaged by Communist artillery. As Communist troops approached Nanking, the move­ment of the National Government capital to Canton (begun January 19) was com­pleted.

1949, Apri l 22. Fal l of Nanking. This was followed by the capture of Hsuchow (April 26),Wuhan (May 17), Nanchang (May 23), and Shanghai (May 27). Two other important beleaguered cities north of the Yangtze also surrendered: Taiyuan (April 24) and Sian (May 20).

1949, May-December. Nationalist Collapse. Many Nationalist commanders and troop units defected to the Communists. As the Communist armies approached Canton (October), the capital was shifted to Chungking.

1949, August 5. U . S . White Paper. This State Department document, criticizing the Nationalist Government, formally an­nounced cutoff of all further military aid.

1949, October 15. Fall of Canton. Chinese Communist troops occupied Canton with­out opposition. Chiang returned to head the collapsing National Government.

1949, November 30. Fal l of Chungking. Chiang established a new capital at Ch'engtu.

1949, December 7. Withdrawal to Formosa. Chiang's government and all his remain­ing troops successfully completed with­drawal from the mainland as Communist columns approached Ch'engtu. Nationalist troops retained offshore islands of Que-moy, Tachen, and Matsu.

1950. National Government Reforms. Fol­lowing institution of social and political reforms of the sort promised while the government was still on the mainland, the U.S . resumed economic and military as­sistance.

1950, June 25. Chiang Offers Military As­sistance to U . N . in Korea. Favorably considered by General MacArthur, the of­fer was turned down by President T r u ­

man, who (June 27) ordered the U.S. Seventh Fleet to prevent either Red C h i ­nese attack on Formosa or Nationalist as­sault against the mainland.

1950, July 24. Intensive Artillery Bombard­ment of Quemoy.

1951, January 30. U .S . Military Assistance Group Established.

1952, February 1. U.S.S.R. Censured by U . N . General Assembly. A resolution was approved charging Russia with ob­structing the efforts of the National Gov­ernment of China to retain control of Manchuria following Japan's surrender, and giving military assistance to the Chi ­nese Communists.

1953, February 2. Chiang "Unfettered." President Eisenhower declared that the Seventh Fleet would no longer "serve as a defensive arm of Communist China. "

1954, August 17. Communist Threats against Formosa. President Eisenhower said that the Seventh Fleet would go to the defense of Formosa if the Chinese Communists should attempt to invade.

1954, September 3. Heavy Bombardment of Quemoy. Increased activity threatened an invasion of Formosa, and the Seventh Fleet moved to take up positions to de­fend it.

1954, December 2. Mutual Defense Treaty with the United States. Fear of further involvement of the U.S . in Asian war led to new restrictions on Nationalist China, whose territorial limits were described in the treaty (signed March 3, 1955) as "Formosa and the Pescadores." Commu­nist bombardment of Quemoy and Matsu continued.

1955, January. Tachen Islands Threatened. Intense Chinese Communist pressure against the islands by airplane raids and small-craft raids. The U.S. Seventh Fleet helped to evacuate 25,000 military and 17,000 civilians from the islands (Febru­ary 6-11). Meanwhile, President Eisen­hower asked Congress for emergency pow­ers to permit U.S . armed forces to protect Formosa and the Pescadores islands, and to assist the National Government in de­fending the islands (January 24).

1955, June 7. " D e Facto" Cease-Fire. A n uneasy truce settled over Quemoy and Matsu.

1958, August 23. Blockade of Quemoy by Communist Artillery. Continuous bom-

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1260 E A S T ASIA, 1945-1965

bardment interrupted supply to the islands for both garrison and civilian population. Strenuous effort of Seventh Fleet, convoy­ing supply by water and air, defeated the Red plan (September). The blockade fire gradually died down (October), dwindling to almost nothing (June, 1958).

1962, March 24. Chinese Communist Planes over Quemoy. Rumors of pending inva­sion and heavy mainland troop concen­trations produced another tense situation. Once again U.S. sea-power potential as­serted itself. Chinese Nationalist planes shot down several Communist aircraft. The U.S. warned the Communists to keep hands off Quemoy and Matsu (January 22). A l l threat of invasion soon ended.

1962-1965. Civi l War Continues. U n d i ­minished tension between Formosa and the mainland, with sporadic guerrilla op­erations by the Nationalists harassing the Red mainland littoral.

C O M M U N I S T C H I N A ( P E O P L E ' S

R E P U B L I C ) , 1949-1965 1949, September 21. People's Republic Pro­

claimed at Peking. Mao Tse-tung was named chairman of the Central People's Government; Chou En-lai, premier. Im­mediate recognititon was granted by the U.S.S.R. and its satellites, also by India, Burma, and Ceylon. Great Britain soon recognized the new state (January 6, 1950).

1950, February 15. Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with U . S . S . R .

1950, April 23. Communist Conquest of Hainan Island Completed.

1950, October 7. Invasion of Tibet. (See below.)

1950, October 26. Intervention in Korean War. (See p. 1213.)

1954-1964, September 3. Bombardments of Quemoy. (See p. 1259.)

1957-1965. Rift with U . S . S . R . Increasing ideological differences and mutually con­flicting power ambitions by the end of the period widened the crack in the "mono­lithic" structure of world Communism.

1959, August 29. Indian Border Violated by Chinese Troops. (See p. 1245.)

1960, January 28. Sino-Burmese Treaty. (See p. 1248.)

1960, June 3. Anti-Chinese Revolt in Tibet. (See below.)

1960, June 29. Border Friction with Nepal. 1962, October 20-November 21. India-China

Border War. (See p. 1245.) Before the fighting ended, some 3,213 Indian soldiers and 800 Indian civilians had been made prisoner; total casualties are unknown. Prisoners were later returned (April, 1963).

1963-1965. Chinese Support of North Viet­namese Aggression. (See p. 1251.) This became another issue exacerbating strained relations between the U.S .S .R. and Com­munist China.

1964, October 16. China Explodes Its First Atomic Bomb. She became the world's fifth nuclear power.

T I B E T

1949, November 24. Communist "Libera­tion" of Tibet Urged. This was a radio appeal from Peking by the Panchen Lama —refugee rival of Tibet's nominal ruler, the Dalai Lama. The Chinese Communist government soon announced its intention of doing just this (January 1, 1950).

1950, October. Chinese Communist Inva­sion. A large Chinese force swept across the frontiers despite a Tibetan appeal to the U . N . (November 10), soon overrun­ning the entire country. The Dalai Lama was permitted to remain as a figurehead ruler in Lhasa. Widespread revolt contin­ued despite fierce Communist repressive measures (1950-1954).

1954, Spring and Summer. Widespread Re­volt. This was suppressed by Chinese Communist troops. Most of the 40,000 rebels were killed or executed.

1956-1959. Renewed Unrest. Mass depor­tations, Chinese infiltrations, and forced Tibetan labor on the military highway connecting Lhasa and Chungking stirred the population.

1959, March 10-27. Rebellion. This was suppressed by Chinese Communist troops. The Dalai Lama fled from Lhasa to India, where political asylum was afforded. He formally accused Communist China of genocide and suppression of human rights, asserting that 65,000 Tibetans had been killed in the revolt, 10,000 young people and children deported to China, and 5 million Chinese moved into Tibet in a resettlement project.

1959-1965. Continued Guerrilla Warfare.

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J A P A N 1261

Resistance was sporadic, weak, and rela­tively ineffective.

K O R E A

1945, December 27. Moscow Declaration. The U.S. , Soviet, British, and French for­eign ministers announced the establish­ment of a U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission for the purpose of unifying Korea in accordance with the terms of the Cairo Agreement (see p. 1208).

1946-1947. Failure of the U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission. No agreement could be reached on the establishment of an in­terim government for all Korea.

1948, M a y 1. Soviets Proclaim North Korean Independence. By establishing the Democratic People's Republic, the U.S .S .R. defied a planned U . N . plebiscite for all Korea. The president was veteran Communist K i m II Sung.

1948, October 19-December 25. Russian Troops Withdraw. A large Soviet train­ing mission remained in North Korea.

1948-1950. Tension in Korea. Border in­cidents, Communist infiltration across the border, and Communist-inspired disorders throughout South Korea continued and intensified.

1949, June 29. Withdrawal of U . S . Occupa­tion Forces Completed. (See p. 1209.)

1950, June 25. North Korean Invasion of South Korea. (See p. 1209.)

195(M953. Korean War. (See p. 1209.) 1953-1965. Continued Tension. Deliberate

Communist violations of armistice force limitations in North Korea caused the U .S . and South Korea to announce a com­pensatory build-up of forces and weapons (beginning June 21, 1957).

J A P A N

1945-1950. MacArthur as Supreme Com­mander for the Allied Powers. Under the firm control and guidance of MacArthur's military government, the Japanese gov­ernment and nation began recovery from the devastation of the war.

1946, November 3. New Constitution. This became effective May 3, 1947. Among its provisions was a renunciation of the right to wage war.

1951, September 8. Peace Treaty with the Allies. Unable to obtain Soviet agree­ment to negotiate a peace treaty, the U.S . and 48 other non-Communist nations signed a treaty with Japan (effective April 28, 1952). At the same time, the U.S. signed a bilateral defense agreement with Japan.

1951-1954. Japan Begins Limited Rearma­ment. Despite apparently sincere devo­tion to the war-renunciation clause of the constitution, it became apparent to Japan that internal and external security re­quired military forces. With U.S . encour­agement, Japan began to develop small "self-defense forces."

1954, March 8. Mutual Defense Agreement with U.S. Under this the U.S. was to give Japan about $100 million in subsidies for production of munitions and food.

1954, July 1. Official Rearmament Ap­proved. After prolonged national and legislative debate, Japan enacted legisla­tion authorizing new armed forces.

1956, October 19. State of War with Russia Terminated. A joint Japanese-Soviet dec­laration.

1960, January 19. Renewed Mutual Defense Treaty with the U .S .

A F R I C A

Before W o r l d W a r II, A f r i c a , the second largest continent in land area, i n ­cluded but one truly independent nation: tiny, unimportant Liberia . T h e U n i o n of South A f r i c a , i n fact independent, as a dominion was a part of the British E m ­pire. E g y p t , nominal ly independent, was actually under British protection and influ­ence. E t h i o p i a , w h i c h h a d been truly independent, had recently been conquered by Italy (see p. 1040). In the 20 years after W o r l d W a r II, complete independence was achieved by all nations a n d regions of A f r i c a , save for a few insignificant Span­ish coastal colonies a n d the large Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique . T h i s achievement of independence, however, did not in the slightest halt the work­ing of the forces of nationalism (and related anticolonialism) in the independent

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nations or in the few remaining colonial areas. Revolut ion , new nationalism, new and indigenous imperialism, Communist subversion (of two varieties, one directed from Moscow and the other from Peking) , racial antagonisms, a n d sweeping tech­nological change kept most of A f r i c a i n constant turbulence for the entire period. T h e r e were internal and external mil i tary actions a n d hostilities of one sort or another in practically every nation a n d colonial region of the continent. O n l y the most important will be noted here.

N O R T H A F R I C A

Tunisia 1952, March. Violence and Unrest. Na ­

tional self-determination came to a boil­ing point in disorders and riots directed against French rule.

1955, June 3. Full Internal Autonomy Granted by France. This was effective September 1.

1956, March 17. Independence. A l l former treaties and conventions were abrogated. Habib Bourguiba was chosen premier (March 25). France retained several mili­tary bases.

1956, July 25. Republic Proclaimed. Bour­guiba became president. Despite disagree­ments—and one subsequent conflict—with France, Bourguiba kept his nation oriented to the West.

1958, February-June. Clashes with France. These were sporadic border incidents, mostly French punitive action in response to Tunisia-based operations of Algerian nationalists.

1961, July 19-22. Hostilities with France. (See p. 1227.) Tunisian attacks against French military posts brought prompt re­taliation. French troops occupied Bizerte. Hostilities were ended by U . N . mediators.

1962, June. French Evacuation Completed. Air-base rights were retained by France.

Morocco 1947-1953. Nationalistic Unrest. Sultan

Mohammed V gave his support to the nationalist movement, in defiance of the French administration.

1953, August 15-20. French-Inspired Upris­ing. Tribal leaders in Marrakesh rose against the sultan, under the influence of pro-French leader Thami Al-Glaoui. The sultan was deposed and sent into exile by the French.

1953-1955. Increased Unrest. Terrorism

and guerrilla operations of nationalists spread throughout Morocco.

1955, August 19-November 5. Intensified Guerrilla Hostilities. French efforts to suppress the risings of Berber tribes and the terrorism in the countryside and in the cities were not very successful.

1955, November 5. France Agrees to Inde­pendence. Mohammed V was restored to power.

1956, March 2. Protectorate Status Ceases. France and Morocco by mutual agreement terminated the Treaty of Fez (March 30, 1912). Spain relinquished her protectorate over Spanish Morocco (April 17), and the international status of the Tangier zone later ended (October 29).

1957-1964. Foreign Troops and Bases With­drawn. Morocco called for evacuation of foreign troops. The last of a large com­plex of U .S . air bases was returned in 1964; French and Spanish forces had been previously withdrawn. As the period ended, the enclave of Spanish Sahara still re­mained in statu quo.

1957, November-December. Border Clashes at Ifni. Moroccan irregulars were re­pulsed by Spanish troops after seizing much of the colony. Later Spain ceded Ifni to Morocco (April 1, 1958).

1963, October 13-30. Border War with A l ­geria. Large-scale hostilities broke out along a disputed frontier area in the Atlas Mountains-Sahara Desert region after pro­longed tension and a number of incidents. A cease-fire was arranged through the me­diation of Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethi­opia and President Modibo Keita of Mali .

Algeria

1945-1954. Autonomy Demanded. The first clash (May 8, 1959) between nationalists and French caused the death of 88 French and more than 1,000 Algerians.

1954-1962. Open Rebellion. The F L N (Front de Liberation Nationale, organized

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E A S T A F R I C A 1263

1951) started organized warfare, which was to continue until freedom had been attained. Use of Tunisian bases by the F L N strained French relations with T u ­nisia (see p. 1262). The insurrection drew nearly one-half of the entire French Army into Algeria, with resulting casualties of 10,200 French soldiers and some 70,000 Algerian insurgents killed.

1958, M a y 13. French Officer Uprising. Brigadier General Jacques Massu estab­lished a Committee of Public Safety, pro­testing against political leadership in the war. This started the chain of political events in France that brought de Gaulle to power (see p. 1227).

1958, June 1. De Gaulle Offers Self-Deter-mination by Referendum. This was op­posed by the pieds noirs (Algerians of French descent). Rioting and terrorism were manipulated by the "Secret A r m y " (or O A S , an extremist group organized by pieds noirs and French military men). De Gaulle visited Algeria and demanded dis­solution of the Committee of Public Safety, restoring French government control in Algeria.

1960, January 22-February 1. Uprising of French Rightists in Algiers. They were opposed to de Gaulle's policy of self-de­termination for Algeria. This was sup­pressed by loyal French troops under Gen­eral Maurice Challe.

1961, January 6-8. French Voters Support de Gaulle's Algerian Program. A n over­whelming majority approved a referen­dum to permit Algerian self-determina­tion.

1961, Apri l 22-26. French Military Revolt. A mutiny headed by Generals Challe and Raoul Salan was quickly put down (April 25) by loyal French troops on de Gaulle's order (see p. 1227). Salan escaped and directed intensified O A S terrorism in France and Algeria.

1961, M a y 20. Peace Talks Begin. These took place at Evian-les-Bains in France between representatives of the French gov­ernment and the rebel Algerian provi­sional government.

1962, March 7-18. Cease-Fire. Evian nego­tiations brought a cease-fire between Mos­lem nationalists ( F L N ) and French Army. Ahmed Ben Bella was chosen as premier.

1962, July 3. Algerian Independence. 1962-1965. Continuing Internal Unrest.

There was widespread opposition to Ben Bella's relatively inefficient and dictatorial government, closely aligned with the U.S.S.R. and with the U . A . R . There were several mutinies, revolts, and uprisings around the country.

1963, October. Border War with Morocco. (See p. 1262.)

1965, June 19. Overthrow of Ben Bella. Control of the nation was seized in a near-bloodless coup d'etat by the army com­mander, Communist-trained Colonel Hou-ari Boumedienne, a hero of the revolution against France.

Libya 1951, December 24. Independence of Libya. 1953, July 29. Treaty with Britain. This

gave Britain 20-year rights to maintain military establishments in Libya, in re­turn for which Britain was to pay Libya £1 million a year for 5 years for economic development and £2.75 million a year to aid in balancing the Libyan budget.

1954, September 9. Agreement with the U .S . A n agreement was signed in Benghazi, giving the United States use of air bases in Libya in return for payment of $5 mil ­lion in 1954, $2 million yearly for 20 years.

E A S T A F R I C A

Sudan 1953, February 12. Self-Government. Egypt

and Great Britain signed an agreement providing for self-government in the A n ­glo-Egyptian Sudan.

1955, August 16. British and Egyptian With­drawal Demanded. The parliament of Sudan asked Britain and Egypt to evacu­ate their troops from the Sudan in 90 days. Britain with 900 troops and Egypt with 500 agreed to be out by November 12.

1956, January 1. Independent Republic Pro­claimed.

1958, November 17. Military Coup. Con­trol of the government of Sudan was seized by Lieutenant General Abraham Abboud.

1963, October. Outbreak of Rebellion. Re­gional and ethnic groups were still in re­volt at the end of the period.

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Ethiopia 1952, September 11. Union with Eritrea.

Eritrea and Ethiopia were united in a fed­eration.

1954, M a y 14. Agreement with the U .S . Ethiopia gave the United States 99-year military base rights.

1960, December 13-17. Military Revolt. During the absence of Emperor Haile Se­lassie, members of the Imperial Guard seized control of Addis Ababa and pro­claimed Crown Prince Asfa-Wossen the new emperor. Loyal troops suppressed the rebellion. The emperor pardoned his son, who had apparently acted under duress.

1964. Frontier Warfare with Somalia. (See p. 1265.)

Kenya

1945-1952. Unrest and Violence. This Brit­ish crown colony became a hotbed of rev­olution. A secret native organization—the M a u Mau—began a campaign of dissi-dence which finally erupted in an appall­ing area-wide blood bath, white colonists and native negroes alike, men, women, and children, being murdered under con­ditions of terror and treachery.

M A U M A U R E V O L T

1952, October 20. Britain Declares a State of Emergency. Britain sent a warship and troops to Kenya to restore order and to suppress the Mau M a u uprising. Guer­rilla war spread.

1953, January-May. British Military Meas­ures. Major military and punitive meas­ures were initiated. Leading Kikuyu tribe nationalist leaders, known or suspected to have connections with the M a u M a u So­ciety, were arrested, tried, and convicted, including a 7-year prison sentence for Jomo Kenyatta (October 20). Central Kenya was sealed off from the rest of the country, and a separate East African com­mand comprising Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika was set up under General Sir George Erskine.

1953, June 15. British Victory in the Aber­dare Forest. More than 125 M a u M a u were killed, bringing the total of terrorists killed since October to approximately 1,000. Meanwhile, the colonial govern­ment undertook measures to improve

housing conditions in Nairobi, and soon afterward dropped leaflets over known M a u M a u strongholds promising lenient treatment to all who surrendered and who were not guilty of murder or serious crimes.

1955, February-June. Climactic Campaign Begins. Some 10,000 troops dispersed about 4,000 terrorists in the M t . Kenya and Aberdare areas.

1955, September 2. Britain Begins to Reduce Forces. Since October, 1952, almost 10,-000 terrorists had been killed, 1,538 had surrendered, and over 24,000 had been captured or were held as suspects. The campaign against the remaining scattered dissidents continued into early 1956.

1961, August 14. Kenyatta Released from Prison. He immediately became leader of the principal political independence party and began negotiations with the British for independence.

1963, March. Frontier Clashes with Somalia. Somali claims to frontier regions of north­ern Kenya led to border hostilities. Somalia broke relations with Britain (March 14).

1963, June 1. Kenyatta Prime Minister of Kenya.

1963, December 12. Independence of Kenya. She became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of Nations. Assured by the new status, and under promise of amnesty, M a u M a u adherents began surrendering en masse.

1963, December. Diplomatic Relations Broken with Somalia. Serious border warfare broke out.

1964, January. Unrest and Violence. Com­munist-inspired violence spread from Zan­zibar and Tanganyika (see p. 1265.)

1964, January 25. British Troops Restore Order in Kenya. British intervention was requested by Kenyatta to suppress Communist-inspired native uprisings. The period ended with the nation threatened by internal turmoil and external war.

Somalia 1960, July 1. Independence of Somalia.

Italian and British Somaliland were com­bined as a single state. Somalia almost im­mediately claimed substantial regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, where Somali pop­ulations had been placed by arbitrary co­lonial frontiers.

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1960, August 14. Border Clashes along Ethi ­opian Frontier. (See p. 1264.)

1963-1965. Hostilities with Kenya. (See p. 1264.)

1964, February 8. Renewed Ethiopian-So-malian Hostilities. Despite a truce re­sulting from mediation of the Organiza­tion of African States, frontier warfare was continuing at the end of the period.

Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and Tanzania 1961, December 9. Independence of Tangan­

yika. It remained in the British C o m ­monwealth.

1963, December 10. Independence of Zanzi­bar. It remained in the British Common­wealth.

1964, January 12. Zanzibar Rebellion. The government was overthrown by African nationalist rebels, some of whom had been trained in Communist China. Nationalist unrest, stirred up by Communists, spread to nearby mainland nations; widespread mutinies resulted.

1964, January 25. British Intervention. At the request of local governments, British troops suppressed mutinies of African troops in Tanganyika, Kenya, and Uganda.

1964, Apri l 26. Establishment of Tanzania. This resulted from the merger of Tangan­yika and Zanzibar.

Malagasy Republic [Madagascar) 1947-1948. Revolt against France. A na­

tionalist uprising, centering on the east coast, was suppressed by French troops after much bloodshed.

1960, June 25. Independence. The Mala­gasy Republic elected to remain a mem­ber of the French community (see p. 1227).

W E S T A N D C E N T R A L A F R I C A

Republic of the Congo 1960, June 30. Belgium Grants Independ­

ence to the Congo. The first president, Joseph Kasavubu, appointed leftist Patrice Lumumba as premier. The new republic was unprepared for independence and chaos followed; soldiers and civilians rioted, looted, raped, and murdered. The white population fled the country, taking

their expertise with them and adding fur­ther to the chaos. Central control disap­peared from remote provinces. A few pockets of order were kept by some 10,000 Belgian troops remaining in the Congo, mostly in Katanga, where they were pro­tecting the extensive manufacturing com­plex created by Belgium to process K a ­tanga's great natural wealth.

1960, July 11. Katanga Proclaims Independ­ence. Moise Tshombe, leader of Katanga, refused Lumumba's demands to submit to central control and to oust Belgian troops; he proclaimed secession of Katanga from the Congo and requested more Belgian military assistance to meet threatened Congo invasion. Lumumba appealed to the U . N . for military assistance in sup­pressing the Katanga revolt.

1960, July 14. International Crisis. The U . N . Security Council approved establish­ment of a U . N . security force by Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold to restore or­der in the Congo (see p. 1222). The first contingent (from Tunisia) reached Leo-poldville the next day, as Khrushchev was threatening military intervention on behalf of Lumumba. Eventual strength of the force was 20,000 men.

1960, July 22. U . N . Demands Belgian Troop Withdrawal. The Belgians complied par­tially (July 31), save for a few local se­curity detachments and a garrison in K a ­tanga remaining at Tshombe's request.

1960, August 12. Katanga Crisis. Hammar­skjold and 240 Swedish U . N . troops ar­rived at the Elizabethville airport in K a ­tanga. He repeated earlier demands that all Belgian troops be withdrawn and re­placed by U . N . troops. Tshombe refused to permit the U . N . force entry into Eliza­bethville and threatened to use force if necessary. Erratic Lumumba denounced Hammarskjold for using white troops, for conniving with Tshombe, and for not placing U . N . forces under his command.

1960, August 24. Revolt in Kasai. L u ­mumba sent a military force to Kasai to suppress revolt of Buluba chief Albert K a -lonji. Results were inconclusive.

1960, August 30. Belgium Announces Com­bat Troop Withdrawal. Hammarskjold insisted that some still remained on in Katanga.

1960, September 14. Lumumba Overthrown. Colonel Joseph Mobutu, Army Chief of

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Staff, seized control. Kasavubu named Jo­seph Ileo as premier. Lumumba, at first arrested, then fled to east-central Congo.

1960, September 20. U . N . Votes Confidence in Hammarskjold. Following Soviet rep­resentative Valentin A . Zorin's bitter de­nunciation of Hammarskjold's policies and action in the Congo, the U . N . over­whelmingly voted its confidence in the Secretary General.

1960, October-November. Widespread V i o ­lence and Disorders. These were largely the responsibility of undisciplined Congo troops; there were some clashes with U . N . troops.

1960, December 1. Lumumba Arrested. Government troops seized him and flew him to Leopoldville.

1960, December 14. Stanleyville Revolt. Antoine Gizenga, who had been Lumum­ba's vice-premier, proclaimed himself pre­mier and established a pro-Communist government in Stanleyville. His adherents began to expand their control over much of east-central Congo.

1961, February 9. Lumumba Murdered. Kasavubu ordered Lumumba transferred to a "more secure" prison in Katanga (January 17). Soon afterward, under cir­cumstances not clear, Lumumba was mur­dered. Tshombe has been accused, proba­bly correctly, of responsibility.

1961, February 21. Katanga Mobilization. This was ordered by Tshombe in re­sponse to U . N . threats to force integration of Katanga with the Congo.

1961, February 24. U . N . Action against Stanleyville Requested. Premier Ileo asked for help after Gizenga forces seized Luluabourg, capital of Kasai province.

1961, March 12. Proclamation of a New Congo Federation. This was a reorgani­zation of the government, proclaimed at a meeting in Tananarive, Malagasy, of President Kasavubu, Premier Ileo, and all regional leaders except Gizenga.

1961, Apri l 17. Congo-U.N. Agreement. This document, signed by Congolese Pres­ident Joseph Kasavubu, authorized the U . N . to use force if necessary to prevent civil war in the Congo.

1961, Apri l 26-June 2. Tshombe Arrested. Following a "unity" conference in Leo­poldville, Tshombe was seized and de­tained by the Congo government. After promising to bring Katanga into the

Congo, he was released by Mobutu. Tshombe thereupon repudiated his agree­ments made under duress.

1961, August 1. New Government. The re­convened Congo parliament elected Cyr-ille Adoula as premier; Gizenga was named vice-premier.

1961, August 21. U . N . Action in Katanga. After a gradual force build-up, U . N . troops in Katanga seized communications centers in and around Elizabethville to force Tshombe to dismiss white merce­nary officers. Reluctantly, he complied, but began measures for the defense of Elizabethville.

1961, September 13-21. Hostilities in K a ­tanga. U . N . forces, attempting to seize control of Elizabethville, were unsuccess­ful; they lost face while Tshombe and his army gained prestige. Tragically, Hammarskjold, flying in to bring about a cease-fire, was killed in a plane crash near Ndola, Northern Rhodesia (Septem­ber 18).

1961, November. Congolese Invasion of K a ­tanga Repulsed. Congolese forces were repelled by the Katanga Army.

1961, December 18. U . N . Capture of Eliza­bethville. This led to an agreement be­tween Tshombe and Premier Adoula to restore the unity of the Congo (December 21). Tshombe again failed to comply and retained autonomy.

1962, January. Renewed Stanleyville Revolt. Gizenga again attempted an uprising from Stanleyville, but his troops were defeated by Congo Army troops; he was dismissed from the government by Adoula.

1962, December 29-1963, January 15. U . N . Offensive in Katanga. Operations against Elizabethville were begun in response to Katangese provocations, and with the ob­jective of ending Katanga's secession from the Congo. Katanga forces were com­pletely defeated, and Tshombe forced to flee. After accepting the integration of his province with the central government (January 15), he went into exile.

1963-1964. Steady Reduction of U . N . Forces. This was largely because of lack of funds to support them. Unrest and re­volt continued throughout the country, particularly in the northeastern region.

1964, June 30. Last U . N . Troops Leave the Congo.

1964, July 9. Moise Tshombe Named Pre-

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mier. This was obviously a last desperate effort to achieve stability in the Congo. Returning from exile, he immediately be­gan a campaign of combined conciliation and threat of force with the various rebel groups. He also strengthened the Congo Army by bringing in white mercenary troops and officers to help train it. Fur­ther training assistance was given by a U.S . military-aid mission. Tshombe, con­sidered a traitor to Africans (even by many moderate African leaders) because of his history in Katanga and his more recent recruiting of white troops, was bit­terly denounced throughout Africa, and particularly in Communist-bloc states.

1964, August 30. Congolese Army Retakes Albertville. This had been in rebel hands for 2 months.

1964, September-October. Rebel Gains in East-Central Congo. The alarming in­crease in strength was largely due to as­sistance from Communists, and from the U . A . R . , through Sudan and Uganda.

1964, November. Congo Army Prepares Of­fensive against Stanleyville. The rebels then seized some 2,000 white hostages and threatened massacre if Congolese troops approached the rebel capital.

1964, November 25-27. Belgian-U.S. Inter­vention. A surprise airborne landing by a Belgian paratroop battalion, flown by U.S . air units from Belgium via Ascension Island, seized Stanleyville and rescued some 1,650 white hostages. Violent out­cries from the Communist bloc and from anti-Tshombe Africans led to the overly quick withdrawal of the Belgian troops and American planes. As a result, other planned rescue missions were abandoned, and several hundred white hostages were brutally massacred.

1964-1965. Trend Toward Stability. De­spite occasional setbacks, the area of con­trol by the central government gradually expanded. By the end of the period, for the first time in its brief, stormy history, there appeared to be the possibility of some stability in the Congo.

West Africa 1956-1960. Unrest in Cameroons. Nation­

alists maintained low-level warfare against the French.

1957, March 6. Independence of Ghana.

1959, November. Tribal Warfare in Ruanda -Urundi. Suppressed by Belgian troops from the Congo.

1960, January-November. Independence of French Colonies. (See p. 1227.)

1960-1965. Unrest in Angola. Nationalists maintained low-level warfare against the Portuguese.

1960, October 1. Independence of Nigeria. 1963-1965. Insurgency in Portuguese Guinea.

Efforts to suppress this had been only par­tially successful by the end of the period.

1964, February 18. French Intervention in Gabon. Air-transported troops suppressed a revolt and restored President Leon M b a to power.

S O U T H A F R I C A

1949, July 13. The United Nations Defied. The Union of South Africa rejected a U . N . Trusteeship Council demand that Southwest Africa become part of the trus­teeships system.

1950-1953. Korean War. South Africa pro­vided an air unit to the U . N . command.

1952, November 8-9. Rioting Suppressed by Government Forces.

N O R T H A M E R I C A

U N I T E D S T A T E S

Defense Organization 1945, September 14. Pearl Harbor Investi­

gation. A Joint Congressional Commit­tee was appointed to investigate the Pearl Harbor disaster. The investigation opened two months later (November 15), and submitted an inconclusive report (July 20, 1946).

1945, December 19-1947, July 26. Military Unification Controversy. President T r u ­man sent a special message to Congress outlining a program of unification for the Army and the Navy and the establishment of the new Air Force in a single Depart­ment of Defense. Senior naval officers tes­tifying before the Senate Military Affairs Committee had already expressed violent opposition to the unification concept. De­spite this opposition, President Truman

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later submitted to Congress a specific plan for the merger of the Army and Navy and a new A i r Force in a Department of N a ­tional Defense (June 15, 1946). With changes this was approved by Congress after a year's debate, and President T r u ­man signed the law unifying the armed services within a National Military Estab­lishment (July 26, 1947) and appointed Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense.

1948, March 27. Key West Agreement. Publication of an agreement between the 3 armed services to resolve disputes re­garding their respective roles and missions in the national defense of the U.S.

1948, August 23. Newport Agreement; New Roles and Missions. At a meeting at Newport, R.I., Secretary of Defense For­restal and the Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed on further revision of the roles and mis­sions of the armed forces.

1949, June 3-August 25. B-36 Controversy. This began with accusations and rumors in the press (by Navy adherents in an interservice controversy) that the B-36 bomber had been chosen as the principal Air Force weapon for personal and politi­cal reasons. Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson and Secretary of the Air Force Stuart Symington were anonymously ac­cused of having personal-gain motives in the decision. After a 2-month investiga­tion, the House Armed Services Commit­tee cleared top-ranking government offi­cials and Air Force officers of "charges and insinuations that collusion, fraud, cor­ruption, influence, or favoritism played any part whatsoever in the procurement of the B-36 bomber."

1949, August 2. Military Reorganization. Congress approved military recommenda­tions suggested by the Hoover Committee and by Secretary of Defense Forrestal (December, 1948). The National Military Establishment was renamed the Depart­ment of Defense with increased powers for the Secretary of Defense. The Depart­ments of Army, Navy, and Air Force were reduced from cabinet to departmental rank, and a Chairman was provided for the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

1949, October 3-27. "Revolt of the Admi ­rals." This was a continuation of the B-36 controversy. Senior Navy officers

publicly and privately charged that the Army and Air Force were trying to de­stroy naval aviation in order to reduce Navy influence in the military establish­ment. The Chief of Naval Operations, Ad­miral Louis Denfeld, and Admiral Arthur Radford, Commander in Chief of the Pa­cific Fleet, wrote strong letters criticizing unification of the armed forces. In a sub­sequent Navy Department investigation, it was ascertained that the instigator of this controversy was Captain John G . Crommelin, U . S . N . During a House Armed Services Committee investigation, Admiral Radford attacked the B-36 and the concept of nuclear war as advocated by the A i r Force. In subsequent testimony before the House Armed Services Com­mittee, Admiral Denfeld accused the other services of not accepting the Navy " i n full partnership." General Clifton B. Cates, Commandant of the Marine Corps, personally attacked Secretary of Defense Johnson and the Chiefs of Staff of the Army and Air Force (October 16). Army Chief of Staff General Omar Bradley, in testifying before the committee, declared that the Navy admirals were "fancy Dans" " i n open rebellion" against civilian au­thority. Following an investigation, Navy Secretary Francis P. Matthews recom­mended that Truman relieve Admiral Denfeld as Chief of Naval Operations; this effectively ended the revolt (October 27).

1949, October 29. Controversy on Air Force Build-up. President Truman impounded more than $600 million earmarked by Congress for a 58-group A i r Force; he in­structed Secretary of Defense Johnson not to build more than 48 groups.

1949, December 7. Secretary of Defense Johnson "Cuts Fat . " He announced that by more efficient operation the 1949-1950 budget of $15.7 billion had been cut to $13.0 billion for 1950 without reducing preparedness. Most military men believed preparedness was dangerously impaired, an opinion seemingly corroborated by early results in Korea (see p. 1210).

1953, Apri l 3. Military Reorganization Plan. President Eisenhower proposed to give ci­vilian officials in the Defense Department more control. The plan was approved by Congress (June 27).

1955, January 17. Defense Budget Contro­versy. The national defense budget of

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U N I T E D S T A T E S 1269

$34 billion included $15.6 billion for the Air Force, $9.7 billion for the Navy, and $8.85 billion for the Army. General Mat­thew B. Ridgway, Army Chief of Staff, subsequently testified before the House Armed Services Committee that this budget, and planned cuts in Army armed forces, jeopardized the safety and security of the U .S .

1956, M a y 18. Outbreak of "Colonels' Re­volt." Newspaper publication of " leaked" Army and Air Force staff papers revealed bitter interservice rivalry, with Army jeal­ousy and suspicion of the Air Force par­ticularly outspoken in a paper challenging Air Force doctrine that national security lay mainly in air power. Newspapermen, remembering the "Revolt of the Admi ­rals" (see p. 1268), noted that the Army papers had been prepared by a small staff group composed primarily of colonels. Secretary of Defense Charles E . Wilson called a special press conference of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to try to demonstrate interservice solidarity (May 21). The Army officers involved were reprimanded and ordered away from the Pentagon.

1956, November 26. Army Roles and Mis­sions Curtailed. Secretary Wilson gave the A i r Force control of all missiles with a range of more than 200 miles. H e also severely restricted the Army's planned avi­ation program.

1958, Apri l 16. Eisenhower Plans Major De­fense Reorganization. His objectives were (1) to stop "unworthy and sometimes costly [interservice] bickering"; (2) assure "clear-cut civilian responsibility, unified strategic planning and direction and com­pletely unified commands"; (3) stop " i n ­efficiency and needless duplication"; and (4) assure "safety and solvency." A l ­though the plan was slightly changed by Congress (July), the President achieved essentially what he wanted: (a) substan­tial strengthening of the position and authority of the Secretary of Defense in relation to the service departments; (b) a limited general staff type organization for the Joint Staff, capable of more efficient and more comprehensive service to the Joint Chiefs of Staff; and (c) service elements in unified commands were re­moved from the command jurisdiction of the service secretaries and chiefs of staff.

Weapons and Forces

1946, April 4. Horse Cavalry Abolished. Remaining cavalry units and individuals were merged with armored forces as the cavalry disappeared as a separate armed service.

1946, July 1-25. Bikini Nuclear Tests. First peacetime weapons tests in history were carried out at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands in the Pacific.

1946, December 16. Establishment of U n i ­fied Overseas Commands. This was or­dered by President Truman on the advice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

1947, January 1. Civilian Control of Nuclear Affairs. The U.S . Atomic Energy Com­mission formally took command of all U.S. atomic-energy affairs.

1947, March 31. The Selective Service Act Expired.

1948, June 19. New Selective Service Act. Conscription was reinstated by Congress.

1949, April 23. Construction Stopped on Su-percarrier. Secretary of Defense Johnson ordered abandonment of construction on the 65,000-ton U.S.S. United States.

1950, June 25. Korean War Begins. (See p. 1208.)

1950, June 30. Partial Mobilization; Selec­tive Service Extended. President Truman signed a bill extending the Selective Serv­ice Act until July 9, 1951. The measure also authorized the President to call the National Guard and Organized Reserves for 21 months of active service.

1952, March 4. Universal Military Training. The House of Representatives defeated a proposed bill for universal military train­ing, based upon recommendations of an advisory commission report to President Truman (June 1, 1947) and of former Army Chief of Staff Eisenhower (February 15, 1948).

1952, November. First Hydrogen Weapon. The U.S. exploded a thermonuclear weapon at Eniwetok. President Truman had broken an A E C controversy earlier by ordering the development (January 31, 1950).

1953, December 19. Emphasis on Air Power. President Eisenhower and the National Security Council supported plans for the Department of Defense to emphasize air power and continental defenses by increas­ing Air Force strength and budget, de-

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creasing the Navy and Marine Corps by 15 per cent, and decreasing the Army by one-third. The next budget request (Jan­uary 21, 1954) provided for an Army budget of $10,198 billion, Navy $10,493 billion, and Air Force $16,209 billion. Later General Ridgway, in a magazine ar­ticle, denied President Eisenhower's state­ment that the JCS had approved Army cuts (January, 1956).

1954, September 30. First Atomic-Powered Submarine. The U.S.S. Nautilus was commissioned.

1956, February 12. Army Opposes Force Levels. Chief of Staff General M . D . Taylor said that 19 authorized divisions were inadequate; 27 or 28 were required to back up U.S. international commit­ments.

1956, December. End of an Era. The Army announced deactivation of the last mule unit (December 1) and the end of carrier pigeons in the Signal Corps (December 4).

1958, January 31. First U .S . Satellite. De­signed and developed by the U.S. Army, this was "Explorer I." Later, after several more successful launchings, the Army Bal­listic Missile Agency was transferred to the newly created National Aeronautics and Space Administration, taking the Army out of space exploration (October 21, 1959).

1958, March 8. Deactivation of Last U . S . Battleship. This was the U.S.S. Wiscon­sin.

1958, May 19. N O R A D Established. For­mal establishment of the Joint Canadian-U.S. North American Air Defense C o m ­mand confirmed measures already initi­ated through informal agreement of the 2 governments (October, 1957). N O R A D Headquarters was established at Colorado Springs.

1958, May 20. Strategic Army Corps Estab­lished. The Pentagon announced that 4 combat-ready divisions, comprising (with supporting troops) 150,000 men, were be­ing combined into a force capable of ac­tion at short notice "to meet or rein­force any initial emergency requirements throughout the world."

1959, December 30. First Operational Pola­ris Nuclear Submarine. U.S.S. George Washington was commissioned.

1960, May 10. First Submerged Circumnavi­gation of the Earth. U.S. nuclear-pow­

ered submarine Triton went 41,519 miles in 84 days.

1960, July 20. First Successful Polaris Firing. This was from the submerged nuclear sub­marine U.S.S. George Washington.

1960, September 24. Launching of U.S.S. Enterprise. This was the largest ship ever built and the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier.

1960, November 14. First Polaris Patrol Mission. The U.S.S. George Washington, armed with 16 thermonuclear Polaris mis-iles, sailed from Charleston, S.C.

1961, M a y 5. First U . S . Manned Space Flight. This was a suborbital flight made by Navy Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr. , launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla., and landed safely in the Atlantic after reaching an altitude of 116.5 miles.

1962, January 3. Army Increase. President Kennedy announced an increase from 14 to 16 divisions. The Army soon thereafter (February 23) announced an increase in the size of the Strategic Army Corps from 3 to 8 divisions, and that its strength had gone from 90,000 to 160,000 men since the beginning of the Berlin crisis, 6 months earlier.

1962, M a y 6. First Polaris Nuclear Warhead Test. The missile was fired from the nu­clear submarine U.S.S. Ethan Allen and exploded in the Christmas Island testing area.

1962, December 19. Missile Inventory. The Air Force announced that the U.S . had 200 operational I C B M ' s : 126 Atlas, 54 Titan, and 20 Minuteman (the latter solid fuel).

1963, October 22-24. Operation Big Lift. Fifteen thousand men in a U.S . division were airlifted 5,600 miles in 63 hours and 20 minutes from the U .S . to West Ger­many.

U.S. Defense Policy in the Cold War* 1946, March 5. Churchill Speech at Fulton,

M o . In an address at Westminster Col ­lege, Churchill advocated a fraternal asso­ciation between the U .S . and Great Britain to deter Soviet aggression. He coined the expression " Iron Curtain. "

* Specific crisis incidents, such as Soviet shooting down of unarmed planes, are omitted unless they had policy significance.

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1947, January 7. General Marshall A p ­pointed Secretary of State. The State De­partment made public his report on his mission to China, in which he criticized both reactionaries in the Nanking govern­ment and the Chinese Communists.

1947, March 12. Truman Doctrine. This proposed economic and military aid to na­tions threatened by Communist aggression. Specifically, President Truman asked Con­gress for $400 million to give economic and political aid to Greece and Turkey, both seriously threatened by the possibility of Soviet aggression and both further en­dangered by Britain's recent decision to withdraw forces from Greece. This was approved by Congress (May 15) and signed by the President (May 22).

1947, June 5. Marshall Plan. In a speech at Harvard, Secretary of State Marshall suggested American economic assistance to help Europe recover and to gain the strength necessary to avoid internal sub­version and external aggression.

1947, June 5. Satellite Peace Treaties. The Senate ratified peace treaties with Italy, Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria.

1948, Apri l 3. Marshall Plan in Operation. President Truman signed the first foreign-aid bill for $6.98 billion.

1948, June 11. Vandenberg Resolution. A resolution sponsored by Senator Arthur H . Vandenberg proclaimed U.S . policy to give military aid to defensive alliances among the free nations of the world.

1949, July 21. North Atlantic Treaty Rati­fied. This was signed by President T r u ­man (July 25) after Senate ratification. The treaty went into effect after ratifica­tion by all 12 signatories (August 24).

1949, August 5. State Department White Paper on China. (See p. 1259.) Secretary of State Dean Acheson blamed Generalis­simo Chiang Kai-shek for the defeats of the National Government. Dr . Wellington Koo, Chinese Ambassador to the U.S. , ac­knowledged that China might have made some errors, but insisted that mistakes were not confined to his country (Au­gust 7).

1950, January 5. N o U . S . Military A i d or Interference on Formosa. President T r u ­man announced that economic aid would continue.

1950, December 8. Truman Confers with British Prime Minister Attlee. Attlee had

come to Washington to convey British hopes that the atomic bomb would not be used first by the United States in the K o ­rean War. President Truman stated that he hoped that world conditions would never call for the use of the atomic bomb. They agreed to support the U . N . in at­tempts to achieve a free and independent Korea.

1950, December 16. Truman Proclaims State of National Emergency. This was to fa­cilitate prosecution of the war in Korea.

1951, May 1. Publication of Wedemeyer Re­port. This controversial report on China and Korea had been submitted to Presi­dent Truman, on September 9, 1947, by re­tiring General Albert C. Wedemeyer. It had been partially described in the State Department's White Paper on China (Au­gust 5, 1949).

1951, May-June. Senate Investigates Relief of General MacArthur. (See p. 1216.)

1952, July 13. Military Aid to Yugoslavia Approved. (See also p. 1234.)

1952, August 4. A N Z U S Pact. The U.S. , Australia, and New Zealand established a Pacific Council. At the first meeting in Washington, the A N Z U S Council pledged to guard against the threat of Commu­nism and maintain peace in the Pacific (September 9-10, 1953).

1954, March 8. President Eisenhower's Re­port on the Mutual Security Act. The U.S. had shipped $7.7 billion of arms and other military equipment to allies since October, 1949, and about $3.8 billion in 1953. Almost $6 billion had gone to West­ern European nations alone, who them­selves had spent over $35 billion to build up N A T O defenses, of which $11.5 bil­lion had been spent in 1953. Since 1949, military aid to Greece and Turkey totaled $761 million; Far East aid totaled $1.18 billion.

1954, March 16. Presidential Authority un­der N A T O aud Rio Treaties. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles said the Pres­ident had authority to order instant re­taliation without consulting Congress in the event of an attack against the U.S., its western European allies, or the Western Hemisphere.

1954, May 7. U.S . Rejects Russian Applica­tion to N A T O . Britain and France had been consulted prior to the rejection.

1955, January 12. "Massive Retaliation"

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Concept. Secretary of State Dulles an­nounced that the President and the N a ­tional Security Council had taken a basic decision "to depend primarily upon a great capacity to retaliate instantly [against aggression anywhere] by means and at places of our choosing."

1956, October 28. Eisenhower Warns Israel. He warned against taking any "forceful initiative in the Middle East." When Israel attacked Egypt the following day (see p. 1239) and Britain and France subsequently became involved at Suez (see p. 1240), Eisenhower forcefully opposed their "ag­gressions" directly and in the U . N .

1957, March 9. "Eisenhower Doctrine." The President signed bills authorizing him to use armed forces in Middle East if necessary.

1959, March 3. Warning of Submarine M e n ­ace. Admiral Arleigh A . Burke, Chief of Naval Operations, warned of the ever-present danger to U.S. warships and com­mercial shipping posed by Soviet subma­rines in international waters.

1960, January 19. No Missile Gap. Defense Secretary Thomas S. Gates told the Sen­ate Armed Services Committee that previ­ously announced Pentagon estimates of a "missile gap," or "deterrent gap," were based on evaluation of Soviet production potentiality, rather than actual Soviet pro­duction. He later (March 16) told the Senate Preparedness Subcommittee that the U.S. had, and would maintain, a nu­clear destructive power "several times" greater than that of the U.S.S.R.

1960, May 7. U-2 Reconnaissance Plane Shot Down over Russia. Khrushchev made the announcement to the Supreme Soviet that the plane had been shot down from an altitude of 65,000 feet near Sverd­lovsk.

1960, May 17. Summit Conference Collapses in Paris. Khrushchev, angrily denouncing American spying by the U-2 plane over Russia, broke up the meeting. President Eisenhower later reported on T V to the people on the U-2 incident and the failure of the summit conference (May 25).

1960, June 13. Soviet Spy Net. Senator J . William Fulbright made public a U.S . State Department report that the Soviet bloc maintained a network of 300,000 spies throughout the world.

1960, July 14. U.S. Reaffirms Monroe Doc­

trine. This was in response to Khru­shchev's threats to retaliate with missiles if the U.S . should intervene militarily in Cuba.

1961, January. Kennedy Reappraises U.S. Defense Posture. In his first State of the Union Message, he said that he had or­dered an appraisal of U .S . strategy, and had directed action to increase U.S . air­lift capacity, to step up the Polaris sub­marine program, and to accelerate the missile program. Shortly thereafter, in a revised budget (March 28), President Kennedy requested $1,954 billion more in defense appropriations than the $41.84-billion budget submitted by Eisenhower.

1961, Apri l 15-20. Bay of Pigs Incident in Cuba. (See p. 1274.)

1961, June 3-4. Kennedy-Khrushchev Meet­ing at Vienna. No agreement was reached, and Kennedy left the meeting apparently with grave doubts as to a peaceful future.

1961, July 10. Berlin Crisis. (See p. 1228.) The United States rejected a Soviet pro­posal that the U.S. , Britain, and France withdraw their forces from West Berlin, to be replaced by a smaller U.N.-super­vised force.

C U B A N M I S S I L E C R I S I S , S E P T E M B E R - N O V E M B E R , 1962

1962, September 4. Soviet Military A i d to Cuba. President Kennedy announced that Cuba's military strength had been in­creased by deliveries of Soviet equipment, but that there was no evidence of signifi­cant offensive capability in Cuba. A few days later, despite prodding from mem­bers of Congress (particularly Senator Kenneth Keating), President Kennedy said that he opposed any invasion of Cuba (September 12). Next day he warned the U.S.S.R. and Cuba against any build-up of offensive strength.

1962, October 22. Crisis Begins. President Kennedy announced to the nation on T V that U .S . surveillance had "established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation" in Cuba that could menace most of the major cities of the Western Hemisphere, and that jet bombers capable of carrying nuclear weap­ons were being uncrated. He said he had ordered a naval and air quarantine of

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O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F A M E R I C A N S T A T E S 1273

Cuba that would not be lifted until all offensive weapons were dismantled and removed from Cuba under U . N . super­vision. He declared that the launching of any nuclear missile from Cuba against any Western Hemisphere nation would be considered an attack on the U .S . "requir­ing a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet U n i o n . " U .S . forces were placed on alert, and preparations were begun to invade Cuba if necessary.

1962, October 23. Action in U . N . and O A S . A U .S . demand for dismantling of the bases was lodged in the U . N . Security Council. The Council of the Organization of American States approved a resolution authorizing the use of force to carry out the quarantine.

1962, October 23. Soviet Alert. Alerting its armed forces, the Soviet government chal­lenged the U .S . right to quarantine its shipments to Cuba. U .S . invasion prepara­tions continued.

1962, October 24-29. Secret U.S.-Soviet Ne­gotiations. Prime Minister Khrushchev backed down after an exchange of letters with President Kennedy. He agreed to halt construction of bases in Cuba, to dis­mantle and remove Soviet missiles there under U . N . supervision. In turn Kennedy agreed to lift the quarantine when the U . N . had taken the necessary measures, and pledged that the U .S . would not in­vade Cuba.

1962, November 2. Quarantine Lifted. President Kennedy reported to the nation that the Soviet missile bases were being dismantled, and "progress is now being made for the restoration of peace in the Caribbean." The U .S . Defense Depart­ment later announced that the U.S .S .R. had begun withdrawal of its jet bombers from Cuba, as pledged by Khrushchev (December 3). In response to congres­sional criticism, Secretary of Defense Rob­ert S. McNamara proved by photographs that offensive weapons had been fully re­moved from Cuba (February 6, 1963).

1963, January 7. Crisis Ends. The U.S . and U.S.S.R. reported to U . N . Secretary General Thant that the crisis was ended.

1963, M a y 9. Russians Remain in Cuba. The Defense Department estimated that 17,500 Russians were still in Cuba, includ­ing 5,000 combat troops.

1963, August 30. Opening of the " H o t L i n e . "

Direct communications were provided be­tween White House and Kremlin.

1964, February 6. Cuba Cuts off Supply of Water to Guantanamo Base. A U.S . dis­tillation plant made the base self-sufficient.

1965, April . Intervention in the Dominican Republic. (See p. 1275.)

C A N A D A

1953, January 8. Agreement on Radioactive Resources. Agreement between Britain, U.S. , and Canada to share in uranium ore produced in Australia.

1954, May 13. St. Lawrence Seaway Ap­proved by U.S. President Eisenhower signed legislation authorizing the U.S . to join Canada in constructing the Seaway. This was later dedicated by Queen Eliza­beth and President Eisenhower (June 26, 1959).

1954, November 19. Joint Hemisphere De­fense. The U.S. and Canada announced plans to construct a Distant Early Warn­ing (DEW) radar line across Arctic Can­ada.

1958, May 19. N O R A D Established. (See p. 1270.)

1963, May 11. U .S . Nuclear Warheads to Canada. Canada accepted U.S . nuclear warheads for missiles installed on Cana­dian soil and used by Canadian N A T O forces.

1963, August 16. Joint Control of Nuclear Air Defense Weapons. U.S. and Canada signed an agreement under which the U.S. would arm the Canadian Air Defense Sys­tem.

L A T I N A M E R I C A

O R G A N I Z A T I O N O F A M E R I C A N

S T A T E S

1947, September 2. Treaty of Rio de Ja­neiro. The Inter-American Defense Treaty, transforming the old Pan Ameri­can Union into the Organization of Amer­ican States, was signed by all nations of the Western Hemisphere except Canada. This was ratified by the U.S. Senate (De­cember 8) and became effective when

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1274 L A T I N A M E R I C A , 1945-1965

ratified by the fourteenth nation, Costa Rica (December 3, 1948).

1948, April 26. Charter for the Organization of American States. This was established at a conference in Bogota.

1954, March 1-28. Caracas Resolution. The Tenth Inter-American Conference of For­eign Ministers, at Caracas, adopted a res­olution declaring that control of the po­litical institutions of any American state by the Communist movement, an exten­sion of the political system of a Conti­nental power outside the Western Hemi ­sphere, would be a threat to the peace of America.

1959, August 12-18. Emergency O A S Ses­sion. This was called to ease tension in the Caribbean area, which had been raised by Cuban threats of invasion or infiltra­tion.

1962, February 14. Cuba Excluded from the Organization of American States.

C A R I B B E A N R E G I O N

Cuba 1952, March 10. Coup d'Etat. General

Fulgencio Batista seized control of the country and established a dictatorship.

1953, July 26-27. Uprising in Santiago and Bayamo Suppressed. A n effort by Fidel Castro to seize a government armory was defeated; Castro and his brother Raul were captured and imprisoned.

1956, April 29. Rebellion Suppressed. The uprising occurred at Matanzas.

1956, December 2. Cuba Claims Castro Killed. Castro, who had been released from prison, went to Mexico and led an insurgent group landing in Oriente Prov­ince (November 30), was defeated and presumed (erroneously) to have been killed. Actually he and his followers fled to safety in the Sierra Maestra Mountains.

1957-1958. Insurrection. Revolutionaries under Fidel Castro carried out a success­ful guerrilla campaign from the Sierra Maestra Mountains of Oriente Province, gaining increasing popular support. Castro took the offensive and moved out of the mountains (October, 1958).

1959, January 1. Castro Victorious. Ba­tista fled the country as the revolutionaries swept through the country and seized H a ­vana (January 8).

1959, January 7. U .S . Recognizes Castro Government.

1960, November 1. Castro Rebuffed. Presi­dent Eisenhower, in response to Castro's threats against Guantanamo, said the U.S. would "take whatever steps are necessary to defend" the base.

1961, January 3. U .S . Breaks Diplomatic Relations.

1961, Apri l 15-20. Bay of Pigs Incident. A n attempted invasion of Cuba by ap­proximately 1,400 anti-Castro Cuban revo­lutionaries clandestinely supported by the U.S . Central Intelligence Agency, who did not receive the air naval support from U.S . forces which they had been promised, was defeated by Castro forces. This failure was a serious blow to American prestige.

1961, M a y 1. Castro Proclaims Cuba a So­cialist Nation. Secretary of State Dean Rusk next day said that Cuba had become a full-fledged member of the Communist bloc.

1962, September 11. Soviet Threatens War in Support of Cuba. The U.S.S.R. ac­cused the U .S . of preparing for an inva­sion of Cuba, and warned that any U.S. attack on Cuba or on Soviet ships bound for Cuba would mean war.

1962, September-December. Missile Crisis. (See p. 1272.)

1963, March 30. U .S . Bans Exile Raids Against Cuba.

Haiti 1946, January 11. Military Coup d'Etat.

President Elie Lescot was overthrown. The military junta selected Dumarsais Estime as president (August 16).

1950, Apri l . Military Coup. Estime was ousted and replaced by Colonel Paul M a -gloire (October 23).

1956-1958. Chaos in Haiti . Magloire was forced to resign (December 13, 1956) and Francois Duvalier was elected president (September 22, 1957). By ruthless repres­sion he restored order (July, 1958).

1959, August 12-18. Emergency session of the Organization of American States was called to ease tensions in the Caribbean area.

1959, August 13. Cuban Invasion. The in­vading force of 30 armed men was crushed.

1962-1963. Border Incidents with Dominican Republic.

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C E N T R A L A M E R I C A 1275

Dominican Republic 1949, June 20-21. Revolt Suppressed. 1959, June 23. Cuban Invasion. Cuban-

supported invasion of the Dominican Re­public by 86 men was crushed by forces of dictator Leonidas Trujil lo.

1961, M a y 30. Assassination of Trujil lo . This ended the repressive dictatorial re­gime which had lasted for 31 years.

1963, Apri l 27-30. Dispute with Haiti . This resulted from a raid by Haitian police into the Dominican embassy in Port au Prince. The O A S mediated the dispute.

1963, September 25. Military Coup d'Etat. The leftist government of President Juan Bosch was overthrown by military leaders. Later the government was returned to ci­vilian control (October).

1965, Apri l 24-25. Military Coup d'Etat. The civilian triumvirate was overthrown. A bloody civil war broke out, which was halted only by U .S . armed intervention (April 28). Within a week, 19,000 Ameri­can troops were in the Dominican Repub­lic.

C E N T R A L A M E R I C A

Panama 1949, November 26. Coup d'Etat. Dr . Ar -

nulfo Arias was installed as president by the national police.

1955, January 25. Treaty with the U . S . This increased the yearly payments for the Canal Zone from $430,000 to $1,930,-000.

1959, November 3. Anti -U.S . Riots in Pan­ama.

1964, January. Anti -U.S . Riots. Panama broke diplomatic relations with the U.S . because of riots in the Canal Zone.

1964, Apri l 3. Resumption of Diplomatic Relations with the U . S .

Guatemala 1949, July 16-18. Rebellion Suppressed. 1954, June 18-29. Revolution. Anti -Com­

munist forces under Lieutenant Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas invaded the coun­try and called on the people to overthrow leftist President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman. Arbenz sought asylum in the Mexican embassy (June 27). A cease-fire was ef­fective after about 100 casualties had been incurred on both sides. Castillo Armas be­

came leader of a junta, and shortly after­ward was declared president (July 1).

1955, January 20. Revolt Suppressed. Con­tinuing Communist-inspired insurgency.

1960, November 16. Threatened Cuban In­vasion. In the face of threats of inva­sion from Cuba, U.S. warships protected Guatemala and Nicaragua.

Nicaragua 1947, May 26. Coup d'Etat. General Anas-

tasio Somoza overthrew the government of President Leonardo Arguello.

1948-1955. Disputes with Costa Rica (see below).

1956, September 21. Assassination of Presi­dent Somoza. His son, Luis, was elected by Congress to complete his term.

1957, May 2-3. Border Clashes with Hon­duras. Troops of both sides withdrew following O A S mediation.

Costa Rica 1948, April 13-20. Revolution. The dicta­

torial government of President Teodoro Picado was overthrown by rebels led by Colonel Jose Figueres.

1948, December 12. Invasion by Armed Reb­els from Nicaragua. This was repelled; strained relations with Nicaragua resulted.

1955, January 11. Invasion and Rebellion Suppressed. President Jose Figueres again accused Nicaragua of aggression and asked the O A S Council for aid. A n O A S committee set up as a result of this complaint reported (February 17) that the rebels were mostly Costa Ricans who had been based in Nicaragua, and called for conciliation of the dispute between the 2 nations.

1956, January 9. Agreement with Nicaragua. It provided for effective co-operation in joint surveillance of borders.

El Salvador 1948, December 12. Military Revolt. Presi­

dent Castaneda Castro was overthrown, and replaced by a revolutionary junta.

1960, October. Military Coup.

Honduras 1956, October 21. Military Coup. A junta

took control after charges of election fraud against President Julio Lozano Diaz caused violence and bloodshed (October 7).

1963, October 3. Military Coup.

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1276 L A T I N A M E R I C A , 1945-1965

S O U T H A M E R I C A

Guiana 1953, October 9. British Intervention. The

left-wing government of Prime Minister Cheddi Jagan was ousted by British troops to prevent a Communist takeover.

Brazil

1954, August 24. Suicide of President Getu-lio Vargas. Apparently as a result of military plans to foil his attempt to re­establish a dictatorship.

1961, August 26. Military Coup. 1963, September 12. Military Revolt Sup­

pressed. 1964, March 31. Military Revolution. Pres­

ident Joao Goulart was deposed and a military dictatorship was established.

Venezuela

1945, October 18. Military Revolt. 1948, November 24. Bloodless Coup d 'E ta t .

Colonel Carlos Delgado Chalbaud seized control. He was later assassinated (No­vember 13, 1950) and replaced by Ger­man Suarez Flamerich.

1951, October 13. Revolt Suppressed. 1958, January 1-23. Revolt. President M a r ­

cos Perez Jimenez suppressed the first rev­olutionary actions, but was ousted by a military junta in a renewed revolt (Janu­ary 21-23).

1958, July 23. Counter-revolt Suppressed. 1960-1965. Communist Insurgency. Con­

tinuous small-scale harassment of the cen­tral government through the end of the period.

1961, June 26. Military Uprising Suppressed. 1962, May 4-5, June 4. Military Uprisings

Suppressed. President Romulo Betan-court became more firmly seated in con­trol.

1963, November. Castro Plot Discovered. Cuban agents and large quantities of arms were captured by government troops.

Colombia

1945-1965. Endemic Civil War Continues. (See p. 1050.)

1948, April 9-10. Uprising in Bogota. This revolt, embarrassing to the government because it occurred during a meeting of

the Inter-American Conference, was sup­pressed.

1953, June 13. Military Coup d 'E ta t . Pres­ident Laureano Gomez was overthrown by the military under Lieutenant General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla.

1957, M a y 10. Military Coup d 'E ta t . Rojas Pinilla overthrown by junta.

Ecuador 1947, August 24. Military Coup d 'Etat .

President Velasco Ibarra was overthrown in a bloodless revolt by Colonel Carlos Mancheno.

1947, September 1-3. Successful Counter­revolution. Mancheno was overthrown and replaced by Carlos Arosemena.

1951-1955. Dispute with Peru. This was due to disputed frontier locations in an area which had been in dispute for over a century. There were intermittent border clashes and arguments before the Inter­national Court of Justice.

1961, October 4. Military Coup. 1963, July 11. Military Coup.

Argentina 1948, March 4. Agreement with Chile

against Britain. The 2 nations agreed on joint defense of their rights in the Antarc­tic and the Falkland Islands against Brit­ish claims and occupation.

1951, September 28. Revolt Suppressed. President Juan Peron blamed the military revolt, suppressed by loyal troops, on the activities of former U .S . Ambassador Spruille Braden. A state of virtual martial law was declared which gave Peron dicta­torial powers.

1955, June-September. Violence, Disorders, Unrest. Minor military and civilian re­volts were ruthlessly suppressed by the Peron regime. Peron was excommunicated by the Catholic Church for suppressing Catholic schools and imprisoning priests.

1955, September 16-19. Peron Overthrown. As disorders spread, Peron declared a state of siege (September 11). The armed forces then rose in a brief revolt. Peron fled. A junta under Major General Eduardo Le-onardi took control.

1955, November 13. Military Revolt. Le-onardi, accused of being "fascist," was overthrown and replaced by Major Gen­eral Pedro Aramburu.

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S O U T H A M E R I C A 1277

1956, June 10-14. Peronist Revolt Sup­pressed. Later Peronist plots were dis­covered and smashed (August 15, No­vember 22).

1962, March 29. Military Coup d'Etat. President Arturo Frondizi was ousted by the armed forces.

1962, December 11-12. Military Revolt. This was suppressed by loyal troops.

Paraguay

1947, March 30-August 20. Civi l War. Ef­forts by former President Rafael Franco to seize control were defeated by the gov­ernment of President General Higinio Morinigo.

1948-1949. Chaos. After the retirement of Morinigo the nation had 5 presidents in 5 months.

1954, M a y 5. Army Revolt. President Fre-derico Chaves was deposed. General A l ­fredo Stroessner, commander of the armed forces, later was installed as president (August 15).

1959-1960. Rebel Invasions. About 1,000 rebels, based in Argentina, invaded and were crushed (December, 1959). President Stroessner blamed the action on Cuba. Six smaller invasions were also crushed (1960).

Bolivia

1946, July 17-21. Popular Revolution. President Gualberto Villaroel was over­thrown and killed. He was succeeded by a liberal government.

1949, May-September. Unrest and Rebel­lion in the T i n Mines. Suppressed by the

army, but left the nation on the verge of bankruptcy.

1951, May 16. Military Coup. A 10-man military junta, led by General Hugo Bal-livian, seized control in Bolivia.

1952, April 8-11. Revolution. The junta was overthrown by a popular revolt under Hernan Siles Zuazo. Doctor Victor Paz Estenssoro was proclaimed president (April 16).

1958, October 21. Revolt Suppressed. 1960, March 19. National Police Revolt.

Crushed by the army. 1964, November 3-4. Military Revolt.

President Paz Estenssoro was overthrown by Army General Alfredo Obando Candia and Air Force General Rene Barrientos Ortuvo. Obando soon resigned, leaving popular Barrientos in control.

Peru

1948, October 27-29. Military Revolt. The government of President Jose Bustamante was overthrown by a military junta under General Manuel Odria.

1951-1955. Disputes with Ecuador. (See p. 1276.)

1956, February 16-25. Revolt at Iquilas. The military uprising collapsed when all army units failed to join.

1962, July 18. Military Coup d'Etat. Pres­ident Manuel Prado Ugarteche was over­thrown. A military junta took over, under the leadership of General Ricardo Perez Godoy.

1964-1965. Communist Revolt. A very minor state of revolt was maintained by Castroite Communist agents in remote Andes regions.

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1278 A P P E N D I X

Nations Achieving Independence Since World War II

Date of Date of Admission to Country Independence Former Status U n i t e d Nations

Indonesia A u g . 17, 1945 Part of Netherlands Sept. 28, 1950 A u g . 17, 1945 k ingdom (withdrew

J a n . 2, 1965; returned, A u g . 11, 1966)

Jordan M a r . 22, 1946 Br i t i sh mandate Dec . 14, 1955 Phil ippines J u l . 4, 1946 U . S . territory Oc t . 24, 1945 Syria A p r . 15, 1946 French mandate Oct . 24, 1945 Lebanon Dec. 1946 French mandate Oct . 24, 1945 Pakistan A u g . 14, 1947 Br i t i sh dominion Sept. 30, 1947

( India ) Sept. 30, 1947

Ind ia A u g . 14, 1947 Br i t i sh dominion Oc t . 30, 1945 A u g . 14, 1947 (self-governing)

Oc t . 30, 1945

B u r m a J a n . 4, 1948 Br i t i sh crown colony A p r . 19, 1948 Ceylon Feb. 4, 1948 Br i t i sh dominion Dec . 14, 1955 Ceylon Feb. 4, 1948

(self-governing) Dec . 14, 1955

Israel M a y 14, 1948 Br i t i sh mandate M a y 11, 1949 S. K o r e a A u g . 15, 1948 Japanese possession N o t a member N . K o r e a Sept. 9, 1948

J u l . 19, 1949 Japanese possession N o t a member

Laos Sept. 9, 1948 J u l . 19, 1949 Associated state of Dec . 14, 1955 Sept. 9, 1948 J u l . 19, 1949

French U n i o n Dec . 14, 1955

Egypt Oct . 8, 1951 Br i t i sh protectorate (nominal)

Oct . 24, 1945

L i b y a Dec. 24, 1951 I ta l ian colony Dec . 14, 1955 Cambodia Nov. 9, 1953 Associated state of Dec . 14, 1955 Nov. 9, 1953

French U n i o n Dec . 14, 1955

N . V ie tnam J u l . 21, 1954 Associated state of N o t a member J u l . 21, 1954 French U n i o n

S. V i e t n a m J u l . 21, 1954 Associated state of N o t a member J u l . 21, 1954 French U n i o n

Austr ia M a y 15, 1955 Annexed by N a z i Dec . 14, 1955 M a y 15, 1955 Germany

Sudan Jan . 1, 1956 A n g l o - E g y p t i a n Nov . 12, 1956 Jan . 1, 1956 condominium

Morocco M a r . 2, 1956 French and Spanish protectorate

N o v . 12, 1956

Tunis ia M a r . 20, 1956 French protectorate N o v . 12, 1956 G h a n a M a r . 6, 1957 Br i t i sh trust territory

and protectorate M a r . 8, 1957

M a l a y a A u g . 31, 1957 U n i o n of former Br i t i sh colonies

Sept. 17, 1957

U n i t e d A r a b Feb. 1, 1958 Independent states Oct . 24, 1945 Republic 1 1

(Egypt, Syria) U n i t e d A r a b M a r . 8, 1958 Independent states N o t admitted

States (Egypt , as such Syria, Yemen)

Guinea Oct . 2, 1958 French overseas territory

Dec . 12, 1958

Cameroon J a n . 1, 1960 French trust territory Sept. 20, 1960 Togo A p r . 27, 1960 French trust territory Sept. 20, 1960 M a l i J u n . 20, 1960 Autonomous republic Sept. 28, 1960 J u n . 20, 1960

(France) Senegal J u n . 20, 1960 Autonomous republic

(France) Sept. 28, 1960

a Disbanded i n 1961. E g y p t retains title of U . A . R .


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