Berry - Public Peace Private Attachment

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The Society for Japanese Studies

Public Peace and Private Attachment: The Goals and Conduct of Power in Early Modern JapanAuthor(s): Mary Elizabeth BerrySource: Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Summer, 1986), pp. 237-271Published by: The Society for Japanese StudiesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/132388 .

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MARY ELIZABETH BERRYPublic eaceandPrivate ttachment:heGoalsandConduct fPower nEarlyModern apan

ThegoverningliteoftheTokugawa eriod 1615-1868) couldfully s-semble,with ome rowdingndrumplingfrobes,na suite fexpansivereceptionoomswithindocastle.Neitherhe ompositionor he ncom-passing uthorityf this lite-a group mbracinghe hogun imselfndroughly 50 daimyo-was a matterfquestion.The structurefpowerafter 615wastidy,ight,ndcomplete.The same could hardly e said of thegoverningliteof thehighAshikaga eriod1336-1467). Difficulto definend mpossibleocountsatisfactorily,tassumes ontours hat hift s thevantage ndvalues ofthose racinguch ontourslso shift.While he ncumbenthogunmighthavegatheredomfortablynoughwith he mallfraternityfshugo, heywerebut part-seldomeither nited rdominant-of fluid overningcommunityhat till ncluded he mperial ourtitself ivided or lmostsixty ears), ristocraticandholders,mportanteligiousnstitutions,nd,oftenmost ignificant,rmed ocalproprietorsnboth hemilitaryndthepeasant lasses ifnotions itherfclassor ofclassdistinctionsantrulybe saidto apply nthis ase). The authorityheAshikaga idcommandrested pon uneasy ompromisesnd was tested epeatedly yrebelsnoless than yfractiousubordinates.Thenarrowing,nd thevery efinition,ftheruling litewas one oftwoseminal eatures fpolitical dministrationn earlymodernJapan.Largely mplicitnthefirsteaturesthe econd: he oncentrations wellas the xpansionfthegoverningrerogativesxercised ythe lite.Theshogunndthedaimyo ftheTokugawa eriod ollectively onopolizedpreviously isperseduthorityver and and tsresources,militaryorce,law and udicature,ities nd commerce. he newandextraordinaryre-rogativesfrule, ll concerned ith ocialcontrol, ere he ffectiven-

237JournalfJapanesetudies, 2:2?O1986Society orJapanese tudies


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238 Journal fJapanese tudiesstrumentsfthe lite'svery ransformation.ppropriationf theright odisarm ivilians, o divest amurai f and,todeny hanges fstation rresidence, nd to superintendhe hurch nd the mperial ourt erved, tonce,to identify,o contracthemembershipf,and toprotect rom s-sault hepoliticalmastersftherealm.The coercivend ntrusiveowersof earlymodern egimes, ingularlyramaticn range,were lso the n-strumentsfunprecedentedublicpeace.Again, he ontrasts ithmedieval egimesouldhardly e more trik-ing.The shogun ftheAshikaga ouse xercised jurisdictionlways ir-cumscribed-not east nthe apital fKyoto-by both he egal andcus-tomary rivileges f independentroprietors.heyremained ependentuponprivatermies ndupon imitedandand commercialevenues hatwerenever nassailable. ebellion ytheir wndeputiesntheKanto ndKyushu onfinedhogunalnfluenceothecentral rovincesfHonshu.Evencontrol ver nternationalrade nd diplomacyluded heAshikaga.Japan's assagefrom hemedieval othe arlymodernrasappears omimic,nrespecto the ontractionnsize and ignificantlyxpanded re-rogatives f the elite, the passage of western uropean ountries. heanalogysappealing ecauseJapanlso seems ohaveundergonehepara-digmatichift rom emeinschaftogesellschaft-fromhe scendancyfprivate ndprivilegedorporationso the scendancyf the state."Hence, ngeneral erms,wemight iew theAshikaga dministrationas an nterlocutoretween emi-autonomousommunitiesoundnternallyby personal iesof clientagerkinshipndbyreciprocal bligations. hecharacteristicandunit fthe imewasthemuch ttenuated anorshoen)orproprietaryoldingchigy6), ormallymallbut ollectivelynormousin number,hat etained-despite dvancesnpolitical onsolidation-anambiguous ulnerabilityo thetaxationnd urisdictionf theAshikagashogunate. mong hecharacteristicocumentsfthetimewere onfir-mations fprivate ightsn land or other esourcesandoJ6) nd officialstatementsf exemptionrom ublicexactionsmenjo]J) hat cknowl-edged superior rivileges.Also characteristicerevesting ocuments(ategaiJ6) ssigning and, typicallyo militaryeputies, s rewards rgrantsor ervice. ogether ithoyal ervice, ereditynd tatus ndcus-tomgovernedhedistributionf resources-for nderlyinghe ystemflaw and officeholdingeredeeper tructuresfpersonal elation hat er-sistently itigatedttemptstpolitical ationalization,nsofars these e-lations ontinuedo bethebasis ofpolitical ower.Networksfpatronagedominatedommerces they id thedistributionfpower; axationmain-taineda patriarchalharacterparticularlyegardingmpositions ponlabor); and thedevelopmentf permanent,mpersonalnstitutionsf


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Berry: ublicPeace 239rule-notably ntheform fan exchequerrpublic reasury-wasoftenrudimentary.By the Tokugawaperiod, n contrast, uperior rivileges ad dis-solved.Militaryominion ver he mperial ourt, or xample, adfoundexpressionnthe xclusionf ristocratsromovernancenKyoto, ntheirconfinementoa type froyal hetto,nfull conomic ependency,nd nthe code of conduct-still remarkableor tsvauntingrrogance-thatTokugawaHidetadassued o a now ubject obility. iercebattles gainstreligiousommunitiesad culminatednthedisarmamentf templesndshrines, heregistrationnd reduction f theirholdings, he issuance,again,of egalstatutesor eligious odies,andthe ppointmentf mili-tary fficialsosuperintendheir nterests. rmedocal proprietorsacedthemost ggressivectsofsubordination.enied and ndwithdrawnntocastletowns, he samuraihad beencompelled o forfeitheir ases ofpower or n elusive ndambiguous restige ersistentlyualified yde-pendencynd imitedpportunitiesor sefulwork.Domainal ords, hemselvesnmeshedn a web ofshogunal ontrols,now governed ighlyntegratednits f ocal rule.Residents feachdo-main,uniformlyubject othedaimyo's ystemsf aw,taxation,nd ad-ministration,ere lsouniversallyonstrainedynational dicts n armsandmobility.hese ndother dictsconcerningiracy rChristianity,orexample), ll issued na magisterialonebytheunificationegimes, avevoiceto thenewrealitiesf consolidationndenvelopinguthority.Conveyed,s well, byHerculean ffortsostandardize easuresndcurrency,umbled eyondmeasure incetheHeianperiod, hese ealitiestookparticularlynterestingormn the "meta-texts" f the time: thecadastral egistrieshich ccountedndetail or henation'sesourcesndtheagrarian opulation;he administrativendcommercialmapswhichportrayedities, omains,ndthe ountrytselfs integralnitswith learcenters f authority;he bukan,or registriesf military ouseholds,which-with heirists fthedaimyo,heir eirs ndmajor etainers,heirrevenues ndcastles-served, too,as mapsofpower.Theexplosion ndcontrolfknowledge,he bjectificationnd textual epresentationfpo-litical elations-thesewere hehallmarksf anapparentevolution.Butthese haracterizationsfthemedieval ndearlymodern rasare,ofcourse, elective, xaggerated,nly-and thus atally-half-true.heyignore, or xample, he efinementf medievaludicaturendthe trong,ifnever ominant,rendsowardureaucraticrganizationntheAshikagaadministration.heyfailto acknowledgehecontinuingscendancy fprivate, ersonal elationsnearlymodern overnment.heyfalselym-plythat olitical ntegrationisposed,na convincingmanner,fthe n-


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240 Journal fJapanese tudiesdependent, otentiallyivisive nfluencef the courtor the Buddhistcommunity.ettranscendinghese bviousdifficultiesith urmodel-difficulties,hich, n any case, wereno less criticalnEuropethan nJapan--are istinctionso fundamentalhat hey hallengeheutilityftheWestern aradigmoelucidate apan's assage nto he arlymodernperiod.Clearests theabsenceof a version f Western bsolutismnJapan.Powerwas concentrated,o be sure,butin thecollective odyof thedaimyowho retained ontrol ver ocal taxationndmilitaryorce.Fur-ther, he nstitutionalizationfpower-thecreationfregular,ndepen-dent, nd mpersonalrgans frulewith n explicitlyublic nd profes-sional haracter-was ttenuatedtbestonthenationalevel. Aspects f"state" formation,efined rchetypallyyWeber ndstill entral o theWesterniterature,emain roblematicn earlymodern apan-whetherweareconcerned ith public reasury,separateudiciary,ra nationalbureaucracy.'inally,nd mplicitntheprevious istinctions,s the hid-den"qualityfearlymodern egimesnJapan. unctioningargely hroughdomainal dministrations,nnocent fgeneraleviesforrevenue r con-scriptsand,after615,nevertwar), acking nationaloliceforce-theTokugawa hogunate as notconspicuousnpublic ife.Entirely nlikeEuropean tates,t voided ecoming targetfpoliticalmobilizationsn-til henineteenthentury.Suggestives thewesternaradigms in somerespects, hen,Japancontinuesoemerge s anomalous.Whenwe use itwe arecompelled ocast ourdescriptionsnnegative rhighly emperederms, o strain orcomparisons,ocharacterizeapans "late" or "deviant"nthepatternfconvergence.Changes fgrave ignificancelearly idoccur nJapan uringhe ix-teenthentury.uttheywere hanges, believe, f a certainrder: heyoccurredwithin familiarniverse fpolitical ssumptions,how com-pelling ontinuitiesithmedieval evelopment,nd aremarkedntheirdivergencerom he xperiencefwesternurope. nframingnew,moresuitable aradigmodescribe hem,wemust rapplewith woquestionscentral o anunderstandingfthedistinctiveorms fpolitical dministra-tion t thenationalevel.First,what owers id the arlymodernegimesactuallyxercise? r,put nother ay,what ssentialurposes ere erved

1. One ofthemosthelpful nalyses f state ormationn thewest s Charles illy, d.,TheFormationfNational tates n Westernurope Princeton:rinceton niversityress,1975). See particularlyilly's ntroductoryssay,"Reflectionsn theHistory f EuropeanState-Making,"p.3-83. ImportantxcerptsromWeber'sworkre ncludednH. H. GerthandC. Wright ills, ds.,FromMax Weber: ssays nSociologyNewYork: xford niver-sity ress,1946).


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Berry: ublicPeace 241bytheseminal olitical hangeswe have noted-the contractionf theeliteand theattendantoncentrationfgoverningrerogatives?econd,howdid earlymodern egimes ctuallyunction?r,put nother ay,howdidtheychievenationalntegrationithouthe statist" evelopments-in theform f bureaucracyr fiscalrationalization,orexample-thatwere rucialnEurope?Theseare nexhaustibleuestions, ertainly,hat shallengage elec-tively nd, manywillargue, diosyncratically-for y mphaseswill fallupon he imitationsf national ower ndthe irrationality"fadminis-trativentegrationa process, oanticipateater iscussion,hat enteredupon he xchange f bodiesandgifts).t is nonethelessnuniting gen-eral nalysis fthegoalsofpowern the arlymodernegimesothecon-duct fpowernthose egimeshatwemay truggleoward descriptionoftheir eparturesrommedieval olitics.Wemight ote hat his nalysisdoes not nherentlyngage he omplex, lusive, ndgenerally nsatisfac-tory oncepts fprogressnd modernization.My focusthroughouthe discussionwill be upon the "unificationregimes"-primarily hose of ToyotomiHideyoshi 1536-1598) andTokugawa eyasu 1542-1616), andto a lesser xtent fOda Nobunaga(1534-1582). Thesemen,heirs o andreshapersfthe egaciesofa cen-turyf civil warthat adbrought apan'smedieval ra to a close,definedthe erms fJapan's arlymodernettlement.

1. WhatPowersDid theEarlyModernRegimesActually xercise?The unifiersorged xceedingly trong utconsistentlyimited e-

gimes.Failing omonopolizemilitaryorce nd toestablish ationalys-tems ftaxation,hey etreatednother,esscritical,rontss well-fromthe ontrol fbankingnddomesticommerce,or xample, rom hede-velopmentf a national olice system,rom hemanagementffoodpro-duction ndsupply,rom he urveillancefpublicworks ndengineeringprojectscross he ountry. spects fsocialwelfare-schooling, ublichealth, he succor fthepoorandinfirm-were ully eyond heir on-cern, ndperhapsheirmagination.Ambitious ndresourceful en,the unifiers ereoccasionally on-spicuous nmany ronts.hey egulatedertainmarkets,ponsored ecla-mationndriparian rojects, usbanded eserves fricefor heir roops,andso forth. uch efforts erenonethelessporadicndhighlyocalized.Theyrevealno patternf aggressiventervention-inheform, or x-ample,of statemercantilism-indicativef a national olicy.Far out-pacing uchefforts, oreover, eredomainal ndprivatenitiativesintechnological evelopment,anking, ransport,gronomy,ndthe ike)


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242 JournalfJapanese tudiesthat oth stablishedhe ontextor he omparativelyodestwork ftheunifiersndcontinuedo takeprecedencever t.Thus however enseourcatalogues ftheunifiers'owers, ndhow-ever harp urperceptionftheirntrusivendcoercive haracter, emustbeginwith herecognitionhat hese owerswereneither ispersedn fo-cus nor imitlesslyggrandizing.heunificationegimeswerepoliticallyaggressive,ndthenna most maginativend elaborate ashion,nonlyone arena: eace-keeping.rom he awsonarms ndclass totheproscrip-tion fChristianity,rom he nterdictionnprivatelliance othe uppres-sionofpiracy,rom he ontrolsnmarriageothe estructionfcastles-theirnitiativesespokewidecentral owernarrowlyoncentratedponorder. he unifiers,s FujikiHisashihasbeen rguing,efinedecuritystheirmandate.Thisconceptionfrule, ooted swe shall bservenboth hemedievaltraditionndwartimeolitics,must lso be understood-must, erhaps,fundamentallye understood-againsthebackgroundfwar tself.Withthenotable xceptionfChinese rmies, heJapaneseftheSengoku, rwarringtates, ra 1467-1615) hadmusteredhe argest orces nown othe ontemporaryorld; ndthey ad doneso repeatedlyver he ourseof140yearsna nationmallerhan rance.The ast, ataclysmicattlesof theperiodengagedover300,000 men Hideyoshimarshalled p to250,000for he nvasionsfKyushun 1587 and theKanto n 1590)andoccasioned evastatingasualties.eyasumayhave ollected 5,000headsafterhe onfrontationtSekigaharan 1600.?Arms lsopenetratedhevillages, ities, ndmonasteriesfthewar-ring tates eriod s the biquitousnstrumentsfsectarian arfare,grar-ian rebellion,nd endemic iolent uarrelsover uch ssues as borders,water ndforestights, ebts, ommercial rivileges,nheritances,ells,taxes,runaways,ndwives).Thecirculationfweapons nd thehabit fviolent ecourse-sanctioned y traditionsf private usticeand self-redress fgrievancesjirikikyfisai)-accelerateddescent nto awless-nessmarkedqually ythemurderfthe hirteenthhoguntthehands fhisvassals, he estructionftwenty-oneichirenemplesnKyoto uringa single ruesomeaid fmonks romMountHiei,regularttacksymobs

2. Thefullestxpositionf this rgumentppearsnFujikiHisashi,Toyotomieiwa-reito engokuhakai Tokyo: oky6 aigaku huppan-kai,985).3. KusakaHiroshi,d., HOkWbun Tokyo:Hakubun-kan,914),pp. 213-31; KuwataTadachika,Toyotomi ideyoshikenkyaTokyo:KadokawaShoten,1975), pp.209-11;KuroitaKatsumi, d., Shintei 6hW okushiaikei Tokyo:YoshikawaKobun-kan, 964),vol. 38 (Tokugawaikki),p. 70.


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Berry: ublicPeace 243of debtors pon the pawnbrokersf thecapital,vendettas rovoked yadultery,ndpersistentrsonused to facilitateheft.4yoto'swartimediarists sedthe anguage fapocalypseo describe "worldbereft f theway," "consummationfdarkness," "realmnextremity."5oretell-ing are thecity aws-forbidding ublicdancing furyiodori) or sumo,closing the streets o itinerantamurai,permittinghe redemption fpawned rticlesolelybywomen uringhehours fdaylight-thaton-veythementalityf siege.' Even urban eographyecame statementfupheaval: yotowasgiven ver oresidentialslands urroundedymoats,walls, and hauntingxpansesofrubble-strewnields opulated ywildboar,badgers, ndbirds. itched efore ity ntrances ere pikesholdingheadstaken s wartrophies.'The assaultupon thisviolence, s it emergedn the unificatione-gimes, ook omplex ndextreme orm. tfocused, irst,pon stablishingtheruler'smonopolyn ustice-partially hroughegislation nd, moreimportantly,hrough controln andtenureshat roke,nfact, hebasisofprivateurisdictions.hus ongbefore okugawa idetada romulgatedhis awsfor ourtiers,or xample,Hideyoshi adeliminatedristocraticautonomy y cancelling ll proprietaryndtaxation ightsnKyoto,byabolishing uilds nd barrier eesthathadprovidedhecourtwith om-mercialnfluence,ndbyrestructuringhe roku-ch6machiabuttinghepalacethathadprovided constellationfservants nd retainersor hethrone.8 otcontent ith he ttritionf war hat adalreadymuch imin-ished he ingeringowers fthenobility,he nifiers ounted calculatedcampaigno solate his ommunity.

Similarly,he aws fortemples nd shrines nd theappointmentfmagistratesooversee hem ad beenpreceded ycontainmentf rightsn4. An excellent, etailed, nd annotatedhronologyfwartimeventsnKyotomaybefoundnKyoto-shi,omp.,Kyoto orekishi,ol. 10:Nempyo,iten Tokyo:Gakugei horin,1976),pp. 206-54.5. Quoted nAkiyamaKunizo, Kod6 enkaku-shiKyoto:Ky6toShiyakusho-naienKyoto-shi od6 Reng6-kai imusho,944),p. 17.6. See, forexample,Sat6 Shin'ichi t al., comp., Chusei hosei shiryo-shu,ol. 2:

Muromachi akufu-hoTokyo: wanami hoten,1957), tsuika-ho umbers 81, 341, 482;Kyoto-shi,omp., Shiryo y5tonorekishi, ol. 3: Seiji,gy5sei Tokyo:Heibonsha, 979),p. 321, document7 (Kami-kyo onjo, emmon 9/7/10);amashina okitsugu, okitsugu-kyokiTokyo: oku GunshoRuijiu anseikai, 965),Temmon 3/7/14.7. A masterfultudy f Kyoto'sgeography uring he ra of warringtates ppears nTakahashi asuo, Kyoto husei oshi-shi enkyuKyoto: hibun-kaku,983), pp. 291-374.8. Kyoto-shi,omp., Kyotono rekishi, ol. 4: Momoyama o kaika Tokyo:GakugeiShorin,1969), pp. 391-92, 377-78, 288-90; Takahashi,Kyoto husei toshi-shi enkyu,pp.468-81.


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244 Journal fJapanese tudiesland. Thus Oda Nobunaga, or xample,had registeredhe holdings fKdfukujindothermonasteriesnNara ndHideyoshi adconfined ountKoyato theoriginal ropertiesssigned o Kibo-Daishi.9 n thevestingdocumentent oMdriTerumoton1591,Hideyoshixplicitlyut he andallotmentor emplesndshrines nder erumoto'suthority,tipulatingthat eventemplesndshrinesnce mmune romntryfunyti]hallre-vert o the ontrol f this ndividual."0Discrete ut umulativen effect,such nitiativesstablishedhe uperior roprietaryights f theruler, utallocations o religious ommunitieslearlyntheir gift" kishin), ndterminatedhe mmunitieshat adprecludedullmilitaryurisdictionverthe hurch.The final ubordinationfthe amurainvolved hedenial ftenuresnland.Theywere imply utoff rom hevillagers, xtended amilies, ub-vassals, nd ocal allieswhose ntegrationnto hedaimyo's phere fcon-trolhad necessarilyeenqualified y thepresence f these nfeoffed ar-riors.The independencef thedaimyo hemselves,mplicitlyonstrainedby thevesting ecrees hat laced their omainswithin hedispositionfthe rulerwho vested hem,was amply onditionedoo by statute.No-bunaga'snotable awsforEchizenput the domain nthe "trust" fhisdaimyo ndconcluded: Needless osay,youwillfirmlyesolve o act, nall things,nconformityithNobunaga's rders." Hideyoshi's aimyowere ompelledoswear hat In all things, e willnotviolatenthe eastthe rders f heKampaku."TheTokugawa aimyowore strictlyoobeyallregulationsereafterssuedfrom do." TheLawsGoverningheMili-tary ouseholds, irstssuedbyHidetadan1615,followed loselyntoneand ndetail hefourteenrticles ssuedby Hideyoshi's ldersn1595: nmarriages indrinking abits,nclothings intheuse ofpalanquins,nalliances s in ustice-theconduct f thedaimyowas a matterfofficialregulation.2The seminal egislationor hedaimyo, owever, enied heright fprivate edress.n whatFujikiHisashihascalledthe"so buji-rei," irst

9. OkunoTakahiro, d., Oda Nobunagamonjono kenkyuiTokyo:Yoshikawa obun-kan,1969-70), vol. 2, pp. 547-52; TsujiZennosuke,d., Tamon'in ikkiTokyo:KadokawaShoten, 967),pp. 126-3 1; KodamaKotaet al., eds., Shiryo iyoruNihonno ayumi: insei(Tokyo: oshikawa obun-kan,955),pp. 46-47.10. Mori-kemonjo,4 vols. (Dainihon komonjo, ewake monjo, er. 8 [1920, 1922,1922, 1924]), vol. 3, document57.11. Okuno, d., Oda Nobunagamonjono kenkyu,ol. 2, pp. 87-92.12. Omura uiko, ensho-ki,nKuwata adachika, d., Taiko hiryo-shuTokyo: hin-jimbutsu rai-sha, 971), pp. 113-14; Kodamaet al., Shiry6 i yoruNihonno ayumi:kin-sei, pp. 77-78, 78-79; Kusaka Hiroshi, d., Hokokbun Tokyo:Hakubun-kan, 914),pp. 545-47.


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Berry: ublicPeace 245issuedbyHideyoshior heKanto ndthenorthernomainsn1587,Hide-yoshiclaimedpeace and pacifications his exclusiveprerogative,ndeffectivelybolished,underthreat f gravepunishment,aimyopre-rogativesogo to war for heir wnpurposes.'3 he right odefend hedomainwith rms,to resolvequarrels hroughattle, o attackneigh-bors-defining eatures f domainalustice nwartime-wasrescinded.Here, ntheviewofNagaharaKeiji,wasthe viscerationfthe utonomyofthedaimyo.Hideyoshissumed monopolyn waror,alternatively,monopolynpeace.'4Equivalent aws forvillagers-thekenkachoji-rei-followed fter1588inKawachi,Omi,Harima, ettsu, nd otherocations.As privateredress as denied hedaimyo,owere easants orbiddenoresolve uar-relsoverwater rforestights hrougheremptoryelligerence.5 In lawsforKyoto ssued n 1583,Hideyoshi tipulatedhatbothparties o anyquarrelwouldbe summarilyunished,hat ll privateesolutionfgriev-anceswasforbidden,ndthat ismagistrate,aedaGen'i,aloneretainedrightsf ustice.TheTokugawaonsistentlylaboratedpon uch tatutes,both or illage ndcity esidents."A second spect fthe ssault ponviolencenvolved ternctsofdis-cipline, ackedby mmensemilitaryorce,nthefaceofdefiancerdis-turbancef thepeace.Peasant articipantsnan armed uarrel verwaterinSettsu, or xample,were xecutedn 1592.A similartrugglen Omibetween esidentsfthree illages oncludednthe xecution fa repre-sentativeromachcommunityuring589.17Twenty-sixillagesnSaigaon theKiipeninsula,ll loyal othe kk6 ect,were eveled yfire uring1585. ThepriestNichioku, f theHokke ect,wasbanished or efusingtoparticipaten theconsecrationfHideyoshi's aibutsu nKyotodur-ing 1595.A satirist ho eft raffitin thegateofJurakutei,ideyoshi'sresidencen thecapital,was crucified.'8nsubordinationy thedaimyometwith ttainder,eductionsnholdings, r, on occasion,death.OdaNobukatsuost his domain nOwariforrefusingomoveto theKanto;

13. Fujiki,Toyotomieiwa-reio sengokuhakai,pp. 1-76, esp. 75-76.14. NagaharaKeiji, Nihon huseino shakaito kokkaTokyo:NipponHos6 Shuppan-kyokai, 982),pp. 192-93.15. Fujiki,Toyotomieiwa-rei osengokuhakai,pp. 77- 162.16. ShiryoKy6tono rekishi, ol. 3, p. 391; Fujiki,Toyotomieiwa-rei o sengokushakai,pp. 92-106.17. Fujiki,Toyotomieiwa-rei o engokuhakai,pp.79-83.18. OmuraYuiko, ensho-ki,p. 67-69; TanakaYoshinari, oyotomijidai-shiTokyo:Meiji Shoin, 1934),pp. 73-78; Miyazaki ishui t al., Nichirenhinko o rekishiTokyo:Shunjii-sha, 972), pp. 106-8, 116-21; ShiryoKy6tono rekishi, ol. 5: Shakai,bunka(1984),p. 325, document 2.


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246 Journal fJapanese tudiesSassa Narimasaostbothhisdomain ndhis ifefor recipitatinggrarianuprisingsnHigo.9Normallyonductednpublic, xecutionsf usticewere ccompaniedby frighteningisplays f strength.hree thousand oldiers inedthestreetsurroundingennoRikyu's esidence hile he eamaster as cut-tinghisbellyunder rder romHideyoshi. irst xhibitedn carts ndpulled hroughouthemajor treets fKyoto, he hree hildrenndthirty-one women ttendantsf Toyotomi idetsuguwentto theirdeaths tSanj6-gawaran thepresence f a vastguard.20est suchmessagesbemissed,Hideyoshi tirredhememoryfpotentialubversives. series ffive aried rders othemonks fMountKdyaconcluded: Inasmuch syou saw withyour wneyesthatMountHiei andNegoro emplewerefi-nallydestroyedor ctingwith nmitygainst herealm,youshouldbediscerningn thesematters."1 In its threatfsevere, utominously n-specified, unishmenthis rticle ypifiesaw of theunificationeriod.Disciplinewas certain, ts formdiscretionary.tatutes epeatedly idstate, owever,hat twould ecollective. Iftheresany oncealmentofmilitary enwhohavebecome ownsmenrfarmers],ll nthat eighbor-hood and that laceshallbe broughto udgment." Shouldanyfarmer,abandoningisfields, o into rade rwage abor, hat erson, eedless osay, nd all inhisvillage, hallbebroughto udgment."2It s the hirdspect fthepacificationrocess hatsmost amiliar,fcourse: heattempto eliminate hewherewithalndtoreduce heocca-sions fwar.Often iewed iscretelys policies f"control,"nd dducedcollectivelys evidence f ntemperatetate ower,nitiativesnthis reamight ettere perceived s a systemicttack pontheroots fdisorder.Thewithdrawalf the amurai rom he and,much s itserved obreaktraditionsf local justice,served oo to transformhe conditions re-cipitatingocalupheaval.General imitationsn socialmobility-denialoftherightochange tationrresidence-constrainedew entriesntothe amurai anks,mass bscondingndmigration,oliticalmobilization,abrupt hanges n agrarian emography,nd all unregisteredravel rmovement.aws for ommonersoverningccesstoarms-definednot

19. Tanaka,Toyotomiidai-shi, . 215.20. Haga Koshiro, ennoRikya Tokyo:Yoshikawa ibun-kan, 963), pp. 259-72;MuraiYasuhiko, en no Rikya Tokyo:NipponH6so Shuppan-kyokai,973), p. 230; "TheSecondEpistle fthedeathe f theQuabacondono,WrittenyF. Aloysius rois, ne oftheSocietye f Jesus, romJapanianthemonth fOctober, n.Do: 1595," na contemporarytranslationyFrederica ldach,heldby theHoughton ibrary, arvard niversity,S Jap3.1,pp. 68-69.21. Kodama, hiry6 i yoruNihonno ayumi: insei, p. 46-47.22. Hok6 bun, p. 311-12.


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Berry: ublicPeace 247only s "long swords, hortwords, ows,spears,muskets,ranyotherform f weapon" but also as all "unnecessarymplements"irazarud5gu)-gave a structuralimensionostatutesorbiddingrivateedress.The edicts utlawing hristian roselytismttacked divisive reed hatinspired ampages gainst ative hrinesndBuddhistemples, hallengedtemporaluthority,ndbestowedangerousnfluenceponforeignriests.Assaults ponpiracy roughtrder o the eas, coastalvillages, ndoffi-cially anctionedrade.23Deeplyaffectedyall of thesepolicies, hedaimyo lso faced truc-tural onstraintspon heirwnfreedom.requentransferndredistribu-tion fholdingsemoved hem rom amiliarurf ndpositionedeasonedalliesof theunifierslongtheboundariesfpotentiallyelligerentords.The reductionf thecastlesof thedaimyo, hesurveillanceftheir o-mainsby spiesand inspectors,heperiodic ollection fhostages-allconstrainedreparationsorwar.24In lessermatters,oo,theunifiersemained igilant. he temples fmajor cities, ports, nd castle townsweretransferredo well definedzones,or teramachi,where heywereboth emovedromheirongrega-tions nd subject ooversight.nlicensed ccesstothe mperial alace bycommoners as forbidden.yotowasgirdled ya stone nd earthen am-part hatmpeded ntry y mobs,brigands,nd othermiscreants.25Ina fourthnd final ssault pon awlessness,heunifiersssailedthevery rinciplefprivatenterest. obunaga autioned isdaimyo o "re-vereme anddo notfeel nmityorme behindmyback." 6 The primacy fthe uler'snterest,ndtheurgencyf a corporateommitmento t,foundbothpracticalndhortatoryxpression.n thefirstnstance,heunifiersforbadeersonallliances mong hedaimyo,ven perhaps specially)ntheir etrothals. he fourteenrticlesssuedby Hideyoshi'sldersbegin:"In marriage elationships,hedaimyo hould btain he pproval ftheruler eforeettlinghematter."heygoon: "Greater nd esser ords restrictlyrohibitedromnteringeliberatelynto ontractsnd from ign-

23. One treatmentfthesebroadly amiliar tatutesmaybe found n MaryElizabethBerry, ideyoshiCambridge: arvardUniversityPress,982),pp.91-93,102-11,133-34.24. See, for xample, erry, ideyoshi, p. 80-85, 90-91, 95-96, 132-33, 141-43;HaroldBolitho, reasures mongMen:TheFudai Daimyo nTokugawa apan NewHaven:Yale Universityress, 974),pp.7-17.25. Kydtono rekishi, ol. 4, pp.301-7; FujitaMotoharu,Heian-kydhensen-shi(Kyoto: uzukake, 930), pp. 43-44; thegeneral tructuref teramachi ncastle owns fthe do periodsapparentrom studyfthemaps nNishikawa oji andHaradaTomohiko,eds.,Nihonno shigaikozu:higashiNihonTokyo:KashimaKenky0-jo huppan-kai,973);Kyoto o rekishi,ol.4, pp. 288-90, 294-301; Fujita,Heian-ky3 ensen-shi,. 43.26. Okuno, d., Oda Nobunagamonjonokenkyfi,ol. 2, p. 92.


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248 Journal fJapanese tudiesingoaths ndthe ike." Theoriginal awsGoverningheMilitary ouse-holds tipulate:Do not nterntomarriage rivately." nd commentaryconcludes:To form n alliance ymarriages the oot f reason." ubse-quentaws forbid heformationf eagues nd the akingfoaths.27Joined o statutorynjunctionsgainst rivatelliancewere nvocationsof common ood, he kogi"orpublic nterest,hat equiredhe acrificeofpersonalnterest. singularlynterestingxpressionfthe sentimentappearsntheoath aken ysenior aimyoustbefore ideyoshi'seath.

Item:will erve ideyori. y erviceohim,ust ikemy erviceothe aik6,hall ewithoutegligence.Addendum:willknow oduplicityr other houghtst all.Item: sfor he aws ndHideyoshi'srdersstheyave een eclareduptothe resentime,willnot iolatehemnthe lightest.Item:nasmuchsI understandt obe orthe akeofkogi, will is-card personal enmitiesowardmypeers ndwill notact in my owninterests.Item: willnot stablish actions mongmy ssociates.Even f hereare awsuits,uarrels,rdisputesnvolvingarentsnd hildren,rothers,orcomplainantshomknow, resolve,nowingopartiality,o ct nconformityith he aw.Item: willnot eturnillfullyomy omain ithoutskingeave.(Emphasisdded)28

We shall returnoconsider he mplicationsfk6gi-a chameleon ermthatmasks s often s itmirrors eaning-inthe onclusion. uthere, etusnote, t s both ied nextricablyo the nterestsin peaceful uccession)of therulerhimself ndpoised antitheticallygainst uplicitous rivatethoughts, ersonal nmities nd interests, actionalism,artiality,ndwillful ction.Assembledntheunificationegimes, hen,werewide-rangingut o-ordinatedffortso eliminateawlessviolence redicatedponprivaten-terest, ersonalustice, hehabitual esortoarms, ndthefailure fsupe-riormechanismsf aw enforcement.heseefforts ere learly otnovelin their iscrete arts,however. he Sengoku xperiencetself an belargely nderstoods a convulsiverocess irectedowardhe ationaliza-tion ndvertical efinitionf relationsfpower.Committedoabsolutejurisdictionvertheir omains, aimyoike the magawaused their awcodestodeny he ocalauthorityfthe hogunate,o terminateheudicialimmunitiesshugo unyf) fformerlyrivatendprivileged roprietors,

27. Hdkd bun, p.545-47; Kodama, hirydiyoruNihonoayumi: insei, p. 79,80.28. MWri-keonjo, ol. 3, document62.


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Berry: ublicPeace 249and to embracedomainalresidentsnderuniform,niversal tatutes.29MichaelBirt'swork ntheH11j6 ominionn theKanto,further,ffersconvincingxaminationfthesubordinationnd stratificationfthesa-muraihat stablishedhepreconditionsor hefinal escissionf theiren-ures n land.30Intwoother, articularlyritical, espects,hedaimyo fthe ixteenthcenturylso fixed heparametersfunificationustice.First,he magawaas well as the Takedastipulatedn their odes (of 1526 and 1547) that:"Parties oquarrels illboth epunishedydeathwithoutnquirynto hemeritsf thecase." While imilar tatutes ad been a fixturefwartimeandmedievaludicature,hesewere hefirstrticles ocombine ltimatesanctionswithoint,unconditionallame: violenceused in defensewasfully s culpable s violent ggression.'They applied,moreover,o allresidentsegardlessfclass.The second nfluentialeaturefwartimeeg-islation,onspicuousnall survivingousecodes,wasthe ondemnationofprivate ondsofattachment-of lliances, eagues,factions,ontrac-tualoaths,politicalmarriages, inship ssociations-thatmitigatedhedaimyo's rimacyndconditionedheruleof aw.32 ctions rovoked ythesebonds,repudiateds lawless nthemselves, ere lso forbidden-vendettas,eeds frevenge,artialityn udgment,uasion f magistrate.Hence n aw, fnot lways nfact, he eading aimyo fthewarringstates ra had initiatedheassaultuponprivatenterest,ersonalustice,andviolent elf-redress.heyanticipatedheunificationegimesntheiridentificationfpowerwith hesuppressionfmediatingiesof attach-ment, forderwith xclusive ontrolver awand ts nforcement,ndofsecurity ith nconditionalesponsesoviolence. ndeed he ode oftheRokkaku ouse 1567),with ts laboratetipulationshat hedaimyo im-selfwasconstrainedy aw,surpassed nificationudicaturen tssepara-tion fthepersonsndtheprinciplesfpower.As Katsumata hizuo hassuggestedn his meticulous nd thoughtfulnalysesof Sengoku aw,

29. Sat6 Shin'ichi t al., comp.,Chasei h6sei shiry5-sha,ol. 3: Buke kahd Tokyo:Iwanami hoten, 969), , 115-131, esp. the oncludingtatementn p. 122and article 0,p. 130,of the awsof 1553.30. MichaelP. Birt,"Samurai n Passage: Transformationf theSixteenth-CenturyKanto," n TheJournal fJapanese tudies,Vol. 11,No. 2 (Summer 985), pp.369-99.31. Katsumatahizuo, engoku-h6eiritsuhironTokyo: okyo aigaku-huppan-kai,1979),p. 256.Alsoseepp.247-57 andKatsumata, ithMartin ollcutt,The Developmentof Sengoku aw," in JohnWhitneyall,NagaharaKeiji,and Kozo Yamamura,ds.,JapanBefore okugawa: oliticalConsolidationnd EconomicGrowth,500 to1650 (Princeton:Princetonniversityress,1981),pp. 101-24.32. Katsumata, engoku-h3eiritsu hiron, p. 234-47; Katsumata, The Develop-ment fSengoku aw," pp. 104-1 1.


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250 Journal fJapanese tudiesdaimyo fthe imemay lso havemaintaineddistinctionetween hedo-mainal uler ndthe nterestsf thedomainthekokka) hatwas notmain-tained etweenheunifiersnd the nterestsfthe ealmthetenka, rthekigi). Hideyoshimbodied herealm;he wasthekogi.34If the lementsf unificationaw find recedentsnwartime,oth is-cover heir riginsnthemiddle ges. Fourof the upplementaryrticles(tsuika-h.5)ftheKemmu ode 1336)concernffensivenddefensivectsofwarorredress. tem15 sanctionscts ofdefense, lthough olelyforgoodcause,while ondemningctsof ggressionhat ack hogunal utho-rization.tem26 repeats hatgrievantseventhosewith lear grudges)must ppealto theBakufu or uthorizationfvengeance, rohibitsn-sanctioned elligerence,ndprescribesullconfiscationfpropertyorthosewhopursue ggression ithoutustificationleaving nspecifiedhepunishmentor hosewhoengage nunsanctioned,utnonethelessustifi-able, aggression-a neatdistinction).n an importantddendum,onfis-cation fpropertys alsoprescribedor ccomplices,xceptwhen mplecausefor defensivectcanbeadduced. tem 8identifiesoth ggressiveanddefensivections s criminal ndpunishable, hile llowinghat hepunishmentfdefenders illdependuponthecircumstances.tem396stipulatesull onfiscationfpropertyrom ll aggressors,onfiscationfhalf fthe ropertyfdefenders;hen ggressionssufficientlyeinous omeritapital unishment,efendersooare to oseallproperty.35A persistentnterestnmitigatingircumstances,sympathyorde-fendersuntil he final tem f 1516),a reluctanceorespond o lawlessvengeancewith apital unishment,nda respect-inauthorizedases-forprivate ather han fficialnforcementf ustice learly et these r-ticles part romnificationractices. here snonethelesspparentereconsistentarrowingfthemarginor edress nddefense. lways equir-ingofficial uthorizations wellas ampleand ustifiable rounds,vendefensive ctionswithout ermissionre proscribed,n theend,underthreatfgrave enalty.In respect o general awlessness, he thirdrticle f thecode itselfopensanongoing erorationgainst ll manner ftheft,ssault,murder,harvestisorders,iolence ver axcollection,ttacks ponpawnbrokers,arson, nd "carousing."Uncompromisinglyondemned,n law again f

33. Katsumata,The DevelopmentfSengoku aw," pp. 114-24.34. OmuraYuiko efers o Hideyoshi s kogi n theTensho-kind twenty-onef Hide-yoshi's ersonaletterslose with he ignatureenka. ee Tokyo aigakuShiryo ensan-jo,comp.,Ho6 aiko hinseki-shfi,vols. Tokyo: oky6 aigakuShuppan-kai,938).35. All numbersefero he suika-h6s they ppearnSato t l., Muromachi akufu-h6.


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Berry: ublicPeace 251not nfact, renot nly onventionalrimes ut nyuse ofpublicforce.36Asearly s 1346,moreover,he ormationf eagues ikki) or iolent ur-poses s forbidden,ndby 1490all accomplicesnd confidants hofail oreport eagueaction-even collaboratorsn thearistocraticndmilitarycommunities-arehreatened ith onfiscationfholdings. onspiratorswith hieves ndpirates, egardless gainof station, re also liable topunishment.37The inroads hat ppearhere gainstnoble andreligiousmmunities,originallyxpressedn lawsprohibitingheharboringf traitorsr mur-derers,ontinuen tems hat orbid he ourt ograntitle omilitary enwithouthogunal onsent,n exhaustiverticles overninghe onduct ftheZen community,nd nsanctionsgainst he nterferencefoutsiders("courtiers,women, en priests") n theconduct fgovernment.38tem145, ssued n1386,takes imat MountHiei.Mobaction, iolent escentsinto he apital, engeancend ntimidationn thepart f tsmonasteriesandshrines reproscribed.These andmany imilar onstraintsponthetraditionalroprietaryandgoverningommunityre wellknown, fcourse.The limitationsfAshikagaustice re also wellknown. mmunitiesndprivateurisdictionssurvivedntil heendofthe ixteenthentury.lanket anctionsgainstquarrels, nd all parties o them,waiteduntil heSengokuperiod.Theshogunateondemned he lawlessness f leagues,butnot the leaguesthemselves.ut thepointhere s a simple ne. Whilewemust cknowl-edgethe ignificanteparturesn wartimend unificationustice, hey e-long oa continuumfchange.Already trikingnthe awoftheAshikagais a movementowardncompassing,uperiorurisdiction,hedenialoflawlessprivate edress, ndthe dentificationfviolence s a centralon-cern f,and an intolerable enace o,the hogunaldministration.No lesssignificants therefinementf udicialprocedurenthemedi-evalera,a developmenthat ates t leastfromheKamakura eriod. ntheirheoreticalutlines fadministrativeonductinthe Sata mirensh6andtheBuseikihan) nd ntheir racticallaborationfthe nstrumentsfjudicature,heearly hogunates urpassed ll but the ate Tokugawa e-gimes.39Whatremainstrikingbout hemedievalhogunates,nfact, stheirpparentefinitionfgovernmentn udicialterms. hey ctedpre-

36. See, for xample, suika-h6 umbers 1, 188, 306, 336-343, 515, 520.37. See, for xample, suika-h3 umbrs 9, 29, 30, and 304.38. See, for xample, riginal rticles , 10, 11, 16 and tsuika-h6 umbers , 66-78,184, and234.39. ReproducednSat6etal., Muromachi akufu-h6,p. 355-98.


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252 Journal fJapanese tudieseminentlys judges,thechief ole ofvirtuallyll officials,ndintheirresponsivenesso suits oth xpanded ramaticallyheir wn nfluencendprovoked idening onceptionsf,and participationn, thepolitical ro-cess. Thus nmediatingommercialuarrels, or xample, heAshikagaimplicitlyxtendedheirurisdictionver radewhile stablishingor om-monergrievantsherights f recourse o authority.itigation lso es-tablished herightsftownspeopleo purchaseand nd houses n Kyoto,protectedransactionsnrealpropertygainst ebt ancellations,nd rec-ognized he ontractsfcommonerswills,guild aws, sales agreements,andthe ike) s bindingn aw.40hefluidityndopennessfmedieval ys-tems frule, ikethepunctilityf egal procedure, ouldnotbe excelled.Whatwasexcelled, fcourse,was the each fpower. he changes fwartimeroughtnendtoproprietarymmunitiesnthedomains, ssailedthenotion nd not nly he awlessness ffaction,nddenied iolent elf-redress nconditionally.he changes f the unificationeriodwere, npart, hanges fscope.Lawscondemningnequal measure oth arties oarmed uarrels, nce both are nd ocal,werebroadly rticulated.awscondemning rivate lliance and self-redressere also extended o thedaimyohemselves.wift nd ure nforcement,lthoughhe ointsdiffi-cult odocument, robablymproved. ertainlytacquired newpublicanddramaticuality. ccasionallyapriciousrexcessive ses offorce-Nobunaga's ire aid n northernyoto rHideyoshi'sxecutionfRikyii,for xample-heightenedhe error.Itmay appear, oo,that hefinal ubordinationf thecourt ndthechurch,ndeven hefull ivestituref the amurai,weremattersfscopeas well-extending o a logicalconclusion he mperativesf wartime(and, nsomerespects,f themedieval ra).Yet what s logical orwhatmay eem ogical nretrospect)snot nevitable. rends o notforetelle-sults; he xistencefpreconditionsor hange annot ictatehe hape fchange.Thenoveltyf unificationolitics aynot o much n the ontrac-tion fthe lite ndthe tern ierarchicalrderingfrelations fpower,process ong underway,ut nthedeliberate,tructuralssaultuponthefoundationsn landofprivate rivilege.Whiletheir redecessorsermi-nated mmunitiesndwrote aws foronce independentroprietors,he

40. See, for xample,Wakita aruko, ChuseikokiKyitonotochi hoyti i tsuite," nNagahara eiji, ed., Sengoku-kio kenryokuo hakai Tokyo: okyo aigaku huppan-kai,1976),pp. 265-329, esp. 311-25. WhileWakitamphasizeshe imitationsndthe ulnera-bility f the ransactionsnpropertyfcommoners,t sequally ppropriateoacknowledgethe ncreasingcale and egitimacyf these lbeit imitednitiatives.ommoners ad begunto use governmentuccessfullyoprotectheirwn salesandcontracts.


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Berry: ublic Peace 253unifiersbolished andrights. heyfounded bsoluteurisdiction-thegoal as wellas themediumfpacification-upon bsolute roprietorship.The novelty f their egimes ay, too, in the structuralpproach oformsfdisordereparable rom rivilegedandholding. hiletheir re-decessors adtaken ostagesr nveighedgainst iolentuarrels,heuni-fiers ollected rms,haltedmobility,losed their orders o Christianpriests. inally, he noveltyf their egimes ayintheirntegral harac-ter-in themasterfulombinationf urisdictionalupremacy,ggressivepunishmentfviolations,ystemicttacks pon he oots fdisorder,ndthedenial fprivatelliance.Yetwe arestill alkingfnoveltyatherhan f revolution.neofthemost nterestinghingsbout he ixteenthentury-sooften escribednthe anguage frevolution-is he bsence fthe entralevolutionaryct:theoverthrowf a legitimateational overnment.fthedaimyo epudi-ated hogunalaw within heir omainsevenwhile sing ts anguage ndtraditions),hey lso appealedfor hugo itle rom heBakufu ndfoughtunder he hogunal annerwhen t suited hem. omehow eparatinghepersonsndgoverningracticeshat ecamevictimsftheir ars romheinstitutionshose ersons epresented,hedaimyo onceived ofrontalrideological ttack pontheshogunatetself.Persistentpheavals t thecenterfshogunal ower-beginning ith heOninWar ndculminatinginassassination-involvedhe ransferrexercise fthat ower ndpre-sumed tscontinuation,ot ts extinction. s WakitaOsamu's workhasshown, venOda Nobunagaworked o revivehe hogunalnstitutionfill-ing tsoffices,ecuringts ncome), erceivingt as the ogicalmedium fnational dministration.'heend,when tcame,took heform f a per-sonalstruggleetweenNobunaga ndthe ntractableoshiaki. hatend,moreover, as not marked y contemporariess an event ignifyingseminal olitical assage.The Shinch6-k5i, Nobunaga's iography,s-signs t no surpassingignificancend theTensh6-ki,ideyoshi'sfficialbiography,ails to mentiont at all.42 ndeed n 1587Hideyoshi ested10,000koku n AshikagaYoshiaki.Moretelling re the documents fMaeda Gen'i,Hideyoshi'smagistratenKyoto, hat onsistentlynvokeAshikaga ecordsnsupportf thedecisions f theToyotomiegime. axexemptionsregrantedo theKamoshrines, or xample, inasmuch sthe hrines avebeen ntrusted ith epeated hogunal ecrees on-geji]."Hideyoshimergesnthese ocumentss the egitimateuccessor f egiti-

41. Wakita samu,Shokuh6eiken obunseki, ol. 2: Kinseih6ken-seieiritsu hiron(Tokyo: okyo aigakuShuppan-kai,977),pp.239-61.42. Ota Gyilichi, hincho-koi,ed. OkunoTakahiroTokyo:Kadokawa hoten, 970).


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254 Journal fJapanese tudiesmatepredecessorsndas the nforcerf their rders. heir ssociationspointedlymphasized, ever isavowed.

Onemightrgue, ertainly,hat he hogunate assimply ooeviscer-ated to matters an enemy robstacle, ndtoouseful-as a source flegitimacy,n administrativeodel, historicallyurable ymbol f au-thority-to bandon ltogether.utwemightlsoreformulatehis bser-vation omewhat,n themannerfJ.G.A.Pocock nterpretingdmundBurke, osee in theBakufu depositoryfcollective isdom ndgovern-ingexperience,f awand egal anguage, nd ofgradual djustmentsoreality hat embody hewisdom f moremen, na higher tate frefine-ment,han he ndividualntellectanhopetoequalorexceed." The au-thorityf tstradition,ikethe uthorityfthe ommonaw,wassuperiorand ntecedentothe uthorityfany uler. hus he aimyowhogatheredatNij6castle n 1611 o swear oyaltyo theTokugawawere ompelled o"act inaccordwith he awsofthe hogunatekub6] hroughouthegen-erations ince he ime ftheGreatGeneral ftheRightYoritomo]."45Theabsence fthe evolutionaryct ndthe tress pon ontinuityayindicate perceivedommunityfpurpose etweenheunifiersnd theirAshikaga redecessors:common reoccupationith rder,with he u-periorurisdictionecessaryo achieve t,and with heneedto suppressviolence hroughttacks ponprivateustice.Obscuring,ndevendenying,his ontinuumnpolitical oals s a dis-positionn moderncholarshipoappreciatehemoderationf medievaljudicaturend to recoilfrom he tructurefsocialcontrol reatedntheearlymodern ra.And, ndeed, he copeof "peace-keeping"nder heunifiers assovast, nd ts mplicationsograve, s to beliethe haracter-ization fearlymodern overnments limited. etwemight emper hisresponse,s FujikiHisashi uggests,yweighinggainst he ppressionfsocial control heoppressionfendemic iolence hatmedieval egimeswere nable ostem.46 emightlso measurearefullyhe ctualweightfofficialntrusion-forheevidence f continuedelf-rulenvillages ndcities ignificantlyhades he ortraitf stateeviathan.inally, emightconsiderhat heunifiersoined ferociousnergyn the ffortfpacifica-

43. Maeda Gen'i, "Gen'i Hiin gejij6," in Hanawa Hokinoichi, omp., Zoku gunshoruija Tokyo: okuGunsho uijiKansei-kai, 961), er.23, pt.2,vol.666, pp. 329-42. Thequotationsfromocument7. Thepoints exploredmore roadlynMary lizabeth erry,"Restoring hePast: The Documents fHideyoshi'sMagistratenKyoto," ntheHarvardJournalfAsiatic tudies,Vol.43,No. 1 June 983),pp. 57-95.44. J.G. A. Pocock,TheAncient onstitutionnd theFeudal Law: EnglishHistoricalThoughtnthe eventeenthenturyNew York:W.W. Norton, 967),p. 242.45. Kodama,Shiry6 i yoruNihonnoayumi: insei, . 77.46. Fujiki,Toyotomieiwa-reiosengoku hakai,pp. -xi.


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Berry: ublicPeace 255tion o retreatromther unctionscontrolfdomesticommercendthelike)andopportunitiespreeminentlyhat fconfiscatoryaxation).

Thislatterssue-the apparentbsenceofexploitativextractionsyofficials-bears articulareflection.learly hegoal of theunifiers astheestablishmentf a context f orderwithinwhich hegoverninglitecould laim ts hare fnational esources. lthough ardly ovel n tself,this bjective oes retain n unusual esonancensofar s order ookpri-orityver hemaximizationfthat esource hare.Notablentheunifica-tion ra,thephenomenons more rrestingnthe ateTokugawa eriodwhen penuriouslite lected eavy ebt verncreasedgrarianaxation,systematicxploitationfcommerce, penforeignrade, eductionfthesamurai opulation,ttainderfdomains, r anyother ction hatmighthave mperiledhe ocial andpolitical rder. heprimacyfpeace, andtherelegationf economic ggrandizemento a secondary osition, ssurelyentral oanunderstandingf the bsence nearlymodern apan f"state ormation"s itoccurrednthewest.Neithernternationalarnorintractableivilunresteneratedhe ostsofmobilization,heneedfor nexpanding olicenetwork,he ncentiveso centralontrol ver roductionand consumption,nd so forth.By closely demarcatingheir riticalsphere f nterest-the reservationfpeace-the unifiersndtheir uc-cessors enouncedhe imitlessnterferencefgovernmentnexchange orsecurity.hisbargainmay xplain he tabilityftheTokugawa egime.

2. How Did EarlyModernRegimesActually unction?Inestablishingrder,heunificationegimes idseize someclassically

"statist" rerogatives:monopolyn justice,universalurisdiction,herighto dissolve rivate actions. hisdevelopmentccurred, owever,nthe bsence fattendantnstitutionalr"state"development.he unifierswrote oconstitutions,odified o aws,created o udiciaries, ssemblednonational ureaucracy,ppointed o national olice, openedno publictreasury.Two caveatsmaybe appropriateere.First, fcourse, heunificationregimeswerenew, mmaturedministrations.urther, e shallconsidertheir ational atherhan heir ouseholdunctions-tomake distinctionthatwasmeaninglessotheunifiershemselves.npractice, uleover herealmwas anextension,nd was executed npart ythepersonnel,ftheadministrationsesignedosupervisehedirect oldingskurairi, enry6)oftheunifiers. he householddministrationftheTokugawa, lthoughnever believe trictlybureaucratic,"ecame ncreasinglylaborate, ou-tinized,ndprofessionalver ime.Yet even nmature orm, he nstitu-tional haracterfnational ulewasminimal.


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256 JournalfJapanese tudiesIndividual omainal ordsdominated he national dministrationsftheunifiers. heyserved hree,never ntirely eparate, unctions:he

daimyo overnedheir wndomains s semi-autonomousocallords; heyalso served s localrepresentativesfcentralulers, nforcingithinheirownboundariesheuniversaltatutesnarms ndclass, for xample; ndthey ssumed, y special ppointment,hose upra-domainalasks hat heunifiersccasionally aw fit o assign.Thuswhile ocal lordsexecutedmost fHideyoshi'srderswithinheirwndomains, ome rustedaimyo(normally ppointed s bugy3)conducted adastral urveys, ollectedarms, nddestroyedastlesbeyond heir oundaries.47he fourteenr-ticles f1595providehefirstocumentaryvidence fsomethingesem-bling regulardministrativeouncil o act, significantly,nthearea ofjudicature:A directppeal . . should irst e addressedothe enmenwhowill ake teps o summon oth arties."8Fiveofthe en, lldaimyo,were hargedustbefore ideyoshi'seath o actas guardiansfhischildheir; he ther ive, hego-bugy6,ssumed round 595 a varietyftasksincluding esponsibilityorHideyoshi's ersonal evenuendsurveillanceof domainal ransfers.nthewords f oneofHideyoshi'sonfidants,rit-ing s theTaik6 aydying,hefive ugy5 adbeendelegatedo "order heaffairsfJapan."9Ieyasurelieduponhis elders karn),a small councilof hereditarydaimyowhoemerged s precursorsf theTokugawa enior ouncillors(rOja). The atter, ormallyour rfive nnumber, ere hemajor eputiesof statewhoseresponsibilitieserefinallytipulated,nthemostgrosslygeneral erms, uring 634.These ncluded:he ourt,henobility,ndtheprincelybbots; he ffairsnd itigationfthedaimyo; hehouse andsofthe hogun;major onstructionrojects; emplesndshrines;ndforeignrelations. erving eyasu'selders were daikan(typicallyn chargeofTokugawa roperties),varietyfregularnd emporaryugy6includingcitymagistrates),ndsomespecialists ngagedn andsurveying,or x-ample, r the ommissariat.Several eaturesnthe dministrationsfHideyoshind eyasu emainstriking.othmen ntrustedo localdaimyo he nforcementfnational

47. Find clear ist fthe adastralmagistrates,or xample,n inuma ir6, okudaka-sei no kenkyaKyoto:MinerubuahobW,974),pp. 126-27.48. H6k1abun, p. 545-47.49. Find major documents f the go-bygy6n H6k6 ibun,pp. 543-44, 544-45,575-76, 593, 594,620-22. For he uotation,eeKodama, hiry6 iyoruNihonno ayumi:kinsei, p.32-33.50. DiscussednConrad otman,oliticsntheTokugawa akufuCambridge: arvardUniversityress,1967),pp. 13-42. Forthe tipulationsf1634 ee Kodama, hiry6 iyoruNihonno ayumi: insei, . 71.


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Berry: ublicPeace 257as well as local laws, governingo a highdegree hroughelf-regulation.When hey idmakenational rsupra-domainalppointments,heynor-mally urnedgaintodaimyo-to men withdomains f their wnwhorarely eceived pecial stipends or hese dditionalppointments.heircouncillors erenotprofessional,areer fficers,nencumberedith o-mainal nterestsnd responsibilities,ho received tatesalaries. Thecharges f these ouncillors,moreover, eregreat, nspecified,ndun-differentiated.heyacted at thepersonal iscretionf theruler orun-defined erms.Thus hemajor ifficultyacingheunificationegimes asthentegra-tionofthedaimyo lite,theformationf a corporateommitmentothepolitical ettlement ithin hebodyof its enforcers. he daimyohademerged,obesure, s thebeneficiariesfthatettlement,s the urvivorsof a radical ontractionnpower hat adsqueezedoutprivate roprietorsand samurai like.Theyhad retainedheir omains,with uthorityverlocal armies nd ocaltaxation,ndthey ada deeply estednterestntheconditionsfcontrol hat ecuredhe eace,andhence hose omains. helaws on arms ndclass,for xample, emperednternalhreatsothe ta-bility fthedomain; mpositionsponthedaimyo hemselves-the ro-scriptionfprivate ar, he ransferfdomains,he evelingfcastles, orexample-however ersonallyepugnant,efinedhe ermsftheir ollec-tive ecuritygainst ach other. ndeed nforgingllianceswith heuni-fiers nd nexecutingheiraws,thedaimyo adcolludednpacification.Peacewas,in the nd,a voluntarylection fthese ords-forthe rmiesof theunifiers ereonly s strongs their lliescontinuedo makethem.Theelevationfthese llies tonationalffice,nthe tead ffamilymem-bers r a palace guard ra regular ureaucracy,cknowledgedheir usto-dianship fthepeace.Yet their acrifices emained ignificantnd potentially estructive.Peacebroughtnendtothe pportunitiesnd satisfactionsfwar, hefirstand ancestral allingof thesemen. ts terms lso altered undamentallytheirelations ith heir assals,whom heyed no ongernbattlesftheirownmaking,whose nterests ere nowsubordinateo "kgi," and forwhom and rewards-the oin ofwar-were notonlynarrowed y fixedboundaries utdenied ltogetherith he ransferfsamurai o towns. i-nally, fcourse, eace broughtheirubordinationo theunifiers,owevercomplicithedaimyo adbeen n thatubordinationnd howeverowerfulthey emainednthe dministrationf ts terms. articularlynthedisci-plineof their eers hroughttainderrreductionfholdings,which hedaimyo ither versawdirectlys centralmagistratesr condoned m-plicitly y forsakingebellion,he ntegrityftheunificationegimeswasat risk.


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258 JournalfJapanese tudiesMany of us have writtent length bout egitimation-abouthosepractical nd ideological ttempts ade by theunifierso root heir u-

thorityntranscendanttructuresf aw, radition,eligion,rpublicnter-est and hence o transformherelations f brute ower nd conquestntodurablemandates f rule. Our literatures nowa largeone, especiallysince-and I believethis s a telling ndtroubling atter-theunifiersseemtohave ooked verywhereor egitimacy:he hogunate,he ourt,theShinto nd Buddhist nd Confucianraditions,he ommon ood,therecognitionfforeign owers r theglory fforeign ars. Their earchsignifies,suspect, persistentense fvulnerabilitynd continuinger-ception f the nadequacyftheformulaef egitimacyvailable othem.It may lsoreflecthediversityfthe udiences hey layed o, althoughnot, think,n unsurenessboutwhich udience-the daimyo-reallymattered.What s interestingere s anapparent aradox. hepursuitfa legiti-macy oundedn awful ffice rpublic rustor religionrforeignecog-nition) resumes certain bstractionrobjectificationftherelationsfpower. tpresumes transformationfpersonal ies nto mpersonalies.The bondsbetweenheunifiersnd thedaimyowereforged riginally,fcourse, n the crucible f battle ndhad a powerful ersonal ast. Thebondswere hose fvictor ndvanquished,llyandally,man ndvassal,bestowerndreceiverfrewards,ath-giverndoath-taker.utfor ll ourheady nterestn theprocess f egitimation,nd here s theparadox, hetransitionopeaceoccasioned ot withdrawalromr animpersonaliza-tion f those ondsbut tighteningf them.In practical erms,hats, theunifiersought ointegratehedaimyoelite,and thusto securethesettlementnforced y that lite,neitherthroughhe nstitutionalevelopmentmplicitn their statist" laims ouniversalurisdictionorthroughhestudiedmpersonalizationf au-thoritymplicitntheir bstractormulationsf egitimacy.heconductfpowerntheiregimes,he ctual unctioningfhigh olitics,wasmarkedbytheelaborationfpersonal ttachment.heunifiersidnotrenouncemedieval orms fpolitical ssociation, hey apitalized pon hem.We shall ook nowattwoexpressionsfattachment,hatwe mightthinkf as the ssueofthe body"andthe ssueofthe gift."Letus notefirst, owever, hat heywerepart fa densematrix f shared deasandpracticeshatboundtheearlymodern litetogethernd substitutedorthose tructuresf aw and bureaucraticdministrationhich heunifierslittle eeded.United o theirmenbya common istoricalxperience,heunifiers ere lso abletodraw-althoughn inesdifficultoplot-upontheresources f a common ulture hat mbraced, ot east of all, theeveryday attersf anguage, tiquette,ndplay.They hared oo certain


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Berry: ublic Peace 259attitudesoward he hronendto themilitaryraditionhat,whateverheirphilosophicalmbiguities,ccasioned commondefinitionf prestige.Butcentral o thismatrixfattachmentasthe xchange fpeople ndofgoods.

BodiesandPersonalWitnessWhenHideyoshind eyasumadetheir eace followinghebattles fKomaki ndNagakuten1584, eyasu enthis econd on,the en-year-oldHideyasu,s a hostageoHideyoshi. ideyoshidoptedhe oy.Withinhefollowing ears, eyasureceivedHideyoshi's tep-sisters a bride andHideyoshi'smothers a hostage.Hideyoshi'seirHideyoriook shiswifethedaughterf eyasu'sheirHidetada. eyasu'sheirHidetada ook s hiswife he ister fHideyoshi'srincipaloncubine;othwomenwereniecesof Oda Nobunaga.5'To signify is loyalty o the Tokugawa,Maeda Toshinaga ent hismothers a hostage o Ieyasu n 1599.The familieswereunited n mar-riagewhenMaedaToshinaga's eirreceived s a bride n 1601 a grand-

daughterf eyasu the ldest aughterfHidetada). eyasu lsobestowedupon heMaedaheir henameofMatsudaira.52Similar,f esselaborate,xchanges ccurred hroughoutheunifica-tionperiod, s they adthroughoutheprecedingenturyfwar.Bridesand concubines, ons and daughters, ieces and nephews, isters ndbrothersirculatedmong hehouseholdsf the lite na society hat on-tinued o use marriagendadoption s indispensablenstrumentsf al-liance.Nordidone union reclude second r a third. s alliances ndedindeath rrebellion,r as theywere upersededy weightieracts,rela-tiveswere ecalledhome oenterntonewfamilies. he liberal xtensionof surnames-ofHashiba,Toyotomi,ndMatsudaira-occurred s well.Thus,merelykimminghe urfacefthepolitics ffamily, ideyoshitook oncubines rsecondaryonsortsrom hehouses fMaeda, Gama,Kyogoku, ndAsai. He adopted hildrenromhehousesofOda, Toku-gawa,Maeda, Ukita, ndKobayakawa.53eyasu's rincipalonsort, efore

51. ShibaRyotar6 rovides airly ull, f informal,reatmentsf the experiences fHideyasu nd Hideyoshi'step-sisternToyotomi-keo hitobitoTokyo:KadokawaShoten,1941).52. The Todai-ki ccountof the delivery f Maeda Toshinaga'smotherppears nKodama,Shiryo iyoruNihonnoayumi: insei, . 84.53. Hideyoshi'smajor oncubines ereYodo daughterf Asai Nagamasa nd nieceofOda Nobunaga), ora daughterf Gamo Katahide),Matsu-marudaughterfKyogoku a-kayoshi), ndGo andMaa (daughtersfMaeda Toshiie).He adopted idekatsufourthonofOda Nobunaga),Hideyasu,Go (daughterf MaedaToshiie),UkitaHideie, ndKobayakawaHideaki.


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260 Journal fJapanese tudiesthe ntryfHideyoshi'step-sisterntohishousehold, amefromhe ma-gawahouse. A prolific ather,nlikeHideyoshi,eyasumarried is chil-dren nto hehouses fOda, Okudaira,Mjo, Takeda,Yuiki, sai,Gamo,and Asano.54 he mostostentatiousse of a surname ccurred n 1588whenHideyoshi elected heoccasionofan imperial isit o Jurakuteiocompel wenty-nineenior aimyootake n oath f allegiance o himself:twenty-fourfthe wenty-nineaimyowho igned hepledge sedthe ur-nameToyotomi.55Wemisunderstandhesemeasures, believe,whenweperceivehem-becausetheywereboth biquitousnd unreliable-ascynical rperfunc-tory. ertainly arriage,doption,ndfictiveamilyiesfailed outinelyas absolute uaranteesfpeace. Butnothingould serve s an absoluteguarantee. o matterowfragile, amily ondingwas theprincipal ormtaken yallianceduring artimendtheonly ormakennvariablyhenmajorhousesattemptedo come to peaceful erms.The stricturesysengoku aimy6 gainst napproved arriagemong heir assals, s wellas injunctionsgainstawlessredress ounded pon kinship onds ket-suen), acknowledgedhecentralityffamily olitics o theconduct ndloyaltiesftheir ubordinates.fthepolitics ffamilywerenotthe oledeterminantfconduct, heywerenonethelesshecritical xpressionfwhateverolitical ntegrationasattemptedrachieved.Expression, owever,maybe tooweaka word,nsofars it mpliessymbolic seofkinshipies oheightenrrepresent prior,morempor-tant, olitical ccord.Ceremonies,nthe erms f modernnthropology,effect r actualize hanges; hey o notmerely ymbolizehem.For thedaimyo fwartime,marriagemayhave made real andbindinglliancesthatwere therwisenrealizedndunbinding. pparentlyistrustfulf b-stract,heoreticalnions, heymadethem oncretenthepersons ftheirintimateelatives.When he magawa, akeda, ndHojo- ameto termsn1554, magawa oshimoto'saughter arriedakeda hingen'son;TakedaShingen's aughtermarried Mj6Ujiyasu's on; HMj6Ujiyasu'sdaughtermarriedmagawaYoshimoto'son. ImagawaYoshimoto imself as al-readymarriedoTakeda hingen'sister,ndhis ister as thewife fHMj6Ujiyasu.56heeventual iolationfthese ovenantseednot eproachheiroriginal eriousness; iolation erved, ather,o undothemostseriouscommitmento ntegrationf which hedaimyowere apable.The fourteenrticles fHideyoshi'slders egin, nthefirsttem, y

54. A usefulhart f hese nions ppearsnConrad otman, okugawaeyasu:Shogun(San Francisco: eian nternational,983),p. 191.55. OmuraYuiko, enshW-ki,p. 113-14.56. Wakabayashi tsushi, hizuoka-keno rekishi Tokyo:Yamakawa huppan-sha,1970),pp. 142-47. Fujiki lso discusses aimyo ttemptst alliancen Toyotomieiwa-reiosengoku hakai,pp. 1-12.


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Berry: ublicPeace 261requiringaimyoo obtain pproval ormarriagendonly fterwardoontoprohibit rivate lliances.TheBukeshohattof 1615elaborately ro-scribes napproved arriagen the ighthtem.Here gain s anacknowl-edgmenthat amily olitics reofthe ssence fpolitical ower. he uni-fiers o not,however,orbid oliticalmarriage. heydetermineodirectit,making his rimenstrumentfpowern exclusiveharge ftheirwn.Thusmarriagemaynotbe usedto diffuseoyaltiesut oconcentratehemin the nterestsftheruler.We findnthese tems n articulationf prin-ciplesthat lreadyguidedthe conduct f Hideyoshi nd Ieyasu-theytradednrelativess widely s their esourcesllowed ndthen uperin-tendedhe esser nions ftheir aimyo.The takingf hostages, wartimeracticehat heunifierslaborated,involved learelements f surveillancend control,lthough e maybeinclined o exaggeratehese spects.Even as a controlmeasure,t s im-portant hatbodies matterederetoo. Alliances ctualized n marriagewere ealedas wellin thepersons fclose relatives. ideyoshi, or x-ample, ookhostages rom ndividual ozamadaimyo theMWri, esugi,Tokugawa, hosokabe, himazu, atake,Date) as he formedlliances rconcluded ampaigns. n three ccasions before heKantoandKoreanoffensivesndashe aydying) ecalledfor general eliveryfthewivesand children f thedaimyo o Kyotoor Osaka. Both n Kyotoand inFushimi e also created aimyonclaveswheremportantords, wentyothirtyn number,wereexpected o keepresidences.57ollowingHide-yoshi's eath, eyasu eceived ostages rom heTWd6, ori,Asano,Hoso-kawa, Maeda, Nabeshima,Mri, Date, and Sagara. By Bakufuorder,moreover,hedaimyoent o Edothewives nd hildrenftheir ouseholdelderskarn) fter 610.Many lsokept heirwnfamilymembersntheshogunal apital n theresidences ll daimyowerecompelled o retainthere fter 604.58The notable ostageswere hildren,fcourse, requentlyheheirs fdaimyo llies,whoremainedoryearswith heunifierss adoptivemem-bers ftheir ouseholds. heymayhavebeenprisonersf a type, lthoughmanywere entnvoluntaryuises,but heywereustas surely harersntheculturendhospitalityf their eepers.Growing p apartfrom heirfathers,heywereparts ftwofamilies.The assembly fresidences fthedaimyontheunificationapitals,

57. Kodama,Shiry6 iyoruNihonno ayumi:kinsei, . 32; Nakabe Yoshiko,Kinseitoshino seiritsuokoz6 Tokyo: hinsei-sha,967), pp. 295-300; SakuraiNarihiro, oyo-tomiHideyoshi okyojo5Tokyo:NihonJMkakuhiry6-kanhuppan-kai,970-71), vol. 1:Osaka-j6, pp.309-22; vol. 2: Jurakutei,ushimi-j6, p. 137-58, 348-63; Kyotono re-kishi, ol. 4, pp.339-42.58. ToshioG. Tsukahira,eudal ControlnTokugawa apan:TheSankinKotaiSystem(Cambridge:ast AsianResearch enter, arvard niversity,970),pp. 47-50.


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262 JournalfJapanese tudiesand thevisitationndpersonal ttendancehey acilitated,lacedsimilaremphasis pon hephysical roximityf alliesandthe epeated itness odeclarationsfloyalty. orwas law itself n impersonalr abstractme-diumof authority.n both olemn nd routineccasions, aw tooktheform foaths,frequentlyealed nblood. Hencetobreak lawwas notsimplyodisobeyhe tate ut oviolate, ndtodissolve, personal ove-nant etweenmen.Hideyoshi'saimyo atheredt Jurakuteio swear hat:"Each ofus willstrictlyemonstratehould here e any awlesspersonwhoimpinges ponthe andsof thethrone. . We assert hisfor hepresent, eedless o say,and untothegenerations four children ndgrandchildrenithoutxception"emphasis dded).Further,Inallthingswe willnotviolaten the east he rdersftheKampaku."The Tokugawaassembled heir aimyo tNij6castle o swear similar ath, lthoughtdispensed ithmentionfthe hrone,n1611 nd1612.59 enswore athswhen hey ndertookadastralurveys, hen hey cted s guarantorsorthemovementsfothers,when hey ssumed ffice s magistrates, hentransfersf eadershipookplace.0Likemarriage,athshad been an in-strumentfbondingnwartime nd a major oncern fdaimyo reoc-cupiedwith ringingn endto faction. ideyoshi'slders hared he on-cern, s we have een, n the econd f thefourteenrticles: Greater ndlesser ords restrictlyrohibitedromnteringeliberatelynto ontractsandfrom igning aths nd the ike." Proscribeds promises fprivateattachmentmong hedaimyondtheir ould-bentimates,aths oowerenow the monopolyhe eader-not eradicated utputsolely within isdisposition.Personalwitness,fnot ntheform fcovenants, as also expectedwhen ignificantventsccurred.heTokugawassembled heiraimyonperson or readingftheBuke hohatto hen ariantersions ere om-pleted r new hogunook ffice. roop eviesforHideyoshi'snvasion fKyushuwere ead ffnthe ourse fa New Year's eception.hedaimyogathered ublicly pon hebirthsfHideyoshi'shildrenndupon he p-pointmentsf bothHideyoshind eyasu ohigh osts those fkampakuandshogun, or xample).Daimyovisitors treamedothedeath eds oftheunifiers.6'

59. OmuraYuko, Tensh6-ki,p. 113-14; Kodama,Shiry6 i yoruNihonno ayumi:kinsei, p.77-78.60. See, forexample,MWri-ke onjo,vol. 2, document 02; Hok5 ibun,p. 615;MiyagawaMitsuru, aik6kenchi-ronTokyo:Ochanomizuhob6,1959-63),vol.3, p. 364.61. The developmentfa ceremonialife ocused pon hepresencendparticipationfthedaimyo, ut xcludinghepublic, s animportantspect f"state"formationn this e-riodthat eserves erious nalysis.Political itualwas an intenselyultivated,utconsis-tentlylosed, ffair.


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Berry: ublic Peace 263Anddeath,of course,altered verything.he betrothalsnd adop-tions, hename-giving,hehostage xchangesndoath-taking,hegather-

ingofthewitnesses ommencedgainto makereala new setofpoliticalrelations.Hideyoshi's ivemagistrates, hen his deathwas finally n-nounced, ookthetonsure. Theydidnotmerely esign; heywithdrewsymbolicallyrom worldn which polity ad dissolved obe recreatedinthebodiesofa newruler nd his men.Theact was a version f unshi,the ollowingfthe ord ndeath, hat resumedoth he xclusive harac-ter f oyaltynd theprimacyfperson eforenstitutions.hepresump-tion survived hroughoutnifications thediscipline f an importantdaimyo ictatedhebanishmentrexecutionfhishouseholdndhis ead-ing retainers.WhiletheTokugawawouldeventuallyutlawunshi,eachshogun punforhimselfhewebofalliances hat nmeshed amilies."Officeholding,"wroteMax Weber n speaking ftheprinciplesfbureaucracy, does not establish a relationship o a person. . . . Modernloyaltys devoted o impersonalndfunctionalurposes.63The unifiersbelonged o a differentrder fvalueandmeaning. hey ntrustedhe d-ministrationfgovernmentodaimyondthen ound hosemen o them-selves nrelentlesslyhysical erms. ersonal elations erenot norna-mental r recreationalimensionfan otherwiseureaucratizedystemfrule; heywere, ather,he ystemfrule tself.The Gift ocietyTheeconomic elations etween heunifiersnd thedaimyo eem,onone evel, imple nough. he ruler ested and nthedaimyonexchange

formilitaryervicewhen t was needed.Sometimespecifiednthevest-ing decreewas theweight f themartial urden-four o fivemenforevery undred oku warded yHideyoshi,oughlyalf hatnthe ase oftheTokugawa.4 he ncome fthe uler erived ot rom ational axationbutfrom he quivalentf"crown ands"that upportedimselfnd hishousehold s wellas direct etainers.Infact,needless osay, he ituation asconsiderably ore omplex.Thevestingct tselfwas a personal ransactionatherhan n actofstateratifiedy officials nder lear conditions or stated erm.At his owndiscretion,heruler ssignedandswithin isdispositionoan individualmannamed n thevesting ecree.Thedocument ore hepersonal eal oftheruler.Therewere, nterestingly,o sealsorothernsignia fstate-

62. Shiry5 yoto orekishi, ol.4, p. 384.63. GerthndMills,FromMaxWeber, . 199.64. See Berry, ideyoshi, p. 121-24 and notes 8-65 onpp. 266-67.


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264 JournalfJapanese tudiesflags, rnamentsr furnishings,obes r regalia.)And we mustnote hathe was giving waywhatwas his, fhe chose, o keep, ndthat hevestingoccurred,onsequently,t a cost o himself. ideyoshiontrolledpproxi-mately ,000,000 koku t the ime fhisdeath-roughly levenpercentofthe egisteredesourcesfthenation. his umwastwentyer ent essthan heallocation f2,400,000kokuhehad made to Ieyasu lone, andless, too, than heregisteredalueof andshehad acquired hroughisci-plinaryttainderndthen edistributedmong isdaimyontheyear 593alone. Ieyasuconfiscatedandsvalued at roughly ,200,000koku fterSekigaharandpromptlyistributedoldingsworth,500,000koku othtodemonstrablyoyal nd toresolutelyeutral aimyo-taking net ossoffive er ent rom hemost ignificantonquest f hiscareer.65The death feither artyothevesting ransactionullifiedhat rans-action.Daimyo required onfirmation-inact, newaward-of theirholdings ponthesuccession f a newruler.Andupon the deathof adaimyo,he uler ormallyestedordenied estitureo)theheir. fdeathleft childheir whetherreviouslypproved ythe uler r not), f tpre-ceded the appointmentf an approved eir, r even, on occasion, f itbroughto power n adultformerlyecognized y the ruler-attaindercould ensue. Hideyoshi eclaimed ll, or most,of the domains f MoriHideyori, ashibaHideyasu Ieyasu's econd on),and Gam6Ujisatofol-lowing heirnterments.he Tokugawa onfiscatedifty-eightomains e-tween 600and 1651becauseofthe bsence fapproveduccessors.66The awardof the domain learly arried onditions, lthoughwhatthese onditions erewas not lways o clear.Thecontractual ilitaryb-ligationthegun'yaku) ccasionally ppearednthevesting ecree tself,andthegeneral athsofobedience akenbythedaimyo ound hem ocomplywith he dicts nd orders f theruler. utwhat f the conomicconditionsf therelationship-werehey onfinedothemartial ax?Ob-viously ot, ornboth heirmpositionspon abor ndtheirxpectationsthat hedaimyowouldattend ersonally ponthem he unifierslaceddauntingxpenditurespon heirmen.Hideyoshi's xtraordinaryuildingprojects-Jurakutei,is castles at Osaka and Fushimi nd NagoyainKyushu, isKyotoDaibutsu, isrestorationsfthepalaceandmajor eli-giousestablishments-werell executed ythedaimyo.At easttwenty-eightords ontributedt east62,000 aborerso the rectionf theGreatBuddha.Hideyoshi rote ftheworktFushimi: I have rderedhe ords

65. Ibid.,pp. 126-31; Bolitho, reasures mongMen,p. 4.66. Hokci bun,pp.538-44; Nakabe,Kinsei toshino seiritsu o koz6,pp. 281-83;Bolitho,Treasures mongMen, p. 33.


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Berry: ublicPeace 265fromheKanto, rom ewa,thenorthountry,nd he entral rovincesall withoutxception-to attend o theconstructionffort earKyoto.Thuseventhosegatheredncamp for he nvasion fKorea]do notout-number ll these."67 lso executed ythedaimyowere heconstructionprojectsf eyasu-Edo castle, astles tNij6 inKyoto,Hikone, umpu,Nagoya, ndSasayama.Daimyo arriedut, swell,major epairstOsakaand Fushimi.68Theburdens fattendancepontheruler ncluded he onstructionfresidences earhiscastles, heperiodicransportf arge etinuesetweenthedomainndthe apital, ndthemaintenancefa permanenteputationin that apital.Hideyoshi uggests heextent f some of these ommit-mentsn a lettero Date Masamune: Since twillbedifficultofulfillourduty f attendantsre not vailable ous, youwillsummon ll thewivesand children fyour ouse lders nd havethem eside nKyoto.A thou-sandpersonshall lways e in attendancendtheyhall erveus." 9Butthedeliveryfservicesothe uler ythe aimyo nly pened panewcycleof exchange. ometimesompensatedor hecostsof atten-danceby special llowances rgrantsf andnear he apital, hedaimyowere ecipients,swell,ofelaborate ospitalityndother avorsrom heirrulers.70ideyoshi'sntertainmentsndhisgifts re egendary:he ive-dayreceptionf thenobilitynd thesenior aimyo tJurakutein 1588,thebanquet n thesameresidence uring 589 whenhe distributed,000piecesofgoldandover20,000 piecesof silver, heblossomviewing tDaigoji n1598forwhich etransplantedroves fcherryrees ndmovedhundredsfdecorativeocks.7' ettheseheadierventsmerely unctuatedan unendingound f tea ceremonies, ohperformances,awkingndboating xpeditions, ew Year's receptions,nd pilgrimagesoutinelymarkedythegiving frobes,preciousmetals, ea vessels, ncense, ndprecious apers.Theparsimonyf eyasu, s legendarys the argesse fHideyoshi, asa matterfdegree.Hewent ut o the oundariesfEdotogreet rrivingords fhigh tature,bservedhe eremonialalendar,nd

67. Hok6 bun, p. 197-201, 528-29.68. Bolitho,Treasures mongMen,pp. 11 13.69. Nakabe,Kinsei oshi o seiritsu okoz6,p. 296.70. See Nakabe,Kinseitoshino seiritsu okoz6,p. 300, regardinghe pecial allow-ancesthatHideyoshimade ocertain aimyo ounderwritehe ostof ivingnKyoto. omegrants ere eryarge; heTokugawa eceived0,000 koku nOmifor xpenses nthe apital.The award f ands losetoKyoto odaimyon residenceheres aninterestingeflectionnthedevelopmentfmarkets.71. OmuraYfiko,Tensh&-ki,p. 101-39; Oze Hoan,Taiko-ki, d. KuwataTadachika(Tokyo: hinjimbutsurai-sha, 971),pp.455-63; Tanaka,Toyotomijidai-shi,p. 140-41.


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266 Journal fJapanese tudiesdespatched ifts f horses,falcons, words, ilk, paintings, old, andsilver ohisdaimyo.2

Theseexchanges o notfit omfortably,ndeed hey o notfit t all,under heconventionalubrics ftaxationnd services fstate.The de-mands or aborwere ordly, d hoc, sporadic, npredictablen cost andduration,madepersonallyndparticularlyather hanuniformlyfthedaimyo.The expectationf attendance as not formulatedn law until1634,assumedneitherystematicoruniversal imensionsntheearlierregimes ftheunifiers,nd retained he haracterfvisitationor ll butthemostmportantrmost hreateningfthedaimyo. hehospitalityndofferingsfthe uler,ike hevestingfthedomaintself, emained iscre-tionary. nd as surelys we candetect lementsfcoercion, bligation,andself-interestn these xchanges,wemust ecognize patina f volun-tarism, pontaneity,ndreciprocity.ach transactionas personal ndvolatile-open, potentially,omany esolutions.achpartookf the en-sionandambiguitynevitablyttendinghegift-which s bothvoluntaryandcoerced, pontaneousndobligatory,isinterestednd nterested,reeandbinding.

Theseexchangeswere lso ambiguouslyrivatendpublic.Thepar-tiesto themwere itled fficials,utmen lso boundby personal ies ofloyalty.he funds or hem amefrom ouseholdreasuriessed, withoutdiscrimination,or ridge uilding, edding resents,nd archery eets.The goods ndservices nvolvedn themontributedotheprivate oodofpublic ersons. urakutei,or xample,was both n officialnd a personalresidencewned, pparently,yHideyoshi imself, hopresumedo de-stroyt for ts associationswithhisill-fatedephew. da NobunagahadusedNij6 gosho s a giftnd eyasuwould ater ismantle ushimi orhisownpurposes.Weber otes,nterestingly,hat he modern tate ontrolsthe otalmeans fpolitical rganization.o single fficialersonallywnsthemoney epaysout,orthebuildings . . orthewarmachines e con-trols." 3)Certainlyhe astles ftheunifiersorofanyof their okugawasuccessors)werenotpublicbuildingsn the sense that heywereeithervisible r accessible oa public.Even nthe laborateommercial aps ftheTokugawa eriod hat ffer etailed ccounts fthe mperial alace,majormonasteries,nd other losedenclaves, hecastlesofshogun nddaimyo likeremainwesome lanks.74

72. See, for xample, he Tokugawaikki,Keich6 14/11/26.ne of the mostusefulsources oncerninguchgift-givings thebukan, r militaryirectory,arious ersions fwhich upplied ists fgifts fferedy daimyo o the hogun nd by shogun o thedaimyowhen omainal ords ppearednEdo to report or heir ermsf service.73. Gerth nd Mills,FromMax Weber, . 82.74. In fact, atherittleommercial appingfcastle owns ookplace n theTokugawa


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Berry: ublicPeace 267The work fMarcelMausson thegift,nd he ocietyfthegift, ffersa usefulway, believe, o understandhe conomic ransactionsfthere-

gimesof theunifiers. lthoughhegift ociety unctionsccording oclearly ational, rderly,nd well understoodaws, it stands partfromthosemodern conomic ystemsharacterizedy public, egal, and "ob-jective"transactionsnotablyn the orm ftaxation) hat stablish oper-sonalbondsbetween artieso them.75Theeconomyfthegiftnvolves he apparently)oluntaryut invari-ably) nterestediving, eceiving,ndreturnf all manner fstuff-land,courtesies,ntertainment,omen, rnaments,omage, ndso forth. heoriginal ift s, at once, statementfpower ndprecedencenda formfcredit hat mposes mplicit bligations pontherecipient. n bothre-spects,t establishesondsbetweenhegiver ndthereceiver. heaccep-tance fthegift,nelective ct, acknowledgeshose onds nd fixes ela-tions.The return n thegift egins hedischargeftheobligation hileestablishing,onsequently, degreeof parity etween heparties-forit reduces heburden f theoriginal iftwithts mpliedubordinationftherecipient. he obligationannot e fully ischarged, orfullparityachieved, ntil hereturns equal to theoriginal ift. fthereturniftssuperioro the riginal,he elations fpower ndobligationrereversed.Because the domain, heoriginal nd alwayssuperior ift, emainssolelywithinhedispositionftheruler, eretains he heoreticalalanceofpower.Yet nsofars that ift ischarged rior bligationsrising romwartimeervice ralliance, nd nsofars itsburdensconstantlyeducedbythe ervices ndattendancefthedaimyo,he ulermust enew ispre-cedence and affirm is potency hrough epeated ounds f gift-giving.Hence the ycleoffeasts, ospitality,ndofferingsincludingrides ndsurnames-toreturno the ssueofthebody) hat rovokeseciprocal c-tions. nthe ermsfMauss,thegreatnessfhisgifts ecomes measureofthegreatnessf thechief.Thepotlatch-seeminglyn exhaustion fwealth-is an affirmationf mana ndprestige. he chief scompelled, nthis ense,togiveout whathehas received.76husHideyoshi's rant oIeyasu f ands urpassingisown,or eyasu'sgrants fter ekigahara flandssurpassinghespoils, maybecomesignsnot of weaknessbutofstrength.period, nd what id occurwas largely productf the arlynineteenthentury.nmapsofEdo, Osaka,and other6kamachi, he astle reamaybe filledwith crest ra decorative,stylized enshu-kaku. anuscriptlansof castle owns, rderedytheBakufun1645, con-tain elaborate pecificationsoncerninghecastlecompounds ut were,of course,neverpublished.75. MarcelMauss, The Gift: orms ndFunctions fExchange nArchaic ocieties, r.Ian CunnisonNewYork:W.W.Norton, 967),esp.pp. 1-5, 63-81.76. Ibid., p. 73.


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268 JournalfJapanese tudiesGreat ifts eflect ore, owever,han hegreatnessfthe hief. nthegift ocietyt tspurest, heyerve s a definitionfchiefdom:or he ightto give, o nitiatehe ycle fexchange,sthe eminal eaturef uthority.We might onsequentlyindn thevery ward fdomains, atherhan ntheaccession o office,he act that onfirmed-or ven bestowed-thepower ftheunifiers.imilarly,he ct ofreceivinghedomainmight ig-nify he ransformationfthedaimyo: aving artakenfthehonor f thelord, hey ame to share n theprestigef ordship.We might bserve,npassing, hat he conomyf thegiftmbracedmore han he ulerndhisdaimyo.WhenHideyoshintertainedhe ourtin lavish ashion,whenhe rebuilt hepalace,whenhereconstructedeli-giousmonumentsnd madedonationso temples, henhegatheredom-moners or heteapartytKitano rNohperformancest Fushimi-hemanifestedispower, gain, nextravagantxpenditureshat ndebtedhebeneficiaries.venbeyond aimyo ircles, egovernedot imply hroughedict nd and ontrol ut hroughffectiveractices. ndhereceived iftsin return-hospitality,itles, ndeventual romotions a divinityHW-kokuDaimyojin) romhe ourt,nvitationsopreside ver hededicationceremoniesftemples, fferingsfmoney ndprecious oodsfromhecommonersfKyoto that ubstituted,n a sense,for he ity axeswhichhad been canceled nd thus ransformedtaxationconomy nto gifteconomy)."There re problems,obe sure, napplyinghemodel fthegiftcon-omy o the egimesftheunifiers. he model s a terriblyimple nethattakesno account fspecifically artial orce r formaltructuresflawanddiscipline. et tdoesserve, osingularlyoodeffectbelieve,n elu-cidatinghevarietyfeconomicxchangesntheunificationra,theirolein relationsfpower,ndtheirapacity orntegratingnelite-otherwisecutoff rom irect inancialransactionsith heruler-into systemfcontinuingncounterndreciprocalttachment.ikethetradenbodiesand the demands orpersonalwitness, his ystemetreats rom he ab-stractionfauthority.t endorses ot he tatic,mechanistic,ndobjectiverelationsf taxation utthefluid,mmediate,ndsubjectiveelationsfexchange equiringonstantenewalndresponse y persons.

77. See, for xample, hiry6 yotono rekishi, ol.4, pp.361-362.


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Berry: ublic Peace 269Concluding emarks

One of themostmportantevelopmentsntherecentcholarlyitera-ture oncerninghe ixteenthenturyas beenthe ttentionokogi, termthat asitself aken nparadigmaticignificance.thascome tosignifynewprinciple f legitimacy,nd hence a consequentialhange n con-sciousness, hatdentifiedightfuluthorityith ervice o the public n-terest." upplantinglaims opowergroundedurelynofficeholdingrreligious anctionrthe ike,kogihas mplied he scendancy f the om-mongood as theproperource nd measure f egitimateule.Thisformulations riddledwith ifficulties,fcourse, lthoughheydo notrobthe dea of tsmarvelous ttractions a synopticssessment fthe ixteenth-centuryhange. t swelltonote,nonetheless,hat hemean-ingofk5gi o thosen the ixteenthentury ho nvokedhe erm,n con-texts o varied s to cloudratherhan o elucidate ts ense,wasnever hesubject fa contemporaryxegesiswhichmightllumine urown inter-pretations.rascible riticsmightlsoobject hatmputationsfnoveltyothesixteenth-centurysage of kogitakemeager ccount ither f theword's ppeal o theAshikaga r ofa political hetoricating romhe ev-enth enturyhat egisteredt eastoccasional ttentionnat eastrhetori-cal terms o the orporate elfare.Yetthedifficultiesfunderstanding5gi n tsearlymodern uiserundeeper. ertainlyhe ermsmisconstruednsofars weassociate twithpublic ody, collectiveitizenry,nvitednto dynamicelationshipiththe uler. hat elationshipould ccur, erforce,n thedomainalevel speasants ndtownspeoplemastered he mechanics fpetitionndritualrebellionnd thusdemanded ngagement.utpoliticalmobilizationnthenationalevelfailed o occurbeforehenineteenthentury,s didanyform fdirect ncounteretween uler nd ruled ccommodatedythegoverningtructure.fthe public" goodhad become ne ofthepillars fpower,twas a gooddefined ndbenevolentlyestowed y thepowerfulupon subject ublic.Krigis evenmoreproblematicnsofar s itmightmply herigorous,or indeedelementary,istinctionetween public" and "private"thatseems emanticallymplicit. urdifficultyspartlyneoftranslationndofperiod, ince currentnderstandingf theseterms as beenbornofmodernndearlymodern evolutionsnthought hichntroduced(stub-bornly mprecise) oundary etween ersonal ndcorporateealms hatpremodernocietieswere pttoconflate. he revolutionserenot implyideological,however, or hey lso involved ractical ransformationsnlawand nstructuresf uthorityhich avemeaningo theurisdictionf


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270 JournalfJapanese tudiesprivate ndividualsverprivatemattersnd to the urisdictionf publicinstitutionsverpublicmatters.

Whateverhedistinctionnvoked ythewordkogi, t snot ne whichanticipatedurcurrentiscriminationetweenhepublic nd theprivate.For hedaimyo fconcern o us, all putativelyersonal ffairs-marriage,the upbringingf heirs,householdfinances, riendship,ospitality-remained quarelywithin he orporatephere f society ndpolitics ndwere ubject o regulation.heputativelyorporateoncernsf nation rdomain, onversely,emainedquarelywithin he sphere f individuallords personallynnointed y theruler nd elaboratelyound to himthroughhe xchangefbodies ndgifts. f,again, he public"goodhadbecome neofthepillars fpower,tdid not tand pon newfoundationof awandadministrationhat ave structureo an ideological hange m-pliedby thedefinitionfa distinctiveublicprovince eparable rom heprivatenterestsf the lite.Nor was itonlypoliticaldministrationhatacked newpublic har-acter.The flamboyantrchitecturefpower n earlymodern apanwasclosed to theaccess and to the view of the populace.The regalia ofpower-insignia, eals,martial rappings-was he egalia f a governinghouseholdatherhan nation. he ceremoniesfpower-theaccessionstooffice,hebirthsnd nstallationsfheirs, herites f death-were oc-casionsnot f tate ut fdisplaywithinhe lite.Commonersarticipatedmerely s kneeling itnesses f whateverrocessionsnsued.Thus f wewillpersistnfindingnkogi synopticssessment f thesixteenth-centuryhange and believewecan),wemust autiously etachtheword rommisleadingssociations. o emphasizets ompulsions anabstractheoryf egitimacy,s anacknowledgmentfa uniquely ublicdomain overnedythecommonnterest,r as an antecedentfinstitu-tional evelopmentittedoevenperfunctoryngagementf thepopulaceis tooverlookhegoals andconduct ftheearlymodern egimes s wehave encounteredhemhere.We might est seek thesixteenth-centurysenseof kogiwhere heevidence s richest-indescriptions,hat s, ofwhatk5gi s not.As we have een,the iteraturefsixteenth-centuryawassailed,first,all customaryndlegal privilegesanctioningndependenturisdictions,personalustice, elf-redressfgrievances,nd ocal war. tassailed,fur-ther,hedivisiveolitics offaction,lliance,kinship,ndopportunisticmarriage-which roundedndexpanded elligerence.inally,nd morebroadly,t assailedall aspects f self-interesthichgeneratedwillful-ness,""duplicity,"enmities,"nd partiality."n hort,ixteenth-centurylawcondemnedhe ntireonstellationf deas and actions hat plinteredauthorityndgave icense oviolence.


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Berry: ublic Peace 271Kigi was the ntithesiso these deas andactions.t servedn practical

and literal erms, believe, o stipulateheunconditionedurisdictionfunificationovernmentnd the enteringfallformsfallianceupon heruler. he distinctionmplicitnthe ermsnotbetween ublic ndprivate,for heseremained nboundednd largelymerged pheres, ut betweenaccord nddiscord, nion nddivision,nside ndoutside, ymmetryndvariationfpurpose.nthese erms,hedistinctions redolent f the ev-enteen rticles f ShitokuTaishiandof a mentalityhat ssociatedvio-lencewith elf-interestndpeace letushesitate,orhere he ticky rob-lememerges)with bedience othecorporatenterestepresentedy theruler nda harmoniouslite.That s,whilewe might roperlydentify5giwith he ommon ood,this oodremainednseparablenpracticerom he genda fthe ulers.na system hich iscriminatedotbetween ublic ndprivate utbetweenunion nd division f interest,he dentificationetween uler ndruledwassimply resumed. r5giad a certain hetoricalndperhapsven deo-logical power nsofars it translatedhepragmaticoncern f theelitewith rdernto benevolentustodianshipfthepublicpeace.Butthege-niusoftheformulationspreciselyhis inkage fvirtuouservice oth othefunctionaloalof unificationovernmentpacificationhroughncon-ditionedurisdiction)ndto tsconductthephysicalndmaterialttach-ment f theelitesolelyto thelord).As a paradigmaticescriptionfJapan'sransitionrom hemedieval otheearlymodernras, then,kogitracesnot herevolutionaryscendancyf a publicdomain ver herulerbut he volutionarybsorptionfprivilegend alliance nto he ompassoftheruler. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

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