Thank you for taking the time to download our Grammar and Writing Digital Kit. Enclosed in this kit are the following professional development and best practices material: Effective Strategies for Engaging Middle School Students in Writing and Grammar Instruction Teaching Meaningful Revision: Developing and Deepening Students’ Writing - Teaching ˚Grammar ˚at ˚the ˚Elementary ˚Grades ˚ We hope you save time with these grammar and writing resources! Sadlier
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Thank you for taking the time to download our Grammar and Writing Digital Kit. Enclosed in this kit are the following professional development and best practices material:
-‐ Effective Strategies for Engaging Middle School Students in Writing and Grammar Instruction
-‐ Teaching Meaningful Revision: Developing and Deepening Students’ Writing
- Teaching Grammar at the Elementary Grades We hope you save time with these grammar and writing resources! -‐-‐Sadlier
e teachers are committed tohelping students become betterwriters. We integrate writing into
different content areas, includinglanguage arts, social studies, science, andmathematics. We encourage students towrite for different purposes andauthentic audiences. We introducestudents to diverse forms of writing:letters, reports, stories, poetry, andarticles. And we guide students throughthe writing process, which includesprewriting/planning, drafting, revising,and editing.
The writing process is recursive andflexible. Some of our students prefer todraft, revise, and edit their writingsimultaneously. As these students write
their first draft, they revise by refiningtheir ideas and changing words andsentences, and they edit by checkingtheir spelling, capitalization, andpunctuation. Other students, however,choose to write a complete draft of theirideas before they revise and edit. Thesestudents like to revise their writing forideas, organization, and word choicebefore they edit for spelling,capitalization, and punctuation.
Regardless of when students choose toattend to editing, we can help studentsimprove their writing through mini-workshops on the conventions of writtenEnglish. The term “conventions ofwritten English” refers to grammar,usage, and mechanics. Grammar is
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Best Practicesfor Teaching Grammar
at the Elementary Gradesby
Beverly Ann Chin, Ph.D.Professor of English
University of Montana
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usually defined as a set of rules that defineshow a language is structured.
In the classroom context, “grammar” refersto the concepts of subject, verb, and sentencesense (parts of speech and parts of sentences).Usage includes concepts of agreement(subject-verb, noun-pronoun, and verb tense)and modification (adjectives and adverbs).Usage also addresses language variation interms of word choice and phrasing (formal toinformal, regional and social dialects, orallanguage as related to written language).Mechanics is commonly defined as spelling,capitalization, and punctuation.
When we teach students how to edit for theconventions of written English, we showhow their choices in grammar, usage, andmechanics contribute to—or detract from—the meaning of their writing. By teachingstudents to value both the content and theconventions of writing, we help studentsgrow in their command of written languageand improve their ability to communicateeffectively with their intended audience.
What Do Students in Grades 3–5
Know About Grammar, Usage, and
Mechanics?
When students value the purpose andaudience for their writing, they aremotivated to revise and edit. Theyunderstand that effective writing needs tocontain clear ideas and organization,appropriate word choice, and correctconventions. However, as students encounternew information, expand their criticalthinking skills, and experiment withdifferent styles of writing, they may spendmore energy on the content of their writingand pay less attention to the conventions ofwritten English. This unevenness is naturalfor students in the upper elementary grades.
Even when students show mastery in oneform of writing or in one content area, theymay encounter difficulty when they write ina new form or in another content area.According to an NCTE summary of researchabout students’ writing in grades 3–5,
…taking on the challenges of a newtopic or type of writing entailslearning new or different vocabulary,syntactic patterns, patterns of errors,and organizing structures. Anaccomplished writer of one form mayseem to regress in his or her abilitieswhen taking on a new form. (Writingin the Intermediate Grades, 3–5)
When teachers understand this tensionbetween fluency and conventions, they canassess more accurately the developmentalwriting abilities of their students. The
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research of Dyson and Freedman (2003),Farnan and Dahl (2003), Strickland andFeeley (2003) describes the characteristics ofstudent writers in grades 3–5 andemphasizes the positive effects of writingprocess workshops, teacher and peerconferences about works in progress, anddiscussions about text structures in reading.
Since 1969, the National Assessment ofEducational Progress (NAEP) has assessedwhat our nation’s students should know andbe able to do in many subjects, includingwriting achievement in grades 4, 8, and 12.In the Writing Framework andSpecifications for its 2007 assessment,NAEP discusses the developmental abilities
of students as they mature in their writingprocesses and participate in well-developedinstructional writing programs. In additionto a growing awareness of writing strategies,purposes, audiences, and forms, fourth gradestudents are developing their knowledge ofrevision and editing:
They revise for specific and preciselanguage and for sequencing ofparagraphs. They develop editingand proofreading skills, whichinclude editing for word choice andexpanding basic sentence patterns.They proofread—individually andcollaboratively—for conventionalusage, spelling, capitalization, andpunctuation. They applyappropriate conventions fordialogue and quotation. Theydemonstrate the use of conventionsfor different documents, such asletters and reports. (WritingFramework and Specifications forthe 2007 National Assessment ofEducational Progress, p. 38)
The Writing Framework and Specificationsfor the 2007 National Assessment ofEducational Progress also describes theBasic, Proficient, and Advanced achievementlevel for the writing of students in grade 4:
Basic—Fourth-grade students performing atthe Basic level should be able to produce asomewhat organized response with the timeallowed. Their writing should include somesupporting details. Its grammar, spelling,and capitalization should be accurate enoughto communicate to a reader.
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Proficient—Fourth-grade studentsperforming at the Proficient level should beable to produce an organized response withinthe time allowed. Their writing shouldinclude details that support and develop themain idea of the piece, and its form, content,and language should show that thesestudents are aware of the audience they areexpected to address. The grammar, spelling,and capitalization in the work should beaccurate enough to communicate to a reader.
Advanced—Fourth-grade studentsperforming at the Advanced level should beable to produce an effective, well-developedresponse within the time allowed that showsa clear understanding of the writing task.Their writing should be clearly organized. Itshould make use of precise and variedlanguage to speak to the audience thestudents are expected to address, and itshould include details and elaboration thatsupport and develop the main idea of thepiece. Their writing may also show signs ofanalytical, evaluative, or creative thinking.The grammar, spelling, and capitalization inthe work should be accurate enough tocommunicate clearly. (Writing Frameworkand Specifications for the 2007 NationalAssessment of Educational Progress, 2007,p. 59-60)
National content standards for the Englishlanguage arts also emphasize the importanceof conventions in the context of the purpose,audience, and form for writing. In 1996, theNational Council of Teachers of English andthe International Reading Associationpublished Standards for the English
Language Arts and addressed the importanceof written language.
State departments of education and localschool districts look to NAEP, NCTE, andIRA for research and leadership in theEnglish language arts. From the national tothe state and local levels, the standards andassessments for writing clearly emphasize theimportance for students to demonstrate theirability to use the conventions of writtenEnglish in order to communicate clearly andeffectively with readers.
What Is the Role of Grammar
in Writing Instruction for Students
in Grades 3–5?
Instruction in grammar should focus onhelping students communicate their writtenmessage with clarity and correctness. Whenstudents understand the standards of written
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English, they can make appropriate choicesabout grammar, usage, and mechanics toimprove their writing.
Numerous research studies support theteaching of grammar in the context ofstudents’ writing (Angelillo, 2002; Calkins,1980; Dyson and Freedman, 2003; Farnanand Dahl, 2003; Graham and Perin, 2007;Noguchi, 1991; Hillocks and Smith, 2003;Weaver, 1996).
By placing grammar instruction within thewriting process and mini-workshops, teacherscan use written texts, such as children’sliterature, magazines, advertisements, andstudents’ own writing to teach readingcomprehension as well as writing concepts,such as word choice, sentence variety, andpunctuation. Teachers can also help students
analyze how grammar, usage, and mechanicscontribute to the audience’s ability to readand appreciate the written message.
Many teachers encourage their students tothink of mechanics as road signs along thehighway. Using effective sentence structures,appropriate usage, and correct spelling andpunctuation is similar to providing trafficsigns and road markings for drivers. Whenwriters use conventions correctly, they allowtheir audience (or drivers) to read andunderstand their message easily. It also makesthe reading—and driving—more enjoyable.
The teaching of grammar to enhance theclarity and correctness of the written messagehas replaced teaching grammar for “grammar’ssake.” According the NCTE review of researchabout the teaching of grammar:
Skilled teachers of writing know howto teach grammar to their students asthey write, when they have aparticular need to know theinformation. Students need to beable to compose complex, variedsentences, and they need to be able toproofread their writing for mistakesthat might distract their audiences ordistort their intended meaning. Theevidence is clear that to learn to writewell, students need time living inand making decisions among a forestof sentences, manipulating syntacticparts and grouping thoughts, whilethey also juggle their ideas aboutcontent and organization. (BeyondGrammar Drills: How Language Worksin Learning to Write)
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By emphasizing grammar as an essentialtool in communication, teachers helpstudents expand their repertoire of writingstrategies. When students learn how tomake effective choices in conventions, theygain command of the written language anddevelop their writing style.
What Strategies Are Effective
for Teaching Grammar to Students
in Grades 3–5?
Helping students understand that readersneed, expect, and appreciate theconventions of written English is key toteaching grammar in the writingcurriculum. By reading students’ writing,teachers can assess their understanding ofgrammar, usage, and mechanics. Teacherscan also determine which concepts need tobe introduced, reviewed, or extended for
different students. Through mini-workshops,teachers can present grammatical concepts,model revision and editing, and encouragestudents to apply these concepts to theirown writing.
Three effective strategies that improvestudents’ writing—and grammar—aresentence combining, sentence expansion,and sentence imitation. (Haussamen, 2003;Hillocks and Smith, 2003; Holdzkom, Reed,Porter, Rubin, 1984; Killgallon, 1997;Noguchi, 1991; Strong, 2001)
Sentence Combining
Sentence combining has long beenacknowledged as an effective strategy forimproving written sentence fluency andsentence variety. In sentence combining,students take short written sentences andcombine them into longer sentences. Whenoral sentence combining is integrated intothe written activity, students also improvetheir speaking and listening skills.
Here is an example of a mini-workshop onsentence combining.
The teacher presents students with a series ofshort, choppy sentences. The teacher thenorally models different ways to combine theinformation in these sentences into onelonger sentence.
Example: Josh likes to read.He likes magazines.The magazines contain stories.The stories are about animals.
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Combined: Josh likes to read magazinesthat contain animal stories.Josh likes reading animalstories in magazines.Animal stories in magazinesis what Josh likes to read.
By modeling various ways a speaker mightcombine sentences, the teacher shows studentsthe many ways people create sentences in orallanguage. This oral modeling demonstratesthe difference between informal oral language(in which people often speak in fragments andrun-ons) and more formal oral language.
The teacher then introduces another series ofshort, choppy sentences and asks students tocombine orally these sentences into new,longer sentences. After several students haveoffered several versions of sentences, theteacher asks students to discuss the similaritiesand differences among the spoken sentences.
When students begin with oral languagesentence combining and then move towritten sentence combining, they draw upontheir natural oral language fluency and applythis knowledge to their own writing. Asstudents explore sentence variety throughwritten sentence combining, teachers canintroduce grammatical concepts, such ascompound sentences or prepositionalphrases, and punctuation, especially commas.
By introducing, teaching, and reinforcinggrammar and conventions in the context ofsentence combining and with students’ ownwriting, teachers make language aninteresting, relevant part of students’ lives.
Sentence Expansion
A second effective strategy for teachinggrammar is sentence expansion. In sentenceexpansion, students add information toshort sentences in order to make theirwriting more detailed and interesting.Students often like to challenge themselvesto make long sentences that are interestingand grammatically correct.
Here is an example of a mini-workshop onsentence expansion.
The teacher writes a simple sentence andmodels different ways to add words,phrases, or clauses to the end of thesentence. After the modeling, the teacherasks students to add information to the endof the sentence. The new information must
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Grammar Workshop, Level Blue, p. 219 Combining Sentences
make sense, and the new sentence must begrammatically correct.
Here is an example of sentence expansion.
Basic sentence:The dog chased the squirrel.
Expansion:The dog chased the squirrel, whichscampered across the yard.
Expansion:The dog chased the squirrel, whichscampered across the yard and up the tree.
Expansion:The dog chased the squirrel, whichscampered across the yard, up the tree, andonto the roof of a nearby house.
Sentence expansion can also teach variety insentence beginnings. For example, theteacher might use the same basic sentenceand model other ways to expand at thebeginning of the sentence.
Basic sentence:The dog chased the squirrel.
Expansion:Immediately, the dog chased the squirrel.
Expansion:With a bark, the dog chased the squirrel.
Expansion:Running full speed, the dog chased thesquirrel.
Expansion:While the children played in the backyard,the dog chased the squirrel.
When students gain control over sentenceexpansion at the beginning and end ofsentences, the teacher can show studentshow sentences can be lengthened at bothends and/or in the middle of the sentence.
Basic sentence:The dog chased the squirrel.
Expansion:Barking playfully, the dog chased thesquirrel for several minutes.
The dog with large paws and floppy earschased the squirrel.
The teacher can introduce or review the partsof speech, parts of the sentence, andpunctuation at any time.
As students experiment with expanding thebeginning, end, and middle of sentences intheir own writing, they discover therelationship among word choice, sentencevariety, and writing style.
Sentence Imitation
Another effective strategy for teachinggrammar in the context of writing issentence imitation. Here students imitatethe structure of a sentence, but replace theoriginal words and ideas with new wordsand their own ideas.
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Here is an example of a mini-workshop onsentence imitation.
The teacher writes a simple sentencecomprised of “basic” words and asks studentsto replace one or more of the words withmore precise words. For example, the teachermight write:
Original sentence:The vehicle drives down the street.
The teacher asks students to replace theword “vehicle” with more precise words.Students might offer “car,” “truck,” or“mini-van.” The teacher then introducesthe grammar concept of noun as somethingor someone that does action. Next, theteacher can ask students to replace the
word “drives.” Students might suggest“races,” “speeds,” or “swerves.” The teachercan introduce the concept of verb as theword that shows action. If the teacherwants to use this sentence to teach subjectand predicate, the teacher might askstudents, “What else could go down thestreet? For example, the wind blows downthe street.” Students might say, “Mariadances down the street.”
As students gain competence in imitatingsentences, the teacher can introduce moresophisticated sentence structures.
Original sentence:By the end of the race, the athletes weretired and needed to eat a snack.
Imitation:At the beginning of the party, the childrenwere excited and wanted to play somegames.
With three pies in the oven, the baker wassatisfied and hoped to please the guests.
With sentence imitation, teachers helpstudents understand parts of speech andsentences in natural, engaging ways. Inaddition to learning grammar, studentsdiscover the relationship between sentencestructure and meaning as well as theimportance of precise word choice in theirwriting. When students create their ownsentences based on published authors’sentences, they gain insight into the craft ofwriting. They learn to write like a reader—and read like a writer.
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Grammar Workshop, Level Blue, p. 51 Revising Sentences
What Are Effective Strategies
for Teaching Editing Skills to Students
in Grades 3–5?
Being a careful editor and proofreader entailsmore than being a good reader. Proofreadingand editing are related, but proofreading isa particularly challenging task for manystudents. Here are at some guidelines tohelp students improve their editing andproofreading skills.
1) When you proofread, read slowly.
When we teach proofreading, we need toteach students how to read more slowly andattend to the smaller details of sentencestructure, punctuation, capitalization, and
spelling. By reading carefully and deliberately,students focus on the writing conventions.
2) When you proofread, read the paper aloudto yourself or to your partner.
When a partner reads the writer’s paperaloud to the writer, both students canlisten for smooth or awkward sentences,precise or vague word choices, consistentuse of verb tenses, and agreement withsubjects and verbs.
When the partner or the writer hears an error,the writer can use the editing symbols tomark where the correction needs to be made.Some students prefer to make the correctionsas they discover them. Other students preferto make all the corrections after they havefinished working with their partner.
3) When you proofread, focus on only 2 or 3areas at a time.
Students can remember a finite number ofgrammar concepts. When they learn newrules, they often “forget” the other rules. As students prepare to edit, teachers shouldpresent a mini-workshop that introduces orreviews the specific editing concept.
If students are working with editingpartners, each editing partner can read for aspecific feature. For example, one partnermight be the spelling editor, another partnermight be the comma editor, while a thirdpartner might be the complete sentence
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Grammar Workshop, Level Blue, p. 82 Proofreading
editor. Through the use of editing partners,students engage in reading like a writer.
4) When you proofread another person’spaper, keep a separate list of specific areasyou want to check in your own writing.
Students will often see errors in anotherperson’s writing that they might not notice
in their own writing. Writers may not noticethe problems in their own writing becausethey are already familiar with the contentand are reading for meaning—notproofreading for errors. By making a list ofitems they may need to check in their ownwriting, students become more responsible,independent proofreaders.
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About the Author
Beverly Ann Chin, Ph.D., professor of English at the
University of Montana and past president of the
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE),
developed the new Sadlier-Oxford Grammar forWriting series to help prepare today’s secondary students
to meet the new standards called for on standardized tests,
on college readiness examinations, and in today’s rapidly
changing job market. Dr. Chin also served as the Senior
Series Consultant for the new Sadlier-Oxford GrammarWorkshop series for Grades 3–5, that offers a complete
course in grammar, usage, and mechanics skills with an
application of those skills to student writing.�
Angelillo, J. (2002). A fresh approach to teaching punctuation: Helping young writers use conventions with precision and purpose. New York: Scholastic.
Calkins, L. (1980). “When children want to punctuate.”Language Arts, 57, 567–73.
Dyson, A. H. & Freedman, S. W. (2003). Writing. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. Squire, & J. Jensen (Eds.) Handbookof research on teaching the English language arts. Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 967–992.
Farnan, N. & Dahl, K. (2003). Children’s writing: Researchand practice. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. Squire, & J. Jensen(Eds.) Handbook of research on teaching the English languagearts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 993-1007.
Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effectivestrategies to improve the writing of adolescents in middle andhigh schools—A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York.Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Haussamen, B. with Benjamin, A., Kolln, M., & Wheeler,R. S. (2003). Grammar alive! A guide for teachers. Urbana,IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Hillocks, G. & Smith, M. (2003). Grammars and literacylearning. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. Squire, & J. Jensen(Eds.) Handbook of research on teaching the English languagearts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 721-737.
Holdzkom, D., Reed, L., Porter, E. J., & Rubin, D. (1984).Research within read: Oral and written communication. St.Louis, MO: Mid-Continent Regional EducationalLaboratory.
Killgallon, D. (1997). Sentence composing for middleschool. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.
National Assessment Governing Board. (2007). Writingframework and specifications for the 2007 NationalAssessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC:National Assessment Governing Board.
National Council of Teachers of English. (2006). BeyondGrammar Drills: How language works in learning to write.http://www.ncte.org/about/press/key/125935.htm
National Council of Teachers of English. (2004). NCTEbeliefs about the teaching of writing.http://www.ncte.org/about/over/positions/category/write/118876.htm
National Council of Teachers of English. (nd). Writing in theintermediate grades, 3–5. http://www.ncte.org/prog/writing/research/115617.htm
National Council of Teachers of English & InternationalReading Association. (1996). Standards for English language arts. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachersof English.
Noguchi, R. R. (1991). Grammar and the teaching ofwriting: Limits and possibilities. Urbana, IL: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.
Strickland, D. & Feeley, J. (2003). Development in theelementary school years. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. Squire,& J. Jensen (Eds.) Handbook of research on teaching theEnglish language arts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum,339-356.
Strong, W. (2001). Coaching writing: The power of guidedpractice. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Weaver, C. (1996). Teaching grammar in context. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.
To access other white papers in the Sadlier-Oxford Professional Development Series, please go to www.sadlier-oxford.com.
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Effective Strategies forEngaging Middle SchoolStudents in Writing and
Grammar Instructionby
Beverly Ann ChinProfessor of English
University of Montana
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s teachers seek to balance instructionin the development and organization
of ideas with choices in language fluencyand correctness, they often ask, “What isthe relationship between writinginstruction and grammar? How isgrammar addressed in standards andevaluated in large-scale assessments?”Teachers also wonder, “What strategieshelp students in their understandingand command of conventions ofStandard Written English? How canteachers make grammar instructionmeaningful and enjoyable?” A reviewof the research provides answers to theseimportant questions.
What is the RelationshipBetween Writing Instructionand Grammar?Researchers have found that the mosteffective way to help students becomebetter writers as well as learn, apply,and master the conventions of StandardWritten English is to integrate focusedgrammar lessons during the revisingand editing process with students’ ownwriting (Braddock, Lloyd-Jones, andSchoer, 1963; Elley et al., 1976; Noyceand Christie, 1983; Hillocks, 1986;Anderson, 2007).
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Similarly, based on its own review of the
research in writing and grammar instruction,
the National Council of Teachers of
English (NCTE) asserts:
Language skills and conventions(grammar, punctuation, spelling) aremost successfully learned with a combination of carefully targeted lessons applied within the context ofmeaningful writing.
Skilled teachers of writing know how toteach grammar to their students as theywrite, when they have a particular needto know the information. Students needto be able to compose complex, variedsentences, and they need to be able toproofread their writing for mistakesthat might distract their audiences ordistort their intended meaning.
How Is Grammar Addressed inStandards and Evaluated in Large-Scale Assessments?In 1996, the National Council of Teachers
of English and the International Reading
Association published Standards for theEnglish Language Arts, which describes a
vision for what all students should know
and be able to do. Three of the twelve
NCTE/IRA standards address the role of
grammar in writing instruction:
Students adjust their use of spoken,written, and visual language (e.g.,conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a varietyof audiences and for different purposes.
Students employ a wide range of strategiesas they write and use different writingprocess elements appropriately tocommunicate with different audiencesfor a variety of purposes.
Students apply knowledge of languagestructure, language conventions (e.g.,spelling and punctuation), mediatechniques, figurative language, andgenre to create, critique, and discussprint and non-print texts.
Sentence CombiningSentence combining is a strategy in which
students identify short, choppy sentences
and combine them to create longer, more
fluent sentences. As students experiment with
different ways to combine their sentences, they
discover how sentence beginnings, lengths, and
complexities relate to the meaning and overall
effect of the message. Teachers who introduce
students to sentence combining through oral
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EXAMPLE OF SENTENCE COMBINING
Simple Sentences:
The room was brightly lit.
The room was decorated.
The decorations were banners.
The decorations were balloons.
The room was filled with people.
The people were celebrating.
The celebration was for the school library.
The school library was opening.
The library was new.
Combined sentences:
The brightly-lit room was decorated withballoons and banners and filled with peo-ple celebrating the opening of the newschool library.
Decorated with balloons and banners, thebrightly-lit room was filled with peoplecelebrating the new school library, whichhad just opened.
People celebrated the opening of the newschool library in the brightly-lit room thatwas decorated with banners and balloons.
Balloons and banners decorated the brightlylit room in which people celebrated theopening of the new school library.
activities enable students to practice or
rehearse their newly combined sentences
before they write them. By connecting oral
language to written language, teachers relate
speaking and listening skills to writing
instruction. Teachers help students analyze
how their oral and written language choices
affect the meaning of the spoken and written
message (Mellon, 1969; O’Hare, 1973; Howie,
1979; Strong, 1986; Kanellas, Carifio, &
Dagostino, 1998; Saddler & Graham, 2005).
Sentence combining is most effective when it
is presented to students during the revising
and editing stages of the writing process.
Because sentence combining is based on
already written sentences and students’
own drafts, students do not need to focus on
generating or organizing ideas. Teachers can
use example sentences from student writing to
create sentence combining activities. During
the editing stage, teachers can use sentence
combining to discuss punctuation rules—
especially those related to commas, apostrophes,
and semicolons. By using students’ new
sentence combinations, teachers can also
provide instruction in grammar concepts,
such as independent and dependent clauses,
phrases, subject-verb agreement, antecedents,
active and passive voice, parallel structure,
and verbals.
Whether they work alone or with partners
as they practice sentence combining, it is
important for students to share their new,
combined sentences with classmates so that
everyone can hear and/or read the new
combinations. By hearing and reading many
versions of the new sentences, students can
discuss how their sentences affect the
meaning and the audience.
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Study of ModelsSentence imitation is a strategy that uses the
study of good models. When students imitate
sentences, they replicate the syntax of a model
text but use their own words and ideas.
Teachers usually begin by showing a well-
crafted sentence or paragraph, often from a
published author. The teacher helps the
students analyze how the author used specific
parts of speech to create the text. Then,
using their own topics, ideas, and words,
students create their own sentences as they
imitate the syntax of the model text. As
students work with their own ideas and
words, they learn how authors create effective
sentences (Knudson, 1989; Knudson, 1991;
Haussamen et al., 2003).
Through sentence imitation, students can also
learn to identify important grammar concepts,
such as independent and dependent clauses,
phrases, modifiers, and punctuation rules,
such as commas, dashes, parentheses, and
colons. Students can discuss how the author’s
use of grammar, usage, and mechanics affects
the reader’s understanding of the written
text. Students can also analyze how their
own applications of these conventions affect
their message.
Teachers usually introduce sentence imitation
activities during the revising stage as students
work on their sentence fluency and voice.
After students have revised their drafts for
ideas and organization, they can focus their
attention on their choices for language fluency.
When students imitate sentences with
complex punctuation, parallel syntax, or
sophisticated modification, they enter the
editing stage of the writing process.
Writing StrategiesWriting strategies are used throughout the
writing process, which includes prewriting,
drafting, revising, and editing. When teachers
guide students through the writing process,
students learn valuable strategies for success
in school and in life (Yeh, S., 1998; De La
Paz, S. & Graham, S., 2002).
During the prewriting stage, teachers
show students how to plan their writing
by generating ideas and determining an
organizational pattern. Teachers also
emphasize the importance of understanding
the writing task, purpose, and audience.
When teachers introduce common prewriting
strategies, such as brainstorming, outlines,
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EXAMPLE OF MODELING
Original Model
Unusual rock formations appear in thecliffs by the river and provide valuablespecimens for geologists from scientificorganizations and universities.
Sentence Imitations
Sleek race horses stand in their stalls in thestable and munch crunchy oats with sighsof peaceful contentment and relaxation.
Healthy young people exercise in manyways throughout the week and eat balancedmeals with varieties of green vegetablesand fruits.
Majestic bald eagles soar in the sky abovethe mountains and cast dark shadows overlakes of deep blue and aquamarine.
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and graphic organizers, students discover which
prewriting strategies work better for certain
types of writing tasks. For example, a Venn
diagram works well for a compare/contrast
paper while an outline works well for a
persuasive essay.
After students have written their drafts,
teachers help students revise the papers for
ideas, organization, word choice, sentence
fluency, and voice. To help students
understand the recursive nature of the
writing process, teachers encourage students
to refer to their prewriting notes to get more
ideas or to reconsider their purpose and
audience for the writing task.
Collaborative WritingLike speaking, listening, and reading, writing
involves thought and expression. And like
all the language arts, writing is a social,
meaning-making endeavor. Speakers need
listeners; writers need readers. When teach-
ers use collaborative writing strategies, they
help students engage in critical thinking and
authentic communication skills. They also
help students see the relationship between
“reading like a writer” and “writing like a
reader.” By creating a positive, collaborative
learning environment, teachers encourage
students to take risks, value critique, and
grow as competent, confident writers
(Olson, 1990; Yarrow & Topping, 2001).
Teachers support students through
collaborative strategies throughout the
writing process. During prewriting, teachers
often ask students to brainstorm and create
graphic organizers in partnerships and as a
whole class. For some writing projects,
teachers have students write with partners
or in small groups.
Collaboration is especially important during
the revising and editing stages. By modeling
how to ask for and offer constructive feedback,
teachers show students how to have
meaningful conversations about writing.
Through these conversations, teachers also
help students assess their writing strengths
and identify ways to improve their writing.
How Can Teachers MakeGrammar InstructionMeaningful and Enjoyable?When middle school students value their
writing purpose and audience, they discover
how conventions affect the clarity and impact
of their message. Here are four teaching
suggestions that can help students enjoy
learning grammar.
• Emphasize the positive.
Look for what students are doing effectively in
their writing. By pointing out students’ correct
use of conventions, you reinforce the importance
of grammar, usage, and mechanics as tools that
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help readers understand the written message.
You also build students’ confidence as writers.
• Keep the grammar lesson focused.
Prioritize and select the one or two important
concepts to be addressed in each lesson.
Introducing too many concepts at the same
time overwhelms many students. For example,
you might choose to teach a lesson on subject-
verb agreement before you introduce a lesson
on pronoun-antecedent agreement, or you
might review a lesson on fragments and
run-on sentences before you introduce a new
lesson on parallel sentence structures.
• Show examples of grammar concepts in different texts and genres.
Create a bulletin board that displays the ways
in which grammar, usage, and mechanics
are used in various publications, such as
magazines and newspapers, or in poetry,
graphic novels, and screenplays. Cartoons
and newspaper headlines offer creative
opportunities to examine punctuation and
word choice. Encourage students to
contribute to the display or create their
own collection of their favorite examples
of grammar, usage, and mechanics.
• Make grammar lively.
Show examples from print and nonprint
media that use language in creative and
unusual ways. Have students look for
examples of humor and ambiguity in
written language. Jokes, puns, and
misplaced modifiers offer opportunities to
discuss grammar.
During the middle school years, students are
discovering the power of their voices in
written communication. They are learning
how the purpose of their writing and the
audience to which they write influence the
selection and organization of ideas. Students
are also learning how word choice and
sentence variety contribute to the written
message. Furthermore, they are learning how
the conventions of Standard Written English—
grammar, usage, and mechanics—help their
readers focus on the content and intent of
the message.
Middle school teachers support students as
readers and writers by introducing them to
an expanding variety of forms, including
summaries, directions, letters, reports, and
personal narratives. Teachers also help students
value writing as a way of reflecting on
texts, expressing personal opinions, and
communicating with wider audiences. As
teachers read their students’ writing, they
assess each student’s writing strengths and
identify areas that need improvement.
In any given class, teachers must address a
wide range of student writing abilities,
interests, and needs. To help all their students
grow as writers, teachers need to help each
student develop the ability to write clearly,
effectively, and correctly.
Anderson, A. A. (1997). The effects ofsociocognitive writing strategy instructionon the writing achievement and writingself-efficacy of students with disabilities andtypical achievement in an urban elementaryschool. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.University of Houston, Houston, TX.
Braddock, R., Lloyd-Jones, R., & Schoer, L.(1963). Research in written composition.Urbana, IL: National Council ofTeachers of English.
De La Paz, S. & Graham, S. (2002).Explicitly teaching strategies, skills,and knowledge: Writing instruction inmiddle school classrooms. Journal ofEducational Psychology, 94, 291-304.
Elley, W. B., Barnham, I. H., Lamb, H.,Wyllie, M. (1976). The role of grammarin secondary school English curriculum.Research in the Teaching of English, 10,5-21.
Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). Writingnext: Effective strategies to improve thewriting of adolescents in middle and highschools—A report to Carnegie Corporationof New York. Washington, DC: Alliancefor Excellent Education.
Haussamen, B., Benjamin, A., Kolln, M.,Wheeler, R. (2003). Grammar alive! A guide for teachers. Urbana, IL: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.
Hillocks, G., Jr. (1986). Research on writtencomposition: New directions for teaching.Urbana, IL: Educational ResourceInformation Center and NationalConference on Research in English.
Howie, S. M. H. (1979). A study: The effects ofsentence combining practice on the writing abilityand reading level of ninth grade students.Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Colorado, Boulder.
Kanellas, R., Carifio, J, & Dagostino, L.(1998). Improving the expository writingskills of adolescents. New York: OxfordUniversity Press.
Knudson, R. E. (1989). Effects of instructionalstrategies on children’s informationalwriting. Journal of Educational Research,83, 91-96.
Knudson, R. E. (1991). Effects of instructionalstrategies, grade, and sex on students’persuasive writing. Journal of ExperimentalEducation, 59, 141-152.
Mellon, J. C. (1969). Transformationalsentence combining: A method forenhancing the development of syntacticfluency in English composition. NCTEResearch Report No. 10. Urbana, IL:National Council of Teachers of English.
National Assessment of EducationalProgress. (2008). Writing framework andspecifications for the 2011 NationalAssessment of Educational Progress.<http://www.nagb.org/frameworks/2011naep-
writing-framework.doc>
National Council of Teachers of English,Writing in the middle grades, 6-8.<http://www.ncte.org/prog/writing/research/113177.htm>
National Council of Teachers of English.Beyond grammar drills: how languageworks in learning to write. The CouncilChronicle Online, 26 October 2006.<http://www.ncte.org/about/press/key/125935.htm>
Noyce, R. M., & Christie, J. E. (1983).Effects on an integrated approach togrammar instruction on third graders’reading and writing. Elementary SchoolJournal, 81, 63-69.
O’Hare, F. (1973). Sentence combining: Improvingstudent writing without formal grammarinstruction. Urbana, IL: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.
Olson, V. B. (1990). The revising processesof sixth-grade writers with and withoutpeer feedback. Journal of EducationalResearch, 84, 22-29.
Saddler, B., & Graham, S. (2005). The effectsof peer-assisted sentence-combininginstruction on the writing performance ofmore and less skilled young writers.Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 43-54.
Strong, W. (1986). Creative approaches tosentence combining. Urbana, IL: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English.
Troia, G., & Graham, S. (2002). The effective-ness of a highly explicit, teacher-directedstrategy instruction routine: Changing thewriting performance of students withlearning disabilities. Journal of LearningDisabilities, 35, 290-305.
Yarrow, F., & Topping, K. J. (2001).Collaborative writing: The effects ofmetacognitive prompting and structuredpeer interaction. British Journal ofEducational Psychology, 71, 261-82.
Yeh, S. (1998). Empowering education:Teaching argumentative writing toculturally minority middle-schoolstudents. Research in the Teaching ofEnglish, 33, 49-83.
A Division of William H. Sadlier, Inc.800-221-5175
www.sadlier.com
References
Dr. Beverly Ann Chin, Ph.D., is the Senior Series Consultant, Grammar for Writing, Grades 6–12,and Professor of English and Director of the English Teaching Program at the University of Montana.
Dr. Chin is Senior Project Consultant for the 2011 Writing Framework for National Assessment ofEducational Progress (NAEP).
Using best practices and active pedagogy, Dr. Chin conducts writing workshops that align curriculumand instruction with standards and assessments.
Dr. Chin is a former Director of the Montana Writing Project and past president of the NationalCouncil of Teachers of English (NCTE).
Teaching Meaningful Revision: Developing and Deepening
Students’ Writingby
Beverly Ann ChinProfessor of English
University of Montana
xperienced teachers of writing know that revision is an integral part of the writing process. They know that it is in this stage of the
writing process that students grow as writers, readers, and thinkers.
Yet many teachers also know that it can be challenging to motivate students to revise. There may be several reasons that students are reluctant to revise: they may be unaware that revising is a natural part of the writing process and think their first draft is supposed to be their final product; they may not consider the purpose and audience for their writing; they may know that their writing needs to be improved but do not possess a repertoire of revising strategies. Some students consider revision to be hard work since it requires time, energy, and commitment. Still others mistake editing for revising—that is, they think correcting spelling, punctuation, and grammar is the same as revising for deeper meaning, such as ideas and organization.
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Experienced teachers also know that students
have different writing needs, abilities, and
interests. Since teaching revision is crucial to the
development of all students’ writing abilities,
teachers need to design lessons that engage
students as peer revisers who can critique and
celebrate their own—and other people’s—
writing. By teaching revision, teachers provide
all students with strategies they can use in
personal, academic, and workplace writing.
A Respectful Learning CommunityTeaching the writing process—and especially the
revision process—requires teachers to establish a
safe, trusting, and respectful learning community.
Because students take risks when they ask for—or
offer—feedback from their peers, teachers should
create norms and protocols that facilitate fruitful
conversations about revision.
One way to develop a positive community
of writers is to have a conversation about
how students feel when they receive and give
feedback. Using a chart such as the one below,
students can individually list their feelings
and concerns regarding the peer responses to
their writing. The teacher can ask students to
share their lists, record their responses, and
lead a discussion about the similarities and
differences between the two columns.
HOW I FEEL WHEN I RECEIVE FEEDBACK ON MY OWN WRITING
HOW I FEEL WHEN I GIVE FEEDBACK ON SOMEONE ELSE’S WRITING
Students may say they feel embarrassed or
confused when they receive feedback on their
writing. They may also observe that they feel
awkward or unsure when they give feedback
on a peer’s work. Students are often surprised
or relieved to know that many classmates
share the same feelings about getting and
giving feedback.
After students discover their own and other
people’s feelings about the feedback process,
they can use another chart to describe what
type of revision feedback is helpful and what
type of revision feedback is not helpful.
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WHAT TYPE OF FEEDBACK HELPS ME REVISE MY WRITING
WHAT TYPE OF FEEDBACK DOES NOT HELP ME REVISE MY WRITING
For example, students may say that they find
it helpful when peers genuinely care about
the writing and offer specific suggestions for
improvement. They may also say that vague
comments or overly negative remarks are not
helpful in the revision process. Discussing
the similarities and differences in their
responses gives both teacher and students
insight into what different writers value in
revision feedback.
After students share their responses to
this chart, the teacher and students can
develop class norms for effective revising
conversations. Norms might include
showing respect (verbally and nonverbally)
for the writer and the writer’s ideas,
sharing responsibility for the revising
conversation, staying focused on the
revision process, being honest yet tactful in
feedback, and offering specific, constructive
comments. Teachers can post these student-
developed norms in the classroom so
students can readily refer to them. Teachers
and students should reflect regularly on
how well they are applying these norms in
their revising conversations.
The teacher can also introduce students to
the Praise, Question, and Suggest (PQS)
protocol, which encourages positive,
productive revision conversations. Peer
responders begin their feedback by praising
the paper’s strengths. They then ask
questions that encourage the writer to think
critically about his/her writing. Finally,
when appropriate, peer responders offer
specific, helpful suggestions that the writer
might consider in revising his/her paper.
By developing classroom norms and using
the PQS protocol, teachers create a safe
environment in which students trust and
respect each other as writers and responders.
As a result, peer revision conversations are
constructive, focused, and student-centered.
Questions to Focus the Revising ConversationTeachers can select or create questions to
guide the peer revision conversations. The
questions to guide revision should be based
on the demands of the writing task and the
needs and abilities of the students. (See the
Appendix on page 10 for model questions.)
If students are already familiar and
comfortable with the revision process and
the traits of writing, students can create
their own revision questions. The traits
of writing are ideas, organization, word
choice, sentence fluency, voice, conventions,
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and presentation. By considering how
all the traits of writing work together in
particular genres and contexts, students
assess the overall effectiveness of their
written message.
Since not all papers need to be revised for all
traits, teachers and students need to decide
which writing traits and questions are most
important. By encouraging students to
revise first for the larger, global aspects of
writing, teachers emphasize the importance
of the writing task, development of ideas,
and organization. Based on the abilities
of the students and their experiences with
revision, teachers may prefer to focus the
peer revision conversation on one trait at
a time. More experienced, mature writers
learn how to revise their writing multiple
times, each time focusing on a different
writing trait. Whether students discuss a
single trait or several traits in their revision
conversation, they should always remember
the purpose, audience, and genre of the
writing task.
Teachers should also remember that offering
novice writers a few, carefully chosen
questions may encourage deeper revision
conversations than requiring students to
discuss too many questions at a superficial
level. Asking the questions in student-
friendly language invites students into the
peer revision conversation.
Revision WorkshopsExperienced teachers use workshops that
“show, not tell” students how to revise.
A revision workshop is a structured
instructional plan that enables students to
learn new writing strategies and to focus on
specific writing traits.
The workshop is comprised of three main
parts: 1) direct instruction, in which the
teacher presents the writing trait and/or
revision strategy and models the revision
process; 2) guided practice, in which
the teacher gives students structured
opportunities to learn and practice the
writing strategy, and 3) independent
application, in which students apply the
writing strategy to their own writing. (Some teachers refer to the workshop structure as “I do, we do, you do.”)
Although revision workshops may focus on
any of the writing traits, it is important to
help students examine the larger vision of
the writing before turning to the finer points
of the writing. Therefore, teachers usually
present revision workshops on the focus of
the writing task, the development of ideas
and organization, before they teach revision
workshops on voice, sentence fluency, and
word choice.
In addition to teaching the traits of writing,
revision workshops can show students specific
TRAITS OF WRITINGl Ideas l Voicel Organization l Conventionsl Word Choice l Presentationl Sentence Fluency
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revising strategies such as text coding (using
marginal notes, post-its, or highlighters) and
recording forms.
Here is an example of a revision workshop
that focuses on the trait of ideas using the
text coding strategy.
1) Direct instruction: The teacher defines the
trait of ideas and discusses with students the
importance of ideas for their writing task. The
teacher identifies specific questions to guide
revision of ideas (see appendices). The teacher
then shows a model of writing (in the genre,
purpose and audience for the students’ writing
task) and points out how the writer develops
and supports ideas, using facts, examples,
personal anecdotes, details or statistics (as
appropriate). The teacher might then show a
draft that does not have sufficient or relevant
ideas and do a “think aloud.” Using the
revision questions, the teacher thinks aloud
about what additional ideas might be added to
strengthen the paper. The teacher also thinks
aloud about what ideas might be deleted
because they detract from the main idea of the
paper or about what ideas need to be expanded
to more fully support the main idea. As the
teacher models this thinking about ideas, he/
she makes notes in the margin or uses post-its
to record the revisions to be made.
At the end of the direct instruction, the
teacher summarizes what and how he/she
plans to revise the writing and asks the
students if they have questions or insights
into the trait of ideas, the use of the revision
questions, and/or the strategy of text coding
(marginal notes or post-its).
2) Guided practice: The teacher provides
students with a draft (again matching the
purpose, audience, and genre of the students’
writing task) that needs improvement on the
trait of ideas. The students individually or in
small groups read the draft and use the same
revision questions to discuss what additional
ideas might be added or what ideas might
be deleted. The students keep in mind
the purpose, audience, and context for the
writing task. Individually or in small groups,
students make marginal notes or use post-
its to indicate the how they would revise
to improve the ideas in this draft. During
this guided practice, the teacher monitors
students’ understanding of the writing trait
and the revision strategy. Then, with the
whole class, the teacher invites students to
share their suggestions for strengthening the
ideas in the draft.
At the end of the guided practice, the
teacher asks students to summarize what
they are learning about the trait of ideas as
related to their specific writing assignment.
The students should also discuss how the
revision questions and the text coding
(marginal notes or post-its) contributed to
the revision process.
3) Independent application: In this part
of the workshop, students use the same
processes modeled in the direct instruction
and “rehearsed” in the guided practice to
revise their own writing. Using the same
revision questions, students read their own
writing and take notes about what and how
to revise. After students have made their
revisions, they share their new draft with
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their peer responders. During independent
application, the teacher monitors how
individual students are applying the
revising strategy and engaging in revision
conversations. At the close of the revision
workshop, the teacher asks the students
to reflect on what they are learning about
revision as it applies to their own writing.
Teachers should also encourage students to
reflect on the value of the revision questions
and the use of marginal notes or post-its.
By conducting revision workshops, teachers
scaffold instruction, showing students how
to revise for a specific writing trait or how
to use a specific revising strategy. When
teachers explicitly teach the writing traits
and strategies through revision workshops,
students learn to understand and value the
revision process as well as feedback from
their peers.
Peer Revision in Small Groups and PartnershipsIn addition to helping students revise
individually, students need to learn how
to have revising conversations with their
peer responders. By providing a sequence
of steps for all students to follow, teachers
help students engage in focused, natural,
and constructive revising conversations.
Given the specific revision task and strategy,
teachers should determine how much time
students need to discuss and revise. The time
keeper in each small group or partnership
can ensure that each person has the
opportunity to receive and give feedback.
Working in partnerships or in small groups
of three or four, students learn to focus their
attention as writers and readers.
Here is a procedure that works with
partnerships and small groups:
l Writer shares the writing task,
purpose, audience, and genre with
peer responders.l Writer identifies the revision
questions he/she would like to receive
feedback on. (See Appendix.)l Writer reads paper aloud slowly
and clearly to peer responders. Peer
responders listen carefully.l Writer invites peers to offer feedback,
based on the revision questions.l Peer responders offer feedback using
PQS protocol.l Writer takes notes on own paper
regarding feedback.l At the end, writer thanks peer
responders. The procedure begins
again with another writer.
A variation of the above procedure has the
peer responder read aloud the writer’s paper
to the writer.
l Writer shares the writing task,
purpose, audience, and genre with
peer responders.l Writer identifies the revision
questions he/she would like to receive
feedback on. (See Appendix.)l Peer responder reads aloud slowly and
clearly the writer’s paper. Writer and
other peer responders in small group
listen carefully.
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l Writer invites peers to offer feedback,
based on the revision questions.l Peer responders offer feedback using
PQS protocol.l Writer takes notes on own paper
regarding feedback.l At the end, writer thanks peer
responders. The procedure begins
again with another writer.
After one or more revisions, students may
wish to have more peers read their writing.
Organizing the class into groups of five to
six students, the teacher collects all student
papers. (Some teachers have students bring
copies of their revisions without their names,
but with random, individual codes. The use
of codes allows peer responders to read the
paper without knowing who the writer is.)
Each group of students receives papers from
another group. Each person in the group reads
a paper silently and writes comments on a
recording form. The recording form should be
tailored to the revision task. For example, if
the revision task focuses on word choice, the
recording form may ask students to identify
the most powerful words in the writing
(Praise), to ask questions about connotations
of specific words (Question), or to make
suggestions about replacing vague words
(Suggest). If the revision task encompasses
several traits, the recording form should
identify these traits with appropriate response
prompts for the peer responders.
After the student has read a paper and
written his/her responses on the recording
form, the responder signs his/her name,
folds the recording form, and paper clips
it to the back of the paper. The paper with
the folded recording form is passed to
another student in the small group. This
new responder uses a new recording form to
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write his/her feedback. Responders may not
open and read other responders’ feedback
during this process.
When all students in the small group have
read and completed individual response
forms, the teacher collects all papers with
the folded, paper-clipped response forms and
places them in a central location in the class.
The individual writers then retrieve their own
papers and open the attached response forms.
As students read their
peers’ feedback for revision,
they notice similarities
and differences in the
written feedback. Since the
feedback is signed, writers
can talk with their peers
to clarify and continue the
revision process. They can
also thank their peers for
their care and attention to
their writing.
By reading papers
silently and writing their
individual responses on
separate recording forms,
students have the opportunity to critique
papers without the writer present. They also
learn how to write feedback using the PQS
protocol and referring to revision questions.
At the close of all small group and
partnership procedures, the teacher and
students should discuss how the revision
process worked. Using the questions to guide
reflection of the revision process
(See Appendix), the teacher and students
continue to strengthen their learning
community as well as discover the critical
thinking—and empathy—required for
deeper, meaningful revision.
Writing ConferencesWhen teachers hold individual writing
conferences with students, teachers can model
active listening skills and critical reading
skills. Writing conferences during the
revision process may have different purposes
for different students. Some students may
wish to focus on specific writing traits;
other students may want to receive more
general feedback about the progress they are
making on their writing tasks. Many teachers
encourage students to determine the purpose
and focus of the writing conferences so that
students take ownership of their writing and
learn to ask for specific feedback on their
works in progress.
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Writing conferences can be scheduled
whenever the teacher and students want
time to meet. Some teachers schedule weekly
writing conferences with their students;
other teachers schedule specific days and have
students sign up for 5 minute appointments.
While the teacher conferences with a student
in the classroom, the other students work
on their own writing or are working in peer
response groups.
When the student and teacher confer,
the student shares what he/she is already
pleased with and what he/she is working
on. The student also states what he/she
wants the teacher to read or listen for in the
draft. The student may then read aloud the
draft—or the teacher may read the draft
aloud to the student. By listening to the
student’s concerns and by encouraging the
student to describe his/her revision process,
the teacher gains insight into the type of
revision feedback that is most useful for
the student. When providing feedback, the
teacher should also use the PQS protocol.
The student should listen and/or take notes
on what or how he/she plans to revise.
Likewise, the teacher should make notes on
a separate recording form about the focus of
the writing conference as well as any goals,
recommendations, or follow-ups for the
next writing conference. These notes enable
students to set goals and document growth
in the revision process.
Writing conferences are valuable opportunities
for positive, productive, and personal
conversations about the revising process.
Depending on the writing task and the
abilities, needs, and interests of the individual
student, teachers can use writing conferences
to reinforce the reading-writing connection
and the power of written communication.
Teaching revision—like revision itself—
takes time, patience, and commitment.
When students engage in the revision
process, they experiment, take risks, and
develop control over the traits of writing.
With trusted peers in a respectful learning
community, students focus on meaning-
making and problem-solving. They discover
how purpose, audience, and context direct
and shape their writing. Through revision
workshops and conferences with their
teachers, students learn to “write like a
reader and read like a writer.” By carefully
crafting their message through multiple
revision strategies, students grow in their
confidence and competence to write clearly
and effectively in school, in the workplace,
and throughout their lives.
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APPENDIX: Model Revision Questions
1. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE THE FOCUS OF THE WRITING TASKl What is the main idea of your paper?l Who is your audience?l What is your writing purpose (to persuade, to explain, to convey experience—real or imagined)?l What are the characteristics of the genre of writing (an essay, a lab report, a story, a memo, etc.)
you have chosen?
2. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REVISION OF IDEASl What facts, examples, or details contribute to the development of the main idea?l What facts, examples, or details detract from the main idea?l What facts, examples, or details might be re-framed or extended to better support the main idea?l What facts, examples, or details might be added to strengthen the development of the main idea?l Does the paper contain sufficient and appropriate support of ideas to accomplish the writing
purpose for the audience?l Do the writer’s main ideas and supporting ideas address the reader’s questions about the topic
and purpose of the writing task?
3. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REVISION OF ORGANIZATIONl How does the introduction engage the reader?l What other types of leads might be effective for this writing?l To what extent does the thesis statement allow the reader to predict the organization of the paper?l What is the organization of the paper, (e.g., compare/contrast, chronology, cause/effect, spatial,
order of importance, problem-solution, etc.)?l Does the organizational pattern fit the purpose and genre of the writing task?l To what extent do the topic sentences and transitional devices enable the reader to follow the
organizational pattern of the paper?l How or where might the writer re-arrange the paragraphs to improve the organization?l Does the closing paragraph balance the introduction?l How effectively do the opening and closing paragraphs frame the entire paper?
4. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REVISION OF SENTENCE FLUENCYl Does the writer use a variety of sentence beginnings?l Does the writer use a variety of sentence lengths?l Does the writer use a variety of sentence constructions?l Where might the writer use sentence-combining, sentence expansion, or sentence reduction to
enhance sentence fluency?l How effectively does the sentence fluency enhance the reader’s ease and enjoyment of the paper?
5. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REVISION OF WORD CHOICEl Are the word choices effective for the intended audience?l Are the word choices at the appropriate level of formality/informality for the purpose, topic,
and audience?l Do the word choices convey the appropriate connotation—negative or positive—for the
purpose, topic, and audience?l Where might the writer substitute more precise, powerful, and/or descriptive words for the
purpose, topic, and audience?
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About the AuthorDr. Beverly Ann Chin, Ph.D., is the Senior Series Consultant for Sadlier’s Writing Workshop and Grammar for Writing programs, and Professor of English and Director of the English Teaching Program at the University of Montana.
Dr. Chin is Senior Project Consultant for the 2011 Writing Framework for National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
Dr. Chin is a former Director of the Montana Writing Project and past president of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE).
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Recommended ReadingsCulham, R. (2003) 6+1 Traits of Writing: The complete guide grades
3 and up. New York: Scholastic.
Dean, D. (2006) Strategic Writing: The Writing Process and beyond in the Secondary English Classroom. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Gilmore, B. (2007) Is It Done Yet? Teaching Adolescents the Art of Revision. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007) Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve the Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools—A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Lane, B. (1993) After THE END: Teaching and Learning Creative Revision. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Strong, W. (2001) Coaching Writing: The Power of Guided Practice. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
6. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REVISION OF VOICEl What is the voice of the writer and is it appropriate for the purpose, audience, and context of
the writing task?l Does the voice convey the personality of the writer?l Does the voice communicate respectfully to the intended audience?l Does the voice reveal a writer who is informed and interested in the topic and audience?l Does the writer use “I” or “we” or “you” or “they” consistently and effectively?l Does the writer use alliteration, imagery, or repetition effectively for the purpose, audience and genre?
7. QUESTIONS TO GUIDE REFLECTION ON THE REVISING PROCESSl What are the strengths of your writing?l What changes have you made from your first draft to this revised draft?l How have these changes improved your writing?l What might you continue to revise if/when you have more time?l What are you learning about your own writing and revising processes?l How do you feel about the feedback you received from your peers?l How do you feel about giving feedback to your peers?l How effectively did you and your classmates work in the revision workshop?l What did you and your partners do to make this revision workshop productive and positive?l To what extent did you and your classmates use the class norms and protocols in the revision process?l What might you and your classmates do to improve future revising workshops?
Available online at Sadlier.comFor printed copies, please call Sadlier Customer Service: 800-221-5175.
For additional information, or to request copies of other volumes in the Sadlier Professional Development Series, please call 800-221-5175
Volume 1: The Role of Grammar in Improving Students’ Writingby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #91337F)
Volume 2: Beginning Literacy: Research-Based Principles and Practicesby Lesley M. Morrow(Code #91347F)
Volume 3: Nursery Rhymes and Phonemic Awareness by Research and Development Staff(Code #91357F)
Volume 4: Word Study Strategies at the Middle Gradesby Richard T. Vacca(Code #91367F)
Volume 5: The Effective Mathematics Classroom: Research-Based Principles and Practicesby Marie Cooper(Code #9645-4)
Volume 6: Developing Effective Readers PreK–6 by Lesley M. Morrow and Richard T. Vacca(Code #91377F)
Volume 7: The Value of Direct and Systematic Vocabulary Instructionby Jerome Shostak(Code #90686F)
Volume 8: Using Nonfiction in the Primary Gradesby Alvin Granowsky, Carmelita K. Williams, and Jerry L. Johns(Code #91387- F)
Professional Development SeriesVolume 9: Vocabulary Instruction
in Elementary Gradesby Jerry L. Johns(Code #9924-F)
Volume 10: Best Practices for Teaching Grammar at the Elementary Gradesby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #90727F)
Volume 11: Effective Strategies for Engaging Middle School Students in Writing and Grammar Instructionby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #908081)
Volume 12: Motivating Middle School Students: The Critical Part of Lesson Planning in Mathematicsby Alfred S. Posamentier(Code #908381)
Volume 13: Best Practices for Phonics Instruction in Today’s Classroomby Diane Tracey and Lesley Mandel Morrow(Code #900891)
Volume 14: Problem Solving: Building Strategic Competenceby Alfred S. Posamentier(Code #904691)
Volume 15: Teaching Meaningful Revision: Developing and Deepening Students’ Writingby Beverly Ann Chin(Code #906991)
The Role Of Grammar In Improving Students' Writing
byBeverly Ann Chin
Professor of English, University of Montana
Grammar is the sound, structure, and meaning system of language. All languages have grammar,and each language has its own grammar. People who speak the same language are able tocommunicate because they intuitively know the grammar system of that language-that is, therules of making meaning. Students who are native speakers of English already know Englishgrammar. They recognize the sounds of English words, the meanings of those words, and thedifferent ways of putting words together to make meaningful sentences.
However, while students may be effective speakers of English, they need guidance to becomeeffective writers. They need to learn how to transfer their knowledge of grammatical conceptsfrom oral language to written language.
Effective grammar instruction begins with what students already know about grammar, and ithelps them use this knowledge as they write. By connecting their knowledge of oral language towritten language, teachers can demystify abstract grammatical terminology so that students canwrite-and read-with greater competence and confidence.
WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT GRAMMAR AND THE TEACHINGOF WRITING?Research strongly suggests that the most beneficial way of helping students improve theircommand of grammar in writing is to use students' writing as the basis for discussing grammaticalconcepts. Researchers agree that it is more effective to teach punctuation, sentence variety, andusage in the context of writing than to approach the topic by teaching isolated skills (Calkins,1980; DiStefano and Killion, 1984; Harris, 1962).
As students revise and edit their writing, teachers can provide grammar instruction that guidesstudents in their attempts to identify and correct problems in sentence structure and usage. Forexample, a teacher who sees that many students are writing sentences containing misplacedmodifiers can present a minilesson on this concept, using examples from student writing. Theteacher can have students edit their own and one another's drafts for this problem.
Integrating grammar instruction into the revising and editing process helps students makeimmediate applications, thus allowing them to see the relevance of grammar to their own writing.
TO WHAT SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF WRITING DOES GRAMMAR
CONTRIBUTE?Because writing is a complex and challenging activity for many students, teachers should focus onthe grammatical concepts that are essential for the clear communication of meaning.
Research conducted since the early 1960s shows that grammar instruction that is separate fromwriting instruction does not improve students' writing competence (Braddock and others, 1963;Hillocks, 1986). In addition, research indicates that the transfer of formal grammar instruction towriting is not applicable to larger elements of composition. Through detailed studies of students'writing, Shaughnessy (1977) concludes that the best grammar instruction is that which gives thegreatest return for the least investment of time. Shaughnessy advocates four importantgrammatical concepts: the sentence, inflection, tense, and agreement. She recommends thatteachers encourage students to examine grammatical errors in their own writing. She alsocautions teachers not to overemphasize grammatical terminology to the detriment of students'ability to understand and apply the concepts.
Weaver (1998) proposes a similar approach to teaching grammar in the context of writing. Shewrites, "What all students need is guidance in understanding and applying those aspects ofgrammar that are most relevant to writing." Weaver proposes five grammatical concepts thatenable writers to show improvement in sentence revision, style, and editing. (See chart below.)
A MINIMUM OF GRAMMAR FOR MAXIMUM BENEFITS
1. Teaching concepts on subject, verb, sentence, clause, phrase, and related concepts forediting
2. Teaching style though sentence combining and sentence generating
3. Teaching sentence sense through the manipulation of syntactic elements
4. Teaching both the power of dialects and the dialects of power
5. Teaching punctuation and mechanics for convention, clarity, and style
Reprinted by permission of Constance Weaver: Lessons to Share on Teaching Grammar in Context(Boynton-Cook, A division of Reed Elsevier Inc., Portsmouth, NH, 1998).
Rather than strive to teach all grammatical concepts to all students, teachers should prioritize andprovide instruction on the grammatical elements that most affect their students' ability to writeeffectively. Teachers should also be sensitive to individual students' readiness to learn and applygrammatical concepts.
HOW DOES SENTENCE COMBINING IMPROVE WRITING?Sentence combining is the strategy of joining short sentences into longer, more complexsentences. As students engage in sentence-combining activities, they learn how to vary sentencestructure in order to change meaning and style. Numerous studies (Mellon, 1969; O'Hare, 1973;Cooper, 1975; Shaughnessy, 1977; Hillocks, 1986; Strong, 1986) show that the use of sentencecombining is an effective method for improving students' writing. The value of sentence combiningis most evident as students recognize the effect of sentence variety (beginnings, lengths,complexities) in their own writing.
Hillocks (1986) states that "sentence combining practice provides writers with systematicknowledge of syntactic possibilities, the access to which allows them to sort through alternativesin their heads as well as on paper and to choose those which are most apt" (150). Research alsoshows that sentence combining is more effective than freewriting in enhancing the quality ofstudent writing (Hillocks, 1986).
Hillocks and Smith (1991) show that systematic practice in sentence combining can increasestudents' knowledge of syntactic structures as well as improve the quality of their sentences,particularly when stylistic effects are discussed as well. Sentence-combining exercises can beeither written or oral, structured or unstructured. Structured sentence-combining exercises givestudents more guidance in ways to create the new sentences; unstructured sentence-combiningexercises allow for more variation, but they still require students to create logical, meaningfulsentences. Hillocks (1986) reports that in many studies, sentence-combining exercises producesignificant increases in students' sentence-writing maturity.
Given Noguchi's (1991) analysis that grammar choices affect writing style, sentence combining isan effective method for helping students develop fluency and variety in their own writing style.Students can explore sentence variety, length, parallelism, and other syntactic devices bycomparing their sentences with sentences from other writers. They also discover the decisionswriters make in revising for style and effect.
Teachers can design their own sentence-combining activities by using short sentences fromstudent writing or other appropriate sources. For example, teachers who notice many choppysentences in students' writing can place these sentences on an overhead for all their students toread. Teachers can then ask different students to combine orally the short sentences in a varietyof ways.
By participating in oral and written sentence-combining activities, students better understand theways in which sentence structure, usage, and punctuation affect meaning.
When presented as a revising strategy, sentence-combining activities help students identify short,choppy sentences in their own writing, leading them to combine their ideas in more fluid andsophisticated ways. As students generate more complex sentences from shorter ones, theydiscover how the arrangement of phrases and clauses, for example, affects meaning and itsimpact on their readers.
WHAT STRATEGIES CAN TEACHERS USE TO TEACH GRAMMAR IN THECONTEXT OF WRITING?Grammar instruction is most naturally integrated during the revising, editing, and proofreadingphases of the writing process. After students have written their first drafts and feel comfortablewith the ideas and organization of their writing, teachers may wish to employ various strategiesto help students see grammatical concepts as language choices that can enhance their writingpurpose. Students will soon grow more receptive to revising, editing, and proofreading theirwriting. In writing conferences, for example, teachers can help students revise for effective wordchoices. As the teacher and student discuss the real audience(s) for the writing, the teacher canask the student to consider how formal or informal the writing should be, and remind the studentthat all people adjust the level of formality in oral conversation, depending on their listeners andthe speaking context. The teacher can then help the student identify words in his or her writingthat change the level of formality of the writing.
To help students revise boring, monotonous sentences, teachers might ask students to read their
writing aloud to partners. This strategy helps both the partner and the writer to recognize when,for example, too many sentences begin with "It is" or "There are." Both the partner and thewriter can discuss ways to vary the sentence beginnings. After the writer revises the sentences,the partner can read the sentences aloud. Then both can discuss the effectiveness of the revision.
Teachers can help students edit from passive voice to active voice by presenting a minilesson. Inediting groups, students can exchange papers and look for verbs that often signal the passivevoice, such as was and been. When students find these verbs, they read the sentence aloud totheir partners and discuss whether the voice is passive and, if so, whether an active voice verbmight strengthen the sentence. The student writer can then decide which voice is most effectiveand appropriate for the writing purpose and audience.
Teachers can help students become better proofreaders through peer editing groups. Based onthe writing abilities of their students, teachers can assign different proofreading tasks to specificindividuals in each group. For example, one person in the group might proofread for spellingerrors, another person for agreement errors, another person for fragments and run-ons, andanother person for punctuation errors. As students develop increasing skill in proofreading, theybecome responsible for more proofreading areas. Collaborating with classmates in peer editinggroups helps students improve their own grammar skills as well as understand the importance ofgrammar as a tool for effective communication.
As teachers integrate grammar instruction with writing instruction, they should use the grammarterms that make sense to the students. By incorporating grammar terms naturally into theprocesses of revising, editing, and proofreading, teachers help students understand and applygrammar purposefully to their own writing. Strategies such as writing conferences, partnershipwriting, grammar minilessons, and peer response groups are all valuable methods for integratinggrammar into writing instruction.
HOW DOES THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR ADDRESS THE NATIONALCONTENT STANDARDS FOR STUDENTS?The National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association (1996)published Standards for the English Language Arts, which defines "what students should knowand be able to do with language" (p. 1). The twelve content standards are closely intertwined andemphasize the complex interactions among language skills. Standards 4, 5, and 6 most directlyaddress students' ability to write.
The national content standards for English language arts are based on professional research andbest classroom practices. While the standards acknowledge the importance of grammar concepts,they clearly recommend that students learn and apply grammar for the purpose of effectivecommunication. By embedding grammar instruction in writing instruction, teachers can positivelyaffect students' actual writing skills.
NATIONAL CONTENT STANDARDSStandard 4: Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions,style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for differentpurposes (p. 3).
Standard 5: Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writingprocess elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes(p. 3).
Standard 6: Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spellingand punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, anddiscuss print and nonprint texts (p. 3).
"By closely observing students' writing processes and carefully reading their work, teachers cansee which aspects of language structure are giving students trouble and help them learn theseconcepts through direct instruction and practice. It is also important for students to discover thatgrammar, spelling, and punctuation are useful not only in the context of fixing problems ormistakes; they can be studied effectively in a workshop context in which students work togetherto expand their repertoire of syntactic and verbal styles. When students connect the study ofgrammar and language patterns to the wider purposes of communication and artisticdevelopment, they are considerably more likely to incorporate such study into their workingknowledge" (p. 37).
ReferencesBraddock, R., Lloyd-Jones, R., & Schoer, L. (1963). Research in Written Composition. Urbana, IL:National Council of Teachers of English.
Calkins, L. M. (1980). "When Children Want to Punctuate." Language Arts, 57, 567-73.
Cooper, C. (1975). "Research Roundup: Oral and Written Composition." English Journal, 64, 72.
DiStefano, P. & Killion, J. (1984). "Assessing Writing Skills Through a Process Approach." EnglishEducation, 16 (4), 203-7.
Harris, R. J. (1962). "An Experimental Inquiry into the Functions and Value of Formal Grammar inthe Teaching of Written English to Children Aged Twelve to Fourteen." Ph.D. dissertation.University of London.
Hillocks, G., Jr. (1986). "Research on Written Composition: New Directions for Teaching." Urbana,IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills and the National Conference onResearch in English.
Hillocks, G., Jr. & Smith, M. (1991). "Grammar and Usage." In J. Flood, J. M. Jensen, D. Lapp & J.R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts. New York:Macmillan, 591-603.
Mellon, J. C. (1969). "Transformational Sentence-Combining: A Method for Enhancing theDevelopment of Syntactic Fluency in English Composition." NCTE Research Report No. 10. Urbana,IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association. (1996).Standards for the English Language Arts. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Noguchi, R. R. (1991). Grammar and the Teaching of Writing: Limits and Possibilities. Urbana, IL:National Council of Teachers of English.
O'Hare, F. (1973). Sentence-Combining: Improving Student Writing Without Formal GrammarInstruction. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Shaughnessy, M. P. (1977). Errors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teacher of Basic Writing.
Strong, W. (1986). Creative Approaches to Sentence Combining. Urbana, IL: ERIC and theNational Council of Teachers of English.
Weaver, C. (1998). Lessons to Share on Teaching Grammar in Context. Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.
About the Author
Dr. Beverly Ann Chin, Ph.D., is the Senior SeriesConsultant, Grammar for Writing, Grades 6-12, andProfessor of English and Director of the EnglishTeaching Program at the University of Montana.
Dr. Chin is Senior Project Consultant for the 2011Writing Framework for National Assessment ofEducational Progress (NAEP).
Using best practices and active pedagogy, Dr. Chinconducts writing workshops that align curriculum andinstruction with standards and assessments.
Dr. Chin is a former Director of the Montana WritingProject and past president of the National Council of
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