Best%Practices%around%Sustainable%Access%to%Water% ·...

Best%Practices%around%Sustainable%Access%to%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%Services%applicable%in%Tajikistan%

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Ruslan%ZIGANSHIN%Access% to% water% supply% and% sanitation% (WS&S)% contributes% substantially% to% the% economic% development% of% any%country% and% social% welfare% of% its% people.% Tajikistan% is% vey% rich% in% water,% however% only% 58.5%% of% its% 8% million%population% have% access% to% relatively% safe% water% supply.% Many% struggle% to% have% access% to% safe% sanitation.%Nationwide,%only%30%%are%connected% to% sewerage%utilities.%Much%of% this% infrastructure%was% build%during%Soviet%Era%and%its%economic%life%has%expired%in%early%90s.%Now,%if%only%invest%in%construction%of%WS&S%facilities,%it%will%not%be% a% longLterm% solution.% Political,% economic% and% social% factors%affecting% the%most.% To% ensure% sustainability,% the%following% issues% to% be% prioritized% for% successful% development:%access% to%WS&S%should%be%considered%not%only%as%human%rights%but%as%affordable%economic%good%too;%analysis%of%the%context%for%effective%and%efficient%development%planning% (good% enough% water% governance);% full% supply% cost% recovery% (O&M% and% capital% costs% to% be% covered%initially,% and% where% necessary,% provision% of% state% subsidy% to% be% applied% based% on% the% concept% of% “tax% bad% –%subsidize% good”);% expanding% water% metering% (where% relevant)% and% introduction% of% ‘increasing% block% proLpoor%tariffs’%(charged%progressively%based%on%volumes%consumed);%increase%effective%water%ratio%(reduce% leakages)%to%save%this%precious%resource%for%the%future%generations.%When%such%measures%will%be%realized%it%will%help%the%WS&S%providers% to% become% more% attractive% employers% for% qualified% professionals% and% WS&S% will% continue% generate%more%good%for%the%nation,%for%the%people.%%

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Best%Practices%around%Sustainable%Access%to%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%Services%applicable%in%Tajikistan%%%%

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Abbreviations:!....................................................................................................................................!3%List!of!Figures:!....................................................................................................................................!5%List!of!Tables:!.....................................................................................................................................!7%Acknowledgements:!...........................................................................................................................!8%Abstract:!............................................................................................................................................!9%Chapter!1:!The!Evident!Importance!of!this!Research!to!Tajikistan!.....................................................!10%Chapter!2:!Literature!review!on!new!trends!around!WS&S!sustainability!.........................................!16%2.1$Access$to$WS&S$as$a$Human$Right!..............................................................................................!16%2.2$Good$Governance$in$the$WS&S$Sub<sector!..................................................................................!19%2.3$Ownership$Issues:$Privatization$of$WS&S$Infrastructure!..............................................................!22%2.4$Socio<Economic$Analysis!.............................................................................................................!24%2.4.1$Economic$Analysis$and$Resource$Allocation$Decisions!..............................................................!24%2.4.2$WS&S$Tariffs!............................................................................................................................!27%2.4.3$Demand$Responsive$Supply,$Willingness$and$Ability$To$Pay$(WTP)$for$the$W&&S$Services!.......!33%2.5$Quality$of$Water!.........................................................................................................................!37%2.6$Comments$on$the$Literature$Review!...........................................................................................!42%Chapter!3:!Research!Methodology!....................................................................................................!45%3.1%Research$Conceptualization$and$Operationalization.!..................................................................!45%3.2$General$Approach$Principles!.......................................................................................................!50%3.3$Tools$used$for$Data$Collection!.....................................................................................................!51%3.3%Limitations!..................................................................................................................................!52%Chapter!4:!Research!Findings!............................................................................................................!53%4.1$Current$State$of$Affairs$with$Access$to$WS&S$services$in$Tajikistan!.............................................!53%4.2$Governmental$Policies$and$Policy$Changes$in$the$WS&S$Sub<Sector!............................................!58%4.3$Institutional$Framework$and$Governance$of$WS&S$Sub<Sector!...................................................!67%4.4$Capacities$of$the$WS&S$Regulators$and$Operators$in$Tajikistan!..................................................!73%4.5$Stakeholders$Roles$and$Power$Analysis$in$the$WS&S$Sub<sector$of$Tajikistan!.............................!76%4.6$Role$of$the$Donors$and$their$Engagement$in$the$WS&S$Sector$of$Tajikistan!................................!83%4.7$Selection$of$Country$Case$Studies$about$Access$to$WS&S$Services!...............................................!93%4.7.1$Japan!.......................................................................................................................................!93%4.7.2$Kyrgyzstan!.............................................................................................................................!115%4.7.3$Philippines!.............................................................................................................................!123%4.7.4$Uzbekistan!.............................................................................................................................!132%Chapter!5:!Discussion!and!Conclusions!...........................................................................................!141%Bibliography!...................................................................................................................................!149%Annexes:!........................................................................................................................................!154%Annex$1:$List$of$Persons$met$/$Consulted$during$Research!..............................................................!154%Annex$2:$Definitions!.......................................................................................................................!156%Annex$3:$Research$Questionnaire$Checklist!.....................................................................................!163%


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Abbreviations:!ACA:%Agency%for%Construction%and%Architecture%under%the%GoT%

ACTED:%Agency%for%Technical%Cooperation%and%Development%(France)%

ADB:(Asian%Development%Bank%AIC:%Average%Incremental%Cost%AIEC:%Average%Incremental%Economic%Cost%AIFC:%Average%Incremental%Financial%Cost%AKF:%AgaHKhan%Foundation%AMS:%AntiHMonopoly%Service%under%the%GoT%ARIS:%Agency%for%Development%and%Investment%to%Communities%in%Kyrgyzstan%

ATP:(Ability%To%Pay%BCR:%BenefitHCost%Ratio%BEM:%Business%Efficiency%Measures%CA:%Central%Asia%CBO:%CommunityHBased%Organization%CDWUU:%Community%Drinking%Water%Users%Unions%(Kyrgyzstan)%

CEA:%Cost%Effectiveness%Analysis%CNR((SNIP):%Construction%Norms%and%Regulations%CPI:%Corruption%Perception%Index%CVM:(Contingency%Valuation%Method%DFID:%Department%for%International%Development%(UK)%

DoRWS:%Department%of%Rural%Water%Supply%(Kyrgyzstan)%

DDWSSD:(Department%of%Drinking%Water%Supply%and%Sewerage%Development%(Kyrgyzstan)(EBRD:%European%Bank%for%Reconstruction%and%Development%

EC:%European%Commission%EIRR:%Economic%Internal%Rate%of%Return%EOCC:(Economic%Opportunity%Cost%of%Capital%EUWI:%European%Union%Water%Initiative(FDI:%Foreign%Direct%Investment%FIRR:%Financial%Internal%Rate%of%Return%FOCC:%Financial%Opportunity%Cost%of%Capital%FRP:%Fiber%Reinforced%Plastic%GBAO:%GornoHBadakhshan%Autonomous%Oblast%(Oblast%stands%for%Province%from%Russian%language)%%

GDG:%General%Directorate%of%Geology%under%the%GoT%GDP:%Gross%Domestic%Product%GDSSIM:%General%Directorate%of%State%Supervision%in%Industry%and%Mining(

GDWQ:%The%WHO%Guidelines%for%DrinkingHwater%Quality%

GIZ:%Gesellschaft%für%Internationale%Zusammenarbeit%(German%Agency%for%International%Cooperation)%

GJKP:%State%Housing%Enterprise%at%local%(district,%city,%town)%level%under%the%subordination%of%KMK%

GoK:%Government%of%Kyrgyzstan(GoT:%Government%of%Tajikistan%GoU:%Government%of%Uzbekistan%GWP:%Global%Water%Partnership%HDI:%Human%Development%Index%HLSC:%(National)%Health%Life%Style%Centre%IBT:%Increasing%Block%Tariff%IEC:%Information,%Education,%Communication%IFAD:%International%Fund%for%Agriculture%Development%

IFI:%International%Financial%Institution%IMCC:%InterHMinisterial%Coordination%Council%(on%WS&S%in%Tajikistan)%

IMF:%International%Monetary%Fund%IsDB:%Islamic%Development%Bank%IWRM:%Integrated%Water%Resource%Management%JCPS:(Joint%Country%Partnership%Strategy%JESEC:%Japan%Environmental%Sanitation%Education%Center%

JICA:%Japanese%International%Cooperation%Agency%JSWA:%Japan%Sewerage%Works%Association(JWWA:%Japan%Water%Works%Association%KAP:%Knowledge,%Attitude%and%Practice%(Survey)%KAS:%Kyrgyz%Ail%Suu%(Kyrgyz%Rural%Water%Works,%abolished%in%1998)%

KGS:%Kyrgystan%Som%KMK:%Khojagii%Manziliyu%Komunali%–%State%Operator%of%the%Housing%Services%

KPI:%Key%Performance%Indicators%KR:%Kyrgyz%Republic%l/c/d:%litres%per%capita%per%day%LCA:%Least%Cost%Analysis%LSGB:(Law%on%Local%SelfHGoverning%Bodies(LWUA:%Local%Water%Utility%Authority%(in%Philippines)%MDGs:%Millennium%Development%Goals%MEXT:(Ministry%of%Education,%Culture,%Sports,%Science%and%Technology%of%Japan%

MoEDT:%Ministry%of%Economic%Development%and%Trade%of%the%RT%


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MoEWR:%Ministry%of%Energy%and%Water%Resources%of%the%RT%

MoF:%Ministry%of%Finance%of%the%RT%MoH:%Ministry%of%Health%of%the%Republic%of%Tajikistan%MoHLW:(Ministry%of%Health,%Labor%and%Welfare%of%Japan%

MoIAC:%Ministry%of%Internal%Affairs%and%Communication%of%Japan%

MoLITT:(Ministry%of%Land,%Infrastructure,%Transport%and%Tourism%of%Japan%

MoLRWR:%Ministry%of%Land%Reclamation%and%Water%Resources%of%the%Republic%of%Tajikistan%

MSDSP:%Mountainous%Societies%Development%Support%Program%%

MWSS:%Metropolitan%Waterworks%and%Sewerage%System%Regulatory%Office%of%Metro%Manila%Area%

NAWASA:%National%Waterworks%and%Sewerage%Authority%of%Philippines%during%1955%H%1971%

NCUHR:%National%Center%of%Uzbekistan%on%Human%Rights%(Uzbekistan)(NDS:%National%Development%Strategy%for%the%period%of%2007%H%2015%

NEDA:%National%Economic%Development%Authority%of%Philippines%

NGO:%NonHGovernmental%Organization%NPV:%Net%Present%Value%NRW:%NonHRevenue%Water%NWRB:%National%Water%Resources%Board%of%Philippines%

O&M:%Operation%and%Maintenance%OCW:%Opportunity%Cost%of%Water%ODA:%Overseas%Development%Assistance%OECD(DAC:%Organization%for%Economic%Cooperation%and%Development,%Development%Assistance%Committee%

OSCE:%Organization%for%Securty%and%Cooperation%in%Europe%

Oxfam(GB:%Oxford%Committee%for%Famine%Relief%Great%Britain%

PEA:%Political%Economy%Analysis%PPP:%Public%Private%Partnership%PRSP:%Poverty%Reduction%Strategy%Paper%PSP:%Private%Sector%Participation%RT:%Republic%of%Tajikistan%RU:%Republic%of%Uzbekistan%RWSP:%Rural%Water%Supply%Project%(funded%by%WB%in%Kyrgyzstan)(SAACCS:(State%Agency%for%Architecture,%Construction%and%Communal%Services%(Kyrgyzstan)(

SACA:%State%Ahency%for%Construction%and%Architecture%under%the%GoT%

SCI:%State%Committee%on%Investments%and%State%Property%of%the%RT%

SCLM:%State%Committee%on%Land%Management,%Geodesy%and%Cartography%of%the%RT%

SCPE:%State%Committee%on%Protection%of%Environment%under%the%GoT%

SDC:%Swiss%Agency%for%Development%and%Cooperation(SIDA:%Swedish%International%Development%Agency%SDC:%Swiss%Agency%for%Development%and%Cooperation%SECO:(Swiss%State%Secretariat%for%Economic%Affairs(SES:%Sanitary%Epidemiological%Service%of%the%MoH%of%the%RT%

SDR:%Special%Drawing%Rights%Basket,%Currency%used%by%IMF.%

SNR((SanPiN):%Sanitation%Norms%and%Regulations%SSP:%Sanitation%Safety%Plan%TAJIKSTANDARD:%Agency%of%standardization,%metrology,%certification%&%trade%inspection%under%GoT%

TajWSS:%Tajikistan%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%(Network)%H%http://tajwss.tj/site/en/home.html%

TOD:%Tojik%Ob%Dehot%–%Tajik%Rural%Water%Works%(merged%with%KMK%in%2012)%

UFW:%Unaccounted%For%Water%UN:%United%Nations%UNDP:%United%Nations%Development%Program%UNECE:%United%Nations%Economic%Commission%for%Europe%(UNECE)%

UNICEF:%United%Nations%Children’s%Fund%USAid:%United%States%Agency%for%International%Development(US$:%United%States%Dollar%UTO:%United%Tajik%Opposition%UZS:%Uzbek%Sum%VAT:%Value%Added%Tax%WASH:%Water,%Sanitation%and%Hygiene%WB:%World%Bank%WEDC:%Water%and%Engineering%Development%Center%WHO:%World%Health%Organization%WISP:%Welfare%Improvement%Strategy%Paper%WS:%Water%Supply%WSP:%Water%Safety%Plan%WS&S:%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%WTP:%Willingness%To%Pay%WUA:%Water%Users%Association%YNU:%Yokohama%National%University%%


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List!of!Figures:!!

Chapter!1:!The!Evident!Importance!of!this!Research!to!Tajikistan!

Figure'1:'“The'map'of'the'Republic'of'Tajikistan”'...........................................................................................................................................'10%Figure'2:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Sector'in'Tajikistan”'..................................................................................................................................'11%Figure'3:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Source'in'Tajikistan”'.................................................................................................................................'11%Figure'4:'“Disaggregated'date'on'Access'to'Piped'Water'&'Sewerage'in'Tajikistan'in'Urban'and'Rural'Areas”'...............'12%Figure'5:'"Access'to'water'by'source,'by'number'of'the'population,'in'percentage"'.......................................................................'12%Chapter!2:!Literature!review!on!new!trends!around!WS&S!sustainability!

Figure'6:'“BCR'of'interventions'to'attain'universal'access'of'improved'drinking'water”'..............................................................'25%Figure'7:'“BCR'of'interventions'to'attain'universal'access'of'improved'sanitation”'........................................................................'25%Figure'8:'“Flow'Chart:'Economic'Analysis'of'WS&S'SubUsector'Strategies'/'Programs'/'Projects”'..........................................'27%Figure'9:'"General'Principle'for'Cost'of'WS&S"'................................................................................................................................................'29%Figure'10:'“An'Individual’s'Water'Demand'Curve:'Linear'and'NonUlinear'Relationships”.'..........................................................'34%Figure'11:'“Bidding'Game'(Tariff'per'month)”'.................................................................................................................................................'36%Figure'12:'“The'Contents'of'the'GDWQ”'...............................................................................................................................................................'39%Figure'13:'“Water'Supply'Chain.'“From'catchment'to'consumer’'approach”'for'risk'management'of'the'safety'of'drinkingUwater”'..............................................................................................................................................................................................................'40%Figure'14:'“Framework'for'Safe'Drinking'Water”'...........................................................................................................................................'41%Chapter!3:!Research!Methodology!

Figure'15:'“Conceptual'framework'of'the'research'“Best'practices'around'sustainable'access'to'WS&S'services'applicable'in'Tajikistan”'and'its'fitUin'strategy'to'the'National'Policy'Developments'on'WS&S”'..............................................'47%Figure'16:'“Schematic'Presentation'of'the'Research'Paradigm”'..............................................................................................................'50%Chapter!4:!Research!Findings!

Figure'17:'“Disaggregated'date'on'Access'to'Safe'Drinking'Water'Supply'in'Tajikistan'by'Cities,'Towns,'District'Centers'and'Rural'Villages”.'......................................................................................................................................................................................'54%Figure'18:'“Disaggregated'date'on'Access'to'Sanitation'Services'in'Tajikistan'by'Cities,'Towns,'District'Centers'and'Rural'Villages”.'................................................................................................................................................................................................................'54%Figure'19:'"Access'to'water'by'source,'by'number'of'the'population,'in'percentage"'.....................................................................'55%Figure'20:'“The'incidence'of'selection'of'water'born'diseases'per'100,000'people,'1991U2012”'...............................................'56%Figure'21:'“Authorized'state'structures'responsible'for'regulating'use'and'protection'of'water'resources'(Updated'to'the'current'institutional'reform'measured'by'2013)”'...................................................................................................................................'67%Figure'22:'"Key'Organisations'involved'in'Water'Resource'Management'in'Tajikistan,'updated'(2013)”'...........................'71%Figure'23:'“Net'ODA'disbursed'in'Tajikistan'(in'million'US$),'1992U2012.'..........................................................................................'83%Figure'24:'“Commitments'and'Disbursement'of'Foreign'Aid'(US$'thousands),'2002'–'2012”.'...................................................'85%Figure'25:'“Disbursement'by'Loans'and'Grants'(US$'thousands),'2002'–'2012”.'.............................................................................'85%Figure'26:'“Volumes'of'aid'provided'by'bilateral'donors'(US$'thousand),'2002'–'2012”.'.............................................................'86%Figure'27:'“Shares'of'major'donor'countries'that'provided'foreign'aid'to'Tajikistan'based'on'bilateral'agreements,'2002U2012”'.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................'86%


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Figure'28:'“Disbursement'by'International'Organizations'(US$'thousands),'2002–2012”.'.........................................................'88%Figure'29:'“Foreign'Aid'provided'by'Donor'Community'in'2012'within'breakdown'by'Sectors”.'.............................................'88%Figure'30:'“Share'by'Sectors'(in'percentage)'of'the'Donor'Aid'provided'in'2012”.'..........................................................................'89%Figure'31:'“Commitment'and'disbursement'of'funds'to'WS&S,'Housing'Sector,'2002'–'2012”.'.................................................'89%Figure'32:'“Disbursement'by'Loans'&'Grants'to'WS&S,'Housing'(US$'thousands),'2002–2012”.'..............................................'91%Figure'33:'“Disbursement'of'funds'in'the'WS&S,'Housing'by'source'of'financing'in'2012”.'.........................................................'91%Figure'34:'“Disbursement'in'the'WS&S'and'Housing'Sector'by'Groups'of'International'Organizations'(US$'thousands),'2002'–'2012”.'...................................................................................................................................................................................................................'92%Figure'35:'“WS&S'Coverage'in'Japan”'..................................................................................................................................................................'94%Figure'36:'“Total'amount'of'investments'and'stock'for'drinking'water'infrastructure”.'..............................................................'94%Figure'37:'“Wooden'water'pipes'in'Edo'Era'and'Replica'of'water'well'in'Edo'Era”.'.......................................................................'95%Figure'38:'“A'vault'toilet'at'an'ordinary'residence'and'spreading'night'soil'in'paddy'field”'......................................................'96%Figure'39:'“A'common'toilet'of'a'nagaya'(��'–'a'tenement'house)'and'public'toilet'in'Edo'Period”.'.................................'96%Figure'40:'“Pipe'Installation'Construction'in'Yokohama'City'(1910);'Nishiya'Purification'Plant'in'Yokohama'City'(1915);'The'Original'Waterworks'Act'(1957)”.'................................................................................................................................................'97%Figure'41:'“Colonel'H.'S.'Palmer,'Royal'Engineer,'lead'on'the'design'and'Construction'of'Yokohama'Nishiya'Purification'Plant”'and'“Nishiya'Water'Purification'Plant'managed'by'Yokohama'Water'Works'Bureau”'........................'98%Figure'42:'“First'10'Cities'in'Japan'to'Establish'Modern'Water'Supply'Systems”.'............................................................................'98%Figure'43:'“Urban'Water'Supply'and'Benefits,'1875'–'1995”'....................................................................................................................'99%Figure'44:'“WS'in'Japan,'2013'Report”:'“Development'of'Modern'Waterworks”'...........................................................................'100%Figure'45:'“Historical'Changes'of'Water'Sources:'Increasing'Dam'Storage'Water,'1970U2005”'...........................................'101%Figure'46:'“Water'Sources'of'Public'Water'Suppliers'and'Bulk'Water'Suppliers'(as'for'March'2011)”'and'“Intake'Amount'and'Water'Resources”.'Source'.............................................................................................................................................................'101%Figure'47:'“Effective'Water'Ratio”'......................................................................................................................................................................'102%Figure'48:'“Trend'and'composition'of'cost'of'water'per'm³,'2011”'......................................................................................................'103%Figure'49:'“Trend'of'Total'Household'Expenditure'and'Water'Charge,'Monthly'Average'for'the'Cities'with'Population'over'50,000”.'..................................................................................................................................................................................................................'104%Figure'50:'“Slums'in'Tokyo”;'“Collection'of'Human'Excreta'in'Tokyo'after'the'WWII,'as'it'was'done'before”'.................'105%Figure'51:'“One'of'the'initial'designs'of'the'Septic'Vacum'Trucks'in'Japan'(Mazda'T2000)'and'One'of'the'newest'models'Isuzu'PKGUFRR90S1)'..................................................................................................................................................................................'106%Figure'52:'“A'Jokaso'Design'around'1921'(septic'tank'with'trickling'filter)”'..................................................................................'107%Figure'53:'“Conceptual'Figures'of'Several'Japanese'Human'Excreta'and'Gray'Water'Treatment'Systems”'....................'108%Figure'54:'“What'is'Jokaso?'An'Example'of'Johkasou'Installed'at'Individual'House”.'.................................................................'109%Figure'55:'“Combined'Jokaso'SetUup”'.................................................................................................................................................................'110%Figure'56:'“Main'Systems'for'Domestic'Wastewater'Treatment”.'........................................................................................................'110%Figure'57:'“Roles'and'Responsibilities'of'different'stakeholders'(State'&'NonUState)'at'National'and'Local'levels'for'Good'WS&S'Governance'in'Japan”'.......................................................................................................................................................................'112%Figure'58:'“The'map'of'Kyrgyz'Republic”'.........................................................................................................................................................'115%Figure'59:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Sector'in'Kyrgyzstan”'..........................................................................................................................'116%Figure'60:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Source'in'Kyrgyzstan”'.........................................................................................................................'116%


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Figure'61:'“Percentage'of'population'with'access'to'safe'drinking'water'and'sewerage'facilities'in'2008,'by'region”'117%Figure'62:''“Map'of'Philippines”'...........................................................................................................................................................................'123%Figure'63:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Sector'in'Philippines”'...........................................................................................................................'124%Figure'64:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Source'in'Philippines”'..........................................................................................................................'124%Figure'65:'“Philippines'Water'Sector'Institutional'Framework”'...........................................................................................................'126%Figure'66:'“Regulatory'Reform'in'WS&S'subUsector'initiated'in'1997'by'the'Government'of'Philippines”'........................'128%Figure'67:'“Access'to'24UHour'Supply,'Improvements'succeeded'by'Manila'Water'of'Access'to'WS'service'in'the'East'Zone'of'Metro'Manila'(coverage'area)'from'1997'until'2011”'...............................................................................................................'129%Figure'68:'“Reduced'NRW,'volumes'of'WS'increase'to'consumers,'1997'U'2010”'...........................................................................'130%Figure'69:'“Providing'communities'with'affordable'water”.'...................................................................................................................'131%Figure'70:'“The'map'of'the'Republic'of'Uzbekistan”'...................................................................................................................................'132%Figure'71:'“Shrinking'Aral'Sea”.'Photos'of'1973'(United'States'Geological'Survey)'and'in'2013'(NASA)”'........................'133%Figure'72:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Sector'in'Uzbekistan”'...........................................................................................................................'134%Figure'73:'“Water'withdrawal'by'Source'in'Uzbekistan”'..........................................................................................................................'134%Figure'74:'“Disaggregated'date'on'access'to'safe'drinking'water'supply'by'population'in'urban'and'rural'areas'of'Uzbekistan”.'...................................................................................................................................................................................................................'135%Figure'75:'“Disaggregated'date'on'access'to'sewerage'services'by'population'urban'and'rural'areas'of'Uzbekistan”'136%(

List!of!Tables:!!Chapter!2:!Literature!review!on!new!trends!around!WS&S!sustainability!

Table'1:'“Definitions'of'Governance,'Good'Governance'and'Definitions'of'Water'Governance”'.................................................'20%Chapter!4:!Research!Findings!

Table'2:'“Financial'allocations'for'the'period'of'2008–09'for'implementation'of'the'WS&S'Program'in'RT”'.....................'57%Table'3:'“The'sequence'of'gaining'permits'and'procedures'with'the'construction'of'WS&S'facilities'in'Tajikistan.'The'order'is'approved'based'on'the'Resolution'of'the'GoT,'№282.'6'May,'2009”.'.....................................................................................'73%Table'4:'“Capacity'Rating'of'KMK'at'National'Level"'....................................................................................................................................'75%Table'5:'“Capacity'Rating'of'TOD'at'National'Level”'.....................................................................................................................................'75%Table'6:'“Stakeholder'organizations'roles'and'power'analysis'in'the'WS&S'SubUsector'of'Tajikistan”'..................................'82%Table'7:'“Shares'of'all'donor'countries'that'provided'foreign'aid'to'Tajikistan'based'on'bilateral'agreements,'2002U2012”'....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................'87%Table'8:'“Number'of'Waterworks'in'Japan'as'of'2011”'..............................................................................................................................'102%Chapter!5:!Discussions!and!conclusions!

Table'9:'“Key'socioUeconomic'indicators'in'the'countries'targeted'by'research”'...........................................................................'146%Table'10:'“Key'water'and'sanitation'indicators'in'the'countries'targeted'by'research”'............................................................'147%%(%


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!8!

!! !

Acknowledgements:!(

To(the(GoT,(Swiss(Agency(for(Development(and(Cooperation((SDC),(Oxfam(and(other(TajWSS(Network(

memebers:(Many%important%events%happened%before%that%allowed%me%to%accomplish%this%paper.%All%this%has%

started% in%May%2005,%when% I%worked% in%Oxfam%GB%Tajikistan% together%with%Mark%Buttle% (WatSan%program%

coordinator% at% that% time).% Later,% in%2007,%we%met% again% to%undertake% “Tajikistan%Water% Scoping%Study”% for%

DFID.% In%2007,%with% support%of%Peter%Pichler% and%Ghazi%Al%Kelani% I% got% a% chance% to% conduct% the%qualitative%

research% “Water% Management% in% Tajikistan”.% It% was% a% heavy% task% with% tight% deadlines.% Nevertheless,% the%

research% influenced% the% establishment% a% longHterm% SDC% funded% “Tajikistan%Water% Supply% and% Sanitation”,%

2009H2020.%Currently,%the%2nd%phase%of%the%project%is%going%on%and%I%do%hope%that%my%master%thesis%would%be%a%

good% contribution% to% its% research% base.% I% am% grateful% to% all% associated% staff%working% in% the% Government% of%

Tajikistan,%SDC,%UNDP,%Oxfam%and%to%all%other%TajWSS%Network%members%who%participated%in%the%course%of%

research.%(%

To(MEXT,(Embassy(of(Japan(and(JICA:(I%highly%appreciate%the%MEXT%(Ministry%of%Education,%Culture,%Sports,%

Science%and%Technology%of% Japan)%approval%of%my%candidature% for% study% in% Japan.% I%would% like% to% thank%all%

involved%staff%of%the%Embassy%of%Japan%in%Tajikistan%for%fairness%and%impartiality%during%selection%process,%and%

further%kind%consideration%and%support%to%obtain%MEXT%scholarship.%I%also%express%the%immense%gratitude%to%

all%concerned%JICA%staff,%both%in%Tajikistan%and%in%Japan,%for%their%advisory%prior%and%during%my%stay%in%Japan.(%

To(Yokohama(National(University,(my(Research(Advisor:(I%owe%my%deepest%gratitude%to(Tatsuhiko%Ikeda%

Sensei% for% his% timely% support% during% enrollment% to% YNU.% I% am% very% much% indebted% to% the% teaching% and%

administrative% staff% of%YNU,% to% all%with%no%exception,% for%hospitality,% flexibility% and% sharing% the% treasury%of%

knowledge,% their% help% to% explore% and% accustom% in% Japan.% Special% words% of% appreciation% must% go% to% my%

research%advisor%–%Osamu%Koike%Sensei%–%for%his%significant%dedication,%valuable%advice,%remarkable%flexibility%

and%demandHresponsive%guidance%in%the%course%of%the%research%and%master%program.%%

(

To(Water( Supply( and( Sanitation( (WS&S)( Providers( and( Academia:% It% is% a%pleasure% to% thank%all%WS&S%

providers%for%their%interest%and%participation%in%this%research.%I%sincerely%thankful%to%Maria%Rosario%PiqueroH

Ballescas%Sensei%and%Kitawaki%Sensei%(Toyo%University)%for%sharing%the%valuable%materials%about%WS&S%sector%

development% in% Japan% and% to% Professor% Carol% Castano% and% Professor% Tomas% S.% Tiu% (University% of% Santo%

Tomas)%for%his%efforts%in%organizing%the%unforgettable%field%trip%to%Philippines%in%2013.%

%

To(my(Family:(I%am%very%much%obliged%to%my%family%(my%wife%–%Farzona,%my%daughter%–%Safina%and%my%son%–%

Shokir)% for% their% understanding,% patience% and% share% this% admirable% experience% with% me% in% Japan.% I% also%

express%my%great%love%and%infinite%respect%to%my%Mother%H%Tatiana,%Grandmother%–%Ravza,%and%all%our%relatives%

who%supported%us%on%distance.% I%devote%this%work%Farzona’s%Father%–%Zokir%Mirzoev%–%who%spent%whole%his%

life% in% Alma% Mater% sharing% the% knowledge% with% others,% being% the% Professor% of% Political% Science% in% Tajik%

National%University.%


%%

!9!

!! !

Abstract:!

Access% to% WS&S% contributes% substantially% to% the% economic% development% of% any% country% and% social%welfare%of% its% people.%Tajikistan% is% vey% rich% in%water,% however%only%58.5%%of% its% 8%million%population%have%access%to%relatively%safe%water%supply.%Many%struggle%to%have%access%to%safe%sanitation.%Nationwide,%only%30%%are%connected%to%sewerage%utilities.%Most%of% this% infrastructure%was%build%during%Soviet%Era%and%its%economic%life%has%expired%in%early%90s.%%

The%main% research% question% raised% in% this% study% is%why(WS&S( sub[sector( in( Tajikistan( is( lacking(sustainability(at(present(and(what(can(be(done(to(prevent(its(failure(in(future?%Now,%if%only%invest%in%construction%of%WS&S% facilities,% it%will%not%be%a% longHterm%solution.%Political% (legal%and% institutional%framework%and%governance),%economic%(efficient%distribution%of%available%financial%resources,%tariff%set%up,%human%resources%development%and%capacities)%and%social%factors%(ability%and%willingness%to%pay%for%the%WS&S%services,%consumers%attitude%and%behavior)%affecting%the%most.%%

To% answer% the% research% question,% the% following% data% collection% methods% were% employed:% literature%review%and%desk%research,%semiHstructured%interviews%based%on%prepared%checklist%/%questionnaire%for%research% population,% case% study% on% developments% of% the% water% sectors% in% selected% countries% and%observations%during%field%visits.%

As%the%results%of%data%analysis%the%following%are%conclusions%for%consideration%and%prioritization%by%the%relevant%stakeholders%in%Tajikistan%(including%the%GoT,%donors,%international%organizations,%civil%society,%private% sector,% etc.)% aiming% at% sustainability% and% successful% development% of% the%WS&S% subHsector% in%Tajikistan:%%

• Access%to%WS&S%should%be%considered%not%only%as%human%rights%but%as%well%as%affordable%economic%good;%• Analysis% of% the% context% for% effective% and% efficient% development% planning% (good% enough% water%

governance);%• Full%supply%cost%recovery%(O&M%and%capital%costs%to%be%covered%initially,%and%where%necessary,%provision%

of%state%subsidy%to%be%applied%based%on%the%concept%of%“tax%bad%–%subsidize%good”);%• Expanding% water% metering% (where% relevant)% and% introduction% of% ‘increasing% block% proHpoor% tariffs’%

(charged%progressively%based%on%volumes%consumed);%%• Increase% effective% water% ratio% (reduce% leakages)% to% save% this% precious% resource% for% the% future%

generations;%• When% such% measures% will% be% realized% it% will% help% the% WS&S% providers% to% become% more% attractive%

employers%for%qualified%professionals%and%WS&S%will%continue%generate%more%good%for%the%nation,%for%the%people.%


%

%%

%%

!10!

!! !

Chapter!1:!The!Evident!Importance!of!this!Research!to!Tajikistan!

The%Republic% of% Tajikistan% (RT)% is%mountainous% developing% country% located% in% Central% Asia.%

93%% of% its% territory% (141.9% thousands% km²)1%is% mountainous% and% more% than% 50%% of% the%

landscape%located%at%altitudes%above%3000m%above%sea%level.%

Figure(1:(“The!map!of!the!Republic!of!Tajikistan”!

%Source:(UN(Department(of(Field(Support,(Cartographic(Section.(Map(No.(3765(Rev.(11(October(2009(

High%mountains%give%birth%to%other%treasure%of%Tajikistan%–%water%resources.%%

• The%country%contributes%of%more%than%60%%of%river%flow%in%the%Aral%Sea%basin%(64%billion%

m³% of% water% resources)2.% The% estimates% show% that% there% are% 947% rivers% and% temporary%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1 Before the territory of Tajikistan was 143,100 km² (Source: State Committee on Statistics of the Republic of Tajikistan). On January 12, 2011, after ratification of an agreement to demarcate the shared border with China Tajikistan ceded 1,142 km² of remote, mountainous land, or roughly 1% of its territory. 2 Government of Tajikistan, Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources of the Republic of Tajikistan, UNDP, Executive Committee of the International Fund of Saving Aral Sea “Water Sector Development Strategy in Tajikistan, 2007 - 2020”, Dushanbe 2006.

DangaraKulob

(Kulyab)

Panj

Shuroabad

Moskovskiy

FeyzabadShir Khan

Khovaling

Kalininabad

Kolkhozabad

NizhniyPanj

TavildaraObigarm

Hisor(Gissar)

KofarnikhonNurek

Tursunzade

Jirgatal'

Kalaikhum

Shaartuz

Komsomolabad

SicharogDashtishur

Sayod LaironChildara Wakhio

Vir

Rushan

Vrang

Vanj

Buved

Kalot

Ishkashim

Kazidi

Rangkul'

Murgab

Kudara

Dzhartyrabot

Shaymak

KokandTaboshar

AyniPanjakent

Kanibadam

Shahriostan

Uroteppa Isfara

Bekabad

Garm

Andizhan

Navabad

Kargovad

Angren

Kholm(Tashkurghan)

KhanabadQonduz

Taloqan

Termez

Chkalovsk

Qurghonteppa(Kurgan-Tyube)

Khorugh

Khujand

Dushanbe

Tashkent

S U G H D

K H A T L O N

KUHISTONI BADAKHSHON( G O R N I Y B A D A K S H A N )

A F G H A N I S T A N

UZBE KISTAN K Y R G Y Z S T A N

C H I N A

PAKISTAN

K A Z A K H S T A N

Ka r a t e g i n

Panj

Panj

Kowkc

heh

Oqsu

MurgabBarta

ng

Vakh

sh

Kaf

irni

gan

Zeravshan

Syr Darya

Surkh

anDa

rya

Lake Karakul'

Lake Sarezskoye

NurekReservoir

Surkhob

KayrakkumReservoir

Ragnau

Obikhingou

Amu Darya

Obikhingou

Pamir

Department of Field SupportCartographic Section

Map No. 3765 Rev. 11 UNITED NATIONSOctober 2009

The boundaries and names shown and the designationsused on this map do not imply official endorsement oracceptance by the United Nations.

TAJIKISTANNational capitalViloyati Autonomous (V.A.)or viloyat centreTown or kishlakMajor airportInternational boundaryViloyati Autonomous (V.A.)or viloyat boundaryMain roadSecondary roadRailroad

0 25 50 75 100 km

50 75 mi250

TAJIKISTAN


%%

!11!

!! !

streams.%The%largest%of%them%are%Panj,%Vakhsh,%SyrHDaryo,%Zerafshan,%Kafernigan,%Kyzylsu,%Karatag.%Numerous%small%and%large%lakes%(1300)%concentrate%of%about%50%km³%of%water.%%%

Figure(2:(“Water!withdrawal!by!Sector!in!Tajikistan”(

((Source:(AQUASTAT/FAO,(2012(

• Glaciers% and% snowfields% extend% to% an%area% of% highland% landscapes% 8.5%thousand% km²% and% the% total% volume%water%reserves%of%about%460%km³.%%

• The%main%source%of%water%is%atmospheric%precipitation.% On% average,% each% year% on%the%territory%of%Tajikistan%fall%about%98.8%billion%m³%of%precipitates.%

• Potential% underground% water% reserves%are% estimated% at% 51.2% million% m³/day.%Underground% potable% water% resources%approved% for% operation% amounts% to% 7.6%million% m³/day% (950% litres% per% capita%per%day%(l/c/d))3.%

However,% despite% of% having% such% abundant%water% resources,% Tajikistan’s% 8% million%people% (with% 1.8%% annual% population%growth)% are% facing% a% challenge% to% enjoy% a%sustainable% access% to% water% supply% and%sanitation% (WS&S)% services,% especially% its%rural% residents% (where% up% to% 73%% of% the%population%reside)4.%%

Figure(3:(“Water!withdrawal!by!Source!in!Tajikistan”(

Source:(AQUASTAT/FAO,(2012(

Currently%58.5%%of%the%people%have%access%to%safe%drinking%water,%and%about%30%%have%access%to%improved%sanitation5.%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%3 Data of the Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources of the Republic of Tajikistan (MoLRWR), General Directorate of Geology of the Republic of Tajikistan (GDoG). 4 State Statistics Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan. Updated data on number of country population and split of % of people residing in urban and rural areas. 5 ASIA Plus, “Emomali Rakhmon: 58.5% of Tajikistan Population have access to safe water supply”, Aug 20, Statement done during High Level International Water Conference on Water Cooperation, Aug 20-21, 2013

8 Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012

the Economies of Central Asia (UN-SPECA). In collaboration with the EUWI and the UNECE is developing integrated water resources management in the Central Asian States. In cooperation with Germany and other EU countries, UNECE may play a role in the implementation of the EU Strategy for Central Asia in the water and energy sectors (SIWI, 2010).

Water useOn average, annual water withdrawal for the monitoring period 1985–2008 was 10.0–14.5 km3/year. In 2006, total water withdrawal was an estimated 11.5 km3, of which 91 percent for agricultural, 6 percent for municipal use and 3 percent for industry (Figure 1 and Table 3). The volume of water used to fill fishponds (aquaculture) 2005– 2009 was approximately 55 million m3/year (State Unitary Department ‘Mohiyi Tojikiston’, 2009). For hydropower about 32–34 km3/year of water flows through turbines.

In 1994, total water withdrawal was an estimated 11.9 km3 (92 percent for agricultural purposes), of which 9.26 km3 (78 percent) was surface water, 2.26 km3 (19 percent) groundwater and an estimated 0.35 km3 (3 percent) direct use of collector-drainage water and wastewater for irrigation (Figure 2). Groundwater is mostly withdrawn by industry.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENTEvolution of irrigation development

Irrigation in Tajikistan is important for the development of agriculture and the national economy. Large-scale irrigation development in southern Tajikistan started in 1931 with the construction of the Vakhsh main canal in the Vakhsh valley. This canal is 11.7 km long with a capacity of 150 m3/s, diverting water from the Vakhsh river for the irrigation of 120 000 ha. The Vakhsh main canal was later reconstructed, its capacity increased to 200 m3/s and the canal extended to irrigate the Akgazy plateau.

During the Soviet era, significant irrigation development took place in the Kofarnihon river basin, in southern Tajikistan. Together with Uzbekistan, Tajikistan built the Large Gissar canal in 1940, which carries water from the Kofarnihon river to the Surkhandarya river basin in Uzbekistan. In 1994, the irrigated area in the Kofarnihon river basin in Tajikistan was about 29 000 ha.

Further irrigation development in southern Tajikistan took place with the construction of the Nurek and Baipaza dams on the Vakhsh river. Water is provided through a 13.7 km irrigation tunnel to irrigate 76 000 ha in the Dangara valley. In the Vakhsh basin, a large irrigation system (40 000 ha), located in the Yavan and Obikiik valleys, which is extremely short of water, is supplied with water from the Baipaza reservoir through a 7.3 km long tunnel.

Irrigation + livestock90%

Municipalities6%

Industry4%

FIGURE 1Water withdrawal by sector

Total 11.496 km3 in 2006

FIGURE 2Water withdrawal by source

Total 11 870 km3 in 1994

Surface water78%

Groundwater19%

Direct use ofagricultural

drainage water3%

8 Irrigation in Central Asia in figures - AQUASTAT Survey - 2012

the Economies of Central Asia (UN-SPECA). In collaboration with the EUWI and the UNECE is developing integrated water resources management in the Central Asian States. In cooperation with Germany and other EU countries, UNECE may play a role in the implementation of the EU Strategy for Central Asia in the water and energy sectors (SIWI, 2010).

Water useOn average, annual water withdrawal for the monitoring period 1985–2008 was 10.0–14.5 km3/year. In 2006, total water withdrawal was an estimated 11.5 km3, of which 91 percent for agricultural, 6 percent for municipal use and 3 percent for industry (Figure 1 and Table 3). The volume of water used to fill fishponds (aquaculture) 2005– 2009 was approximately 55 million m3/year (State Unitary Department ‘Mohiyi Tojikiston’, 2009). For hydropower about 32–34 km3/year of water flows through turbines.

In 1994, total water withdrawal was an estimated 11.9 km3 (92 percent for agricultural purposes), of which 9.26 km3 (78 percent) was surface water, 2.26 km3 (19 percent) groundwater and an estimated 0.35 km3 (3 percent) direct use of collector-drainage water and wastewater for irrigation (Figure 2). Groundwater is mostly withdrawn by industry.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENTEvolution of irrigation development

Irrigation in Tajikistan is important for the development of agriculture and the national economy. Large-scale irrigation development in southern Tajikistan started in 1931 with the construction of the Vakhsh main canal in the Vakhsh valley. This canal is 11.7 km long with a capacity of 150 m3/s, diverting water from the Vakhsh river for the irrigation of 120 000 ha. The Vakhsh main canal was later reconstructed, its capacity increased to 200 m3/s and the canal extended to irrigate the Akgazy plateau.

During the Soviet era, significant irrigation development took place in the Kofarnihon river basin, in southern Tajikistan. Together with Uzbekistan, Tajikistan built the Large Gissar canal in 1940, which carries water from the Kofarnihon river to the Surkhandarya river basin in Uzbekistan. In 1994, the irrigated area in the Kofarnihon river basin in Tajikistan was about 29 000 ha.

Further irrigation development in southern Tajikistan took place with the construction of the Nurek and Baipaza dams on the Vakhsh river. Water is provided through a 13.7 km irrigation tunnel to irrigate 76 000 ha in the Dangara valley. In the Vakhsh basin, a large irrigation system (40 000 ha), located in the Yavan and Obikiik valleys, which is extremely short of water, is supplied with water from the Baipaza reservoir through a 7.3 km long tunnel.

Irrigation + livestock90%

Municipalities6%

Industry4%

FIGURE 1Water withdrawal by sector

Total 11.496 km3 in 2006

FIGURE 2Water withdrawal by source

Total 11 870 km3 in 1994

Surface water78%

Groundwater19%

Direct use ofagricultural

drainage water3%


%

%%

%%

!12!

!! !

Figure(4:(“Disaggregated!date!on!Access!to!Piped!Water!&!Sewerage!in!Tajikistan!in!Urban!and!Rural!Areas”(

(

Source:(Khojagii(Manziliyu(Komunali((State(Housing(Operator(in(RT),(2012(

38.3%%of%the%people%live%in%poverty%(on%US$2%per%day).%Remittances%inflow%constitute%of%47%%

of% the% GDP.% GNI% per% capita% is% $860.% Referring% to% UNDP% Human% Development% Index% (HDI)%

ranking%is%125th%out%of%187%participating%countries.%Life%expectancy%at%birth%is%67%years.%World%

Bank% (WB)%Doing%Business% rank% is% 143th% out% of% 189% economies.% Transparency% International%

Corruption%Perception%Index%(CPI):%154th%out%of%177%countries%in%2013.%

Figure(5:("Access!to!water!by!source,!by!number!of!the!population,!in!percentage"!

%Source:(Ministry(of(Health((MoH)(of(the(RT,(2013(

!58.5$$

$20.1$

$9.1$

$4.3$ $2.9$ $2.0$$ $2.0$ $0.7$$ $0.4$$

Piped water supply

Irrigation canals

Springs Rivers Hand pump Brought by trucks & carts

Wells without distribution

network

Dug wells Rainwater harvesting

!

$Popula2on$(in$%)$

versus$$

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$Water$Source$


%

%%

%%

!13!

!! !

The%Subject%of%this%Research%refers%to(good!governance%in%the%WS&S%SubHSector.(The%Overall%

Research(Goal% is%“Contribution!to!the!creating!the!enabling!environment!and!successful!

development!of!the!WS&S!SubRsector!in!Tajikistan.(The%defined%research(objectives(are%as%

following:(

• To% conduct% a% systematic% study% on% the% sustainability% of% WS&S% programmes% &% projects%

implemented%in%developed%(particularly%in%Japan)%countries%&%developing%world;%

• Identify% successful% and% bestHfit% models,% approaches% applicable% in% Tajikistan% as% well% as%

lessons%learnt%of%such%processes.%

This% paper% is% aimed% to% answer% the% main% research( question% –% “Why!WS&S! subRsector! in!

Tajikistan!is!lacking!sustainability!at!present!and!what!can!be!done!to!prevent!its!failure!

in!future?”%And%to%identify%the%data%and%facts%to%justify%the%following%Research(hypotheses:%%

• Given%the%sustainability%challenges%within%the%WS&S%SubHsector,% focusing%on%the%delivery%

of%physical%infrastructure%alone%will%not%ensure%Access%to%WS&S%in%the%longHterm;%

• Privatization% of% the% StateHowned%WS&S% infrastructure% in% Tajikistan% (taking% into% account%

the% inappropriate% law% enforcement,% weak% institutions% and% widespread% corruption)% will%

negatively%affect%and%create%a%barrier%to%improve%access%to%WS&S%services%for%the%poor%and%

disadvantage%categories%of%consumers.%

Taking% into% account% the% Research( topic:% “Best! practices! around! sustainable! access! to!

WS&S! Services”% the% defined%Variable( Name% is% “Access! to!WS&S! services”.% The%Research(

variables( are:%dependent( Variable:( Sustainable! and! safe! access! to!WS&S! services;% and%

independent(variables%(factors%affecting%sustainable%and%safe%access%to%WS&S%in%developing%

countries,%particular%in%Tajikistan):%

Legal!and!Institutional:!!

• Legal% and% institutional% framework:% in% Tajikistan,% the% existing% legal% framework% requires%

further% elaboration,% including% the% development% of% laws,% normative% acts,% guidelines,% and%

other%legal%instruments%to%update%it%up%to%the%current%requirements.%In%addition,%the%water%

sector’s% institutional% framework%remains%fragmented%and%parallel%structured.%A%coherent%

strategy% requires% compromise% between% relevant% stakeholders% (both% state% and% noHstate),%

identification%of%the%current%strategic%problems%and%the%development%of%a%mechanism%for%

improved%management%of%the%national%water%sector.%The%research%explores%the%experience%


%

%%

%%

!14!

!! !

of%revision%and%updating%the% laws%and% institutions% functions%to%ensure%compliance% in%the%

subHsector,%implementation%of%laws%at%different%levels.%

• Governance% in% the%Water% Sector:% ways% to% define% the% roles% and% responsibilities% between%

regulators%(state)%and%operator%(water%providers,%both%state%and%nonHstate).%Mechanisms%

managing% such% relations% (including% the% role% of% private% sector)% need% to% be% developed% in%

Tajikistan.%

• Ownership%of%WS&S%infrastructure:%Experience%of%developed%and%developing%countries%in%

regard% to% solutions% over% ownership% of% WS&S% infrastructure.% In% Tajikistan,% since% the%

collapse%of%the%Soviet%Union%many%enterprises%were%privatised,%majority%were%restructured%

and%many%of%them%do%not%exist%anymore.%So%the%social%infrastructure%that%they%owned%left%

without% owner.% There% was% lack% of% ownership% and% adequate% accountability% to% take% the%

WS&S% infrastructure%on% its%balance,%as%operation%and%maintenance%(O&M)%costs%of% these%

facilities%were%high.%Until%now,%there%is%a%lack%of%subsidies%available%from%the%state%to%keep%

this% infrastructure,% as% it% was% during% Soviet% Era.% In% general,% the% issue% around% ownership%

remains% too% complicated% in% Tajikistan.% Much% effort% needs% to% be% done% to% identify% the%

potential%owner%of%the%WS&S%facility%to%ensure%sustainable%management%and%operation.%

Economic:(

• Efficient% distribution% of% available% financial% resources:% Both% state% and% nonHstate% water%

providers%managing% the%water% supply% facilities%usually%do%not%have%enough%resources% to%

cover% the% costs% so% remain% heavily% dependent% from% external% support.% Capacity% of% both%

regulators% and% operators% needs% to% be% built% to% be% able% to%make% fundraising% and% develop%

efficient%financial%planning.%

• Tariff%set%up:%In%Tajikistan,%water%and%sanitation%tariffs%remain%very%low%and%generally%do%

not%cover%operation%and%maintenance%costs%of%the%water%providers.%It%is%worth%to%learn%the%

experience% of% Japan% and% other% developing% countries% on% efficient% WS&S% tariff% set% up%

methodologies.%

• Human%resources%development%and%capacities:%Availability%of% trained,%qualified% staff% is% a%

burning%issue%in%Tajikistan%and%a%connected%issue%to%WS&S%tariffs%(as%tariffs%ensure%a%fair%

pay% and% competitive% benefits% to% workers% of% the% enterprise).% Professional% level% of% staff%

responsible% for%management,%operation%and%maintenance%of% the%water% facilities%needs% to%


%

%%

%%

!15!

!! !

be%upgraded%amongst%all%water%providers%to%ensure%effectiveness.%The%best%practices%needs%

to% be% explored% on% enhancing% the% capacity% of% organisation% to% create% favourable% and% safe%

working%environment%such%as%adequate%salary,%social%benefit%package,%equipment,%etc.%

Social(Issues(

• Ability% and%willingness% to%pay% for% the% service:%Case% studies%of% Japan%and%other% countries%

development% experience% in% the% field% of% social% research% on% people% living% in% poverty;%

diversified% and% acceptable% tariffs,% reliability% and% quality% of% service% that% builds% trust% in%

consumers.%

• Consumer% attitude% and% behaviour:% Documentation% the% experience% on% assessing%

consumers’% needs% /% demands% in% WS&S% services,% their% culture% of% water% consumption,%

organisation% of% public% campaigns% aimed% at% changing% behaviour% to% ensure% effective% and%

efficient%use%of%water%resource%and%raise%the%willingness%to%pay.%

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Chapter!2:!Literature!review!on!new!trends!around!WS&S!sustainability!

Water%is%precious%natural%resource%and%is%the%source%of%life%for%each%and%every%lively%creature%

on% our% planet.% It% plays% vitally% important% and% indispensable% role% for% the% socioHeconomic%

development%of%any%nation%in%the%world.%In%XXI%century%the%access%to%WS&S%became%one%of%the%

main%issues%on%the%global%agenda.%The%year%2003%was%identified%by%the%United%Nations%as%the%

International%Year%of%Freshwater%with%one%of%its%aims%to%reassert%the%UN's%MDGs%(2000):%"To%

halve,%by%the%year%2015,%the%proportion%of%the%world's%people%unable%to%reach,%or%to%afford,%safe%

drinking%water"%and%"to%stop%the%unsustainable%exploitation%of%water%resources%(UN,%2000)".%

The%target%of%halving%the%proportion%of%people%who%do%not%have%access%to%basic%sanitation%by%

2015% has% been% set% up% during% the% World% Summit% on% Sustainable% Development% held% in%

Johannesburg%in%20026.%

We%live%in%the%era%of%advanced%and%rapidly%developing%technologies,%however%at%the%same%time%

the% solution% to% ensure% access% to% WS&S% services% for% all% is% far% away% from% its% triumphant%

culmination.% It% is% estimated% that% 14% to% 30% thousand% people,% mostly% young% and% elderly,% die%

every%day% from%avoidable%waterHrelated%diseases% (UN,%2002).%The%number%of%people% lacking%

safe%access%to%water%has%slightly%reduced%from%1.1%billion%(in%2000)%to%884%million%(in%2010).%

Attainment%the%sanitation%target%has%no%or%poor%progress%(2.4%–%2.6%billion%people%who%live%in%

more% than% 40% developing% countries% do% not% have% access% to% sanitation)% (UNDP,% 2006;% WHO,%

2010).%Referring%to%the%prediction%forecasts,%by%2050%at%least%one%in%four%people%is%likely%to%live%

in%a%country%affected%by%chronic%or%recurring%shortages%of%fresh%water%(UNESCO,%2003).%Main%

contributing% factors% behind% are:% hydrological% variability% in% most% parts% of% the% world% and%

overwhelming% increase% in% population% and% urbanization,% and% the% resulting% environmental%

degradation.%The%world%population%has%more%than%tripled%during%the%last%century,%while%water%

uses%for%human%purposes%have%multiplied%six%fold%(Cosgrove%&%Rijsberman,%2000).%

2.1$Access$to$WS&S$as$a$Human$Right!According%to%UN%reports,%the%evolution%of%recognition%of%the%human%right%to%WS&S%has%started%

in%March% 1977,% at%Mar% del% Plata%UN%Water% Conference% (UNWHDPAC,% 2011).% Adopted%Action%

Plan%from%that%Conference%declared%that%“All'peoples,'whatever'their'stage'of'development'and'

social'and'economic'conditions,'have'the'right'to'have'access'to'drinking'water'in'quantities'and'

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%6 Political Declaration of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002


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of'a'quality' equal' to' their' basic'needs”.% Another% very% important% outcome% of% that% conference%

was%the% launching%of%the%International%Drinking%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%Decade%(1980H

1990)%with%the%slogan%'Water%and%Sanitation%for%All'.%%

Indirect%references%to%WS&S%as%a%human%right%can%also%be%found%in%earlier%legal%instruments%of%

international%public%law,%for%e.g.%in:%

• UN%Charter7,%Article%55:%“…%solutions%of%international%economic,%social,%health,%and%related%

problems%and%international%cultural%and%educational%cooperation”.%%

• UN% Universal% Declaration% of% Human% Rights8,% Article% 25:% "Everyone% has% the% right% to% a%

standard% of% living% adequate% for% the% health% and% wellHbeing% of% himself% and% of% his% family,%

including%food,%clothing,%housing%and%medical%care%and%necessary%social%services".%

• Geneva%Conventions%and%Protocols:%Arts.%20,%26,%29%and%46,%Geneva%Convention%III%(1949);%

Arts.%85,%89%and%127,%Geneva%Convention%IV%(1949);%Arts.%54%and%55,%Additional%Protocol%I%

(1977);%Arts.%5%and%14,%Additional%Protocol%II%(1977).%

• The% legally%binding%human%rights%covenants%of%1966,% the%International%Covenant%on%Civil%

and% Political% Rights9%and% the% International% Covenant% on% Economic,% Social% and% Cultural%

Rights,% Article% 11% H% 1210%and% its% adopted% General% Comment% No% 15% to% this% Covenant11%

implicitly% recognize% a% right% to% water:% "The% human% right% to% water% is% indispensable% for%

leading%a%life%in%human%dignity.%It%is%prerequisite%for%the%realization%of%other%human%rights."%

There% are% other% important% and% legally% biding% international% agreements% formally% identifying%

and%declaring% the%human%right% to%water,% e.g.:% the%1979%Convention%on% the%Elimination%of%All%

Forms%of%Discrimination%against%Women12,% the%1989%Convention%of% the%Rights%of% the%Child13,%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%7 Charter of the United Nations, adopted 26 June 1945, entered into force 24 October 1945, as amended by G.A. Res. 1991 (XVIII) 17 December 1963, entered into force 31 August 1965 (557 UNTS 143); 2101 of December 1965, entered into force 12 June 1968 (638 UNTS 308); and 2847 (CCVI) of 20 December 1971, entered into force 25 September 1973 (892 UNTS 119) 8 United Nations General Assembly. General Assembly resolution 217 A (III), Paris, 10 December 1948. 9 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), UN Doc A/6316 (1966), 99 UNTS 171, reprinted in 6 ILM 368 (1967) 10 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), UN Doc. A/6316 (1966). 11 United Nations Economic and Social Council, Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No.15 (2002). The right to water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) Twenty-ninth session, Geneva, 11-29 November 2002. E/C.12/2002/11. 12 Adopted 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981, G.A. Res. 34/180, 34 UN GAOR, Supp. (No. 46), UN Doc. A/34/46, at 193 (1979), reprinted in 19 ILM 33 (1980).


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Vienna%Declaration%on% the%Right% to%Development,% (1993)14%and% the%European%Convention%on%

Human%Rights.%%

Many%UN%and%NGOs%have%made%great%efforts%for%already%more%than%30%years%to%enhance%water%

as%a%human%right,%however%not%yet% succeeded.%All%of% those% resolutions%and%declarations% that%

have%been%adopted%by%majority%of%the%UN%MemberHStates,%as%a%matter%of%fact,%have%vacillated%

between% declaring% water% a% basic% human% need% and% a% human% right% (Salman% and%McInerneyH

Lankford,%2004)15.%Scanlon%et'al.,'argue%that:%“The%human%right%to%water%does%exist,%as%water%is%

the% most% essential% element% of% life.% Nevertheless,% this% right% has% not% been% clearly% defined% in%

international% law% and% has% not% been% expressly% recognized% as% a% fundamental% human% right.%

Rather,% a% right% to% water% is% interpreted% as% being% an% implicit% component% of% either% existing%

fundamental% human% rights,% or% is% expressly% included% in% nonHbinding% instruments% that% are%

designed%to%achieve%specific%ends”%(Scanlon%et'al.,%2004:%11).%Many%other%researchers%arrive%to%

the% consensus% of% the% urgent% need% to% define% a% human% right% to%water% like,% Stephen%McCaffrey%

(1993),%Peter%Gleick%(1998),%Henri%Smets%(2000),%etc.%%

The%only%known%example%so%far%of%both%legally%binding%and%executive%national%legal%provision%

for%the%right%of%access%to%water%is%the%South%African%Bill%of%Rights%in%its%Section%27:%%

1. Everyone%has%the%right%to%have%access%to:%

a. Health%care%services,%including%reproductive%health%care;%%

b. Sufficient%food%and%water;%and%%

c. Social% security,% including,% if% they% are% unable% to% support% themselves% and% their%

dependents,%appropriate%social%assistance.%%

2. The% state% must% take% reasonable% legislative% and% other% measures,% within% its% available%

resources,%to%achieve%the%progressive%realization%of%each%of%these%rights.%

The%issue%of%the%human%right%to%WS&S%is%also%closely%connected%to%the%quantity%of%fresh%water%

that% should% be% accessible% liters% per% capita% per% day% (l/c/d)% for% human% health,% social% and%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%13 Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, entry into force 2 September 1990. 14 Art 8(1) of the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action, GA/CONF.157/23, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights on 25 June 1993. In interpreting this article, the General Assembly clarified and reaffirmed in its Resolution 54/175 that "The rights to food and clean water are fundamental human rights and their promotion constitutes a moral imperative both for national Governments and for the international community." 15 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), World Bank.“The Human Right to Water. Legal and Policy Dimensions”, 2004.


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economic%(not%related%to%trade)%development.%So%far,%there%is%no%common%understanding%of%the%

minimum% requirement% for% human% health% and% economic% and% social% development.% Existing%

estimates% vary% between% 20 16 %~% 4,654% l/c/d 17 .% These% estimates% are% methodologically%

problematic%as% they%consider%only%human%consumptive%and%hygiene%needs,%or% they%consider%

economic% needs% but% not% the% effects% of% trade.% Reconsidering% the% components% of% a%minimum%

water% requirement% estimate% for% human% health% and% for% economic% and% social% development%

suggests%that%a%country%requires%a%minimum%of%135%l/c/d%(Chenoweth,%2008).%

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2.2$Good$Governance$in$the$WS&S$Sub<sector!The% “water% crisis”% the% world% community% faces% today% is% largely% a% governance% crisis% (Global%

Water%Partnership,%2000).% Securing%water% for% all,% especially% vulnerable%populations,% is% often%

not%only%a%question%of%hydrology%(water%quantity,%quality,%supply,%demand)%and%financing,%but%

also%equally%a%matter%of%good%governance%(Akhmouch,%2012).%Below,%there%are%the%definitions%

(of% what% does% it% mean:% the% governance,% good% governance% and% water% governance)% of% key%

development% institutions% being% the% driving% force% for% initiation% of% the% Good% Governance%

movement%globally.%%

What% has% been% suggested% for% enhanced% implementation% of% the% Integrated% Water% Resource%

Management% (IWRM)% processes% by% Torkil% JønchHClausen% (2004),% I% believe,% can% be% fully%

applicable% to%WS&S% SubHSector% good% governance% too.% It% requires% realization% of% three% pillars%

correctly:%

1. Moving% towards% an% enabling% environment% of% appropriate% policies,% strategies% and%

legislation%for%sustainable%water%resources%management%and%development.%%

2. Putting% in% the% place% the% institutional% framework% through% which% the% strategies% and%

policies%can%be%implemented.%

3. Setting%up%the%management% instrument%required%by%these% institutions%to%do%their% job%(Clausen,%2004).%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%16 WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02. Guy Howard, Jamie Bartram “Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health”. Geneva, Switzerland. 2003 17 The definitions of water scarcity most widely accepted and used today by the UN and others were proposed in 1986 by Malin Falkenmark, then at the Swedish Natural Sciences Research Council.


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Table(1:(“Definitions!of!Governance,!Good!Governance!and!Definitions!of!Water!Governance”(

Definitions(of(Governance,(Good(Governance( Definitions(of(Water(Governance(

World(Bank(

What% is% Governance:% “the'process'and' institutions'through'which'decisions'are'made'and'authority'in'a'country' is'exercised”%What% is% Good%Governance:%“Inclusiveness' and' accountability' established' in'three' key' areas:' ‘selection,' accountability' and'replacement' of' authorities' (voice' and'accountability;' stability' and' lack' of' violence);'efficiency' of' institutions,' regulations,' resource'management' (regulatory' framework;' government'effectiveness);' respect' for' institutions,' laws' and'interactions'among'players'in'civil'society,'business,'and'politics'(control'of'corruption;'rule'of'law)”%UNDP:(

What% is% Governance:% “the' exercise' of' economic,'political'and'administrative'authority'to'manage'a'country's' affairs' at' all' levels.' It' comprises' the'mechanisms,' processes' and' institutions' through'which'citizens'and'groups'articulate'their'interests,'exercise' their' legal' rights,' meet' their' obligations'and' mediate' their' differences”.% What% is% Good%Governance:% “Characterized' as' ‘participatory,'transparent'...'accountable'...'effective'and'equitable'...'promotes'the'rule'of'law'...'ensures'that'political,'social' and' economic' priorities' are' based' on' broad'consensus' in' society' and' that' the' voices' of' the'poorest' and' the' most' vulnerable' are' heard' in'decisionUmaking'over'the'allocation'of'development'resources”.%DFID:(

What% is% Governance:% “How' the' institutions,' rules,'and' systems' of' the' state' –' executive,' legislature,'judiciary'and'military'–'operate'at!central'and'local'level' and' how' the' state' relates' to' individual'citizens,' civil' society'and' the'private' sector”.%What%is% Good% Governance:% “7' key' governance'capabilities:' to' operate' political' systems' which'provide' opportunities' for' all' people;' to' influence'government' policy' and' practice;' to' provide'macroeconomic' stability;' to' promote' the' growth'necessary'to'reduce'poverty;'to'implement'proUpoor'policy;' to' guarantee' the' equitable' and' universal'provision'of'effective'basic'services;'ensure'personal'safety' and' security;' to' manage' national' security'arrangements' accountably;' to' develop' honest' and'accountable'government.”%

The( Global( Water( Partnership( (GWP)% defines%water%governance%as%“the'range'of'political,'social,'economic' and' administrative' systems' that' are' in'place'to'develop'and'manage'water'resources,'and'the'delivery'of'water' services,' at'different' levels'of'society”.% Many( other( agencies( have(

subsequently( adopted( the( same( definition,(

including( the( World( Bank.( GWP% proposes% two%broad% sets% of% principles% that% underpin% effective%water%governance:%• First,% that% approaches% be% transparent,%

inclusive,%equitable,%coherent%and%integrative.%• And% second,% that% performance/operations% be%

accountable,% efficient,% responsive,% and%sustainable%(Rogers%and%Hall,%2003).%

For(UNDP,(water(governance(addresses:(

• Principles% such% as% equity% and% efficiency% in%water% resource% and% services% allocation% and%distribution,% water% administration% based% on%catchments,% the% need% for% integrated% water%management% approaches% and% the% need% to%balance% water% use% between% socioHeconomic%activities%and%ecosystems.%

• The% formulation,% establishment% and%implementation% of% water% policies,% legislation%and%institutions.%

• Clarification% of% the% roles% of% government,% civil%society% and% the% private% sector% and% their%responsibilities% regarding% ownership,%management% and% administration% of% water%resources%and%services.%

Water' governance' is' therefore' the' set' of' systems'that'control'decisionUmaking'with'regard' to'water'resources' development' and' management.' It' is'therefore' more' about' the' way' in' which' decisions'are' made' (i.e.' how,' by' whom' and' under' what'conditions)' than' about' the' decisions' themselves'(Moench'et'al.,'2003).'It'covers'the'manner'in'which'roles' and' responsibilities' (design,' regulation' and'implementation)'are' exercised' in' the'management'of'water' and'broadly' encompasses' the' formal' and'informal' institutions' by' which' authority' is'exercised.'

Source:(Source:((Grindle,(2007:553[574;(OECD,(2011(


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In%many%developed,% developing,%waterHrich% and%waterHscarce,% federal% and%unitary% countries,%water%governance%is%still%in%a%state%of%confusion.%Indeed,%because%of%the%intrinsic%characteristics%of% water% and% its% governance% (local% /% global% issue,% property% rights,% high% investment% costs,%human% right,% condition% for% sustainable% development,% multiple% externalities,% etc.),% the% water%sector%usually% combines% several% governance% “gaps”%or%deficits% as% compared% to%other%natural%resources%area%or%infrastructure%sectors.%Key%challenges%include%the%high%degree%of%territorial%and% institutional% fragmentation;% lack% of% capacity% of% local% actors;% poor% legislative,% regulatory,%integrity% and% transparency% frameworks;% questionable% resource% allocation;% patchy% financial%management;% weak% accountability;% unclear% policy% objectives,% strategies% and% monitoring%mechanisms;%as%well%as%an%unpredictable% investment%climate.% %Often,% technical%solutions%and%policy% responses% do% exist% and% are% wellHknown.% The% real% challenge% is% “implementing”% such%solutions%on%the%ground,% tailoring%them%to% local%contexts%and%ensuring%participation% from%all%stakeholders%(end%users,%utilities,%governments,%agencies,%community%associations,%regulators,%etc.)% and% accountability% mechanisms% to% join% forces,% share% the% risks% and% tasks% to% achieve%equitable%and%sustainable%outcomes%(Akhmouch,%2012).%%

Merilee% S.% Grindle,% in% her% Article% “Good' Enough' Governance' Revisited”% (2004)' pursues% to%narrow% the% gap%between% concept% (Good%Governance% in% general)% and%practice% (Good%Enough%Governance).% She% summarizes% that% there% are% mainly% two% standards% of% recent% development%thinking% to% define,% measure% and% conclude% what% are% the% feasible% solutions% to% attain% desired%level%of%development:%

• Large% Number% of% Countries% –% Cross% National% Research% (including% causeHandHeffect%relationships):% perhaps% most% influential% strand% uses% large% crossHcountry% statistical%analyses%to%ask%a%high%order%question:%What%is%the%relationship%between%good%governance,%on%the%one%hand,%and%economic%and%political%development,%on%the%other?!

• Small%Number%of%Countries% H%Case%Studies%(including%ProblemHDriven%Research):% focused%comparisons%among%a% limited%number%of% countries% to%explore%what%can%be% learned% from%their%governance%and%development%histories%(both%context%and%content%analysis)%(Grindle,%2004).!

Methodological% choices% about% how% to% study% the% issue% of% governance% and% development% have%considerable%impact%on%findings;%‘largeHN’%studies%tend%to%find%consistent%correlations%between%development% and% good% governance,% while% ‘smallHN’% studies% tend% to% demonstrate% that%


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development% is% not% fully% dependent% on% ‘getting% governance% right’.% She% also% indicates% that% a%

number% of% questions% remain% unanswered% about% which% institutions%matter% most% and% which%

kinds% of% interventions% are%most% likely% to% promote% development% in% individual% countries% and%

regions.%Moreover,%while% current% scholarship%makes% important% contributions% to% debates% on%

good% governance,% it% fails% to% respond% effectively% to% the% central% question% practitioners% must%

address:% given% limited% resources%of%money,% time,%knowledge,% and%human%and%organizational%

capacity,%what%are%the%best%ways%to%move%towards%better%governance%in%a%particular%country%

context?%(Grindle,%2004)%

Referring%to%Daniel%Harris,%Michelle%Kooy%and%Lindsey%Jones%(2011),%there%are%three%distinct,%

yet%overlapping,%sets%of%literature%within%the%Good%WS&S%Sector%Governance:%

• The%first,%and%most%developed,%body%of%literature%consists%of%WS&S%subHsector%Governance'

Assessments.% This% body% of% research% is% normative% in% approach,% appraising% performance%

against% certain% idealized% criteria% or% characteristics% for% the% ‘good% governance’% of% WS&S%

services.%

• A% second,% still% emerging,% body% of% literature% relates% to% specific%Political'Economy'Analysis'

(PEA)18'of' the' WS&S' Sector.% Unlike% Governance% Assessments,% these% studies% take% the%

existing%sector%context%as%a%starting%point%for%research,%and%aim%to%better%understand%the%

political% and% economic% realities% and% contexts% within% the% sector.% In% doing% so,% these%

assessments%aim%to%uncover%underlying%processes,% institutions%and%structures%that%act%as%

either%drivers,%or%blockages,%to%WS&S%SubHsector%reform.%

• A% third%body%of% literature,%neither'strictly'Governance'Assessments'nor'PEAs,% consists%of%a%

type%of%combined%analysis.%A%number%of%these%have%applied%dual%analytical%frameworks%in%

addressing%issues%of%both%Governance%and%Political%Economy%(Harris,%et'al.,%2011).%

2.3$Ownership$Issues:$Privatization$of$WS&S$Infrastructure$

Introduction%and%application%of%the%Washington%Consensus%in%1980sH90s%reflected%free%market%

approach% to% development% and% followed% by%U.S.% Agencies% (e.g.% Department% of% Treasury),% the%

International% Financial% Institutions% (IFI)% based% in% the% US% capital% (WB% and% IMF).% The% below%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%18 Widely accepted definition of PEA, provided by Collinson and adopted by the OECD and DFID, is as follows: “Political economy analysis is concerned with the interaction of political and economic processes in a society: the distribution of power and wealth between different groups and individuals, and the processes that create, sustain and transform these relationships over time” (Collinson, 2003; DFID, 2009; Duncan and Williams, 2010; OECD in DFID 2009).


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mentioned% elements% (three% out% of% 10)% of% the% Washington% Consensus% actually% created% a%

foundation% for% market% environmentalism,% participation% of% private% sector% in% managing% and%

privatizing%the%WS&S%infrastructure:%

• Public% expenditure% priorities% H% moving% them% away% from% subsidies% and% administration%

towards%previously%neglected%fields%with%high%economic%returns;%

• Privatization%H%State%Enterprises%should%be%privatized;%

• Increasing%Foreign%Direct%Investment%(FDI)%H%by%reducing%barriers.%

These% ideas% proved% very% controversial,% both% inside% and% outside% the% Bretton% Woods%

Institutions.% However,% they% were% implemented% through% conditionality% under% IMF% and% WB%

guidance.% Consequently,% in% 1990s% Private% Sector% appeared% on% the%WS&S% Governance% scene.%

The% 1992% International% Conference% on% Water% and% the% Environment% set% out% what% became%

known%as%the%“Dublin%Principles”:%including%the%principle%that%“water%has%an%economic%value%in%

all%its%competing%uses%and%should%be%recognized%as%an%economic%good”.%The%Dublin%Principles%

have%been%adopted%by%numerous%international,%multilateral%and%bilateral%agencies.%

There%are%more%critics%rather%than%proponents%of%the%privatization%and%commercialization%in%

the%WS&S:%

• “…Private'Sector'Participation'(PSP)'in'the'WS&S'Sector'has'not'shown'encouraging'results.'

In' particular,' private' resources' have' not' been' adequately'mobilized' to' solve'WS&S' Sector'

problems' as' anticipated' by' the' proponents' of' PSPs.' PSPs' in' the'WS&S' Sector'managed' to'

succeed' in' environments' where' effective' regulation,' good' governance,' and' contract'

enforcement'were'prevalent.'Effective'demand' for' improved'WS&S'services'and' innovative'

approaches'for'competition'also'paid'an'important'role.'Experience'also'showed'that'public'

water' utilities' can' work' well' when' anchored' on' reforms' with' ingrained' internal' and'

external'accountability,'customer'orientation,'and'autonomy.'While'ownership'itself'hardly'

influences' the' efficient' provision' of'WS&S' services,' the' interdependence' of' the' public' and'

private' players' should' not' be' overlooked;' a' reasonably'wellUfunctioning' public' sector' is' a'

precondition'for'the'success'of'private'provision'of'WS&S”'(Gunatilake'et'al.%2008:%p.%ix).%

• “In'February'1997,'Maynilad'Water'Services,'Inc.'and'the'Manila'Water'Company,'Inc.'were'

awarded' concession' contracts' from' Manila’s' Metropolitan' Waterworks' and' Sewerage'

System' (MWSS)' and' split' between' them' the' service' areas' in' Metro' Manila.' In' the' years'


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thereafter,' the' paths' taken' by' the' two' concessionaires' diverged' dramatically:' Maynilad'

became'bankrupt'and'was'turned'over'to'MWSS,'whereas'Manila'Water'has'prospered'and'

is' now' a' listed' company' in' the' Philippine' Stock' Exchange.' The' coUexistence' of' two'

concessionaires'in'the'same'city'offers'a'rare'opportunity'to'study'the'role'of'internal'factors'

in'the'privatization'of'urban'water'systems'because'the'effects'of'many'important'external'

factors,'such'as'political'support,'regulatory'structure'and'unforeseen'events,'are'effectively'

controlled.' The' findings' suggest' that' corporate' governance,' financial' management' and'

operations'management'of'privatized'water'utilities'are'among'the'most'important'internal'

factors' that' determine' success' of' water' privatization' in' developing' countries”% (Xun% Wu,%

Malaluan,%2008:%p.%1).%

• '“The' conversion' of' water' into' an' economic' good' requires' the' introduction' of' true'

competition…' and' costUreflective' pricing.' After' a' decade' of' experiments' both' of' these'

activities'were' retrenched.'Market'environmentalism' in'Water'Supply' in'England'can' thus'

be'characterized'as'a'case'of'success'privatization,'retrenched'commercialization'and'failed'

commodification”'(Karren%Bakker,%2004:%111).%

The%major%critique%included%such%arguments%that%the%Washington%Consensus%did%not%mention:%

the%shared%growth,%the%central%need%to%focus%on%eliminating%absolute%poverty,%or%of%reducing%

inequality.%Criticism%also% included%evidence%of% their%detrimental% impact%on%health,% led% to% the%

development%of%the%New%Consensus%(Santiago%Consensus,%April%1998).%New%Consensus%differs%

fundamentally%from%the%original.%While%the%Washington%Consensus%made%economic%growth%the%

main% goal% of% development,% the% new% consensus% moves% away% from% the% neoHliberal,% marketH

friendly% approach% and% places% sustainable,% egalitarian% and% democratic% development% at% the%

heart%of%the%agenda.%It%includes%a%more%povertyHfocused%approach%that%protects%and%supports%

the%poor%and%prioritizes%social%spending%on%education%and%health%(Todaro%and%Smith%2012).%

2.4.$Socio<Economic$Analysis$

2.4.1$Economic$Analysis$and$Resource$Allocation$Decisions!$

Water,%sanitation%and%hygiene%contribute%substantially%to%human%development%(affects%75%%of%

the%variables%of%the%Human%Development% index%(HDI)).%With%reference%to%global%practice%the%


%

%

%

%

%

!25!

!! !

investment% in%WS&S%has%a%high%rate%of% return%(US$8% for%each%US$1% invested)19.%The%benefitH

costHratio% (BCR)% in% Caucasus% and% Central% Asia% Region% for% interventions% ensuring% universal%

access%to%safe%water%supply%is%US$1.0%and%improved%sanitation%is%US$4.820.%%

Figure(6:(“BCR!of!interventions!to!attain!universal!access!of!improved!drinking!water”!

%

Source:(WHO,(2010(%

Figure(7:(“BCR!of!interventions!to!attain!universal!access!of!improved!sanitation”(

%

Source:(WHO,(2010(

Water% is% rapidly%becoming%a%scarce%resource% in%almost%all% countries%and%cities%with%growing%

population% on% the% one% hand,% and% fast% growing% economies,% commercial% and% developmental%

activities% on% the% other.% This% scarcity% makes% water% both% a% social% and% an% economic% good.% Its%

users%range%from%poor%households%with%basic%needs%to%agriculturists,%farmers,%and%industries%

and%from%commercial%undertakings%with%their%needs%for%economic%activity%to%rich%households%

for%their%higher%standard%of%living.%It%is,%therefore,%essential%to%carry%out%an%economic%analysis%

of% the%WS&S%projects% so% that%planners,%policy%makers,%water%enterprises%and%consumers%are%

aware% of% the% actual% economic% cost% of% scarce%water% resources,% and% the% appropriate% levels% of%

tariff%and%cost%recovery%needed%to%financially%sustain%it.%

The% socioHeconomic%analysis% also%provides%ground% for% the%government% to%negotiate%with% IFI%

and% Donor% Agencies% the% attraction% of% required% financial% resources% (loans% and% grants%

assistance)% for:% improvements% of% the% WS&S% infrastructure;% promotion% of% the% economically%

viable% tariffs% to% enhance% cost% recovery;% capacity% building% for% WS&S% operations;% better%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

19 High Level International Conference on Water Cooperation “Outcome Documents” Conclusions of the High Level Panel on Water Cooperation for human development, p. 8. Dushanbe, Tajikistan. 20-21, 2013 20 WHO, WHO/HSE/WSH/12.01 “Global costs and benefits of drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to reach the MDG target and universal coverage”, 2012

$1.00!$2.40! $2.50! $2.40!

$1.60!

$3.70!

$0.90!

$2.30!

$0.60!

$2.00!

0!

2!

4!

CCA! N!Africa! SSA! LAC! E!Asia! S!Asia! SE!Asia! W!Asia! Oceania! WORLD!

$4.80! $4.30!$2.80!

$7.70! $8.00!

$4.60! $5.00!$6.10!

$3.60!$5.50!

0!

5!

10!

CCA! N!Africa! SSA! LAC! E!Asia! S!Asia! SE!Asia! W!Asia! Oceania! WORLD!

Best%Practices%around%Sustainable%Access%to%Water%Supply%and%Sanitation%Services%applicable%in%Tajikistan%%

%%

%%

!26!

!! !

integration% of% social% and% economic% considerations;% better% allocation% of% limited% resources% to%

implement%National%Development%Strategies%(NDS)%and%Programs.%

Procedure% for% conducting%Economic%Analysis% of%WS&S% subHsector% (both% in% urban% and% rural)%

has%to%follow%a%sequence%of%interrelated%steps:%

1. Defining%the%project(objectives(and(economic(rationale%(analyze%the%interventions%at%macro%level:%drafting%strategy,%program%or%project,%project%identification%stage).%

2. Demand( analysis% and% forecasting% effective( demand( for( project( outputs.% This% is% to% be% based% on% either%secondary%information%sources%or%socioHeconomic,%baseline%study,%KAP%survey21%or%other%surveys%in%the%project%area.%

3. Establishing% the% gap( between( future( demand( and( supply( from( existing( facilities% after% ensuring% their%optimum%use.%

4. Identifying% project% alternatives% to% meet% the% above% gap% in% terms% of% technology,% process,% scale% and% location%through% a% least[cost22((LCA)( and( /( or( cost[effectiveness( (CEA)23%analysis% using% economic% prices24%for% all%inputs.%

5. Identifying( benefits,% both% quantifiable% &% nonHquantifiable,% and% determining% whether% economic( benefits(exceed(economic(costs.%

6. Assessing%whether%the%project’s%net%benefits%will%be%sustainable%throughout%the%life%of%the%project%through%costHrecovery,% tariff% and% subsidy% (if% any)% based% on% financial( (liquidity)( analysis( and( financial( cost[benefit(analysis25.%

7. Testing%for%risks%associated%with%the%project%through%sensitivity26(and(risk27(analyses.%8. Identifying%and%assessing%distributional(effects(of(the(project(&(poverty(reduction(impact.%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%21 KAP (Knowledge, Attitude and Practice) survey is a representative study of a specific population to collect information on what is known, believed and done in relation to a particular topic - in this case, WS&S. In most KAP surveys, data are collected orally by an interviewee using a structured, standardized questionnaire. The data then can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively depending on the objectives and design of the study. A KAP survey can be designed specifically to gather information about WS&S-related topics, but it may also include questions about general health practices and beliefs. 22 Least-cost analysis (LCA) is used to identify the least-cost option for meeting project demand for water by comparing the costs of technically feasible but mutually exclusive alternatives for supplying comparable quantity & quality of water. The analysis should be carried out using discounted values over the life of a project using the opportunity cost of capital, where possible, as the discount rate. 23 Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) seeks to find the best alternative activity, process, or intervention that minimizes resource use to achieve a desired result. Alternatively, where resources are constrained, analysis that seeks to identify the best alternative that maximizes results for a given application of resources. CEA is applied when project effects can be identified and quantified but not adequately valued, such as health benefit due to access to WS&S services. 24 Economic Price: Price of goods and services which reflect their values or opportunity costs to the economy as a whole. This is also called the shadow price. 25 Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA): BCA is a systematic process for calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project, decision or government (public) policy. BCA has two purposes: 1. to determine if it is a sound investment / decision (justification / feasibility); 2. to provide a basis for comparing projects. It involves comparing the total expected cost of each option against the total expected benefits, to see whether the benefits outweigh the costs, and by how much. In BCA, benefits and costs are expressed in monetary terms, and are adjusted for the time value of money (the time value of money is the value of money with a given amount of interest earned or inflation accrued over a given amount of time. The ultimate principle suggests that a certain amount of money today has different buying power than the same amount of money in the future. This notion exists both because there is an opportunity to earn interest on the money and because inflation will drive prices up, thus changing the "value" of the money. The time value of money is the central concept in finance theory), so that all flows of benefits and flows of project costs over time (which tend to occur at different points in time) are expressed on a common basis in terms of their net present value (the Net Present Value (NPV) is the sum of the present values (PVs) of the individual cash flows (both incoming and outgoing) of the same entity). BCA was developed initially to evaluate water resources investments by the Federal Water Agencies in the United States, principally the United States Bureau of Reclamation and the United States Corps of Engineers in the late 1930s. Since then, it has also been used to analyze policies affecting transportation, public health, criminal justice, defense, education, etc. The general objective of the method in this application was to provide a useful picture of the costs and gains associated with investments in water development projects. The intellectual "father" of benefit-cost analysis was the nineteenth century Frenchman, Jules Dupuit (1804-1866), who in 1844 wrote an often cited study "On the Measure of the Utility of Public Works." In this remarkable article, he recognized the concept of consumers' surplus and saw that as a result, the benefits of public works usually are not the same thing as the direct revenues that the public works projects will generate. 26 Sensitivity Analysis shows to what extent the viability of a project is influenced by variations in major quantifiable variables. 27 Risk Analysis considers the probability that changes in major quantifiable variables will actually occur.


%

%%

%%

!27!

!! !

Figure(8:(“Flow(Chart:(Economic(Analysis(of(WS&S(Sub[sector(Strategies(/(Programs(/(Projects”.(((

%Source:(Modified(based(on(ADB(Handbook(for(the(Economic(Analysis(of(WS&S(Projects,(1999(

2.4.2$WS&S$Tariffs$

Many%past%failures%in%water%resources%management%are%attributable%to%the%fact%that%water%has%

been%–%and%is%still%–%viewed%as%a%free%good%(based%on%religion%or%culture),%or%at%least%that%the%full%

value% of% water% has% not% been% recognized.% In% a% situation% of% competition% for% scarce% water%

Survey'of'Water'Use,'Inventarisa3on''of'WS&S'Facili3es'

WS&S'Strategy'/'Programme'/''Project'Ra3onale'&'Objec3ves'

Socio@Economic'Survey,''including'Con3ngent'Valua3on'

Iden3fy'measures'for'Op3mum''Use'of'Exis3ng'Facili3es' Ins3tu3onal'Assessment'

Environmental'Assessment''(IEE,'EIA)'

Sustainability''(Physical'and'Environmental)'

Financial'Analysis'&''Plan'for'Sustainability'

Demand'Analysis'&''Demand'Forecas3ng''

(including'effec3ve'demand)'

Establishing'the'Gap'between''Future'Demand'&'Exis3ng'Facili3es''

aOer'their'Op3mum'Use'

Iden3fy'Technical'Alterna3ves''to'meet'the'above'Gap'

Least'Cost'Analysis'(with'Economic''Price)'&'Choice'of'the'Alterna3ves''

(Design,'Process,'Technology,'Scale,'etc)'(AIFC,'AIEC)'

Iden3fy'Benefits:'Quan3fiable'&'Non@quan3fiable,'

if'any'

Tariff'Design,'Cost'Recovery'&''Subsidy'(if'any),'Enumera3on'

Financial'Cost'Benefit'Analysis''with'Financial'Price'(FIRR)'

Economic'Cost@Benefit'Analysis''with'Economic'Price'(EIRR)'

Sensi3vity'&'Risk'Analysis'

Distribu3on'of'Project'Effects'

Poverty'Reduc3on'Impact'

@'Part'of'the'Economic'Analysis'Abbrevia3on:''

AIFC!–!Average!Incremental!Financial!Cost;'AIEC!–!Average!Incremental!Economic!Cost;!EIA!–!Environmental!Impact!Assessment;!EIRR!–!Economic!Internal!Rate!of!Return;!FIRR!–!!Financial!Internal!Rate!of!Return;!IEE!–!Ini:al!Environmental!Evalua:on.!


%

%%

%%

!28!

!! !

resources%such%a%notion%may%lead%to%water%being%allocated%to%lowHvalue%uses%and%provides%no%

incentives%to%treat%water%as%a%limited%asset.%In%order%to%extract%the%maximum%benefits%from%the%

available%water% resources% there% is% a% need% to% change% perceptions% about%water% values% and% to%

recognize%the%opportunity%costs% involved% in%current%patterns%(Alamarah,%2010).%Concern%has%

been%voiced%over%the%social%consequences%of%“the%economic%good”%concept:%(While%the%Dublin%

principles%refer%to%water%as%an%economic%good,%water%is%referred%to%as%an%economic%and%social%

good%in%Chapter%18%of%Agenda%21).%

To%avoid% confusion%over% this% concept% there% is% a%need% to%distinguish% clearly%between%valuing%

and% charging% for%water.% The% value% of%water% in% alternative%uses% is% important% for% the% rational%

allocation%of%water%as%a%scarce%resource%(using'the'“opportunity'cost'for'water”'(OCW)'concept,'

e.g.:' if'water' availability' is' limited,' and' competition' for'water' among' potential'water' users' –'

households,' industries,' agriculture' –' is' high,' the'OCW' is' also'high),% whether% by% regulatory% or%

economic%means.% Charging% for%water% is% applying% an% economic% instrument% to% affect% behavior%

towards% conservation% and% efficient% water% usage,% to% provide% incentives% for% demand%

management,% ensure% cost% recovery% and% to% signal% consumers’% willingness% to% pay% (WTP)% for%

additional%investments%in%water%services%(ADB,%1999).%%

Pricing% of%water% has% rarely% been% efficient.% Tariffs% are% often% set% below% the% average% economic%

cost,%which%jeopardizes%a%sustainable%delivery%of%water%services.%If%the%water%entity%is%not%fully%

recovering%the%average%cost%of%water,%government%subsidies%or%finance%from%other%sources%is%

necessary%to%ensure%sustainable%water%service%delivery%(ADB,%1999).%The%recovery%of%full%cost%

should% be% the% goal% for% all%water% uses% unless% there% are% compelling% reasons% for% not% doing% so.%

While,% in% principle,% the% full% cost% needs% to% be% estimated% and% made% known% for% purposes% of%

rational%allocation%and%management%decisions,%it%need%not%necessarily%be%charged%to%the%users.%

The%cost,%however,%will%have%to%be%borne%by%someone%(Alamarah,%2010).%%

Regarding% the% cost% of% water,% there% are% three% different% types% of% cost% known% that% incur% in%

providing% water% to% a% household.% 1)( Full( supply( cost:( full% supply% cost% is% composed% of% two%

separate% items:% operation% and% maintenance% (O&M)% and% capital% charges.% 2)% Full( Economic(

Cost:% full% supply% cost% plus% economic% externalities% and% opportunity% cost% (in% economics,%

opportunity% cost% is% defined% as% the% value% of% the% best% available% alternative)( 3)%Externalities:(

water% resources% exhibit% externalities% in% the% sense% that% they% have% the% property% of% "mutually%

interfering% usage".% Individuals% take% the% valuable% commodity% of% clean% water% from% the% same%


%%

!29!

!! !

environment%that%they%then%use%to%dump%wastes.%3)%Full( cost(of(WS&S(Services:%the%overall%cost%of%WS&S%is%the%sum%of%full%supply%cost,%full%economic%cost,%and%environmental%externalities%(Rogers,%et.%al,%1998).%%

There% is% a% common% and% reasonable% concern% that% treating% water% as% an% economic% good% will%inevitably%be%damaging%to%the%poor,%in%terms%of%supplying%"basic%human%needs"(concept%with%basic%human%right%to%water);%in%fact,%most%interventions%to%keep%tariff%low%are%defended%in%the%name%of%the%poor%(Alamarah,%2010).%

Figure(9:(“General!principle!for!cost!of!water”.((

%Source:(Rogers,(1998(

Types(of(WS&S(Tariffs(and(their(Structure:(%

Tariffs%are%charges%for%water%and%/or%sanitation%services%but%the%"Effective%Tariff%Rate"%that%is,%the% net% amount% households% will% actually% pay.% This% is% a% function% not% only% of% the% amount%

O&M$Cost$

Capital$Charges$

Full$Supply$Cost$

Full$Economic$Cost$

Opportunity$Cost$

Economic$Externali:es$

Environmental$Externali:es$

Full$Cost$of$WS&

S$Service$=$Sustainable$Value$in$Use$


%

%%

%%

!30!

!! !

households%are%charged%also%the%extent%to%which%tariff%will%be%pursued%and%collected%and%the%

participation%rate%for%subsides%(Alamarah,%2010).%The%literature%and%practice%shows%different%

types%of%tariff%structures%are%in%practice.%In%Guidance%notes%“water%and%sanitation%tariffs%for%the%

poor”% Sohail% mentioned% two% main% categories% of% tariff% structures% and% its% subHcategories,%

however% the%different% tariff% structures%have%different% impacts% on% suitability% for%poor%people%

(Sohail,%2004):%%Unmetered((unmeasured)(and(Metered((measured):%1)%Simple%volumetric%

rates;%2)%Rising%block%with%"lifeline";%3)%Rising%block%with%strong%conservation%signal;%4)%Fixed%

minimum% charges;% 5)% Higher% nonHdomestic% charges;% 6)% Different% charges% for% water% and%

sewage;%7)%Differentiation%by%level%services.%

According(to(the(Water(and(Engineering(Development(Center((WEDC)(for(DFID((2005),(

common(water(and(sanitation(tariff(types(and(structures(are:((

• NonRvolumetric! tariffs:( These% are% tariffs,% which% do% not% require% actual% usage% to% be%

assessed.%Such%structures%are%appropriate%where%it%is%not%practical%or%not%cost%effective%to%

assess% usage% levels% (e.g.% because% of% the% costs% of% installing% meters% and% collecting% usage%

information% relative% to% the% value% of% that% information).% Common% examples% of% nonH

volumetric%tariffs%are%flat%fees%per%resident,%or%per%household%(for%example%for%community%

latrines),% or% per% sewerage% connection,% or% fees% based% on% the% diameter% of% the% household%

water% connection,% or% irrigation% fees% per% area% of% irrigated% land,% or% per% volume% of% crop%

grown.(

• Volumetric( tariffs! (actual% volume% is% measured)% Common% examples% include% flat% rate,%

rising%block%and%seasonal%tariffs.(

The!‘lifeline!block’:'Many'tariff'regimes'incorporate'the'concept'of'a'minimum'amount'of'water'

necessary'for'basic'human'needs'such'as'drinking,'washing'and'cooking.'Often'this'‘basic'needs’'

level'of'water'is'reflected'in'the'tariff'regime'in'the'form'of'a'lifeline!block!which'provides'the'

basic'needs'level'of'water'either'for'free'or'at'a'low'rate'to'those'eligible'to'receive'it.'

Flat( rate’( or( ‘linear’:(This% is% the%simplest% form%of%volumetric% tariff.%As%the%name%suggests,%a%

single%rate%is%charged%per%unit%of%usage%(e.g.%per%cubic%meter%of%water%used).%This%structure%has%

the%advantages%of%being%easily%understandable,%generally%perceived%to%be%fair,%and%is%simple%to%

administer.%However,%a%flat%rate%means%that%households%using%water%for%basic%needs%pay%at%the%

same% rate% as% heavier% users,% and% also% that% poor% households% have% incentives% to% restrict% their%


%

%

%

%

%

!31!

!! !

usage%below%levels%considered%to%be%necessary%to%meet%basic%needs%(though%both%effects%may%

be%offset%through%subsidies%as%well%as%through%different%tariff%structures).%

Increasing(Block(Tariffs( (IBT):(This% is%where%there%are% increasing%tariffs%per%unit%of%water%

for%higher%levels%of%consumption.%Rising%block%structures%can%be%used%to%signal%the%true%cost%of%

water% to% customers% using% large% volumes% of% water,% while% allowing% subsidized% prices% for%

“essential% use”.% Thus% the% charge% applied% to% the% top% block% of% consumption% could% reflect% the%

marginal%cost%of%water.%The%lower%blocks%provide%an%element%of%subsidy%and%hence%protection%

for%lowHincome%households.%(

(iii)( Seasonal( Tariffs( are% tariffs,% which% change% depending% on% the% time% of% year.% They% are%

appropriate% where% the% demand/supply% balance% differs% significantly% by% season.% Examples%

include% areas% where% there% are% marked% differences% in% WS% between% seasons.% For% instance,%

summers%may% be% characterized% by% lower% availability% of% water,% or% there%may% be% alternative%

water%sources%(which%may%be%free%and%without%water%tariff),%which%are%seasonal;%and/or%water%

demand% between% seasons.% For% example,% areas% may% attract% large% numbers% of% seasonal%

residents,%or%per%head%consumption%may%rise%in%the%dry%season%due%to%plot%watering%etc.%%

Foster%and%Yepes%%argue%that%the%IBT%structures%are%the%most%prevalent%form%for%social%tariff%in%

the%Latin%America.%Also,%claims%that%a%number%of%more%sophisticated%social%tariff%schemes%are%

also%being%applied%that%combine%consumptions%criteria%with%some%of%socioeconomic%screening.%

The%use%of%such%IBTs% is%widespread.% In%a%survey%of%urban%water%utilities% in%cities% in%Asia,% the%

ADB% (1993)% found% that% the%majority% of% utilities% in% their% sample% (20% of% the% 32)% used% an% IBT%

structure.% The% global% movement% to% privatization% in% the% municipal% water% sector% has% not%

decreased% the% popularity% of% IBTs,% despite% strong% reasons% to% expect% that% profitHseeking%

purveyors%would%prefer%other% structures.% In%bidding%documents%and% requests% for%proposals,%

government%often%requires%the%private%concessionaire%to%use%an%IBT.%%

In% different% papers% Whittington% (1992,% 2003)% defines% tariffs% as% a% powerful% and% useful%

management%tool.%The%WS&S%tariffs%promotes%a%number%of%objectives:%

1. Revenues%efficiency:%From%the%water%supplier’s%point%of%view,%the%main%purpose%of%the%tariff%is%

often%cost% recovery.%The%revenue% from%water%users%should%be%sufficient% to%pay% the%operation%

and%maintenance%costs%of%the%water%utility’s%operations,%repay%loans%undertaken%to%replace%and%

expand% the%capital% stock,%provide%a% return%on%capital%at% risk%and%maintain%a% cash%reserve% for%

unforeseen%events.%The%revenue%stream%must% thus%be%adequate% to%attract%both%equity%capital%


%

%

%

%

%

!32!

!! !

and%debt%financing.%Ideally%the%revenue%stream%should%be%relatively%stable%and%not%cause%cash%

flow%or%financing%difficulties%for%the%utility.%

2. Economic%efficiency:%Economic%efficiency%requires%that%prices%be%set%to%ensure%that%consumers%

face% the% avoidable% costs% of% their% decisions.% In% other% words,% water% prices% should% signal% to%

consumers%the%financial%and%other%costs%that%their%decisions%to%use%water%impose%on%the%rest%of%

the% society.% From% an% economic% efficiency% perspective,% a% tariff% should% create% incentives% that%

ensure,%for%a%given%water%supply%cost,%that%users%obtain%the%largest%possible%aggregate%benefits.%

This% means% that% volumetric% water% charges% should% be% set% equal% to% the% marginal% cost% of%

supplying%water.%When%capacity% is% constrained%and%water% is% scarce,% it% is% commonly%assumed%

that% the%marginal% cost% of% supplying%water% can% be% approximated% by% the% average% incremental%

cost% (AIC),% i.e.% the% average% cost% of% water% from% the% next% water% capacity% expansion% project.%

Alternatively,% the%AIC%of% additional%water%may%be% the%unit% cost%of% reducing%unaccountedHforH

water.%

3. Equity%and%Fairness:%Equity%means%that%the%water%tariff%treats%similar%customers%equally,%and%

that% customers% in% different% situations% are% not% treated% the% same.% This% would% usually% be%

interpreted%as%requiring%users%to%pay%monthly%water%bills% that%are%proportionate%to%the%costs%

they%impose%on%the%utility%by%their%water%use.%And%the%fairness%is%subjective,%as%that%the%water%

prices%should%be%reasonable%and%fair%for%specific%category%of%consumers.%

4. Poverty% Alleviation:%Many% people% feel% that%water% services% are% a% “basic% right”% and% should% be%

provided% to% people% regardless% of% whether% or% not% they% can% pay.% This% objective% leads% many%

people% to% recommend! that% water% services% be% provided% free,% at% least% to% the% poor.% Providing%

water% free% through% private% connections% conflicts% with% the% objectives% of% cost% recovery% and%

efficient%water%use.%The%level%of%the%income%of%the%people%should%be%taken%into%consideration%at%

all%levels%of%the%proHpoor%policies%development.%

5. Resources% conservation:% Water% tariffs% are% often% called% upon% to% discourage% "excessive"% or%

"wasteful"%uses%of%water,%thus%promoting%the%conservation%of%scarce%sources,%or%the%sustainable%

use%of%renewable%water%sources.%If%one%assumes%that%large%users%of%water%are%the%most%likely%to%

engage%in%"excessive"%or%"wasteful"%use,%then%the%IBT%design%confronts%those%users%with%higher%

prices%and%thus%discourages%further%use.%

Boland% and% Whittington% (2003)% mentioned% several% preHconditions% in% order% to% be% realistic%

approach%to%achieve%the%aboveHmentioned%objectives:%

• Public%Acceptability:%A%successful% tariff%design% is%one%that% is%not%controversial,%or%which%does%

not%serve%as%a%focus%of%public%criticism%of%the%water%supply%agency.%%


%

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!33!

!! !

• Political%Acceptability:%A%tariff%design%that%is%objectionable%to%political%leaders%will%lead%to%loss%

of% political% support% and%may% cause% increased% political% interference% in% the% operations% of% the%

agency.%

• Simplicity%and%Transparency:%A%tariff%design%should%be%easy%to%explain%and%easy%to%understand.%

It%should%be%possible%for%most%users%to%know%what%price%that%they%are%paying%for%water.%

• Net% Revenue% Stability:%When% water% use% changes% as% a% consequence% of% weather% or% economic%

conditions,% revenue% and% cost% should% change%by% approximately% equal% percentages.%When% this%

does%not%happen,%cyclical%changes%will%result% in%net%revenue%volatility,%creating%cash%flow%and%

financing%difficulties%for%the%agency.%

• Ease%of%implementation:%The%promulgation%and%implementation%of%the%revised%tariff%should%not%

encounter% significant% barriers% in% terms% of% legal% authority,% administration% competence,%

information%requirements,%or%billing%procedures.%

Boland%and%Whitington% (2003)%also%suggest%ProHIBT%arguments,% e.g.:% such% tariffs%promote%equity%

and%fairness%(help%WS&S%providers%to%plan%efficiently%the%LRMC%and%AIC);%allow%WS&S%providers%to%

subsidize% individuals% (proHpoor% and% affordable% tariff% to% observe% the% minimum% required% water%

consumption);%discourage%“extravagant”%and%“wasteful”%(value%of%water%and%efficient%use%of%it).%%

2.4.3$ Demand$ Responsive$ Supply,$Willingness$ and$ Ability$ To$ Pay$ (WTP)$ for$ the$W&&S$Services$

The% term% 'demand'% has% different%meanings% to% different% people% (Webster,% 1999).% There% are%

three%interpretations%of%demand%are%commonly%used%by%different%stakeholders:%%

• Felt%needs:%The%'felt%needs'%or%aspirations%of%communities.%Projects%might%be%driven%by%political%

or%equity%considerations%to%meet%this%demand;%

• Consumption:% Engineers% in% particular% tend% to% see% demand% as% directly% proportional% to%

consumption.%Consequently,%water%supply%schemes%are%often%designed%according%to%volumes%of%

water% supplied% per% household.% The% long% term% cost% of% these% schemes,% including%maintenance%

and%financial%sustainability%are%often%not%fully%considered;%

• Effective%demand:%Effective%demand% is% a% term%used%by%White% (1997)% and%Pearce% (1981)% and%

can%be%defined%as%'demand%for%goods%and%services%which%is%backed%up%with%the%resources%to%pay%

for%it'.%

If%people%merely%'want'%something%it%may%not%be%backed%up%by%a%WTP%for%that%service.%Hence%

the%need%to%ascertain%people's%maximum%WTP%for%proposed%service%options.%Effective%demand%

is% sometimes% referred% to% as% economic% demand,% and% it% is% the% most% meaningful% definition% of%


%

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!34!

!! !

demand.% It%essentially%means%that%a%WS%user%must%be%able%to%support% their%expressed%desire%

for%improved%WS%services%by%an%ability%to%pay%the%required%contribution%towards%this%service%

(Wedgewood%and%Sansom,%2003).%

The%WTP%is%one%of%the%most%important%issues%to%be%considered%by%project%designers%to%ensure%

the%financial%sustainability%of%a%project.%This%can%involve%predicting%what%users%will%be%able%and%

willing% to%pay% for%water% in% the% future.%Consumers%are%often%willing% to%pay%a%higher%price% for%

water%than%the%tariffs%charged.%How%much%higher%depends%on%how%much%water%is%being%used.%

People%are%willing% to%pay%very%high%prices% for%basic%minimum%water%requirements% to%ensure%

the% survival% of% the% household.% WTP% diminishes% rapidly% with% nonHessential% (unnecessary)%

levels%of%water%use,%therefore%the%relationship%between%WTP%and%water%use%can%be%shown%by%a%

downward%sloping%demand%curve%%(Wedgwood%and%Sansom,%2003).%%%

The%downward%sloping%demand%curve% indicates%the%decreasing%marginal%value%of%water.%The%

first% five% l/c/d% will% be% extremely% valuable% as% they% are% necessary% to% sustain% life.% This% is%

illustrated%by%curve%DıDı%in%Fig.%10.%The%second%five%liters%will%also%be%valuable,%(e.g.%in%their%use%

for% hygienic% purposes).% The% next% five% liters% are% valuable% for% food% preparation,% cooking% and%

washing%of%clothes.%All%other%factors%being%equal,% for%each%additional% increment%of%water,% the%

marginal%value%of%water%tends%to%decline%as%the%individual%is%putting%the%water%to%less%and%less%

valuable%uses.%Consequently,%the%individual’s%WTP%for%each%increment%of%water%will%gradually%

decrease.%DıDı%in%Figure%10%represents%a%nonHlinear%curve%for%an%average%household%and%shows%

an%example%of%an%individual’s%water%demand%or%willingnessHtoHpay%curve.%If%the%water%tariff%is%

increased% from% $0.25% to% $0.50,% this% individual% would% (all% other% factors% remaining% equal)%

reduce%daily%consumption%from%140%liters%to%115%liters%(ADB,%1999).%

Figure(10:(“An!Individual’s!Water!Demand!Curve:!Linear!and!NonRlinear!Relationships”.((

%Source:(ADB,(1999(

CHAPTER 3: DEMAND ANALYSIS & FORECASTING 43

10. The downward sloping demand curve indicates the “decreasingmarginal value” of water. The first five liters of water per capita per day will be extremelyvaluable as they are necessary to sustain life. This is illustrated by curve D1D1 in Figure3.1. The second five liters will also be valuable, (e.g. in their use for hygienic purposes).The next five liters are valuable for food preparation, cooking and washing of clothes.All other factors being equal, for each additional increment of water, the marginal valueof water tends to decline as the individual is putting the water to less and less valuableuses. Consequently, the individual’s willingness to pay for each increment of water willgradually decrease.

11. D1 D1 in Figure 3.1. represents a non-linear curve for an averagehousehold and shows an example of an individual’s water demand or willingness-to-paycurve. If the water tariff is increased from $0.25 to $0.50, this individual would (allother factors remaining equal) reduce daily consumption from 140 liters to 115 liters.

Price(US$/m3

Quantity (lcd )

1.00

.75

.50

.25

0115 140

D 2D 2

D 1D 1

Figure 3.1 An Individual’s Water Demand Curve: Linear and Non-linear Relationships

12. In this Handbook, a linear demand curve will often be used forillustrative purposes, as indicated by line D2 D2. However, the nonlinear relationshipbetween quantity and price is probably a better approximation of the actual behavior ofwater users.


%

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For%e.g.,%the%effects%of%introducing%new%pricing%mechanisms%in%Abu%Dhabi%city%and%compared%it%

with% the% old% flat% tariff% rate;% they% randomly% selected% 90% households% with% different%

socioeconomic%levels%and%were%analyzed%before%and%after%introducing%the%new%pricing%system.%

As%a%result%of%the%new%pricing%policy,%73%%of%the%households%reduced%their%consumption%by%an%

average% 29%;% based% on% the% paper,% the% new% tariff% system% had% a% positive% impact% on% demand%

management% despite% the% fact% that% the% people% are% relatively% wealthy% (Qdais% and% AlHNassay%

2001).%%

There% are% various% definitions% of% WTP,% but% the% most% common% one% states% that:% % 'WTP' is' the'

maximum'amount'that'an'individual'states'they'are'willing'to'pay'for'a'good'or'service'% (DFID%

Demand%Assessment% Seminar.% December,% 1997).% The% term%WTP% can% be% confusing% in% a% nonH

economic%paradigm.%Users%may%not%be% 'happy'%paying%a%certain% tariff,%but% they%are'willing% to%

pay% this%amount%rather% than%go%without,% just%as%householders% in% the%UK%might%not%be%happy%

paying%their%gas%bills%but%know%that%they%must%pay%them,%or%go%without%(Webster%1999).%%

There%are%three%ways%to%estimate%WTP:%

1. Observe% the% prices% that% people% pay% for% goods% in% various% markets% (i.e.% water% vending,%

buying%from%neighbors,%paying%local%taxes).%

2. Observe% individual%expenditures%of%money,% time,% labor,%etc.% to%obtain%goods%H%or% to%avoid%

their% loss.% This% method% might% involve% an% assessment% of% coping% strategies% and% involve%

observations;%focus%group%discussions%and%even%houseH%hold%surveys.%%

3. Ask%people%directly%what%they%are%willing%to%pay%for%goods%or%services%in%the%future.%%

The% first% two% approaches% are% based% on% observations% of% behavior% and% are% called% “Revealed%

Preferences”% techniques.%The%third%technique% is%based%upon%Stated%Preferences%and% includes%

the%Contingent%Valuation%Methodology%(CVM)28.%The%economic%concept%that%WTP%surveys%are%

trying%to%capture% is% the%maximum%amount%that%a%respondent%would%be%willing%to%pay%for%the%

proposed% improvement% in%water% services% in% the% context% of% the% existing% institutional% regime%

within% which% households% are% free% to% allocate% their% financial% resources% (Whittington,% et' al.,%

2001).%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%28 CVM: A direct method of nonmarket valuation in which consumers are asked directly their WTP for a specific quantity or quality of goods or services such as WS&S.


%%

!36!

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In%general,%WTP%surveys%are%based%on%either%of% two%types%of%questions:%respondents%may%be%asked% a%direct,% openHended%question% such% as:% “What% is% the%maximum%amount%of%money%you%would%be%willing%to%pay%(for%a%specified%good%or%service)?”%or,%respondents%are%presented%with%a%specific%choice%which%requires%a%yes/no%answer,%like%“Suppose%a%water%distribution%line%were%installed% in% front%of% your%house,% and%assuming% the% connection% fee%was% x% (in% local% currency),%and%that%the%monthly%tariff%was%y%(flat%charge%or%per%m³)%would%you%choose%to%connect%to%the%new%water%distribution%system?”%

Figure(11:(“Bidding!Game!(Tariff!per!month)”(

Tariff!Per!Month!When!the!new!project!starts,!and!assuming!(i)!if!piped!water!quantity!is!increased!to!24!hours!supply/day!at!adequate!pressure!so!that!you!can!get!the!additional!supply!of!water!of!good!quality!and!(ii)!the!tariffs!are!reHfixed!at!US$...per!month,!would!you!want!a!connection!and!pay!for!the!bill?![go!to!the!bidding!game]!

( 1. (a)!No,!I!do!not!want!a!connection.!(b)!Yes,!I!want!a!connection;!if!1(b),!then!go!to!2.! !

2. ! !

3. ! !

4. ! !

5. ! !

6. ! !

7. ! !

8. ! !

9. ! !

10. ! !

11. ! !

US$40:!If!“Yes”,!then!stop!!"!







US$7.5:!If!“Yes”,!then!stop!"!

US$5:!If!“Yes”,!then!stop!!!!"!

US$2.5:!If!“Yes”,!then!stop!"!

if!“No”,!explain…!

If!“No”,!go!to!3!!!#!!

If!“No”,!go!to!4!!!#!

If!“No”,!go!to!5!!!#





If!“No”,!go!to!10!#

If!“No”,!go!to!11!#!

Source:(Elaborated(based(on(ADB(Handbook(for(the(Economic(Analysis(of(WS&S(Projects,(1999.(

However%WTP%Surveys%generally%considered%as%a%powerful%and%useful% to%define%the%WTP%for%the%WS&S%service%provided,%Almarah% (2010)% in%his%paper% refers% to%Meier% (1983),%Webb%and%Iskandarani% (1998)% arguments% relying% upon% WTP% survey% results.% Meier% (1983)% brings% a%number% of% arguments% against% relying% entirely% upon% the%WTP,% e.g.:% consideration% of% external%benefits,% the% extent%of% consumer%knowledge,% and% the% ability% to%pay.%There% is%much%evidence%that% even% where% consumers% are% wealthy,% they% often% refuse% to% pay% or% otherwise% cause%difficulties%for%a%water%authority%which%is%attempting%to%introduce%or%increase%water%charges.%This%leads%us%to%suggest%that%the%only%way%in%practice%to%address%this%issue%is,%rather%to%than%to%


%

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!37!

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conduct% elaborate,% assumptive% socioeconomic% surveys,% to% “test% the% market”% by% the% gradual%

introduction%of%new%tariff%policies,%and%then%to%observe%consumer%reaction%before%deciding%to%

increase%those%charges%or%to%expand%capacity%(Meier,%1983).%%

Unreliable% service%can%discourage%people% from%having% their%household%connected% to%a%piped%

water%system.%At% the%same%time,%one%should%keep% in%mind%that% the%WTP%may%differ% from%the%

Ability%To%Pay%(ATP).%It%cannot%always%be%assumed%that%individuals%who%are%willing%to%pay%for%a%

basic%service%will%be%able%to%do%so%(Webb%and%Iskandarani,%1998).%

A%critical%distinction%when%considering%affordability%is%the%difference%between%WTP%and%ATP.%

WTP%reflects%consumer%preference%about%purchasing%a%quantity%of%goods%or%services%relative%

to% prices.% As% prices% rise,% particularly% for% essential% goods% and% services,% consumers% may%

demonstrate%a%reluctance%or%unwillingness%to%pay%(US%Environment%Protection%Agency%(EPA),%

1998).%

ATP%raises%another%issues.%ATP%focuses%not%on%whether%consumers%will%pay%for%water%service,%

but% whether% consumers% can% pay% for% water% service.% ATP% is% primarily% a% function% of% income%

related% to% the% cost% of% living,% which% in% turn% is% primarily% a% function% of% employment.% Income%

(weighted% by% the% cost% of% living)% and% employment%measures% often% are% used% in% estimating% a%community’s%socioeconomic%conditions%and%the%related%ability%of%consumers%to%support%utility%

costs%(EPA,%1998).%%

The% affordability% assessment% framework% recognizes% the% flow% of% resources% that% affect% water%

systems% and% the% different% resources% available% to% different% types% of% water% systems.% The%

framework%can%be%used%not%only%to%understand%affordability%issues%but%also%to%explore%options%

for%addressing%affordability%concerns%(Almarah,%2010).%

It%has%been%suggested%that%households%usually%pay,%or%willing%to%pay,%3%%to%5%%of%their%income%

for% an% improved%water% (World%Bank%Water%Demand%Research%Team,% 1993).%UNDP% suggests%

water%costs%should%not%exceed%3%%of%household%income.29%

2.5 Quality$of$Water$

The% quality% of% water,% whether% used% for% drinking,% domestic% purposes,% food% production% or%

recreational% purposes% has% an% important% impact% on% health.%Water% of% poor% quality% can% cause%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%29 United Nations, OHCHR, UN-HABITAT, WHO. “Right to Water, Fact Sheet No. 35”. 2010


%

%%

%%

!38!

!! !

disease% outbreaks% and% it% can% contribute% to% background% rates% of% disease% manifesting%

themselves% on% different% time% scales.% Initiatives% to% manage% the% safety% of% water% do% not% only%

support% public% health,% but% often% promote% socioeconomic% development% and% wellHbeing% as%

well30.%%

WHO%is%the%flagman%internationalHlevel%organization%dealing%with%quality%and%safety%of%WS&S.%

For% more% than% 50% years% of% guidance% it% has% made% a% tremendous% contribution% to% the%

development%of%WS&S%safety%and%quality%standards,%which%has%formed%an%authoritative%basis%

for% the% setting% of% national% regulations% and% standards% for%WS&S% safety% in% support% of% public%

health.% The% first% WHO% publication% dealing% specifically% with% drinkingHwater% quality% was%

published% in% 1958% as% International% Standards% for%Drinking%Water.% The%WHO%published% four%

editions%of%the%Guidelines'for'drinkingUwater'quality'in%1983–1984,%1993–1997,%2004%(updated%

with%addenda%to%it%in%2006%and%2008)%and%in%the%final%(current)%one%in%2011,%as%successors%to%

previous%WHO%International'standards'for'drinking'water,%published%in%1958,%1963%and%1971.%

From%1995,% the%Guidelines%have%been%kept%up% to%date% through% a%process% of% rolling% revision,%

which%leads%to%the%regular%publication%of%addenda%that%may%add%to%or%supersede%information%in%

previous%volumes%as%well%as%expert%reviews%on%key%issues%preparatory%to%the%development%of%

the%Guidelines.%

The%WHO%Guidelines%for%DrinkingHwater%Quality%(GDWQ)%is%one%of%the%WHO’s%most%successful%

documents.% Many% developed% and% developing% countries% use% these% guidelines% for% setting% the%

national%standards%and%regulations.%For%example,%the%European%Commission%and%Japan%use%the%

GDWQ% as% the% scientific% point% of% departure% for% their% drinkingHwater% directive% and% drinkingH

water%quality%standards,%respectively,%while% it% is% the%basis% for% the%Australian%Drinking%Water%

Guidelines%(WHO,%2013).%%

The% GDWQ% is% the% product% of% significant% revisions% to% clarify% and% elaborate% on% ways% of%

implementing%its%recommendations%of%contextual%hazard%identification%and%risk%management,%

through%the%establishment%of%healthHbased%targets,%catchmentHtoHconsumer%water%safety%plans%

and%independent%surveillance.%It%contains:%

• DrinkingHwater% safety,% including%minimum%procedures% and% specific% guideline%values% and%

how%these%are%intended%to%be%used;%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%30 WHO. “Water Quality and Health Strategy for the period of 2013-2020”, 2013


%

%%

%%

!39!

!! !

• Microbial% hazards,% which% continue% to% be% the% primary% concern% in% both% developing% and%

developed%countries;%

• Climate%change%and%its% impacts,%e.g.:%drought%flooding,% implications%for%water%quality%and%

water% scarcity,% recognizing% the% importance% of%managing% these% impacts% as% part% of% water%

management%strategies;%

• Chemical% contaminants% in% drinkingHwater,% including% information% on% chemicals% not%

considered%previously,%such%as%pesticides%used%for%vector%control%in%drinkingH%water;%

• The%important%roles%of%many%different%stakeholders%in%ensuring%drinkingHwater%safety;%

• Guidance% in% situations% other% than% traditional% community% supplies% or% managed% utilities,%

such%as%rainwater%harvesting%and%other%nonHpiped%supplies%or%dual%piped%systems.%

Figure(12:(“The!Contents!of!the!GDWQ”(

%Source:(WHO,(2011(

1

1Introduction

The primary purpose of the Guidelines for

drinking-water quality is the protection of public health. The Guidelines provide the recommenda-tions of the World Health Organization (WHO) for managing the risk from hazards that may com-promise the safety of drinking-water. The rec-ommendations should be considered in the context of managing the risk from other sources of exposure to these hazards, such as waste, air, food and con-sumer products.

1.1 General considerations and principlesWater is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) sup-ply must be available to all. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tan-gible benefits to health. Every effort should be made to achieve drinking-water that is as safe as practicable.

Safe drinking-water, as defined by the Guidelines, does not represent any signifi-cant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages. Those at greatest risk of waterborne disease are infants and young children, people who are debilitated and the elderly, especially when living

Introduction(Chapter 1)

A conceptual framework for implementing the Guidelines

(Chapter 2)

FRAMEWORK FOR SAFE DRINKING-WATER

Health-based targets(Chapter 3)

Public health context and health outcome

Water safety plans(Chapter 4)

Systemassessment Monitoring Management and

communication

Surveillance(Chapter 5)

Application of the Guidelines in specific circumstances

(Chapter 6)

Climate change, Emergencies, Rainwater harvesting, Desalination

systems, Travellers, Planes and ships, etc.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Microbial aspects(Chapters 7 and 11)

Chemical aspects(Chapters 8 and 12)

Radiologicalaspects

(Chapter 9)

Acceptabilityaspects

(Chapter 10)


%%

!40!

!! !

The% Guidelines% are% addressed% primarily% to% water% and% health% regulators,% policyHmakers% and%their% advisors,% to% assist% in% the% development% of% national% standards.% The% Guidelines% and%associated% documents% are% also% used% by% many% others% as% a% source% of% information% on% water%quality%and%health%and%on%effective%management%approaches.%%

They% are% recognized% as% representing% the% position% of% the% UN% system% on% issues% of% drinkingHwater%quality%and%health%by%“UNHWater”,%the%body%that%coordinates%among%the%24%UN%agencies%and%programs%concerned%with%water%issues.%

The%most%costHeffective%and%protective%means%of%consistently%assuring%a%supply%of%acceptable%drinking%water% is% the%application%of% some% form%of% risk%management%based%on%sound%science%and%supported%by%appropriate%monitoring.%%%

One%of%the%key%practical%tool%to%apply%the%GDWQ%is%Water%Safety%Plan%(WSP):%a%comprehensive%risk%assessment%and%risk%management%approach%that%encompasses%all%steps% in%water%supply,%from% catchment% to% consumer.% The%GDWQ% outline% a% preventive%management% framework% for%safe%drinking%water% that% comprises% five%components% (Figure%14),% three%of%which%combine% to%form%the%WSP.%

Figure(13:(“Water!Supply!Chain.!“From!catchment!to!consumer’!approach”!for!risk!management!of!the!safety!of!drinkingR!water”(

%Source:(WHO((2003,(2005).(Compiled(by(the(author.(

Key%components%of%the%Framework%for%Safe%Drinking%Water%(WHO,%2004)%are:%

Know!your!Catchment%

Know!your!Source!Water!Quality%

Control!the!Treatment!of!Water%

Protect!your!Distribu[on!Network%

Delivery!of!Safe!Drinking!Water!to!!!!!!!!!!!

Consumer%


%

%%

%%

!41!

!! !

1. Health%based%targets%(based%on%an%evaluation%of%health%concerns).%

2. System%assessment%(to%determine%whether%the%water%supply%chain%(from%source%through%

treatment% to% the% point% of% consumption)% as% a% whole% can% %deliver% water% of% a% quality% that%

meets%the%healthHbased%targets.%

3. Operational% monitoring% of% the% control% measures% in% the% supply% chain,% which% %are% of%

particular%importance%in%securing%drinkingHwater%safety.%%

4. Management% plans% (documenting% the% system% assessment% and% monitoring;% describing%

actions%to%be%taken%in%normal%operation%and%incident%conditions%–%%including%upgrade%and%

improvement),%documentation%and%communication.%%

5. A%system%of%independent%surveillance%that%verifies%that%the%above%are%%operating%properly.%%

Figure(14:(“Framework!for!Safe!Drinking!Water”(

%Source:(WHO,(2011(

For%the%attainment%of%the%MDG%target%on%Sanitation,%WHO%initiated%the%implementation%of%the%

Guidelines%on%the%Safe%Use%of%Wastewater%Excreta%and%Grey%Water%since%2006.%However%it% is%

less%well%understood.%The%implementation%of%the%wastewater%guidelines%has%been%the%subject%

of%studies%in%Ghana,%Senegal%and%Jordan.%The%need%for%context%specific%tools%to%assist%Member%

States%to%implement%the%guidelines%under%a%clear%regulatory%and%institutional%framework%has%

been% identified.%WHO% is%working%with% the% International%Water%Management% Institute,% Swiss%

Tropical% Public% Health% Institute% and% Member% States% to% develop% the% Concept% of% Sanitation%

Safety%Plans%(SSPs)%and%support%implementation%following%a%similar%path%to%WSPs,%with%a%view%

to%closing%the%risk%management%loop%through%the%waterHwastewater%cycle%(WHO,%2013).%

6"

Health'based+water+quality+targets+

Public"health"context"and"health"outcome"

Water+safety+plans+

Management+and+communica;on+Monitoring+System+assessment+

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2.6$Comments$on$the$Literature$Review$

Based% on% the% Literature% Review% related% to% the% research% subject% (including,% question% and%

hypothesis)%the%following%are%the%author%comments:(

There(is(another(Big(Plan:%%

There%were%three%major%international%summits%(1.%1977%Mar%del%Plata%UN%Water%Conference;%

2.% 1990% New% Delhi% Global% Consultation% on% Safe% Water% and% Sanitation,% 3.% 2000% UN% MDG%

Conference,%set%2015%as%the%deadline%as%deadline%for%realization%the%universal%access%to%WS&S).%%

There% is%a%100%%probability% that% there%will%be%will%be%another%New%Big%Plan%with%refreshed%

objectives%for%the%next%10H15%years.%No%wonder%why%Jeffrey'Sachs%gave%the%name%%H%Millennium%

Development%Goals%to%this%project,%bearing%in%mind%much%lengthy%timeframe!%The%challenge%is%

how%to%ensure%that%this%plans%will%actually%work%and%deliver%what%they%are%expected%to%deliver.%

Water(as(a(Human(Right:%%

It% is% already%more% than% 30% years% passed% since% the% access% to%WS&S% has% been% declared% as% a%

human%right%by%UN%at%very%high%level%meetings%represented%by%Member%States.%%Nevertheless,%

national%governments%are%not%in%a%hurry%to%legally%bind%themselves%to%implement%the%declared%

right%in%reality.%Still,%international%community,%public%sector,%business%and%civil%society%are%not%

yet%ready% to%reach%a%consensus%where%should%be% the%border% for%water%as%a%human%right%and%

economic%good.%%

Governance,(good(governance(and(water(governance:%%

In% many% developed,% developing% countries% there% are% several% governance% gaps% and%

fragmentations%(laws,%institutions,%administration,%capacity%of%local%actors;%financial%resources,%

widespread%corruption,%etc.).%In%theory,%many%positive%developments%are%taking%place%however%

the%real% challenges% is% “implementation”%such% theoretic% solutions,% their%applicability% to% the% to%

local% contexts,% guarantee% genuine% participation% and% accountability% from% all% stakeholders.%

Consideration%of%the%below%mention%concepts%would%be%an%advantage:%

• Merilee%S.%Grindle’s%Good%Enough%Governance%vision:%country%context%and%content%analysis%

to%identify%priorities%(given%limited%resources%of%money,%time,%knowledge,%and%human%and%

organizational%capacity,%what%are%the%best%ways%to%move%towards%better%governance% in%a%

particular%country%context?)%


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• Another% useful% assessment% and% planning% tool% for% Good%WS&S% Governance% proposed% by%Daniel%Harris,%Michelle%Kooy%and%Lindsey%Jones% is%Political'Economy'Analysis% (interaction%of% political% and% economic% processes:% the% distribution% of% power% and% wealth% between%different% groups% and% individuals,% and% the% processes% that% create,% sustain% and% transform%these%relationships%over%time)%of%the%WS&S%Sector.%

Privatization(of(the(WS&S(Infrastructure:%%

In%late%80s,%early%90s,%following%the%new%trends%of%market%driven%economies,%as%well%as%being%forced% by% crisis% and% chronic% lack% of% financial% resources%many% governments% invited% privates%sector% to% join% the% WS&S% market% to% increase% effectiveness% and% efficiency% of% WS&S% service%delivery.%Governments%arranged%privatization%of%the%WS&S%facilities.%%

So% far,% after%20%years%of% such%practice,% there% are% a% few% left%who% support% the%privatization%of%WS&S%infrastructure.%Results%of%that%privatization%are%generally%unpleasant%around%the%world:%widespread% failures% of% the%WS&S% facilities,% high%WS&S% tariffs,% higher% number% of%water% born%diseases,%and%poor%left%without%access%to%services.%

Water(as(an(economic(good:%%

Since% Dublin% 1992% International% Conference% on%Water% and% the% Environment,% where% parties%have% agreed% on% that% “water% has% an% economic% value% in% all% its% competing% uses% and% should% be%recognized%as%an%economic%good”.%Taking%into%account%that%water%is%rapidly%becoming%a%scarce%resource% it% proposed% to% be% considered% both% a% social% and% an% economic% good% (reaching% the%balance% to% ensure,% sufficient,% affordable% and% sustainable% access).% The% belief% that% “water% is% a%free%good”%has%to%be%eliminated,%primarily%to%build%a%culture%of%efficient%and%sustainable%water%use,%for%the%sake%of%future%generations.%

Water(Value,(IBT,(Effective(Demand(for(Water(and(WTP:%%

When%setting%up%WS&S%tariffs,%the%real%value%of%water%to%be%analyzed%precisely%(caseHbyHcase%basis,% depending% on% the% local% context)% to% aim% at% reaching% the% full% cost% recovery% (including%other%externalities%occurred,%e.g.,%impact%on%environment).%Referring%to%the%literature%review,%analyzing% the% reports% from% both% developed% and% developing% countries,% IBT% is% the% most%prevalent%form%for%proHpoor%tariff.%WS&S%tariffs%to%be%developed%based%on%effective%(economic)%demand,%to%be%affordable%and%have%rightly%defined%WTP%(by%any%means%not%to%diminish%the%real%value%of%water).%


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GDWQ,(WSP(and(Sanitation:%%

There% is% a% good% progress% made% during% more% than% 50% years% to% design% and% implement% the%

guidelines% for%safe%drinking%water.%One%of% the%great% tools% that%has% the%universally%confirmed%

applicability% is% the%WSP:% a% comprehensive% risk% assessment% and% risk%management% approach%

that%encompasses%all%steps%in%water%supply,%from%catchment%to%consumer.%Similar%committed%

work%in%the%field%of%sanitation%standards%is%still%lacking.%%

Knowledge(Gaps:%%

During%the%conducting%the%research%it%was%found%such%knowledge%gaps%in%the%literature%review,%

for%e.g.:%%

• Debates% around% such% issues% as% “human% right% to% WS&S”,% “water% as% an% economic% good”,%

“quantity%of%water%l/c/d”,%“access%to%basic%sanitation”%are%on%the%rise.%Still%there%is%limited%

clarity% and% agreements%what% should% be% the% internationally% accepted%minimum% standard%

having% the% legally% binding% power,% so% governments% at% national% level% can% respond%

accordingly%(through%development%planning%and%implementation).%%

• There% is% a% lot% of% critique% on% the% government% failures% to% implement% effectively% and%

efficiently% the% national% development% plans% and% development% policymaking% (including%

plans%to% improve%access%to%WS&S%services),%however%there% is%a% lack%of%guidelines%how%to%

eliminate% the% deficiencies% in% planning,% advisory% support% how% to% design% and% implement%

plans%in%resultHoriented%and%accountable%manner.%

• After%a%two%decades%of%PSP%in%managing%WS&S%infrastructure,%evaluation%results%show%that%

Private% Sector% involvement% is% generally% created%more% obstacles% rater% than% a% support% to%

improve%access%to%WS&S%service%for%poor%people.%The%causes%of%why%it%happened%e.g.% the%

divergence% between% concepts% of% public% and% private% goods;% profit% and% benefit% analysis;%

government% and% market% failures;% preHconditions% for% successful% privatization% of% public%

property% (based% on% local% context% and% content% analysis,% and% if% privatization% is% really% a%

solution),% documented% experience% of% capacity% building% of% stakeholders% (regulators,%

operators%and%consumers)%needs%to%be%further%researched.%%

• Commitments% in% the% field%of%designing% the%safe%sanitation%guidelines% (similarly%what%has%

been% achieved% so% far% in% the% field% of% safe% drinking% water% quality)% need% to% be% further%

addressed.%


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Chapter!3:!Research!Methodology!

The%research%methodology%chapter%describes%the%research%conceptual%framework%(how%it%fits%

to%the%theory%and%practice%about%WS&S%issues%in%Tajikistan),%research%paradigm31%and%research%

methods.%The%Chapter%aims%to%present%the%selected%research%methods%and%tools%to%help%filling%

the%knowledge%gap%(complexity%of%factors%affecting%the%sustainable%access%to%WS&S%services%in%

Tajikistan)% and% to% answer% the% research% question% (Why% WS&S% SubHsector% in% Tajikistan% is%

lacking%Sustainability%at%Present%and%What%can%be%done%to%prevent%its%Failure%in%Future?).%

3.1 Research$Conceptualization$and$Operationalization.$

As%it%was%mentioned%before,%in%the%literature%review,%the%“water%crisis”%the%world%community%

faces% today% is% largely%a%governance%crisis.%Tajikistan% is%not%an%exception% from%this% list.%There%

are%abundant%water%resources%although%access%to%safe%water%remains%to%be%the%burning%issues,%

especially% in% rural% communities.%Weak% institutions% and% path% dependency,% reliability% of% data,%

corruption,%etc.%are%probable%causes%of%poor%governance%in%the%WS&S%Sector%of%Tajikistan.%

The% Government% of% the% Republic% of% Tajikistan% with% the% support% of% the% international%

community% is% taking%a%number%of%critical%measures% to%reform%the%water%sector.%Currently,% in%

the% republic,% there% are% at% least% two% known% political% dialogues% at% national% level% going% on% in%

parallel%with%almost%the%same%governmental%stakeholders%on:%1.% Integrated%Water%Resources%

Management% (IWRM)32%which% should% keep% the% issue% of% access% to% WS&S% as% one% of% the% key%

priorities,% however% in% practice% focused% precisely% on% water% for% irrigation% and% hydropower%

generation33;%2.%%Water%Supply%(safe%drinking%water)%and%Sanitation%(utilization%of%waste%water,%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%31 The most quoted definition of paradigm is Thomas Kuhn's (1962, 1970) concept in The Nature of Science Revolution: “Paradigm as the underlying assumptions and intellectual structure upon which research and development in a field of inquiry is based”. Another definition that is well fitted is "A set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied." (Guba, 1990). 32 Source: GWP: “IWRM is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems and the environment”. 33 Source: European Union Water Initiative (EUWI), United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE): National Policy Dialogues on IWRM is done with the Steering Committee comprising of main stakeholder ministries of the GoT. Similar dialogues are under way in other countries of the Easter Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia such as: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Ukraine. The work is supported by the EUWI that was launched at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002). UNECE is the strategic partner to support the policy dialogue process on IWRM and the OECD as the strategic partner for WS&S and financial aspects of IWRM.


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construction% of% safe% latrines,% etc.)34%So% far,% mainly% international% donors% present% in% the% RT%

allocate%the%funding%to%undertake%these%policy%development%initiatives.%Thus,%it%usually%creates%

a%dilemma%to%ensure%a%sense%of%ownership%over%these%processes%by%the%GoT.%Considering%the%

current%reforms%in%the%Water%Sector%of%Tajikistan,%it%is%expected%that%this%research%is%relevant%

to%the%needs%of%the%country%and%may%contribute%to%the%theory%and%practice%on%improving%access%

to% WS&S% services% through% debate% amongst% professionals.% Findings% and% conclusions% of% the%

research% to% be% distributed% through% Tajikistan% WS&S% (TajWSS)% Network% of% Stakeholders%

(Government,% International% Community,% Media,% Civil% Society,% Private% Sector,% etc.),% InterH

Ministerial%Coordination%Council%(IMCC)%on%WS&S%and%other%interested%parties.%The%diagram%

below%shows%the%conceptual%framework%of%the%research%(Fig.%15)%and%how%it%fits%to%the%ongoing%

Water%Sector%Reform%in%Tajikistan.(%

Research( title:( Best% Practices% Around% Sustainable% Access% to% WS&S% Services% applicable% in%

Tajikistan%

Research(subject:%Good%Governance%in%the%WS&S%SubHSector.%

Research( goal:% Contribution% to% creating% the% enabling% environment% and% successful%

development%of%the%WS&S%SubHsector%in%Tajikistan.(

Research(objectives:%%

• To% conduct% a% systematic% study% on% the% sustainability% of% WS&S% programmes% &% projects%

implemented% in% developed% (particularly% in% Japan)% countries% &% developing% world%

(Philippines,%Kyrgyzstan,%Uzbekistan);%

• Based%on%comparison%analysis% (findings%and%conclusions)% identify%successful%and%bestHfit%

models,%approaches%applicable%in%Tajikistan%as%well%as%lessons%learnt%of%such%processes.%

Research( question:%Why%WS&S%SubHsector% in%Tajikistan% is% lacking%Sustainability%at%Present%

and%What%can%be%done%to%prevent%its%Failure%in%Future?%

Research(variable(name:%Access%to%WS&S%Services.%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%34 Source: Tajikistan Network of Stakeholder Organizations (TajWSS Network - http://tajwss.tj/site/en/home.html): The Policy Dialogue on WS&S is done at National level between Inter-Ministerial Coordination Council (IMCC) that (all relevant ministries to W&S) and TajWSS Network. The IMCC has been registered as official permanent and coordination body not only between ministries but develop WS&S policies based on feedback provided by TajWSS Network and other Stakeholders. The dialogue is going on in Tajikistan only with the support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SCD) and implemented by UNDP and Oxfam GB.


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Figure(15:(“Conceptual!framework!of!the!research!“Best!practices!around!sustainable!access!to!WS&S!services!applicable!in!Tajikistan”!and!its!fitRin!strategy!to!the!National!Policy!Developments!on!WS&S”(

(Source:(Compiled(by(the(author(

Water&for&People&

Water&for&Food&

Water&for&Nature&

Water&for&Industry&and&Other&Uses&

Enabling&Environment:&

Policies,)Interna/onal)Coopera/on))

Ins>tu>onal&Role:&Level&of&Ac>on:&Management)

Boundaries,)Capacity)Building)

Management&Instruments:&Alloca/on,)Assessment,)

Economic)Tools)

Economic&Efficiency&

Ecological&Sustainability&

Social&&Equity&

General&Framework&for&IWRM&Globally&

Cross%Sectoral,Integra0on,within,IWRM,

2.&Policy&Dialogue&on&WS&S&

1.&Policy&Dialogue&on&IWRM&

Policy&Development&at&Na>onal&Level&

Knowledge)Gap)

)Research) Subject:) Good, Governance, in,the,WS&S,Sub%Sector.,Research) Goal:) Contribu0on, to, crea0ng,the,enabling,environment,and, successful,development, of, the,WS&S, Sub%sector, in,Tajikistan.,

)

Research)Objec/ves:))•  Study,on,sustainability,of,WS&S,in,

developed,&,developing,world;,•  Iden0fy,successful,and,best%fit,models,,

approaches,applicable,in,Tajikistan,/lessons,learnt.,

Dependent)variable:)Sustainable,and,Safe,Access,to,WS&S,Services;,Independent)Variables:)Factors,affec0ng,Sustainable,and,Safe,Access,(legal,,ins0tu0onal,,economic,,social).)

Research)Hypotheses:))•  Delivery&of&the&physical&infrastructure&

alone&is&not&a&solu>on;&•  Priva>za>on&of&the&stateQowned&

WS&S&infrastructure&in&Tajikistan&will&have&nega>ve&impact&on&poor.&

Why&WS&S&SubQsector&in&Tajikistan&is&lacking&Sustainability&at&Present?&

What&can&be&done&to&prevent&its&Failure&in&Future?&


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Research(variables:(

• Research!dependent!variable:%Sustainable%and%Safe%Access%to%WS&S%Services;%

• Research! independent! (including! extraneous! and! intervening)! variables:! Factors%

affecting% Sustainable% and% Safe% Access% to% WS&S% in% developing% countries,% particular% in%

Tajikistan:%

Legal!and!institutional:!!

• Legal%and%institutional%framework:%complex%and%ambiguous%laws,%parallel%structured%and%

fragmented%institutional%framework%of%the%WS&S%in%Tajikistan%that%require%revisions%in%the%

to% ensure% compliance% with% present% requirements% for% effective% development% of% WS&S%

sector.%

• Governance% in% the%Water%Sector:% vague%distinction%of% roles%and% responsibilities%between%

regulators%(state)%and%operator%(water%providers,%both%state%and%nonHstate).%Mechanisms%

managing%such%relations%(including%the%role%of%private%sector)%are%still%generally%lacking%in%

in%Tajikistan.%

• Ownership%of%WS&S% Infrastructure:% since% collapse%of% the%Soviet%Union%many%enterprises%

were% privatised,% vast% majority% of% collective% farms% in% rural% area% that% owned% WS&S%

infrastructure%were%restructured%and%many%of%them%do%not%exist%anymore.%Thus,%the%WS&S%

infrastructure35%lost% its% owner.% In% general,% the% issue% around% ownership% remains% too%

complicated%in%Tajikistan.%Much%effort%needs%to%be%done%to%identify%the%potential%owner%of%

the%WS&S%facility%to%ensure%sustainable%management%and%operation.%

Economic:(

• Efficient% Distribution% of% Available% Financial% Resources:% Both% state% and% nonHstate% water%

providers%managing%the%water%supply%facilities%do%not%have%enough%resources%to%reach%the%

full% costs% recovery.% It% makes% them% be% heavily% dependent% from% external% support% that%

undermine% the% sustainable% supply% of% WS&S% service.% Capacity% of% both% regulators% and%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%35 There was lack of ownership, adequate accountability and proper capacities within restructured collective farms or privatized enterprises to take the WS&S infrastructure on their balance as O&M costs of these facilities (to continue supply the WS&S services as public goods) were high. In Soviet Era to provide huge subsidies to upkeep the WS&S infrastructure was a widespread practice. Since Tajikistan independence in 1991 until now, there is a lack or no subsidies coming from the GoT.


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operators% needs% to% be% upgraded% for% efficient% financial% management% and% economic%

planning.%

• Tariff%set%up:%In%Tajikistan,%WS&S%tariffs%remain%very%low%and%generally%do%not%cover%O&M%

costs%occurred.% It% is%worth% to% learn%the%current% trends%and%experience%on%efficient%WS&S%

tariff%set%up%methodologies.%

• Human%Resources%Development%and%Capacities:%Availability%of%trained,%qualified%staff%is%a%

burning%issue%in%Tajikistan.%Many%professionals% left%the%country%during%1992%–%1997%civil%

war.%Brain%drain% in% the%WS&S% industry% is% still% going%on.%This% issue% is%primarily% linked% to%

low%WS&S%tariffs%(low%tariffs%on%WS&S%do%not%ensure%a%fair%pay%and%competitive%benefits%to%

employees).%Professionalism%of%staff%at%all%levels%requires%advanced%training.%

Social(issues(

• Ability%and%willingness%to%pay%for%the%WS&S%services,%cconsumers%attitude%and%behaviour:%

As%the%result%of%heavy%subsidies%WS&S%services%during%the%Soviet%Era,%water%conservation%

and%WTP% has% not% been% institutionalized.% ATP% is% also% an% issue,% especially% in% rural% areas,%

where%most%of%the%people%living%in%poverty%reside.%

Research(hypotheses:%%

• Delivery%of%the%physical%infrastructure%alone%will%not%ensure%sustainable%access%to%WS&S%in%

Tajikistan%on%the%longHterm%run;%

• Privatization% of% the% stateHowned% WS&S% infrastructure% in% Tajikistan% at% current% stage% of%

development%will%negatively%affect%the%poor%and%disadvantage%categories%of%consumers.%

Characteristics(of(the(research(populations((Stakeholders):(

• Staff% of% the% government% agencies% (regulators)% dealing% with% the% WS&S% issues% (e.g.%

Ministries% of% Health,%Water% Resources,% Environment,% etc.% and% public% companies% dealing%

with%housing%services),%state%authorities%at%local%levels%(e.g.:%municipal,%subHdistrict);%

• State%and%nonHstate%WS&S%operators%(public,%private,%publicHprivate,%publicHpublic%entities%

dealing%with%supply%of%services%to%consumers);%

• Representatives%of%civil%society%(general%public%met%during%field%visits);%

• Academia% (representatives% of% the% research% institutes,% universities% interested% in% WS&S%

research,%particularly%on%issues%related%to%WS&S%governance,%political%economy%analysis);%


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• UN%and%international%NGOs%(e.g.:%UNDP,%UNICEF,%WHO,%Oxfam,%etc);%

• Representatives%of%the%international%donors%(e.g.:%ADB,%WB,%EBRD,%SDC,%JICA,%etc.).(

Figure(16:(“Schematic!Presentation!of!the!Research!Paradigm”!

(Source:(Compiled(by(the(author(

3.2$General$Approach$Principles$

Taking% into% account% the% multidimensional% nature% (complexity% of% factors% affecting% the%

sustainability% of% the% WS&S% infrastructure)% of% this% research,% wide% geographical% coverage,% a%

Research(Problem(

Research(Ques0on(

Hypotheses(Data(Collec0on(

Analysis(and(

Conclusions(

!Qualita(ve!Methods!•  Literature!Review;!•  Ques(onnaire!checklists;!•  Semi:structured!Interviews;!•  Observa(ons;!•  Case!Studies;!

•  Delivery!of!the!physical!infrastructure!alone!will!not!ensure!sustainable!access!to!WS&S!on!the!long:term!run;!

•  Priva(za(on!of!the!State:owned!WS&S!infrastructure!in!Tajikistan!at!current!stage!of!development!will!nega(vely!affect!the!poor!and!disadvantage!categories!of!consumers.!

•  Independent:(Factors(affec0ng(Sustainable(and(Safe(Access((legal,(ins0tu0onal,(economic,(social).(

((

Research(Variables:((

•  Dependent:(Sustainable(and(Safe(Access(to(WS&S(Services(

Research(Hypotheses:(Methodology:(

((((lack(of(consumers’(WTP(/(ATP).(

( Research(Ques0on:((

•  Why(WS&S(SubNsector(in(Tajikistan(is(lacking(Sustainability(at(Present(and(What(can(be(done(to(prevent(its(Failure(in(Future?(

Formula0on(of(the(Research(Problem(:(Water(crisis((not(the(scarcity(of(the(resource(but(governance),(poor(and(unreliable(access(to(safe(WS&S(services(and(high(poverty(rates((especially(in(rural(communi0es),(weak(ins0tu0ons(and(path(dependency((vague(legal(framework,(ques0onable(reliability(of(data,(widespread(corrup0on,(failure(to(aSract(enough(resources(to(sustain(the(WS&S(subNsector,(lack(of(professional(staff(and(limited(capaci0es(of(present(employees,(limited(innova0on,(quality(of(construc0on),(poor(quality(of(WS&S(services,(unavailability(of(full(cost(recovery(tariffs,((

Research(Report:((

Share(the(Research(Report(with(relevant(stakeholders.(


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large%number%of%stakeholders% involvement,% required%clarity%on%application%of%data%collection%

and% analytical% tools% to% deliver% evidenceHbased% conclusions.% For% that% reason% the% following%

measures%have%been%built%into%the%methodological%approach:%

• Production% of% comprehensive% data% collection% checklist% /% questionnaire% and% preHtesting% of% it%

with% research% supervisor,% preHtest% interview% with% one% of% the% relevant% and% interested%

stakeholder%and%before%the%final%use%in%the%fieldwork;%

• Assurance%of%respondents’%confidentiality%so%to%enable%them%to%speak%freely;%

• Triangulation% and% validation% of% collected% data% (if% possible% and% applicable)% through% semiH

structured%interviews%with%variety%of%relevant%stakeholders;%

• Field%visits%to%the%countries%with%particular%attention%to%ensuring%that%the%visits%do%not%fall%in%a%

period% of% absence% of% key% respondents% or% of% other% major% events% that% could% affect% the% good%

running%of%the%visits%with%realistic%timing;%

• Special%attention%was%paid%to%specific%characteristics%of%countries%visited%and%their%respective%

institutional%contexts.%

3.3$Tools$used$for$Data$Collection$

Based%on%the%research%question%and%hypotheses%the%following%main%data%collection%tools%were%

used%taking%into%account%the%available%resources%and%time%constraints:%%

• Literature( Review( and(Desk(Research:% these%methods%were%used%since% the% initial% stage%of%

the%research%to%build%understanding%of%the%problem%(sustainable%access%to%WS&S%services).%The%

academic% publications% (scientific% articles% and% books),% international,% regional% and% country%

specific%documents%and%statistics%(laws,%institutional%framework,%programs,%projects,%reports),%

media% (newspapers,%magazines,%websites,% etc.)%were% the%primary% source%of% information.%The%

data%collected%was%both%a%qualitative%and%quantitative%in%nature.%The%publications%/%documents%

base%has%been%updated%on%the%whole%lifespan%of%the%research.%

• Semi[structured( interviews:( SemiHstructured% interviews% were% conducted% with% variety% of%

stakeholders% during% the% field% visits.% The% stakeholders% include:% representatives% of% authorized%

governmental% institutions% dealing% with% WS&S,% civil% society,% international% NGOs% and% donor%

agencies% involved% in% the% WS&S% Sector.% SemiHstructured% interviews% have% been% chosen% to%

capture% structured% information% and% permit% interviewees% to% express% some% opinions% through%

relevant%discussion.%

• Questionnaire(/(Checklists:%this%method%was%used%to%collect%critically%important%information%

for% the%research% in% field%and%confirm%the% findings%and% information%during% literature%review%/%


%%

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desk%research%and%vise%versa.%The%questionnaires%were%also%shared%with%stakeholders%through%eHmail%where%possible%and%data%collected%online%(through%phone%/%skype%conference%calls%or%eHmail% correspondence).% The% size% of% the% questionnaire% /% checklist% consisted% of% 30% questions%(please%refer%to%the%Annex%9.1%for%the%checklist%questionnaire%format).%

• Case( study:% this% method% assessed% the% countries% context,% factors% affecting% sustainability% of%social% infrastructure,% implemented%WS&S%programs%and%projects.% The% approach%was%used% to%analyze% the% interventions%done% in% the%WS&S%Sector%of%each%particular%country% to%capture% the%best%practices%and%lessons%learnt%based%on%experiences%gained.%

• Observations:%observation%was%used%as%a%tool%to%collect%data%in%its%natural%way,%e.g.%observing%everyday% life%of%people% in% the% rural% communities,% staff% at%work%when%visiting%WS&S% facilities%and%project%sites%in%Japan,%Philippines%and%Tajikistan.%

3.3 Limitations$

The%following%methodological%limitations%were%observed%during%current%research:%

• Despite% the% fact% that% there%was% a% sufficient% amount% of% data% available% on% the% research% topic,%however,% literally% there% was% mismatch% of% statistical% data,% even% at% country% level% (different%ministries% /% governmental% departments,%Donors% and% INGOs% operate%with% different% statistics,%for%e.g.%number%of%people%having%access%to%WS&S%services;%

• The% evidence,% observations% as% well% as% confirmation% during% individual% interviews% with%government% stakeholders% it% is% confirmed% that% there% is% pressure% from% the% national% level% to%provide%only%good%reports,%that%creates%a%doubt%about%reliability%of%data%available%and%reports%issued%showing%the%goods%progress%of%MDGs%at%country%levels;%%

• Reluctance%from%the%research%population%side%to%share%information,%personal%connections%were%a%definite%advantage%during%data%collection%and%field%visits%phase%of%the%research;%

• Different%countries%and%organizations%use%different%definitions%(e.g.%what%can%be%considered%as%safe%or%unsafe%access%to%WS&S,%quantity%water%(l/c/d),%etc.).%

• Opportunity% and% time% for% the% field% research% was% very% limited% (during% research% only% Japan,%Tajikistan% and% Philippines% were% visited;% the% information% for% the% cases% of% Kyrgyzstan% and%Uzbekistan% was% conducted% at% a% distance,% mainly% by% applying% desk% research% and% literature%review%methods).%

• Qualitative%research%methods%were%used%to%conduct%this%research,%no%quantitative%sampling%of%the%research%population%has%been%done.%


%

%

%

%

%

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Chapter!4:!Research!Findings!

4.1$Current$State$of$Affairs$with$Access$to$WS&S$services$in$Tajikistan$

Despite% the% abundant% availability% of% water% resources,% access% to% water% supply% (WS)% remain%

limited.%Currently%58.5%%of%the%people%have%access%to%safe%drinking%water.%Data%on%access%to%

sanitation%shows%even%a%greater%problem%in%comparison%to%WS.%Only%about%30%%have%access%to%

improved%sanitation36.%

According% to% the%UN%DevInfo%data%on%Tajikistan,% the%country% is%making%a%good%progress%and%

providing% even% higher% rate% H% 64%% H% of% proportion% of% the% population% using% an% improved%

drinking% water% source% and% 94%% using% an% improved% sanitation% facility37.% Other% research%

indicates% that% around% 47%% of% latrines% in% rural% areas% fall% below% the%minimum% standards% for%

hygienic% facilities,% so% despite% the% high% prevalence% of% some% sort% of% latrine% (98.6%)% the%

prevalence%of%fecalHrelated%diseases%is%still%very%high38.%

The%largest%inventory%of%the%WS&S%facilities%conducted%in%2011H2012%by%the%state%operator%of%

housing%services%in%Tajikistan%“Khojagii%Manziliyu%Komunali”%(KMK)%presents%data%that:%

• Centralized%water%supply%service%cover%87.3%%of%urban%population,%61.5%%of%population%

residing%in%townships%and%district%centres,%43.4%%of%rural%population;%

• Sewerage%system%services%are%accessible%to%80%%of%urban%population,%18.2%%population%of%

townships,%and%only%0.2%%of%rural%population.%

• Most% of% the%WS&S% networks% and% facilities% are% exhausted.% In% urban% areas% 68%% of% water%

supply% networks% are% functional,% 7%% of% these% networks% are% partly% operable% and% 25%% of%

them% are% inoperable.% In% rural% areas% these% indicators% make% up% 40%,% 44%% and% 16%%

respectively.%

• Major%parts%of% facilities%and%equipment%need%reconstruction.%Lack%of%sewerage%system%in%

over%70%%of%the%country’s%townships%poses%serious%threat%to%population’s%health%through%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%36 “Emomali Rakhmon: 58.5% of Tajikistan Population have access to safe water supply”, Aug 20, Statement done during High Level International Water Conference on Water Cooperation, Aug 20-21, 2013 http://news.tj/ru/node/167285. Source: ASIA Plus 37 DevInfo: http://www.devinfo.org/libraries/aspx/home.aspx. Source: United Nations, Institution Statistics Division, Development Indicators Unit Email [email protected] “MDGInfo 2012” 38 Action Against Hunger (UK), Mercy Corps funded by European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO) “National Nutrition and Water & Sanitation Survey, Tajikistan”, p. 2003


%

%%

%%

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declined%effectiveness%of%cleaning%wastewaters%in%functioning%systems%as%well%as%cases%of%

exacerbation% of% epidemiological% diseases% and% environmental% pollution% are% observed% as%

well.39%

Figure(17:!“Disaggregated!date!on!Access!to!Safe!Drinking!Water!Supply!in!Tajikistan!by!Cities,!Towns,!District!Centers!and!Rural!Villages”.((

%Source:(KMK((State(Housing(Operator(in(RT),(2012((graph(is(compiled(by(the(author)(

%%

Figure(18:(“Disaggregated!date!on!Access!to!Sanitation!Services!in!Tajikistan!by!Cities,!Towns,!District!Centers!and!Rural!Villages”.((

(Source:(KMK((State(Housing(Operator(in(RT),(2012((graph(is(compiled(by(the(author)(

The% variation% of% statistics,% its% validity% and% unification% of% definitions% and% indicators% for% data%

collection% (national% standards,% compliance% with% UN/WHO/UNICEF% Water,% Sanitation% and%

Hygiene% (WASH)% indicators% remains% to% be% the% challenge.% Introduction% a% sustainable% and%

reliable%system%for%data%collection%and%analysis%of%the%access%to%WS&S%services%in%Tajikistan%is%

required% and% urgent% issue% to% be% resolved.% This% will% help% to% have% a% clear% vision,% current%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%39 Government of Tajikistan. “Strategy for improving the Welfare of Population of the Republic of Tajikistan for 2013-2015” Section 4.4: Providing Population with Clean Water, Sanitation and Render Communal Services. NOTE: 64% of safe access to Water Supply and 32% of safe access to sanitation was calculated combining the statistical data presented for % of people have access to the services in Cities / Towns, District Centers and Rural Villages.

87.3%!61.5%!

43.4%!

12.7%!38.5%! 56.6%!

0%!

20%!

40%!

60%!

80%!

100%!

Urban!Ci[es! Towns!/!District!Centers! Rural!Villages!

Access! No!Access!

80.0%!

18.2%! 0.2%!

20.0%!

81.8%! 99.8%!

0%!

20%!

40%!

60%!

80%!

100%!

Urban!Ci[es! Towns!/!District!Centers! Rural!Villages!

Access! No!Access!


%%

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situation% analysis% and% facilitation% further% effective% planning.% Some% evident% issues% are% as%following:%

• The% Government% of% Tajikistan% (GoT)% applied% definition% of% access% to% safe% water% proper%connection% to% centralized% and% decentralized% piped% supply% of% water.% UN/%WHO/UNICEF%definition% of% improved%WS&S% include% such% characteristics% as% piped%water% into% dwelling,%plot,% or% yard;% public% tap/standpipe;% tube% well/borehole;% protected% dug% well;% protected%spring;%rainwater%collection.%As%for%safe%access%to%sanitation%the%GoT%applies%mainly%access%to%proper%sewerage.%UN/WHO/UNICEF%definition%of%improved%sanitation%covers:%flush%or%pourHflush%to%piped%sewer%system,%septic%tank,%pit%latrine,%ventilated%improved%pitHlatrine,%pit%latrine%with%slab,%composting%toilet.%

• The%data%collection%system%for%WS&S%(from%local%to%national%level%in%Tajikistan)%remains%to%be%fragmented,%e.g.,%the%data%collected%by%Ministry%of%Health%(MoH),%State%Control%Sanitary%Department,% MoLRWR40,% State% WS&S% operators% (Note:% none% of% them% have% nationHwide%coverage%of%service).%The%information%collected%is%not%shared%between%each%other%and%not%yet%coordinated%or%unified%at%the%National%level.%State%Statistics%Committee%does%not%collect%and%analyze%this%data%through%its%representative%offices%around%the%country.%

Figure(19:("Access!to!water!by!source,!by!number!of!the!population,!in!percentage"!

%Source:(Ministry(of(Health((MoH)(of(the(RT,(2013((graph(is(compiled(by(the(author)(

Water% borne% diseases% such% as% diarrhea% and% dysentery% continue% to% affect% negatively% the%economic% productivity% of% households.% Women% and% children% (mainly% girls)% are% traditionally%seen%as% responsible% for%water% fetching.%They%are% the%ones%who%are%most%heavily% affected%by%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%40 “As of Presidential Decree dated Nov 23, in the course of Water Sector Reform the MoLRWR has been abolished. Instead, the Agency for Land Reclamation attached to the Cabinet has been created and the Water Resource Division has been merged with the Ministry of Energy and Industry”. Source: Asia Plus

58.5%!

2.0%!

9.1%!0.7%!

4.3%!

20.1%!

2.0%!0.4%!

2.9%! Piped!water!supply!network!_!58.5%!

Wells!without!distribu[on!network!_!2.0%!

Springs!_!9.1%!

Dug!wells!_!0.7%!

Rivers!_!4.3%!

Irriga[on!canals,!ditches!_!20.1%!

Brought!by!trucks!&!carts!_!2.0%!

Rainwater!harves[ng!_!0.4%!

Hand!pump!_!2.9%!


%

%

%

%

%

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poor%access% to% these%services.%Poor%access% to%WS&S%services%bring%negative% impact%on%social%

mobility,% health% and% work% burden% of% other% groups% of% the% society% as% well.% The% water% born%

disease%cases%still%do%exist%not%only%due%to%limited%access%to%proper%WS&S%services%but%also%as%

the%result%of%low%hygiene%practices%amongst%population.%

Figure(20:(“The!incidence!of!selection!of!water!born!diseases!per!100,000!people,(1991[2012”(

Source:(State(Statistics(Committee(of(the(RT,(2013((graph(is(compiled(by(the(author)((

The%diagram%above%also% illustrates% the%nationHwide%outbreak%of% typhoid% in%Tajikistan%during%

1996%–%97.%The%main%reasons%of%that%epidemic%were:%

• Incomprehensive% and% shortHsighted% agroHsector% reform,% including% land% reform% and%

restructuring% of% sovietHmade% kolkhozes% and% sovkhozes% in% rural% areas.% % E.g.% when% the% large%

collective% farms%were%divided% into%smallHscale% farms,% the%WS&S% infrastructure% that% collective%

farm% owned%were% not% adequately% transferred% to% the% balance% of% other% relevant% legal% entities%

such% as%Tojik%Ob%Dehot% (TOD% H% Tajik%Rural%Waterworks% or%TojikHSelkhozHVodoprovodHStroy,%

the%name%of%the%agency%in%Soviet%Era),%local%authorities,%etc.%%

• The% huge% and,% in%most% of% the% cases,%well% operational%WS&S% infrastructure% even% during% Civil%

War% of% 1992% –% 1997% in% Tajikistan% lost% its% proper% owner% and% gradually% deteriorated% and%

plundered% right% after% the% signing% the% Peace% Agreement41%between% the% GoT% and% United% Tajik%

Opposition% (UTO).% 1997H1998%was% the% period% of% power% sharing% in% the% government% (70%%of%

post%to%proHgovernmental%representatives%and%30%%to%representatives%of%UTO).%It%was%the%time%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%41 United Nations, A/52/219 S/1997/510. “Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian and disaster relief assistance of the united nations, including special economic assistance: special economic assistance to individual countries or regions”: Letter dated 1 July 1997 from the Permanent Representative of the Russian Federation to the UN addressed to the Secretary-General” 2 July 1997 – “I have the honor to transmit herewith the texts of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan … signed in Moscow on 27 June 1997.”

35! 25! 35! 27! 29! 222!

501!

174! 122! 72! 54! 51! 49! 39! 29! 21! 17! 17! 15! 9! 6! 3!

767.6!

629!710.4! 669.9! 681.2! 625!

821.1!936.6!

1164!

1334!

1155!1044.2!1014.7! 1051!

1167!

960!859!

928.9! 905.7! 867! 842! 862!

0!

200!

400!

600!

800!

1000!

1200!

1400!

1600!

1991! ‘92! ‘93! ‘94! ‘95! ‘96! ‘97! ‘98! ‘99! 2000! ‘01! ‘02! ‘03! ‘04! ‘05! ‘06! ‘07! ‘08! ‘09! ‘10! ‘11! ‘12!

Typhoid!fever!and!paratyphoid!A,!B,!C! Acute!intes[nal!infec[ons!


%

%

%

%

%

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when%the%field%commanders%loyal%to%the%GoT%and%UTO%got%seats%in%the%executive,%legislative%and%

judicial%branches.%The%authority%to%manage%Housing%Enterprises%including%WS&S%services%was%

mostly%given%to%the%UTO%representatives.%Most%of%such%leaders%of%that%time%did%not%have%enough%

knowledge,%relevant%experience%or%adequate%skills%to%govern%such%enterprises.%Those%who%had%

the% required% qualification% and% competence% were% in% most% of% the% cases% dismissed% from% their%

posts.%Most%of%these%professionals%left%the%country%(brain%drain,%attraction%of%experienced%staff%

is% still% an% widespread% problems% in% Tajikistan).% Those% who% decided% to% stay% were% given% a%

secondary%/%advisory%roles%at%periphery,%mainly%without%any%decisionHmaking%power.%%

So%far,%the%GoT%has%failed%to%finance%and%attract%substantial%investment%to%the%WS&S%subHsector%

since%2000%when%joining%the%Millennium%Development%Goals%(MDGs)%Project.%Referring%to%the%

Needs%Assessment% facilitated%by%United%Nations%Development%Programme%(UNDP)% in%2003% H%

2005,%the%Government%of%Tajikistan%(GoT)%has%adopted%the%"Programme%on%the%improvement%

of%safe%drinking%water%supply%to%the%population%of%the%Republic%of%Tajikistan%for%2007H2020".%

Estimate% cost% of% the% programme% is% US$% 1% billion% (foreseen% sources% of% financing% are% as%

following:% 15%% from% national% budget,% 5%% from% local% budgets% and% 5%% of% the% contributions%

from%WS&S%industry%and%70%%from%donors,%international%and%local%investors).%Referring%to%the%

Budget% Analysis% done% in% 2008H2009,% only% 30%% of% the% financial% resources%were% allocated% in%

comparison%to%the%target%set%for%implementation%of%the%WS&S%Programme42.%

Table(2:(“Financial!allocations!for!the!period!of!2008–09!for!implementation!of!the!WS&S!Program!in!RT”!

! Totals! Centralized!capital!investments!

Local!budgets! Investments! WS&S!industry!

Actual!expense!out!of!planned!target!

30%! 47%! 11%! 3%! 72%!

Source:(Elaborated(based(on(materials(of(the(National(Scientific(Conference(on("Problems(of(Land(Reclamation(and(water(resources(in(the(Republic(of(Tajikistan",(April(27,(2010(

According% to% the% official% reports,% over% the% past% five% years% (2005% –% 2010)% about% 1.2% million%

people% have% been% provided%with%water% of% improved% quality% and%more% than% 600,000% people%

gained% access% to% safe% drinking% water.% In% order% to% solve% waterHrelated% problems,% dozens% of%

projects%are%being%implemented%totaling%to%more%than%US$500%million43%there%is%a%doubt%how%

many%of%these%rehabilitate%WS&S%facilities%are%still%operational%at%present.%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%42 Materials of the National Scientific Conference on "Problems of Land Reclamation and Water Resources in Tajikistan", April 27, 2010 43 GoT: “Speech of the President of the RT during the opening of the high-level International Conference on mid-term review of the International Decade “Water For Life” (2005-15)”, Dushanbe, 8 June, 2010


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At% the% same% time,% as% the% result% of% heavily% subsidized%WS&S% services% during% the% Soviet% Era,%water% conservation% and%willingness% to% pay,% and% establish% fullHcost% recovery% tariffs% have% not%been% institutionalized% yet.% A% significant% amount% of% the% country's% water% resources% is% lost%through% inefficient%water% use,% leakage% through% old% infrastructure% H%which% accounts% for% 50% –%60%44%of%losses%H%and%through%pollution.%

4.2$Governmental$Policies$and$Policy$Changes$in$the$WS&S$Sub<Sector$

The%main%national%legislative%norms%address%issues%related%to%improving%access%to%WS&S%are%as%following:%

Constitution(of(the(Republic(of(Tajikistan((6(November,(1994)( is%the%main%law%in%the%RT,%amended%as%the%result%of%referendum%on%June%22,%2003.'In'the'Article%13%it% is%mentioned%that%land,%bowels%of%the%earth,%water,%airspace,%animal%and%vegetable%kingdoms,%and%other%natural%resources%are%owned%by%the%state,%and%the%state%guarantees%their%effective%use%in%the%interests%of%the%people.%In%the%Constitution%it%is%specified%that%everyone%has%the%right%to%health%care%and%the%state%undertakes%measures%aimed%on%environment%sanitation%(Article%38).%The%main%law%of%the%republic%also%demands%the%protection%of%nature%and%it%is%duty%of%every%person%(Article%44).%'

Water(Code(of(the(Republic(of(Tajikistan((29(November,(2000)%was%amended%periodically%to%bring%the%law%into%compliance%of%new%realities%(resent%update%was%in%April,%2012).%%

Article%5:%Under%the%Constitution%of%the%RT%water%is%the%exclusive%property%of%the%state,%and%the%state%guarantees%its%effective%use%and%protection%in%the%interests%of%the%nation;%

Article%10:%The%GoT,%on%a%tender%basis%in%keeping%with%its%original%function,%may%assign%a%right%of%management%of%water%supply%projects%of%state%property%within%a%defined%(limited)%territory,%to% specialized% local% and% foreign% legal% persons% on% a% contract% basis% (concession% agreement)%taking%into%account%the%requirements%of%the%given%water%legislation%in%RT.%The%exceptions%for%the%making%the%concession%contracts%are%the%water%facilities%that%have%the%strategic%role%for%the%RT%(Article%5H1%of%the%Water%Code).%

Article% 30:%Water% bodies%will% be% given% for% use% firstly% to% satisfy% drinking% and% social% needs% of%population;%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%44 Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources of the Republic of Tajikistan, UNDP, Executive Committee of the International Fund of Saving Aral Sea “Water Sector Development Strategy in Tajikistan, 2007 - 2020”. Dushanbe, 2006


%

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Article%31:%General%water%use%in%RT%is%free%of%charge.%Special%water%use%in%RT%should%be%paid;%

Article% 43:% In% accordance%with% the% permission% for% special% use% of% water% bodies,% water% users%

have% the% following% right:% obtain%water% for% use;% require% special% authorized% state% agencies% to%

take% measures% on% prevention% from% exhaustion% and% contamination% of% the% water% fund% and%

providing%water%resources%in%definite%quantity%and%quality;%to%create%the%associations%of%water%

users;%

Article%44:%Water%use%will%be%stopped%partially%or%in%full%if%payment%for%use%of%water%resources%

was%not%made%according%to%the%Article%31%of%the%Code;%

Article% 45:% Water% users% obliged% to% rationally% use% water% bodies,% provide% economic% water%

spending,% rehabilitation% and% improvement% of% the% quality% of% water;% introduce% water% saving%

technologies% increasing% effectiveness% of%water% use;%make% timely% payments% for% use% of%water%

resources%and%water%delivery%services%to%water%users;%

Article%47:%The%water% supply%organization%will% carry%out% the%delivery%of%water% from%sources%

and% its% distribution% between% water% users% to% meet% the% needs% of% different% branches% of% the%

national%economy;%

Article% 48:% The% water% supply% organization% are% obliged% to% provide% water% to% water% users%

according%to%norms%and%at%fixed%terms;%to%monitor%the%quantity%and%quality%of%water%supplied%

to%its%consumers%in%accordance%with%agreement;%

Article% 57:% Part% 3% of% the% article% mentions,% “Centralized% and% nonHcentralized% water% supply%

sources%cannot%be%privatized”.%However,%the%same%article%(Part%4)%stipulates,%“centralized%and%

nonHcentralized%drinking%water%supply%systems%can%be%the%property%of%republican,%municipal%

or% legal%bodies”.%This% law%does%not%clarify%what%legal%bodies%(organizational%and%legal%forms)%

can%own%water%supply%systems;%

Article%59:%Drinking%water%set%for%sale,%individual,%social%and%collective%systems%of%cleaning%and%

also%materials,%reagents,% technological%processes%and%other%systems,%delivered%to%consumers,%

must%be%subject%to%certification.%

The% adoption% of% the% Law( of( the( Republic( of( Tajikistan( on( drinking( water( and( water(

supply((29(December,(2010)(took%several%years.%The%initial%work%has%started%in%2002%and%the%

draft% law%was%submitted% to% the%parliament% in%2003%where% it%did%not%pass%any%hearings%until%


%%

%%

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2010.%Many%in%the%government%and%in%the%parliament%were%sure%that%there%is%no%need%to%have%

an% extra% law% as% the% Water% Code% already% contains% necessary% provisions.% The% active%

consultations% started% only% in% 2009.% % It% was% done% in% a% quiet% participatory% way,% involving%

different% stakeholders% from% public% and% private% sectors.% % The% law% contains% substantial%

information% on% protection% of% consumers’% rights,% which% in% reality% is% lacking% proper%

enforcement.%

Article%21%paragraph%1:%The%owners%of%drinking%water%supply%systems%are%eligible%to:%%

• Demand%from%drinking%water%consumers%timely%payment%of%fees%for%the%factual;%

• Volume%of%water%delivered%under%a%bilateral%contract;%

• In% accordance%with% the% applicable% legislation%prosecute% a% claim% to% compensate% damages%

caused%by%individuals%that%result%in%pollution%(or)%depletion,%breakages%of%WS%sources.%

Article% 21% paragraph% 2:% %Water% supply% organizations% and% owners% of% drinking%water% supply%

systems,%who%directly%operate%them%are%obliged%to:%%

• Comply%with%technological%conditions%that%meet%the%normative%requirements%for%WS;%

• Ensure%that%standards%of%continuous%supply%of%potable%water%on%a%priority%basis% to%meet%

the%needs%of%the%population,%as%well%as%the%food%industry%and%medical%institutions;%%

• Use%equipment,%materials%and%chemicals%that%are%permitted%for%use%in%organizing%drinking%

water% supply,% provided% a% certificate% of% compliance% with% statutory% requirements% is%

presented;%

• Keep%records%of%used%drinking%water;%

• Avoid%use%of%drinking%water%for%production%needs%of%enterprises,%technological%processes%

not%requiring%supply%of%drinking%water,%unless%it%directly%affects%the%drinking%water%supply%

to%the%population;%%

• Organize%the%monitoring%of%drinking%water%quality%in%accordance%with%and%on%the%basis%of%

the% verified% laboratory% and% standardized%methods% and% inform% consumers% in% time% about%

the%deteriorating%quality%of%drinking%water;%

• Inform% local% executive% authorities% on% time,% assigned% state% agency% for% environmental%

protection,%state%agency%for%sanitary%and%epidemiological%surveillance%about%disasters%and%

other%emergencies%that%impact%the%state%of%water%sources%and%water%supply%systems,%and%

about%inconsistency%of%drinking%water%quality%with%established%health%standards%and%rules;%


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• Freely% allow% representatives% of% the% state% sanitary% and% epidemiological% surveillance% and%

assigned% state% agencies% for% use% and% protection% of% water% resources% and% environmental%

protection%to%examine%water%supply%facilities%and%installations;%

• Adhere% to% the% standards%of% economic%and%other%activities% set% for% the% sanitary%protection%

zones%and%sources%of%drinking%water%supply%systems;%

• Do%not%violate%the%rights%of%other%water%users%and%cause%harm%to%the%environment;%

• Provide%funds%for%the%repair%and%overhaul%of%water%supply%systems;%

• Ensure%the%protection%of%water%sources%from%pollution,%drying%and%depletion,%and%protect%

water%supply%systems%from%damage.%%

• The%owners%of%drinking%water%supply%systems,%who%transferred%the%management%rights%of%

these% systems% of%water% supply% to% other%water% supply% organizations,% are% responsible% for%

these%systems%in%accordance%with%the%laws%of%the%Republic%of%Tajikistan.%

Article%22,%paragraph%1:%Consumers%of%drinking%water%have%the%right%to:%

• Ensure%they%are%supplied%with%safe%drinking%water%in%accordance%with%standards%of%quality%

and%standards%of%water%consumption%from%centralized%and%nonHcentralized%WS%systems;%

• Demand%for%control%of%drinking%water%quality,%which%is%delivered%by%centralized%and%nonH

centralized%systems;%

• In% accordance% with% the% procedure% stipulated% by% the% legislation% of% the% RT,% in% a% timely%

manner,% to% receive% detailed% information% on% drinking% water% quality% and% possible%

disruptions%in%water%supply;%

• In%the%prescribed%order%to%initiate%conduction%of%sanitary%and%epidemiological,%public%and%

ecological%assessments,%with%consequent%submission%of%results%to%respective%government%

agencies;%

• To%demand%compensation%for%the%harm%caused%to%them%through%supply%of%drinking%water%

that%does%not%match%the%regulatory%requirements.%

Article%22,%paragraph%2:% Individuals%have%the%right%of%priority%supply%of%drinking%water% from%

centralized% and% nonHcentralized%water% supply% systems% in% accordance%with% the% standards% of%

quality%and%standards%of%water%consumption.%%

Article%22,%paragraph%3:%%Consumers%of%potable%water%must:%


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• Comply%with%sanitary%and%other%regulations%in%the%field%of%water%supply,%and%requirements%

established%by%this%law;%

• Prevent%pollution%and%depletion%of%water%sources,%as%well%as%damage%to%water%systems;%

• Rationally%and%efficiently%use%drinking%water%for%domestic%and%productive%purposes;%

• To%pay%on%time%for%services%of%water%supply%delivery%in%accordance%with%established%tariffs;%

• Inform% on% a% timely% basis% the% local% executive% authorities,% state% agencies% for% sanitary% and%

epidemiological% surveillance,% assigned% state% agencies% for% environmental% protection% and%

water%supply%organization%about%the%intentions%and%actions%of%individuals%and%entities%that%

may%lead%to%contamination,%and%(or)%the%pollution%of%water%sources;%

• Report%about%unsatisfactory%condition%of%given%systems%in%the%organization%of%WS.%

Law( of( the( Republic( of( Tajikistan( on( Water( Users( Associations( (WUA),% 2006 Law%

regulates% the%relationships%between%water%providers%(mainly%Vokhhozes%–% the% Irrigation%WS%

Utilities%of%the%MoLRWR%and%Collective%Farms%as%well%as%individual%farmers%who%have%smaller%

plots%of% irrigated%land.%Farmers%associate%into%the%WUA%to%plan%how%much%water%they%would%

need%for%the%production%of%their%harvest%and%in%accordance%with%these%plans%Vodkhozes%have%

to% supply% the%water% (based%on% supply% signed% contracts).%The%WUAs%are% the% legal% entity% that%

may%have%on%their%balance%not%only%irrigation%related%infrastructure,%but%also%to%do%the%O&M%of%

the% WS&S% facilities.% However,% in% reality,% the% WUAs% capacities% are% very% low% (generally% are%

facing%with%lack%of%qualified%staff%and%resources)%that%creates%a%huge%sustainability%risks.%

Main(Governmental(Strategies(relevant(to(WS&S:((

National(Development(Strategy(for(the(period(of(2007[15((approved(by(the(Resolution(

of( the( GoT,( 2006):( the% document% provides% an% overview% in% relation% to% the% longHterm%

development%and% the%directions%of%action%required% to%realize%projected%economic%reforms% in%

the%RT.%The%goal%of%these%reforms%is%to%guarantee%a%stable%high%rate%of%economic%growth%and%

poverty%reduction,%with%the%aim%of%achieving%the%MDGs.%The%W&S%described%under%the%Social%

Block%of%the%Strategy%(section%7.5,%p.%84).%The%basic%directions%in%the%Water%Sector%are:%%

• Reform%the%system%as%a%whole%by% improving% the%policy% in% the%sector%and%setting%up%new%

organizations%of%proprietors;%

• Creation% of% favorable% conditions% for% investments% in% the% sector,% and% for% attracting% the%

private%sector;%


%

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• Development%of%local%water%supply%systems%in%rural%settlements%(expected'results'by'2015'

that'80%'of'the'population'of'the'RT'will'have'secure'access'WS&S'and'housing'services).%%

Water( Sector( Strategy( for( the( period( of( 2007[20( (approved( by( the( Resolution( of( the(

GoT,( 2006):% the% document% addresses% problems% related% to% water% resources% integrated%

management,%water%utilization%with%respect%to%economic%development%and%poverty%reduction.%

Increasing%effectiveness%of%the%water%use%is%the%one%of%the%goals%of%the%strategy,%which%includes%

shortH,%midH,%&%longHterm%interventions.%The%main%strategic%objectives%are:%

• Satisfaction% water% users% and% waterHconsumers’% water% resource% needs% with% due%

consideration%of%interHstate%water%divisions;%

• Rehabilitation%of%the%existing%water%economy%infrastructure%and%its%productive%base;%

• Reaching%the%full%cost%recovery%for%the%water%supply%sector;%

• Reclamation%of%lands%suited%for%irrigation;%

• Integration%of%new,%economically%efficient%technologies;%

• Implementation%of%an%effective%waterHsaving%program;%

• Gradual%transfer%to%a%systematic%management%approach%with%regard%to%hydrographic%and%

one%administrative%units,%wide%establishment%of%Water%Users%Associations%(WUAs),%water%

demand%management,%differentiation%of%water%payment%and%its%WS%depending%on%context;%

• Implementation% of% the% restoration,% expansion% and% construction% of% new% water% supply,%

sewage,% and% waterHtreatment% facilities;% integration% of% updated% technical% devices% and%

technologies,%water%meters%and%quality%control.%%

• The%Section%6%specifies%that%the%WS&S%infrastructure%deteriorated%by%an%estimate%of%70%%

while%unaccounted%for%water%equals%to%50H60%.%The%main%problems%of%WS%mentioned%are:%%

o Poor%legal%framework;%

o Absence%of%water%meters%and%limited%ability%for%users%to%make%service%payments;%

o Absence% of% a% body% which% could% coordinate% technical% policy,% design,% rehabilitation,%

construction%and%operation%of%water%supply%and%sanitation%systems;%%

o Inconsistent%power%supply%and%high%depreciation%of%capital%assets,%as%well%as%a%deficit%

of%hydroHpower%equipment;%

o Low%public%awareness%about%proper%water%use%and%sanitation%practices.%

Program(on( improvement( of( provision( of( drinking(water( to( the( population( of( RT( for(

2008[2020( (approved( by( the( Resolution( of( the( GoT,( 2006):% the% document% is% aimed% at%


%

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improving% access% to% safe% drinking% water% supply% for% the% population% of% the% RT.% The% main%

components%of%the%program%are:%%

• Training% of% technical% and%managerial% personnel,% improve% culture% of%water% consumption,%

sanitary% and% hygienic% activities,% involvement% of% public% and% private% investments% in%

construction% and% rehabilitation% of% water% supply% facilities% (especially% in% remote%

mountainous%areas);%%

• Introduction% of% new% technologies% (water% purification,% automation% of% operation% systems,%

quality%control%and%water%inventory,%laboratory%for%water%quality%control.%

Concept( of( reforming( the( housing( services( in( the( RT( for( the( period( 2010[2025(

(approved( by( the( Resolution( of( the( GoT,( 2010):% the% document% is% aimed% at% creating%

economic,% legal%and%organizational%conditions%for%the%breakHeven%basis,% further%development%

and%reforming%the%housing%services%(WS,%sewerage,%heating,%housing,%etc.):%

• To%improve%the%efficiency,%reliability%of%functioning%lifeHsupport%systems%of%the%population;%

• To%improve%the%access%and%quality%of%services%provided%to%the%customers.%

There%are%many%other%relevant%National%Concepts%and%Programs%which%are%relevant%to%WS&S%

and% Water% Resource% Management% in% general,% e.g.:% Concept% paper% on% the% rational% use% and%

protection%of%water%resources%in%RT%(GoT,%Resolution%№551%of%1%December%2001);%State%Water%

Cadaster”%(GoT,%Resolution%№193%of%30%April,%2002);%Concept%paper%on%transition%of%Tajikistan%

to%sustainable%development% (GoT,%Resolution%№500%of%1%October,%2007);%State%Environment%

Program% of% RT% for% 2009H2019% (GoT,% Resolution% №123% of% 27% February,% 2009);% Order% of%

administrative%procedures%related%to%construction%activities%in%RT%(GoT,%Resolution%№282%of%6%

May% 2009);% Rules% and% regulations% on% connection% to% engineering% networks% and% provision% of%

communal%services%(GoT,%Resolution%№531%of%%1%October,%2009),%etc.%%

Legal(Normative(Acts(regulating(WS&S(issues:(

The(Instruction(“On(design,(registration(and(provision(of(permit(for(special(water(use”(

(approved(by(the(SCPE,(20(January,(2005,(agreed(with(the(Minister(of(Health((MoH),(and(

General(Directorate(of(Geology((GDG):%it%one%of%the%most%important%document%applying%the%

law% into%practice.% It% stipulates% the%order%of%design,% registration%and%permit% for% special%water%

use% (use% of% water% by% way% of% application% structures% and% engineering% means,% in% exceptional%

cases%other%water%objects%could%be%referred%to%the%“special%water%use”%if%they%make%impact%on%


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condition%of%water).%The% instruction%defines% the% list%of% required%documents% for% coordination%

and%obtaining% the%permit;%provide% the%guidelines%on%making% the%amendments%and%nullifying%

conditions% for%special%water%use;% the% instruction%provides%guidelines%on%consideration%of% the%

construction% (reconstruction)%projects% of%water% supply% objects% of%without% regard% to% form%of%

ownership.%The%permit%is%given%by%mainly%by:%

• State%Committee%on%Protection%of%Environment%(SCPE)%for%the%water%use%from%natural%all%

water%objects%(to%be%used%not%for%irrigation);%%

• MoLRWR% for% the% water% use% from% natural% water% sources% (including% underground% water%

source)%for%irrigation%purposes%within%defined%limits;%%

• Local%Authorities%for%underground%water%use%not%but%within%the%limits%of%not%more%than%50%

m³% per% day% of% water% extraction% from% the% source.% If% the% consumption% is% higher,% it% is%

considered%as%centralised%water%supply%and%the%permit%is%under%the%jurisdiction%of%SCPE.%%

Obtaining%the%Permit%for%Special%Water%Use%is%done%with:%State%Sanitary%Control%Service;%State%

Geology%Department%(issue%the%licencing%for%underground%water%but%the%Permit%for%the%Special%

Water%Use%is%still%should%be%issued%by%the%SCPE%or%local%authority%depending%on%the%capacity%of%

water%use);%other%state%agencies%responsible%for%control%over%thermal%waters;%with%owners%of%

WS&S%facilities;%with%veterinary%service;%etc.%%

In%addition% there%are%other% some% important%normative%acts% issued%by% the%GoT:%Construction%

Norms%and%Regulations%for%WS&S45;%Sanitary%Norms%and%Regulations%for%WS&S46%(SNR%–%also%

well% know% as% SanPiN,% attached% to% the% abbreviation% in% Russian% language% –% Санитарные%

правила%и%нормы%(transcription:%Sanitarniye%pravila%i%normi));%Order%for%encouraging%water%

users%performing%activities%on%rational%use%and%protection%of%water%(GoT.%Resolution%№349,%31%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%45 Ministry of Justice of the RT, April 25, 2006 № 199, Approved by the State Committee for Construction and Architecture of the RT, January 9, 2006 № 9. “Construction norms and rules of the Republic of Tajikistan МКС-ЧТ 11-01-2005 The composition and procedure development, coordination and approval of project documentation for the construction of facilities, buildings and structures”. 46 Approved by the resolution of the Ministry of Health of RT as of 28 February, 2007, №73-А. Registered with the Ministry of Justice of RT on 1 March, 2007, №245 “1) Sanitary Norms and regulations 2.1.4.004-07 Drinking water. Hygiene requirements for the quality of water from centralized drinking water supply systems. Quality control. 2) Sanitary norms and regulations 2.1.4.004-07 Zones of sanitary protection of water supply sources and water pipes for economic and drinking purposes”; Approved by the resolution of the Ministry of Health of RT as of 28 February, 2007, №73-А. Registered with the Ministry of Justice of RT on 1 March, 2007, №245 “Sanitary norms and regulations 2.1.4.004-07 Requirements for the quality of water from non-centralized water supply. Sanitary protection of sources”


%

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August,%2002),%Rules%and%regulations%for%use%of%water%objects%for%hydroHenergy%purposes%(GoT,%

Resolution%№954,%March,%2003);%etc.%

The% foundations,% key% elements% of% the% current% legal% framework%was% build% during% Soviet% Era.%

However%the%revisions%are%done,%the%laws%are%too%ambitious%(almost%excellent%in%theory,%up%to%

International%and%European%Standards)%and%generally%lacking%enforcement%(the%present%level%

of% capacities% –% both% operational% and% financial% H% of% stakeholders% to% observe% the% law.% The%

national%sanitation%standards%are%too%high%to%reach%and%costly%too.%E.g.%

• Receiving% the% special% permit% for% the% special% water% use% is% complicated% and% unclear%

(however%the%reform%is%going%on%to%introduce%single%window%shop%at%district%level).%%

• Water%Code%is%giving%the%priority%to%access%to%drinking%water%supply%however%in%practice%

priorities%of%the%government%are%given%to%agro%(water%for%irrigation)%and%energy%(water%for%

hydropower%generation)%sectors.%%

• The%new%law%on%drinking%water%that%was%adopted%in%2010%is%focused%on%safe%water%supply%

only%and%doesn't%cover%the%issue%of%sanitation.%The%law%stipulates%the%protection%of%water%

sources%but%doesn't%specify%the%responsibility%of%water%providers%for%the%water%discharge%

that%have%a%real%threat%for%the%environment%sanitation.%

• The% construction% norms% and% rules% (CNR% –% also% well% know% as% SNIP,% attached% to% the%

abbreviation% in% Russian% language% –% Строительные% нормы% и% правила% (transcription:%

stroitelniye% normi% i% pravila))% for% Water% Supply% and% Sewerage% facilities% as% well% as%

Sanitation%Standards%(Quality%of%Water,%Safety%of%Sanitation%Facilities)%have%been%revised%

too.% Very% few% specialists% are% aware% of% these% changes% (even%within% the% relevant% agencies%

who%should%observe%the%implementation%of%these%standards%in%practice).%Many%specialists%

in%the%field%still%apply%the%norms%and%standards%issued%in%USSR%times.%They%simply%do%not%

have% the%new%print%outs%of% revised%rules.%Therefore% it%brings% the% issues%of%clarity:% “What%

standards% to% follow?”% There% is% a% lack% of% access% to% these% regulations% in% the% field,% which%

hinders%their%implementation%at%the%local%level.%

A%midHterm%strategy%should%be%put%in%place,%defining%the%critical%minimum%standards%to%ensure%

the%safety%and%security%of% the%system%to%survive% in%current%condition%and%ensure%sustainable%

growth%in%the%future%to%reach%the%expected%level%of%public%goods%provisions.%


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4.3$Institutional$Framework$and$Governance$of$WS&S$Sub<Sector$Protection% and%use% of%water% resources% is% based%on% the% combination%of% basin,% territorial% and%administrativeHterritorial% principles% of% governance% and% is% performed% by% the% GoT,% local%authorities,% as% well% as% special% authorised% state% bodies% responsible% for% the% regulation% of%protection% and%use% of%water% resources.% Tajik% legislation%defines% four% state% structures,%which%have%direct%responsibility%for%regulation,%use%and%protection%of%water%resources47.%

Figure(21:(“Authorized!state!structures!responsible!for!regulating!use!and!protection!of!water!resources!(Updated!to!the!current!institutional!reform!measured!by!2013)”!

%Source:(Updated(based(on(Ziganshin,(Oxfam(GB,(“Water(Management(in(Tajikistan”,(2007;(Bukhoriev,(

Oxfam(GB(“WS&S:(Development(Trends(and(Recommendations”,(2010.(

The(Ministry(of(Energy(and(Water(Resources( (MoEWR):%As%of%Presidential%Decree%dated%Nov% 23,% 2013,% in% the% course% of%Water% Sector% Reform% the%Ministry% of% Land%Reclamation% and%Water% Resource% (MoLRWR)% has% been% abolished.% Instead,% the% Agency% for% Land% Reclamation%attached% to% the%Cabinet% and% the%Water%Resource%Division% (previously% part% of% the%MoLRWR)%has%been%attached%to%the%Ministry%of%Energy%and%Industry.%So%far,%the%Ministry%to%become%the%major% decision%maker,% state% regulatory% body% responsible% for% the% policy% development% in% the%field%of%water% resource%development.%The%Ministry% is%expected% to%continue% the%planning%and%implementation% of% the%main%Water% Sector% Development% Strategies% and% Programs% (probably%with%much%extensive%focus%on%water%for%hydropower%generation.%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%47 GoT, Resolution № 39 on “Division of responsibilities amongst specially assigned government bodies regulating water use”4 February, 2002

Government)of)the)Republic)of)Tajikistan)(Executive*Of-ice*of*the*President*of*RT)

MoEWR)Note:&The&Ministry&Became&the&Leader&in&Water&Sector&as&the&result&of&restructuring&in&Nov&2013.&Reform&of&the&

MOLRWR&&(Creation&of&Agency&for&Land&Reclamation&

attached&to&the&Cabinet)&and&merging&the&Water&Resource&Division&with&Ministry&of&Energy&and&Industry&

Major*Water*Resource*

Policy*Development*Actor*

(Regulatory*role);*

Control*over*rational*use*of*

water*resources;**

Formation,*use*and*

protection*of*water*

resources.

SCPE)!

State*control*for*protection*

and*rational*use*of*water*

resources;*

!Research*and**

examine*issues*related*to*

restoration*and*reproduction*

of*water*resources;*

!Development*and*

introduction*of*measures*

aimed*at*saving*properties*of*

water;*

!Determination*of*norms*for*

special*water*use.

GDG)!

Hydrogeological*research*of*

underground*water*

resources;*

!Boreholes*drilling;*

!State*control*over*

underground*waters.

General)Directorate)of)State)Supervision)for)Safety)in)Industry)and)Mining)(GDSSIM))

!State*control*over*use*of*

medical,*mineral,*thermal*

and*industrial*underground*

waters*

!Note:*This*State*Agency*is*

not*much*involved*in*the*

WS&S*SubPSector


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Basin( Authority:% yet% to% be% established% by% the% GoT% aiming% at% to% realize% the% plan% for% IWRM%

Policy% in%Practice% in% the%RT.%However% the% reform%was% intended% to% take%place%during%2002%–%

2007,%still%such%governance%is%done%based%on%administrative%divisions.%

Khojagii(Manziliyu(Komunali((KMK):%KMK%is%currently%the%largest%State%Unitary%Enterprise%

(state% commercial% selfHfinancing% organisation,% operator% of%WS&S% (sewerage)% facilities% in% 58%

district%centres%based%on%the%contract%agreement%with%local%authority%(hukumat).%In%addition%

KMK% provides% such% services% as:% solid%waste% collection% and% utilisation,% inventory% of% housing%

fund.% KMK% is% present% in% 58% district% centres.% In% 2012,% as% the% result% of% institutional% reform,%

TojikObDehot%(TOD)48%H%Tajik%Rural%Water%Works%–%the%largest%state%water%supply%operator%in%

rural%area%has%been%excluded% from%the%structure%of% the%MoLRWR%(which%was%abolish% in%Nov%

2013%too)%and%handed%over% to%other%State%Operator%of%Housing%Services%KMK.%Such%decision%

was% unwelcomed% by% the% senior%management% of% ToD.% Realization% of% this% order% is% still% going%

very%painfully%as%it%is%connected%with%loosing%the%power%and%sharing%resources.%

Agency( for( Land( Reclamation( under( the( GoT:% newly% established% agency% also% called% as%

“mirob% (water% provider)”,% responsible% for% O&M% of% irrigation% water% utilities% network%

(vodkhozes,% manly% where% irrigation% channels% network% exist% in% the% RT)% that% were% part% of%

MoLRWR.%

The( State( Committee( on( the( Protection( of( Environment( (SCPE):% The% Committee% is% a%

Central%Body%under%the%GoT%(similar%to%the%ministerial%level)%and%has%the%network%of%its%offices%

nationwide.% The% SCPE% is% involved% in% implementation% of% the% common% state% policy% on%

environment%protection,% forestry,%special%protected%areas,%hydrometeorology,%rational%use%of%

natural%resources,%and%enforces%state%control%on%environment%protection%and%use%of%natures49.%

The( General( Directorate( on( Geology( under( the( GoT( (GDG):%The%Directorate% is% a% central%

body% of% the% government,% responsible% for% implementation% of% state% policy% in% regard% to%water%

resource% management.% Its% jurisdiction% is% to% conduct% geological% research,% exploration% and%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%48 TOD was created in 1983 during the Soviet Union Era and was reporting directly to the Government of Tajikistan. In 1997, TOD became the part of MoLRWR and was within the Ministry until 2012 (until merging with KMK). TOD was responsible for the construction, operation and maintenance of water supply systems, which it has on its balance and for pasture watering. TOD is operating in Isfara, Istravshan, Matcho, B.Gafurov, Spitamen Districts (Sugd Region), Gissar, Rudaki and Varzob (Direct Rule Districts and Rasht Valley); in all districts of Khatlon Province except Khovaling, Shurabad, Muminabad. TOD does not have presence in Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast (GBAO). 49 GoT, Resolution № 189 on the “Regulations on the SCPE”. 24 April, 2008


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rational% use% and% reproduction% of% mineral% and% raw% resources,% provision% of% geological%

information%on%bowels%of%the%earth%on%the%territory%of%Tajikistan50;%

The(General(Directorate(of( State( Supervision( in( Industry(and(Mining( (GDSSIM)(under(

the(GoT:%The%Agency%is%a%special%authorized%central%body,%which%is%responsible%for%control%and%

oversight% over% compliance% with% industrial% safety% regulations,% circulation% of% explosives%

intended%for%civic%use,%and%control%over%geological%research%on%bowels%of%the%country51.%

Until% now,% there% is% a% lack% of% consensus% between% SCPE% and% GDG% on% issuing% the% permits% for%

Special% Water% Use.% e.g.;% the% boreholes% are% researched% drilled% by% GDG% but% they% can% not% be%

handed%over% or%used%until% the% SCPE%will% issue% such%permit.% Similar% to% the%GDSSIM%have% the%

responsibility%to%monitor%the%use%of%medical,%mineral,%thermal%and%industrial%underground.%All%

this%creates%complex%relationship%between%government%structures,%bureaucracy%and%room%for%

corruption% that% negatively% affects% the% final% user% of% services.% However,% looking% on% this% issue%

from%the%opposite%side,%taking%into%account%the%issue%of%environment%protection%(rational%and%

sustainable%use%of%water%resources),%safety%and%security%(access%and%quality%of%water)% it%may%

be%logical%still%keep%such%separation%of%power%and%control.%%Inclusion%of%the%MoH%to%this%list%of%

directly% accountable% government% organizations% for% regulation,% use% and% protection% of% water%

resources%would% be% an% advantage.% The% potential% role% for% the%MoH% is% provision% of% expertise%

regarding%water%quality%control%(water%resource%conservation%and%environmental%sanitation).%

In%addition%to%the%above%mentioned%government%bodies,%there%are%other%institutions%(some%are%

at%greater%or%lower%scale)%that%address%issues%related%to%the%ensuring%access%and%provision%of%

WS&S%services%to%the%population:%%

The(Ministry(of(Economic(Development(and(Trade(of(the(RT((MoEDT)%is%responsible%for%

economic%development%policies%and%planning%including%rational%use%of%natural%resources.%The%

Ministry%also%coordinates%the%policy%development%activities%of%the%Water%Sector;%%

Anti[Monopoly(Service(under(the(GoT((AMS)%develops%and%approves%guidelines%for%pricing%

of% goods% and% services% (tariffs)% to% guarantee% completion%on% the%market% and%also% support% the%

proHpoor% government% policy.% The%WS&S% operators% as% service% providers% have% to% agree% their%

tariffs%that%they%would%like%to%charge%for%the%service.%Most%of%the%case%AMA%applies%the%policy%to%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%50 GoT, Resolution № 617 on the “Regulations of the GDG”. 28 December 2006 51 GoT, Resolution №618 on the “Regulations on the GDSSIM”. 28 Dec 2006


%%

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protect% the% poor% population% of% Tajikistan.% Consequently,% the% tariffs% remain% to% be% too% low% to%cover%the%minimal%operation%and%maintenance%(O&M)%costs%occurred%by%the%WS&S%providers.%At%the%same%time%the%GoT%does%not%provide%any%subsidy%to%reimburse%the%costs%occurred%by%the%operators.%Such%situation%creates%a%dilemma%to%the%service%providers%H%how%to%reach%the%break%even%point,%keep%the%WS&S%facilities%working,%retaining%skilled%professional%staff,%and%provide%good%quality%and%sustainable%access%to%WS&S%services;!!

The(Ministry(of(Health((MoH)(of(the(RT%and%its%

• Sanitary( and( Epidemiological( Services( (SES),% which% ensures% safe% sanitary% and%epidemiological% environment% control% so% the%population%of% the% country%have% safe% and%quality%access%to%WS&S%services;%

• National(Healthy(Life(Style(Center((HLSC),%which%is%responsible%for%preventing%the%spread%of%diseases% (including% waterHborne% diseases)% through% improvement% of% the% awareness% of% the%population% and% provision% of% trainings% on% public% health% issues% for% medical% staff.% Note:% it% is%required% that% the% HLSC% to% be% consulted% when% drafting% the% information,% education% and%communication%(IEC)%materials,%publications%&%training%materials%on%WS&S;%

The(Ministry( of( Education( of( the(RT( (MoE)%provides%a%special%approval% for% IEC%materials%(IEC)% publications% as% well% as% design% of% training% modules% to% be% used% in% school,% college% and%university%curriculum.%The%work%in%this%field%needs%to%be%coordinated%with%MoH%(HLSC);%

The(State(Committee(on(Investments(and(State(Property(Management(of(the(RT((SCI)%is%the% government% body,% which% implements% the% state% policy% to% create% a% more% favorable%environment%for%investments%attraction,%more%efficiently%manage%the%state%property%including%privatization%(the%same%is%applied%to%the%public%infrastructure);%

The( State( Committee( on( Land( Management( and( Geodesy( of( the( RT( (SCLM)% role% is%critically%important%when%selection%of%land%sites%suitable%for%construction%of%WS&S%facilities%is%done.%The%SCLM%is% filing%the% land%management%cases%with%client,% issuing%the%land%certificates%based%on%the%decision%of%the%district%chairman,%and%maintains%the%state%land%cadaster;%

Agency! on! Construction! and! Architecture! (ACA)! under! the! GoT% develops% and% approves%construction%norms%and%regulations,%which%include%issues%related%to%the%design,%review,%expert%appraisal,%and%approval%of%the%project%documentation%for%the%construction%and%commissioning;%the% agency% conducts% expert% appraisal,% reviews% and% approves% project% designs,% issues%


%%

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construction% permits,% performs% control% and% oversight% over% construction% activities,% and%participates% in% approval% of% the% commissioning% of% WS&S% infrastructure% and% facilities.% Note:%Currently,%the%Chief%Architect%at%district,%city,%town%levels%is%playing%a%key%role%(one%stop%shop)%to%get%all%required%permits%to%start%construction%of%WS&S%facility;%

Figure(22:("Key!Organisations!involved!in!Water!Resource!Management!in!Tajikistan,!updated!(2013)”((

(Source:(Ziganshin,(2007;(Bukhoriev,(2010.(Updated(by(the(author(

Government)of)the)Republic)of)Tajikistan)(Executive*Of-ice*of*the*President*of*RT)

Other)governmental)ministries)and)agencies)!• Agency)for)Land)Reclamation:)O&M*of*Irrigation*Water*for*AgroSector*through*its*Vodkhozes*(Departments*at*province*and*district*levels);)

• MoHBSESBHLSC:*control*on*water*quality*and*prevention*of*water*borne*diseases;*

• SCPE:*control*over*use*and*protection*of*water*resources;*

• GDG:*hydrological*research,*underground*water*resource*mapping,*boreholes*licensing;*

• GDSSIM:*control*over*the*use*of*therapeutic,*mineral,*thermal*and*fresh*waters;*

• ACA:*licensing*related*to*construction*and*architecture;**

• Basin&Authority"(to"be"established)"to"realise"the"IWRM"Policy"in"Practice"

• MEDT:*economic*development*policy;)

• AMS:)WS&S*tariffs*regulations;*• MoF*–*planned*budget*-inancing*and*resources*distribution;**

• TAJIKSTANDARD:)standardisation,*certi-ication,*metrology*of*goods*and*trade*inspection;*

• SCI:*Investments*attraction,*managing*and*privatization*of*public*property*(WS&S);*

• SCLM:*land*management*(WS&S*project*site);*

• ACA:*One*stop*shop*to*get*all*required*permits*for*WS&S*facility*construction;*)

• MoE:*approval*of*Information*Education*Communication*(IEC)*materials*for*use*in*education*facilities,*for*general*public;*

• Consumers)Union)(has)the)NGO)status):)protection*of*consumers*rights;*

• “Barki)Tojik”:*connection*and*supply*of*electricity*to*WS&S*facilities.

MoEWR)!• NOTE:*Ministry*of*Energy*and*Water*Resources*is*a*new*Ministry*established*in*November*2013*after*reform*of*the*MoLRWR*and*Ministry*of*Energy*and*Industry;*

• According*to*its*new*mandate*it*deals*with*Policy*Development*on*water*resource*management*and*becomes*the*Leader*in*Water*Sector;*

• The*probability*is*that*much*focus*will*be*given*to*Water*for*Hydroelectric*needs*of*the*country*taking*into*account*GoT*priorities*to*build*Roghun*Hydro*Power*Plant*and*Development*of*Hydro*Energy*Sector*in*general*to*ful-il*the*country*demand*in*electricity*and*become*the*leading*supplier*of*hydro*energy*in*the*CA*Region.*!

KMK)!• The*largest*state*operator*of*the*WS&S*services;*

• In*Soviet*Era*[*the*Ministry*of*Housing;*

• Currently*the*management*of*KMK*intended*to*return*the*status*of*policy*making*body,*including*on*W&S*issues.

Local)authorities)!• President’s*authorised*bodies*at:**

• Province*(regional),*

• Municipal*(city)*• District*level;*• Jamoats*(sub[district*level)

City)WS)B)Vodokanals)attached)to)municipal)

level:)!• Urban*WS*in*towns:**

• Dushanbe,*• Khujand,**• Chkalovsk,*Kayrakkum,*Spitamen,**

• Fayzabad,**• Sarband,**• Jilikul,**• Nurek,**• Rogun*

• O&M*of*the*main*water*pipelines*only.**

• Intra[WS&S*network*is*maintained*partially*by*KMK*/*Homeowners*

!GJKP)B)

KMK&Branches&at&province&and&district&level)!

• Provision*of*housing*services*WS&S,**

• Waste*disposal,*• Landscaping,**• Inventory*of*housing*fund.*

• Construction,*O&M*nation[wide,*since*2012*the*mandate*was*expanded*to*provide*the*services*to*rural*areas*(after*merging*with*TOD).

!Jamoat)(SubBDistrict)/)Village)(Rural)Community))level)!

• WS*provision*by*state*operators,*such*as*KMK*(after*TOD*was*merging);*• Jamoats,*civil*society*organisations*(NGO,*CBO,*charity*status)*that*own*WS*systems;*• Mainly,*such*WS*systems*were*built*with*support*of*INGOs;*• More*rarely*with*support*of*local*businessmen;*• Private*operators*(businessmen*who*privatized*/*build*WS*systems);*• Entrepreneurs*who*sell*water*by*bringing*it*on*the*trucks*to*the*remote*rural*communities;*• Centralized*sewerage*doesn't*exist*in*rural*areas.*Pit*latrines*are*widely*spread.


%%

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Agency! of! standardization,! metrology,! certification! and! trade! inspection!

(TAJIKSTANDARD)%is%responsible%for%organization%and%implementation%of%activities%related%to%

certification% of% products,% provision% of% the% state% control% and% oversight% on% standards% and%

technical%regulations%compliance,%measurement%assurance,%and%enforcement%of%the%obligatory%

certification% in% RT% in% order% to% ensure% safety% of% life,% health% and% property% of% the% population,%

protection% of% environment,% compliance%with% trade% regulations,% competitiveness% of% products,%

uniformed%methods%of%control%and%labeling,%protection%of%consumers’%rights,%and%provision%of%

state% metrology% control% for% measurement% tools,% etc.% Note:% regarding% the% protection% of%

consumers’%rights%there%is%a%correlation%with%the%mandate%of%the%NGO%Consumers(Union(that%

has%its%main%mandate%of%consumers’%rights%protection.%%%

“Barki(Tojik”((State(owned(energy(supply(company)%provides%technical%requirements%for%

project% documentation% design,% connects% the% WS&S% facilities% to% electric% lines,% and% provides%

regular%electric%supply%for%WS&S%facilities;%

Local(State(Executive(Bodies((led(by(chairmen(of(regions,(municipalities(and(districts)%

are%the%main%stakeholders%in%provision%of%WS&S%services.%Local%authorities%have%the%following%

responsibilities52%to:%establish%and% liquidate%enterprises% for%WS&S%service%provision;%manage%

the%WS&S%facilities%under%the%State%ownership;%ensure%control%over%the%use%of%water%resources,%

construction% and% reconstruction% of% water% objects% under% the% state% ownership;% regulate% any%

other% relationships% on% the% use% of% water% resources% and% ensure% implementation% of% the% legal%

framework%of%the%RT%on%WS&S.%

Local( self[government( bodies( at( village( (rural( community)( level( and( settlements(

(jamoats( –( sub[district( level)% are% also% have% legal% mandate% for% the% following% activities% in%

managing% WS&S% services 53 :% maintenance% and% improvement% of% water% supply% sources;%

provision%of%control%over%sanitary%conditions%of%water%supply%sources;%they%also%can%hold%the%

ownership%of%the%WS&S%facilities%if%such%were%handed%over%on%their%balance%with%the%law%and%

regulations%of%the%RT.%%

Below% is% the% table% analyzing% the%major% steps% for% construction% of% new% and% reconstruction% of%

existing%WS&S%facilities%in%Tajikistan.%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%52 GoT, Resolution №28. Constitutional law of RT on “Local Bodies of State Power”. 17 May, 2004 53 GoT, Resolution№549. The Law on “Self-government bodies in villages and settlements”. 5Aug, 2009


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Table(3:(“The!sequence!of!gaining!permits!and!procedures!with!the!construction!of!WS&S!facilities!in!Tajikistan.!The!order!is!approved!based!on!the!Resolution!of!the!GoT,!№282.!6!May,!2009”.((

PROCEDURES( STAKEHOLDERS(INVOLVED( NOTES(

The!selection!and!allocation!of!plot!of!land!for!construction!of!WS&S!facility!

Chairman% of% district% /% city,%Commission,% State% land%committee%

Selection% and% allocation%processes% is% regulated% by% the%land%management%legislation%

Obtaining!the!Architecture!and!Planning! Appraisal! and!Technical!Specification!

Chief% Architect% of% the% district% /%city% in% collaboration% with% other%relevant%supervising%bodies%

The% documentation% can% be%obtained% based% on% “one% stop%shop%–%single%window”%principle%

Project!Design!Development!! Project%Design%Organization%that%has%all%relevant%licenses%

Project%Design% is%done%based%on%contract% with% Project% Design%Organization%%

Coordination! and! Approval! of!the!Project!Design!

Chief% Architect% of% the% district% /%city% in% collaboration% with% other%relevant%supervising%bodies%

Project%Design%Documentation%is%approval% is% facilitated% by% the%Chief%Architect%%

Expertise!of!the!Project!Design! Department% of% External% Expert%Evaluation%of%ACA%

Expertise%should%be%done%within%20%working%days% (depending%on%the%complexity%of%the%project)%

Obtaining! the! Permit! for!Construction!

Chief% Architect% of% the% City% /%District%

The% permit% should% be% obtained%within%5%working%days%

Construction!Process!! Bidding% and% contracting% the%constriction% company,% oversight%of%the%construction%control%

Terms%and%Conditions%should%be%defined%based%on%the%contractual%agreements%

Preparation!of!the!constructed!project! for! acceptance!procedure!

Done% by% the% State% Acceptance%Commission% represented% by%relevant%supervising%agencies%

State%Acceptance%Commission% is%formed%within% 10%working% days%by%the%Principal%Client%

Acceptance!of!the!WS&S!facility!for!further!operation!

State% Acceptance% Commission,%Principle% Client,% Project%Designer,% Contracted% ConstHruction%Company%

State% Acceptance% Commission%should% be% created% by% the%Principle%Client%

Property!Registration!! Relevant%Registry%Body% Certificate% of% ownership% is%issued%

Obtaining! of! the! Technical!Passport!of!the!WS&S!facility!

Bureau%of%Technical%Inventory% Technical%Passport%is%issued%

Source:(Bukhoriev,(2010(

4.4$Capacities$of$the$WS&S$Regulators$and$Operators$in$Tajikistan$$

Capacities% of% the% WS&S% operators% as% well% as% regulators% leave% much% to% be% desired.% Water%providers%fail%to%perform%effectively.%The%most%evident%are%as%following:%%

Deteriorated(WS&S( facilities( infrastructure:%There%are%722%water%supply%systems,%103%of%which% are% owned% by%municipalities% and% 619% by% state% authority% enterprises.% 63.3%% of% these%water% supply% systems%do%not%meet% sanitary% requirements.%Almost% a%quarter% (21.1%)%do%not%


%%

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!74!

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have% adequate% water% treatment,% 34.2%% are% in% violation% of% sanitary% protection% zones% and%

31.4%%lack%facilities%for%disinfection.%A%significant%amount%of%the%country's%water%resources%is%

lost%through%inefficient%water%use,%leakage%through%old%infrastructure%H%which%accounts%for%50%

–%60%%of% losses% H% and% through%pollution.54%Majority%of% the%water% facilities%were%build%during%

1960% –% 70s.% The% life% cycle% of% the% WSSs% are% expired% during% 2000% H% 2010.% Deterioration% of%

pumping%stations%and%water%supply%network%estimated%up%to%80%55.%%

Lacking(professional(staff((responsible(for(management,(O&M):%Before%TOD%was%merged%

with%KMK% in% 2012,% there%was% 70%% recruitment% gap% in% professional% human% resources% (JICA,%

2011).%When%there% is%no%operator%available% in%rural%areas,%GoT%assigns% Jamoats%(subHdistrict%

level%organ%of%state%power)%to%accept%on%their%balance%the%WS&S%facilities.%However,% Jamoats%

do%not%have%any%capacity%to%manage%it.%They%do%not%have%a%special%department%or%even%do%not%

have%a%single%member%of%staff%who%has%adequate%knowledge%for%O&M%of%WS&S%infrastructure.%

In%most%of%the%cases,%professional%level%of%staff%responsible%for%management,%O&M%of%the%water%

facilities%needs%to%be%upgraded%amongst%all%water%providers%to%ensure%effectiveness.%

Out(of(date( and(usually(out( of( order( specialised( equipment,( vehicles,( and(machinery:%

according%to%the%assessment%of%the%WS&S%operators%done%in%2011%(both%TOD%and%KMK)%up%to%

93%% of% whole%machinery,% specialised% vehicles% are% heavily% deteriorated.% At% least% 36%% of% all%

machinery%and%specialized%equipment%on%the%balance%of% these%entities%are%out%of%order%(JICA%

2011).%

Limited( financing:% There% is% no% allocation%of% resources% in% the%budgets% of% Jamoats% to% ensure%

O&M%of% the%WS&S% facilities.%Business%performance,%according% to% the% finance%management%of%

KMK% is% gradually% improving% during% last% five% years% but% it% is% just% the% first% fragile% steps% of%

recovery.%TOD,%before%merging%with%KMK%was%heavily%underfinanced,%lacking%at%least%75%%of%

minimum%required%financial%resources%to%cover%its%costs%(JICA,%2011).%

According% to% the% water% provider% capacities56 %assessment% report% issued% in% March% 2011,%

capacities%of%surveyed%organisations%(including%the%greatest%operators%in%Tajikistan:%KMK%and%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%54 TajWSS “Republic of Tajikistan: Access to water supply and sanitation services is hampered by poor management and lack of resources”, September 2011 55 JICA. “Capacities of Water Providers in Tajikistan: Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations”. Dev-Net-Consult, March 2011 56 Capacity Assessment areas were as following: 1. Vision Mission, Values, Strategy; 2. Legal Status; 3. Organogram and Structures; 4. Human Resources; 5. Infrastructure & Technologies; 6. Admin & Financial


%

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TOD).% According% to% the% assessment% results% (based% on% sampling% done% for% this% research):% At%

local% (district)% level:% KMK% capacity% was% equal% to% 55.5%% out% of% 100%% (the% best).% TOD%

operational% capacity%was% consisted%of%33.5%%out%of%100%.%At%national% level:%KMK%has%much%

stronger%capacity%(76%%out%of%100%)%in%comparison%with%TOD%(49%%out%of%100%).%

%

Table(4:(“Capacity!Rating!of!KMK!at!National!Level.!Total!score!is!34!out!of!45!points!(ideal!rating).!34*100/45=75.6%!out!of!minimum!operational!capacity”!

No! Capacity!Assessment!Areas! Score!

!

1! VMVs,!Strategy! 3!2! Legal!Status! 5!3! Organogram! 5!4! Human!Resources! 4!5! Infrastructure!&!Technologies! 3!6! Admin!&!Financial!Management! 4!7! WS&S!Construction!Rehabilitation! 3!8! Dealing!with!Contractors! 3!9! Budget!allocation! 4!

Source:(JICA,(March(2011.(“Capacities!of!Water!Providers!in!Tajikistan:!Findings,!Conclusions!and!Recommendations”.(Dushanbe,(Tajikistan.((((

%Table(5:(“Capacity!Rating!of!TOD!at!National!Level.!Total!score!is!15!out!of!45!points!(ideal!rating).!

22*100/45=48.8%!out!of!minimum!operational!capacity”(

No! Capacity!Assessment!Areas! Score!

!

1! VMVs,!Strategy! 3!2! Legal!Status! 5!3! Organogram! 2!4! Human!Resources! 2!5! Infrastructure!&!Technologies! 2!6! Admin!&!Financial!Management! 2!7! WS&S!Construction!Rehabilitation! 2!8! Dealing!with!Contractors! 2!9! Budget!allocation! 2!

Source:(JICA,(2011( (

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%Management; 7. WS&S Construction & Rehabilitation works; 8. Working experience with local contractors; 9. Budget allocations for sustaining water facilities.

0

1

2

3

4

5VMVs, Strategy

Legal Status

Organogramme

Human Resources

Infrastructure & TechnologiesAdmin & Financial Management

WS&S Construction &Rehabilitation

Contractors

Budget allocation

0

1

2

3

4

5VMVs, Strategy

Legal Status

Organogramme

Human Resources

Infrastructure & TechnologiesAdmin & Financial Management

WS&S Construction &Rehabilitation

Contractors

Budget allocation


%

%

%

%

%

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4.5$Stakeholders$Roles$and$Power$Analysis$in$the$WS&S$Sub;sector$of$Tajikistan$

Organization* General*Role* Resources* Interests*/*Values*/*Power*

Government*Ministries,*Agencies*and*Departments*

MoEWR* • There%MoEWR%is%a%newly%established%body%(Nov%

2013)%after%abolishing%the%MoLRWR%and%merging%

with%former%Ministry%of%Energy%and%Industry;*• The%expected%mandate%will%be%policyOmaking,%

regulation%and%coordination%of%all%water%resources%in%

Tajikistan.*

• Currently%present%

at%national%and%

regional%and%

district%levels;*• Self%sufficient.*

• New%Ministry%will%play%a%key%leading%role%in%the%

Water%Sector%Development;*• Probability%is%that%the%focus%will%be%much%more%

on%Hydropower%generation%(political%will%of%the%

GoT%to%develop%%hydropower%potential%become%

leading%supplier%of%energy%in%CA*

Basin*Authority* • Not%yet%established,%however%there%are%such%plans%The%

GoT%aiming%at%to%realize%the%plan%for%IWRM%Policy%in%

Practice%in%the%RT.%

• O* • If%established%it%will%become%important%agency%

for%the%IWRM%policy%in%practice.%It%will%play%

important%regulatory%role.%

Agency*for*Land*Reclamation*under*the*GoT*

• Newly%established%agency%also%called%as%“mirob%

(water%provider)”%with%the%responsibility%for%O&M%of%

irrigation%water%utilities%network%(vodkhozes,%manly%

where%irrigation%channels%network%exist%in%the%RT)%

that%were%part%of%MoLRWR.%

• Currently%present%

in%24%districts*• Heavily%indebted.%

• Dealing%with%irrigated%water%only,%still%there%is%

much%stake%with%potable%water%in%rural%areas%

(many%boreholes%are%shared)*• Operator%mandate%with%almost%no%policy%

development%/%decision%making%power.*

KMK*(merged*with*TOD)*

• KMK%was%established%in%2001%based%on%the%former%

Ministry%of%Housing%Services.%In%2012,%the%agency%

became%responsible%for%provision%of%WS&S,%waste%

disposal%and%landscaping%at%city/town,%district%and%

village%levels.%Responsibilities,%e.g.:%planning,%

implementation%construction%/%rehabilitation,%new;%

investments%and%profit%margins%for%WS&S;%Dependent%

on%AMA%for%WS&S%tariff%adjustments.%In%May%2012.%

ToD%was%responsible%for%provision%of%access%to%

drinking%water%supply%in%rural%areas%of%Tajikistan%

(had%presence%in%partial%presence%in%29%districts%out%of%

58).%

• Present%in%15%cities%

and%towns%and%in%

40%district%centers%

with%32%affiliated%

units.%In%2011,%it%

has%been%appointed%

as%WS&S%SubO

Sector%Regulator%

however%remaining%

to%be%the%largest%

operator%of%the%

WS&S%services%in%

RT.%

• The%possible%ways%the%GoT%to%take%reform%

forward%are:%a)%to%leave%the%water%sector%policy%

with%MoEWR,%Basin%Authority%and%KMK%will%

continue%to%be%the%largest%State%Operator%on%

WS&S%services;%b)%KMK%becomes%regulator%of%

the%WS&S%subsector%(+housing)%and%play%policy%

development%role.%Infrastructure%will%be%

handed%over%based%on%longOterm%concession%

agreements%with%newly%established%state%and%

nonOstate%operators%(both%publicOprivate).%

• Policy%advocacy%work%in%the%field%of%sanitation%

is%required,%especially%in%rural%areas%where%

access%is%generally%lacking.%


%%

!77!

!! !



SCPE* • Responsible%for%the%state%control%over%water%resources%use%and%nature%protection%and%environment%conservation;%

• Legal%mandate%for%protection;%

• NationOwide%presence%however%the%capacity%to%control%the%water%resource%conservation%and%nature%protection%is%doubted%

• Generally%supervise%the%procedures%for%issuance%of%the%permits%for%the%special%water%use;%

• Recognition%of%the%SCPE%role%and%importance%is%generally%lacking%amongst%stakeholders;%

• Policy%advocacy%work%is%required%to%ensure%more%immediate%recognition;%

• SCPE%should%also%build%the%awareness%amongst%stakeholders%on%pollution%impact;%

• Clearer%roles%on%issuing%the%permits%with%GDG%is%required%(e.g.,%GDG%is%responsible%for%issuing%the%license%for%the%boreholes%that%they%drill%and%SCPE%is%ensure%independent%state%control%from%their%side%by%issuing%the%permit%for%the%special%water%use.%

• Perhaps%SCPE%or%GDG%could%to%cover%for%the%GDSSIM%regarding%the%issue%of%control%over%underground%water%used%for%medical,%mineral,%thermal%and%industrial%water.%

GDG* • Responsible%for%hydrogeological%research%and%analysis,%protection%of%underground%waters.%


• The%presence%is%mainly%at%national%/%province%levels.%

• Detect%pollution%more%gradually;%may%have%only%minor%interest%here,%as%compared%to%mining.%

GDSSIM* • Responsible%for%control%over%the%rational%use%of%medical,%mineral,%thermal%and%industrial%underground%water,%and%also%the%therapeutic%mud.%


• The%presence%is%mainly%at%national%/%province%levels.%

• Depending%on%the%case,%crossing%of%interests,%overlapping%of%roles%between%SCPE/GDG%could%happen,%policy%decision%are%required%to%make%their%roles%clearer;%

• Agency%mandate%seems%is%more%relevant%to%ensure%safety%standards%in%construction%and%management%of%the%WS&S%facilities.%


%

%

%

%

%

!78!

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Department*of*Architecture*&*Construction*of*the*President*Apparatus*(President’s*Administration)*

• Appraises%president%of%developments,%can%undertake%

special%projects%directly%on%behalf%of%president%in%the%

field%of%general%plan%of%construction%of%cities,%towns,%

district%centers.%

• Access%to%the%

President;%

• Qualified%staff:%

architects,%

construction%

engineers%who%have%

expertise%&%

qualification%(in%

case%of%WS&S)%

• The%department%have%high%level%of%power%/%

decision%making;%

• Monitoring%strategic%sectors,%identification%of%

successful%initiatives%(infrastructure%

development,%construction,%general%cities,%town,%

etc.%planning);%

• Often%such%structures%are%like%small%parallel%

ministries%(still%it%is%an%advantage%to%have%the%

business%networking%with%them%as%they%

potentially%may%have%power%to%ensure%decisions%

and%timely%progress).%

MoH*(SES,*HLSC)*

• SES:%Ensures%sanitary%and%epidemiological%wellObeing%

of%the%population%securing%the%right%of%the%citizens%to%

favorable%environment,%potable%water,%water%quality%

checks%/%tests%used%for%centralized%and%decentralized%

water%supply%in%particular;%

• HLSC:%responsible%for%prevention%of%disease%spread%

(including%water%born)%through%public%awareness%

raising%activities%and%medical%staff%training%provision%

on%public%health%issues;%

• is%responsible%for%production%of%IEC%and%materials,%

provision%of%training%on%HLS.%

• NationOwide%

representation;%

• Availability%of%staff,%

however%the%

capacities%are%

outdated%(including%

equipment)%

• HLSC:%Represented%

at%regional%and%

zonal%level,%but%not%

at%district.%

• Ensuring%safety,%value%health%impacts%over%

economic%or%livelihood%impacts%of%WS&S;%

• May%need%to%guard%against%extreme%safety%

regulation%where%it%would%close%down%

community%initiatives%(efficient%water%use,%

sanitation%and%hygiene%promotion)%or%

possibility%of%mixed%management%(minimum%

and%desired%standards%and%models%application).%

ACA* • Provision%of%construction%permits,%verification%of%

designs,%coordination%of%city%and%district%planning,%

control%of%construction%activities;%

• Chief%Architect%is%the%core%person%who%deals%with%

issuing%the%construction%permits%based%on%the%new%

concept%of%Single%Window%(oneOstop%shop%service)%to%

ease%of%doing%business%in%Tajikistan.%

• Representation%in%

each%district;%

• Subordinate%to%both%

the%National%

Agency%and%the%

district%level.%

• Designing%architectural%and%planning%policy;%

• The%Single%Window%Service%on%Issuing%the%

Construction%Permits%is%brilliant%idea,%however%

the%ACA%and%its%nationOwide%network%are%

lacking%adequate%capacity%to%provide%timely,%

effective%and%efficient%service.%Capacity%building%

support%is%greatly%required.%


%

%%

%%

!79!

!! !



MEDT* • Focal%Ministry%for%policy%making%and%planning%of%economic%development%of%the%country%management%of%the%implementation%of%National%Development%Strategy%(NDS)%and%Poverty%Reduction%Strategy%Paper%(PRSP).%

• Qualified%planners,%economists,%policy%analysts;%

• Research%and%Analysis%work%in%the%field%of%poverty%reduction,%economic%analysis.%

• Considerable%power%of%convocation%of%various%stakeholders,%defines%the%development%agenda;%

• Policy%dialogue%is%required%to%ensure%that%investments%are%in%line%with%strategy;%

• Emphasizes%economic%values,%perhaps%more%inclined%towards%private%sector%participation%in%WS&S%subOsector;%

• May%respond%to%economic%analyses%of%water%sector,%could%be%valuable%in%supporting%investment%programs%that%show%cost%benefit%analysis,%sustainability%and/or%viability%for%business%or%public%interests.%

AMS* • Responsible%for%approval%of%the%water%tariffs.%• No%district%

presence,%based%at%the%MEDT%

• Perhaps%sees%value%of%multiple%providers,%hence%more%decentralized%approach;%want%to%control%prices,%applying%central%logic%which%may%or%may%not%coincide%with%internal%needs%of%system;%

• Understanding%of%approach%to%setting%tariffs%and%how%it%fits%to%the%AMS%procedures%is%required;%

• Secure%the%support%of%AMS%for%tariffs%that%cover%O&M%costs%to%ensure%sustainability%of%water%providers%is%required.%

MoF* • Allocation%of%financial%resources%at%district%and%national%level;%presumably%have%understanding%of%investment%into%water%program%

• Treasury%has%considerable%leverage%over%how%funds%are%allocated;%

• DecisionOmaking%authority%over%funds%distribution%at%national%and%local%levels.%

• Reducing%costs,%predictability,%transparency,%financial%integrity,%agreement%to%coOfinance%the%donor%funded%projects%(WS&S%in%particular);%

• Create%the%performance%indicators%for%the%financing%allocations%and%investment%to%implement%the%programs%such%as%WSS%(2007O2020),%Programme%on%Driniking%Water%Supply%(2008O2020);%Housing%Sector%(2010%O25),%etc.%


%

%%

%%

!80!

!! !



MoE* • Approval%and%design%of%the%education%materials%/%

programmers%for%academic%institutions%(schools,%

colleges,%universities,%vocational%training%schools,%etc),%

integration%of%the%new%topics%into%the%education%

curriculum.%

• NationOwide%

network;%

• Staff%capacity%is%

limited;%

• Schools%and%its%

facilities%are%good%

resource%to%conduct%

public%health%

campaigns.%

• Having%coherent%school%program,%perhaps%

reluctant%to%accommodate%everyone%who%wants%

to%put%content%into%the%school%system,%but%

would%welcome%something%that%reinforced%/%

coincided%with%other%curriculum;%

• Building%links%between%access%to%WS&S%to%

existing%curriculum,%e.g.%in%science,%economics,%

match,%agriculture,%social%studies%

• Incorporation%of%Public%Health%messages%into%

educational%materials%for%schools%and%extra%

curriculum%activities.%

TajikStandard* • Enhancement%the%state’s%policy%on%standardization,%

metrology,%certification%and%trade%inspection.%

• Regulatory,%

scientific%

• Ensure%that%standards%are%defined%and%met;%

• Foreseen%input%to%the%WS&S%sector%as%quality%

control%inspection%for%construction%materials%

for%WS&S%facilities,%water%purification%and%

sanitation%technologies.%

LocalRlevel*authorities*(District*Hukumats,*Jamoats)*

• Take%responsibility%for%regulation%at%local%level%and%

ownership%of%infrastructure%and%co%financing%the%

construction%investment,%presumably%with%support%

from%relevant%line%ministries%and%agencies,%as%for%the%

As%for%Jamoats,%they%are%responsible%for%managing%the%

contract%with%the%operator%

• LocallyObased%staff%

(mostly%under%

hukumat);%

• Limited%budget.%

• Important%partners%at%local%level,%local%

authorities%have%strong%political%interest%to%

contribute%to%implementation%of%state%

programs,%facilitate%the%provision%of%public%

goods%and%services%to%its%residents.%Capacity%

building%(to%play%a%coordination%role%in%issuing%

permits)%is%required.%%

National*NGOs*

Consumers*Union*

• Protection%of%consumers%rights.%• Present%at%national%

and%province%level;%

• The%agency%can%be%a%very%supportive%partner%

for%the%policy%advocacy%work%at%national%level%to%

represent%consumers’%rights%in%regard%to%access%

to%WS&S%services.%


%

%%

%%

!81!

!! !


Civil*Society*Organizations,*UN,*INGOs,*Donor*Agencies*

WUAs*/*Community*based*Organization*(CBOs)*as*operators*of*WS&S*service*

• Hold%a%social%responsibility%for%sustainable%

management,%O&M%of%the%WS&S%infrastructure%with%

support%from%Hukumat,%Jamoat%and%Federation%

• Availability%of%local%

community%

members%who%

involved%in%tariff%

collection,%O&M,%%

contract%

management%with%

consumers,%etc.%

• WUAs%/%CBOs%are%generally%present%where%

State%operators%do%not%have%any%presence%or%fail%

to%provide%adequate%service;%

• WUAs%/%CBOs%are%also%facing%the%challenges%to%

ensure%sustainable%WS&S%service%(generally%

lacking%capacity,%qualified%staff,%ownership,%etc.)%

• Have%adequate%water%service%and%improve%the%

community,%local%control,%possibly%to%gain%

prestige,%obtain%paid%positions%or%political%

influence.%

UN/INGOs*involved*in*funding*and*implementation*of*WS&S*projects57*

• Have%integrated%development%programs%including%

WS&S%in%many%rural%communities;%

• %

• Active%Presence%in%

18%mountainous%

districts%of%

Tajikistan;%

• International%

Funding;%

• Offices%and%trained%

staff%in%the%field.%

• Experience%sharing%amongst%stakeholders%on%

the%WS&S%models,%best%practices,%lessons%

learned,%etc;%Join%efforts%to%advocate%for%the%

policy%changes%and%institutional%reforms%

affective%proactively%and%sustainably%the%

programs%run.;%Such%works%to%be%done%in%close%

collaboration%with%state%authorities%at%local%and%

national%levels;%The%best%platform%for%this%work%

is%Tajikistan%WS&S%Network%(TajWSS):%

http://tajwss.tj/site/en/home.html%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%57 In Tajikistan, there were at least dozen of INGOs (e.g. German Agro Action, Red Crescent Society of Tajikistan, Operations Mercy, Mission East, Mercy Corps, ACTED, CESVI, etc.) in late 90-s beginning of 00-s that were implementing donor-funded projects in Tajikistan. Huge majority of these projects were generally lacking sustainability and very soon failed to operate after the construction was finished and WS&S systems were handed over to State and Non-State Water Providers. Main reasons were not due to quality of construction. Mainly the systems were failing as the enabling environment, e.g. complexity to meet the requirements of the legal and institutional framework, lack of capacity for O&M, financial viability of the operators, willingness of the consumers to pay for the water, unstable electricity supply that lead to failure of pumping station motors, etc. All these factors led the donors to phase out its funding, therefore, currently, the number of INGOs (donor-dependent) supporting WS&S projects greatly reduced, however the needs of people (especially in rural areas) to access the WS&S services are still not fully realized. Currently active INGOs in the WS&S sub-sector are: Mountain Societies Development Support Programmed (MSDSP), the Project of Aga-Khan Foundation (AKF); Caritas (Switzerland), GIZ, International Secretariat for Water; Oxfam GB and UNDP/UNICEF/WHO.


%

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Donor*Agencies5859*

• Rural%development%and%regional%cooperation,%as%well%as%policy%reforms%in%the%agriculture,%energy,%transport,%and%social%sectors.%

• Soft%loan%financing%and%occasional%grant%assistance%for%specialized%purposes;%possibly%technical%assistance,%regional%learning%opportunities%

• Often%take%interest%in%the%sector,%would%like%to%see%a%proven,%streamlined%mechanism%that%could%accept%larger%volumes%of%funding;%has%an%interest%to%follow%the%discussions%on%WS&S%closely.%

• Some%donors%discontinued%their%funding%for%rural%WS&S%programs%due%to%fragmentation%and%lack%of%sustainability.%if%issues%are%addressed,%the%funding%may%probably%be%resumed;%

• Donors%could%be%strong%partners%in%the%policy%dialogue%with%GoT;%

• %

Table*6:*“Stakeholder,organizations,roles,and,power,analysis,in,the,WS&S,Sub9sector,of,Tajikistan”,,Source:*Elaborated*by*the*author*based*on*the*analysis*of*strategies,*programs*&*reports*of*the*present*stakeholders.

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%58 The following donors show interest to the WS&S sub-sector in Tajikistan: Asian Development Bank (ADB), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD); International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD); Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA); United States Agency for International Development (USAID); Department for International Development (DFID); European Commission (EC); World Bank (WB), Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) which is currently the major donor of the rural WS&S. More about Donors and their Strategies and financing please read in the next section. 59 In March 2008, due to breach of lending obligations and provision of inaccurate information on funds disbursements (the IMF Press Release No. 08/43, dated March 5, 2008), the Republic of Tajikistan was requested to repay SDR 29.4 million (US$47.4 million) during Sep 5, 2008 - Feb 5, 2009 (Note: in such cases, according to the Fund’s regulations, loan recipient country have to return the funds within 30-days). In 2007 National Bank of Tajikistan admitted it had hidden a billion dollars in loans and guarantees to politically connected cotton investors (of which $600 million was never repaid), violating the IMF Multilateral Debt Relief Program. The IMF demanded early debt repayment, an audit of the National Bank, and other reforms before renewing assistance. The early repayment of the debt was done accordingly, independent audit conducted and shocking results were revealed, and fiscal reforms are going on. In May 2009 (just after about two month of early debt repayment and revealing the shocking results of the NBT audit) the IMF voted to lend a further $116 million to Tajikistan to help it through the next three years. In 2009, the IMF had disbursed initial SDR 26.1 million (US$40 million) under this commitment. The final tranche was paid in 2011. Since May 2009 until 2012, SDR 104.4 (US$159.9 million) has been disbursed. Some analysts believe that the IMF's action was dictated not by financial considerations, but by geopolitics, a sign of pressure on Tajikistan in order to make the country more loyal toward Washington rather than Moscow. If to analyze the situation regarding donors’ assistance since 2008, the funding have not reduced in comparison to 2007, but increased by 50%. Since 2008, China, Iran and Russia are the major investors in the country, however they are not much involved in donors’ community collaboration as well as Joint Country Partnership Strategy (JCPS).


%

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%

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4.6$Role$of$the$Donors$and$their$Engagement$in$the$WS&S$Sector$of$Tajikistan$

Role% of% the% International% Donors% Community% in% Tajikistan% has% become% crucial% since% the%

Republic%became%an%independent%state%in%1991%and%lost%up%to%70%%of%subsidies%to%the%coming%

directly%from%Moscow%during%Soviet%Era.%During%1992%–%97,%the%RT%was%plunged%into%a%bloody%

civil%war%(1992Q97)%resulted%with%about%50,000%people%dead,%800,000%refugees%(10%%of%whom%

fled%to%Afghanistan%(Akiner%and%Barnes,%2001))%and%US$%7%billion%of%damage%to%the%economy%

(Chudoba,% 2004).% Over% the% past% 20% years% (1992Q2012),% the% Net% Official% Development%

Assistance% (ODA)60%had% reached% of% about% US$3.75% billion.% Over% the% past% time% the% value%

fluctuated%starting%from%US%$11,8%million%(in%1992)%with%its%highest%peak%of%US$%436,7%million%

in% 2010% and% noticeable% decrease% of% the% foreign% aid% disbursed% for% the% last% two% years%

constituting%of%US$%352,2%million%in%2012.61%

Figure'23:'“Net%ODA%disbursed%in%Tajikistan%(in%million%US$),%1992@2012.%%

%Source:'OECD'DAC,'2013'

After% the% 20% years% of% transition% from% the% centrally) planned% to% marketQdriven% economy,% the%

development% of% Tajikistan% remains% to% be% “factor% driven”62.% However% the% proportion% of% the%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%60 Definition: Net official development assistance (ODA) consists of disbursements of loans made on concessional terms (net of repayments of principal) and grants by official agencies of the members of the OECD Development Assistance Committee (OECD DAC), by multilateral institutions, and by non-DAC countries to promote economic development and welfare in countries and territories in the DAC list of ODA recipients. It includes loans with a grant element of at least 25% (calculated at a rate of discount of 10%). Data are in current US$. 61 OECD DAC. “Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Developing Countries, Development Co-operation Report, and International Development Statistics database” Data are available online at: www.oecd.org/dac/stats/idsonline. 62 World Economic Forum, “The Global Competitiveness Report 2012–20013”, Country Economy Profiles: Tajikistan. p. 340-341.

!$11

.84!!

!$25

.96!!

!$66

.50!!

!$65

.08!!

!$10

3.14

!!

!$85

.94!!

!$16

0.59

!!

!$12

2.50

!!

!$12

3.54

!!

!$16

5.30

!!

!$16

8.35

!!

!$14

8.11

!! !$25

3.42

!!

!$25

1.50

!!

!$24

1.24

!!

!$22

2.11

!!

!$28

8.68

!!

!$40

8.12

!!

!$43

6.65

!!

!$35

4.57

!!

!$35

2.20

!!

1992!

1993!

1994!

1995!

1996!

1997!

1998!

1999!

2000!

2001!

2002!

2003!

2004!

2005!

2006!

2007!

2008!

2009!

2010!

2011!

2012!


%

%%

%%

!84!

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Foreign%Aid%to%Gross%Domestic%Product%(GDP)%for%the%period%2002Q2012%decreased%from%19%%

to%5%63%foreign%aid%will%continue%to%play%its%essential%role%as%almost%all%national%development%

planning%initiatives%as%well%as%realization%of%such%plans%are%supported%and%facilitated%by%major%

donors.%The%main%strategies% in%Tajikistan%that%donors%align%their%aid,%strategies%and%program%

plans%in%Tajikistan%are%NDS%(longerQterm)%and%PRSP%(shortQterm)%as%both%other%documents%are%

connected%to%Paris%Declaration,%MDGs%and%Accra%Agenda%for%Action.%In%November%2009,%major%

donors%and%the%GoT%signed%a% Joint%Country%Partnership%Strategy%(JCPS)% to%enhance%of%donor%

coordination% and% effectiveness% of% donor% aid.% % Only% 12% bilateral% and% multilateral% donors64%

signed% the% JCPS.% In% 2013,% there% are% more% than% 70% development% partners% represent% in%

Tajikistan,% comprising% of% about% 20% multiQ% and% biQlateral% institutions,% 12% UN% Specialised%

Agencies,%and%about%40%INGOs65.%The%number%has%reduced%at%least%by%20%%in%comparison%with%

the%period%of%2008%–%2009.%

Involvement%and%influence%of%NonQDAC%Countries%is%growing%in%Tajikistan.%It%is%reported%by%the%

GoT%that%large%amounts%of%aid%are%provided%by%China,%Russia,%Iran,%India,%etc.%(mainly%transport%

and% energy% projects)66.% Though% such% support% is% in% line% with% the% National% Development%

Strategy,% such% aid% is% disbursed% as% public% /% private% investment,% lack% of% nonQexistence% of%

coordination% mechanisms% with% NonQDAC% countries67 %their% commitments% are% usually% not%

included%in%ODA%statistics.%Therefore,%the%data%released%by%the%SCI%on%the%Foreign%Aid%is%usually%

show% higher% amounts% of% funds% disbursed.% However% some% of% the% data% reflected% in% the%

governmental% statistics%on%NonQODA%commitments,% the%GoT%needs% to% clearly%distinguish% the%

differences%between%public%and%private%investments.%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%63 “Mainly it happened due to a steady growth of the GDP, the annual average of which in 2002-2012 was 7.7%”. SCI in collaboration with UNDP in Tajikistan and DFID “Foreign Aid Report” p. 6. 2012 64 AKF, ADB, EBRD, EC, Government of Germany, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, SDC, DFID, UN, USAid and WB Group. 65 SCI in cooperation with UNDP in Tajikistan and DFID,“Development Partners Profile”, 2013. UN Coordination Unit in Tajikistan: http://untj.org 65 http://www.untj.org/dcc/; http://www.untj.org/dcc/index.php/members 66 Rustam Aminjanov Matin Kholmatov Firuz Kataev “Case study on aid effectiveness in Tajikistan”, p.20. Wolfensohn Center for Development at Brookings. 67 The mechanism of donor coordination that exists at country level in Tajikistan is the Donors Coordination Council that are not represented by Non-DAC Countries. However, they join coordination sessions from time to time, but most of the cases as observes only.


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Donor%countries% Disbursement%(US$%000s)% %%of%Total%

2002% 2003% 2004% 2005% 2006% 2007% 2008% 2009% 2010% 2011% 2012% Total%

Austria% % % % % % % % % 105% % 154% 259% 0.01%

Austria% % 50% % % % % % 146% 85% 90% 52% 423% 0.02%

Canada% 75% 1,348% 3,418% 3,290% 3,155% 4,600% 3,263% 1,486% 875% 544% 462% 22,516% 1.17%

Czech%Republic% % % 100% 21% 123% 50% 92% % % % % 386% 0.02%

Denmark% % 10% 12% % % % 47% % % % % 69% 0.004%

Finland% % 399% 213% 29% 38% 34% % 55% 617% 217% 260% 1,862% 0.10%

France% 57% 1,430% 1,436% % % % % % % % 94% 3,017% 0.16%

Germany% 4,373% 3,969% 6,062% 4,848% 3,074% 4,460% 13,808% 18,474% 21,500% 41,820% 35,318% 157,706% 8.16%

India% 6,020% 300% 1,110% 1,980% % % 2,000% 685% 500% % % 12,595% 0.65%

Iran% % % 10,000% 6,198% 6,724% 5,132% 3,145% % % % 900% 32,099% 1.66%

Italy% % 40% 369% 626% 265% 55% 128% 684% 515% 328% 264% 3,274% 0.17%

Japan% 2,732% 13,381% 5,534% 7,725% 10,623% 6,288% 17,307% 30,719% 73,140% 36,303% 21,679% 225,431% 11.67%

Kuwait% 718% 3,328% 4,871% 6,651% 508% 3,207% 7,124% 5,621% 1,633% 432% 3,524% 37,617% 1.95%

Netherlands% 11% 25% 336% 449% 178% 18% 913% 2,297% 1,213% 1,086% 21% 6,547% 0.34%

Norway% % 220% 224% % % % 138% 1,131% 2,916% 3,527% 2,992% 11,148% 0.58%

PR%of%China% 1,842% 1,597% % % % 223,541% 277,246% 189,339% 107,854% 129,452% 27,624% 958,495% 49.6%

Russian%Federation% % % 332% 10,027% % 532% 1,766% 800% 87% % 748% 14,292% 0.74%

Saudi%Arabia% % 1,356% 5,254% 2,158% 4,933% 2,887% 127% 400% 298% 128% 14,995% 32,536% 1.68%

Sweden% 236% 656% 3,131% 2,262% 1,345% 6,178% 8,940% 7,273% 3,168% 1,218% 56% 34,463% 1.78%

Switzerland% 6,934% 6,981% 8,709% 11,166% 8,928% 10,224% 14,238% 13,431% 13,468% 13,931% 13,567% 121,577% 6.29%

Turkey% % % 86% 824% 3,283% 2,255% 2,015% 921% 2,536% 1,880% 667% 14,467% 0.75%

United%Kingdom% 4,000% 1,133% 2,052% 2,715% 3,763% 3,624% 5,806% 4,311% 4,967% 9,321% 11,119% 52,811% 2.73%

USA% 51,792% 28,614% 25,044% 20,376% 14,862% 9,426% 7,875% 11,545% 8,577% 5,243% 5,638% 188,992% 9.78%

Total:% 78,790% 64,837% 78,293% 81,345% 61,802% 282,511% 365,978% 289,318% 243,053% 245,520% 139,980% 1,932,323% 100.00%

Table%7:%“Shares(of(all(donor(countries(that(provided(foreign(aid(to(Tajikistan(based(on(bilateral(agreements,(2002=2012”.(Source:%SCI%RT,%2013


%

%

%

%

%

!85!

!! !

Referring%to%the%SCI%statistical%analysis%of%the%disbursed%foreign%aid%to%Tajikistan%for%the%period%

of%2002%–%2012%(Note:%Year%2002%is%when%the%first%PRSP%has%been%approved%by%the%GoT%and%Aid%

Information%Management%System%has%been%introduced%by%the%SCI):%

• The%annual%volume%of%aid%to%Tajikistan%for%2002Q2009%increased,%reaching%a%peak%in%2009%

at%US$%577%million.%Since%2010,%the%volume%of%aid%has%fallen%and%in%2012%amounted%to%US$%

388,2%thousand.%Over%the%last%three%years,%the%overall%volume%of%foreign%aid%fell%by%33%;%

Figure'24:'“Commitments%and%Disbursement%of%Foreign%Aid%(US$%thousands),%2002%–%2012”.''

%

Source:'“Foreign'Aid'Report”.'SCI'RT,'2013'

• The% reduction% trend% is%observed%both% in% terms%of% grants% and% loans,%while% the%volume%of%

loans% decreased% more% rapidly.% In% 2012,% the% proportion% of% grants% in% the% overall% aid%

structure% prevails% (US$% 250,3%million% or% 64.5%)% over% the% share% of% loans% (US$% 137,9% or%

35.5%),%which%is%a%favorable%trend%in%the%process%of%aid%provision%to%the%country’s%socioQ

economic%development;%

Figure'25:'“Disbursement%by%Loans%and%Grants%(US$%thousands),%2002%–%2012”.%%

%

Source:'SCI'RT,'2013'

$230,845!$275,543!

$326,538! $321,536! $297,244!

$416,823!

$563,455! $576,865! $579,052! $550,003!$464,421!

$229,015! $212,959!$271,706! $262,383!

$187,442!

$412,373!

$544,667! $577,093!$522,552!

$486,249!

$388,176!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Commitment! Disbursement!

$171,926! $166,640! $165,746!$148,065!

$110,108!$129,140!

$189,763!

$284,076! $281,571! $268,621! $250,297!

$57,089!$46,319!

$105,960! $114,318! $77,334!

$283,233!$354,904!

$293,017!$240,980! $217,628!

$137,879!

$229,015! $212,959!$271,706! $262,383!

$187,442!

$412,373!

$544,667! $577,093!$522,552!

$486,249!

$388,176!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Grant! Loan! Total!


%

%

%

%

%

!86!

!! !

• Assistance% from% donor% countries% through% bilateral% cooperation% reached% its% highest%

volumes% in% 2008% at% US$% 366% million,% but% decreased% in% subsequent% years% and% in% 2012%

totaled%US$%140;%

• At% the% same% time,% from% 2007,% assistance% from% emerging% donors% increased,% particularly%

from%the%People's%Republic%of%China,%which%during%2007Q2012%allocated%US$%955,1%million;%

• During%2002Q2012,% the%major%donors%became:%China% (49.6%);% Japan%(11.7%),% the%United%

States%of%America%(9.8%),%Germany%(8.2%)%and%Switzerland%(6.3%);%

• During% the% period% 2009Q2012,% the% volume% of% aid% decreased,% due% predominantly% to% the%

global%financial%and%economic%crisis.%

Figure'26:'“Volumes%of%aid%provided%by%bilateral%donors%(US$%thousand),%2002%–%2012”.%%

%Source:'SCI'RT,'2013'

'

Figure'27:'“Shares%of%major%donor%countries%that%provided%foreign%aid%to%Tajikistan%based%on%bilateral%agreements,%2002@2012”%

%Source:'SCI'RT,'2013

!$78,790!! !$64,837!! !$78,293!! !$81,345!! !$61,802!!

!$282,511!!

!$365,978!!

!$289,318!!!$243,949!!!$245,520!!

!$139,980!!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

49.6%!

11.7%!

9.8%!

8.2%!

6.3%!

14.4%!

China!

Japan!

USA!

Germany!

Switzerland!

Others!


%%

!87!

!! !

Donor%countries% Disbursement%(US$%000s)% %%of%Total%

2002% 2003% 2004% 2005% 2006% 2007% 2008% 2009% 2010% 2011% 2012% Total%

Austria% % % % % % % % % 105% % 154% 259% 0.01%

Austria% % 50% % % % % % 146% 85% 90% 52% 423% 0.02%

Canada% 75% 1,348% 3,418% 3,290% 3,155% 4,600% 3,263% 1,486% 875% 544% 462% 22,516% 1.17%

Czech%Republic% % % 100% 21% 123% 50% 92% % % % % 386% 0.02%

Denmark% % 10% 12% % % % 47% % % % % 69% 0.004%

Finland% % 399% 213% 29% 38% 34% % 55% 617% 217% 260% 1,862% 0.10%

France% 57% 1,430% 1,436% % % % % % % % 94% 3,017% 0.16%

Germany% 4,373% 3,969% 6,062% 4,848% 3,074% 4,460% 13,808% 18,474% 21,500% 41,820% 35,318% 157,706% 8.16%

India% 6,020% 300% 1,110% 1,980% % % 2,000% 685% 500% % % 12,595% 0.65%

Iran% % % 10,000% 6,198% 6,724% 5,132% 3,145% % % % 900% 32,099% 1.66%

Italy% % 40% 369% 626% 265% 55% 128% 684% 515% 328% 264% 3,274% 0.17%

Japan% 2,732% 13,381% 5,534% 7,725% 10,623% 6,288% 17,307% 30,719% 73,140% 36,303% 21,679% 225,431% 11.67%

Kuwait% 718% 3,328% 4,871% 6,651% 508% 3,207% 7,124% 5,621% 1,633% 432% 3,524% 37,617% 1.95%

Netherlands% 11% 25% 336% 449% 178% 18% 913% 2,297% 1,213% 1,086% 21% 6,547% 0.34%

Norway% % 220% 224% % % % 138% 1,131% 2,916% 3,527% 2,992% 11,148% 0.58%

PR%of%China% 1,842% 1,597% % % % 223,541% 277,246% 189,339% 107,854% 129,452% 27,624% 958,495% 49.6%

Russian%Federation% % % 332% 10,027% % 532% 1,766% 800% 87% % 748% 14,292% 0.74%

Saudi%Arabia% % 1,356% 5,254% 2,158% 4,933% 2,887% 127% 400% 298% 128% 14,995% 32,536% 1.68%

Sweden% 236% 656% 3,131% 2,262% 1,345% 6,178% 8,940% 7,273% 3,168% 1,218% 56% 34,463% 1.78%

Switzerland% 6,934% 6,981% 8,709% 11,166% 8,928% 10,224% 14,238% 13,431% 13,468% 13,931% 13,567% 121,577% 6.29%

Turkey% % % 86% 824% 3,283% 2,255% 2,015% 921% 2,536% 1,880% 667% 14,467% 0.75%

United%Kingdom% 4,000% 1,133% 2,052% 2,715% 3,763% 3,624% 5,806% 4,311% 4,967% 9,321% 11,119% 52,811% 2.73%

USA% 51,792% 28,614% 25,044% 20,376% 14,862% 9,426% 7,875% 11,545% 8,577% 5,243% 5,638% 188,992% 9.78%

Total:% 78,790% 64,837% 78,293% 81,345% 61,802% 282,511% 365,978% 289,318% 243,053% 245,520% 139,980% 1,932,323% 100.00%

Table%7:%“Shares(of(all(donor(countries(that(provided(foreign(aid(to(Tajikistan(based(on(bilateral(agreements,(2002=2012”.(Source:%SCI%RT,%2013


%%

%%

!88!

!! !

Assistance%from%multilateral%aid%over%the%period%2002@2009%increased%from%US$%134,3%million%

to% US$% 271.9% million.% In% the% following% years,% the% volume% of% aid% from% these% organizations%

slightly%declined%and%in%2012%totaled%US$%232,8%million.%In%the%structure%of%multilateral%aid%the%

share%of%aid%in%the%form%of%grants%is%decreasing,%with%an%increasing%share%of%aid%in%the%form%of%

loans.% Thus,% over% the% period% 2002@2012% the% share% of% these% organizations% in% the% grant% aid%

component% increased% from%45%%to%60%,%while% the% share%of% aid% in% the% total%volume%of% loans%

provided%felt%from%99%%to%59%.%

Figure'28:'“Disbursement,by,International,Organizations,(US$,thousands),,2002–2012”.,,


Analyzing%the%donors%aid%provided%by%sectors,%more%than%half%of%all%aid%for%2012%was%directed%

to%three%infrastructure%sectors:%transportation%(28.5%)%and%energy%(13%)%and%agro/irrigation%

(10.9%);%For%the%development%of%the%WS&S%and%Housing%and%Municipal%Services%was%allocated%

5.7%.%Fore%more%information%please%see%the%charts%with%detailed%data%below.%

Figure'29:'“Foreign,Aid,provided,by,Donor,Community,in,2012,within,breakdown,by,Sectors”.'


!$78,790!! !$64,837!! !$78,293!! !$81,345!! !$61,802!!

!$282,511!!

!$365,978!!!$289,318!!

!$243,949!!

!$245,520!!

!$139,980!!$134,293! $126,603!$175,789! $173,732!

$111,540! $113,521!$166,338! $271,954!

$263,463!

$227,672!

$232,818!

$16,530! $22,496! $20,076! $9,835! $15,374! $18,367! $14,959! $17,487! $17,274! $15,277! $13,858!

$229,613! $212,959!$271,706! $262,383!

$187,442!

$412,373!

$544,667!$577,093!

$522,552!$486,249!

$388,176!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Bilateral! Mul7lateral! NGO! Total!

!$5,533!!!$15,275!!

!$3,483!!

!$18,214!!

!$39,887!!

!$7,950!!!$9,918!!!$22,565!!

!$3,396!! !$7,250!! !$6,602!!


%

%

%

%

%

!89!

!

! !

Figure'30:'“Share,by,Sectors,(in%),of,the,Donor,Aid,provided,in,2012”.''


Analyzing%the%commitments%of%development%partners%to%the%WS&S%show%how%important%their%

assistance%was%and%still%required%for%the%sub@sector%development.%With%reference%to%the%date%of%

the% SCI,% 66% projects% were% implemented% during% 2002@2012.% The% total% amount% of% disbursed%

funds%equals%to%123,7%million. The%major%funders%of%projects%were%EU,%SDC,%DFID,%ADB,%WB,% ,%

USAid,%UNDP,%UNICEF,%AKF,%Government%of% Japan%and%others. In%addition%many% INGOs%were%

very% active% in% this% sector% too,% e.g.:% Agency% for% Technical% Cooperation% and% Development%

(ACTED),%Mercy%Corps% (USA),%Cartitas% (Switzerland)%German%Agro%Action% (GAA),%CESVI% (the%

Italian% NGO% for% Cooperation% and% Development),% Mission% East,% Oxfam% (GB),% etc.% Currently,%

many%of%them%left%the%sector,%as%there%was%reduction%of%donor%funds.%

Figure'31:'“Commitment,and,disbursement,of,funds,to,WS&S,,Housing,Sector,,2002,–,2012”.,,


4.0%! 2.5%!

10.9%!

13.0%!

28.5%!

5.7%!

7.1%!

16.1%!

2.4%!

5.2%!4.7%!

Public!Governance!

Environment!

Agriculture!and!Irriga7on!

Energy!

Transport!

WS&S!and!Housing!Services!

Educa7on!

Health!

Social!Welfare!and!Labor!

Private!Sector!

Mul7TSector!

$1,575! $1,943!

$4,716!

$14,809!

$10,833!

$7,484!

$17,127! $17,012!$18,119!

$24,194!

$20,948!

$1,458! $1,743!

$4,173!

$13,163!

$7,332!$5,711!

$16,337! $16,088! $16,556!

$22,076!

$19,102!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Commitment! Disbursement!


%

%%

%%

!90!

!! !

Though%annual%commitments%and%disbursements%have%increased%considerably%during%2002%–%

2012,%there%was%a%period%(during%2006@2007)%when%the%funding%to%WS&S%sub@sector%sharply%

decreased%and% international%community% is%still%so%reluctant% to%provide%aid%to% the%WS&S%sub@

sector,%especially%for%the%rural%WS&S.%That%time,%donors%were%in%the%process%of%reviewing%their%

programs% in% the% WS&S% sub@sector% as% well% as% revising% their% strategies.% Major% donors% were%

unwilling%to%continue%financing%WS&S%projects%after%more%than%10%years%of%support%(since%mid%

90s),%due%to%many%issues%affecting%sustainability%still%have%not%been%addressed.%%

Evaluations% of% the% donor@funded% projects% identified% massive% failure% of% built% and% /% or%

rehabilitated%WS&S% systems% (especially% in% rural% areas).% The% obvious% causes% were:% unstable%

access% electricity,% poor% O&M,% limited% access% to% financing,% poor% quality% of% construction%

materials%and%lack%of%spare%parts.%Other%factors%that%had%greater%importance%for%sustainability%

of% the%WS&S%service%were:% lack%of%clarity%and%enforcement%of% laws,%overlapping% institutional%

framework%and%operations%inefficiencies%within%WS&S%facilities.%

In%2007,%mainly%WB,%SDC%and%EBRD%continued% to%support%urban%WS&S%supply%however,% the%

funding%for%rural%WS&S%projects%has%been%almost%ceased%by%all%other%major%donors.%In%order%to%

attract%attention%of%stakeholders,%including%international%community,%Oxfam%GB%conducted%the%

Scoping% Study% of% the% Water% Sector% to% advocate% for% joint% search% (GoT,% INGOs,% Donors,% Civil%

Society)% of% solutions% in%WS&S% sub@sectors%with% special% attention% to% rural%WS&S% (Ziganshin,%

2007).%As%the%result%of%this%initiative%a%long@term%program%(funded%by%SDC)%has%started%in%2009%

aimed%at% creating%a%better%and%enabling%environment% for% the%WS&S%sub@sector%development%

through%policy%dialogue%with%the%GoT%and%consultations%with%all%relevant%stakeholders68.%Thus,%

the%donors’% commitments%were% retained% to% further% improve% the% access% to%WS&S% services% in%

rural%Tajikistan.%%

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%68 Tajikistan Water Supply and Sanitation (TajWSS) Project. Funded by SDC and implemented by Oxfam GB in partnership with GoT and UNDP. The 1st Phase of the project started in July 2009 and finished in October 2013. Currently the 2nd phase is going on and will last until September 2017. The 3rd phase is expected to be implemented during 2017-2020. The overall goal of the project is to ensure that rural communities in Tajikistan have sustainable access to drinking water and sanitation. Overall objectives of the project are: Improvement in the policy environment related to WS&S at central and local levels; Improved practices that lead to sustainable management of WS&S services are endorsed by key stakeholders. The project components are: 1) Policy Development Support to the GoT; 2) TajWSS Network of Stakeholders (is the core component of the project, therefore, please visit its webpage for more details: http://tajwss.tj/site/) 3) Capacity Building for Regulators and Operators of the WS&S at National and Local Levels; 4) Establishment of the Water Trust Funds as hybrid (public-private including donors aid) financing mechanism at local level.


%

%%

%%

!91!

!! !

Since%2007@2009,% the% characteristics% of% the%WS&S%programs% and%projects% started% to% change.%

Now,%projects%have%not%only%infrastructure%construction%/%rehabilitation%component,%but%also%

the%more% attention% is% given% to% the% capacity% building% of% the% operators% and% regulators% in% the%

sector;% policy% /% advocacy% work% with% the% GoT% to% implement% necessary% sector% reforms;% and%

campaigning%with%the%consumers%aimed%at%behavior%change.%

Figure'32:'“Disbursement,by,Loans,&,Grants,to,WS&S,,Housing,(US$,thousands),,2002–2012”.,,


According% to% the% SCI,% in% 2012% donors% have% disbursed% US$% 19,1% million% for% the% WS&S% and%

Housing.%Major%and%currently%active%donors%in%the%Water%Sector%of%Tajikistan%are:%%EBRD%(US$%

5,14%million%or%26.9%%of%total%disbursements)%and%JICA%(US$%3,67%million%or%19.2%%)%and%SDC%

(US$%2,43%million%or%12.7%%),%EU%(US$%2,3%million%or%12.1%),%WB%(1.82%million%or%9.5%).%These%

three%donors% account% for%more% than%80%%of% the% total% assistance%provided% to% the%WS&S% and%

Housing% Sector.% EBRD,%WB% and% IsDB% continue% to% support% improvement% of% access% to%WS&S%

services% in%urban%areas% (cities,% towns%and%district% centers).% In% rural%areas,%where%up% to%73%%

(5.8%million)%of%the%population%reside,%issues%of%access%to%WS&S%services%lacks%consideration%by%

the%major%donors%remains%poorly%financed%(not%more%than%30%%of%all%funds%disbursed%for%the%

WS&S%subsector%specifically%–%about%US$%6%million%disbursed%by%SDC%&%JICA).%%

Figure'33:'“Disbursement,of,funds,in,the,WS&S,,Housing,by,source,of,financing,in,2012”.''


$1,247! $1,048! $1,963!$2,164!

$2,859!$3,116!

$10,515!

$14,509! $13,618!$17,007! $15,408!

$211! $695!

$2,210!

$10,999!

$4,473!$2,595!

$5,862!

$1,579!$2,948! $5,069! $3,694!

$1,458! $1,743!$4,173!

$13,163!

$7,332!$5,711!

$16,377! $16,088! $16,566!

$22,076!$19,102!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Grant! Loan! Total!

26.9%!19.2%!

12.7%! 12.1%! 9.5%! 8.9%! 8.3%!0.4%! 0.3%! 0.7%! 1.0%!

EBRD! JICA! SDC! EU! WB! IsDB! Bilateral!Donors!

USAid! SIDA! UNICEF! INGOs!


%

%

%

%

%

!92!

!! !

EU%financing%was%shifted%to%the%policy%dialogue%in%the%Water%(water%resources%management)%

and%Health% Sectors% and% Disaster% Prevention% (provision% of% access% to%WS&S% in% emergencies).%

Supporting%WS&S% can% be% considered% as% cross% cutting% issue% in% the% implementation% of% rural%

development% projects,% similarly% what% has% been% done% by% ADB% that% is% focus% more% on%

infrastructure%projects%(transport,%energy%and%agro%/%irrigation).%IsDB%has%recently%joined%the%

WS&S% sector% and% generally% lacking% long@term% strategic% approach% to% financing% the% WS&S%

projects.% SIDA’s% program% has% been% phased% out% and% they% finalized% their% final% commitments%

under% EBRD% municipal% housing% projects.% USAID% “Safe% Drinking% Water% Supply% Project”%

(implemented% in% rural% areas)% is% currently% completed% and% new% funding% related% to% the%WS&S%

will% be% disbursed% under% the% Economic% Growth% Program% (projects% will% be% financed% if% rural%

communities%identify%the%WS&S%as%priority).%The%same%approach%to%WS&S%is% in%the%currently%

ongoing%IFAD%“Khatlon%Livelihoods%Support%Project”%and%DFID%in%its%Rural%Growth,%Economic%

Development,%Climate%Change%and%Disaster%Risk%Reduction%(Emergency%Response)%programs.%%%%

2014@15% is% the% critical% time% for% the% country’s% WS&S% sub@sector% again.% It% is% the% time% when%

currently%running%major%donor%funded%projects%in%the%WS&S%will%be%finished%and%evaluations%

and%reviews%will%be%conducted%again.%%It%is%also%the%time%when%the%GoT%and%major%donors%have%

to%report%to%the%international%community%on%attainment%of%the%MDGs.%%%

Figure'34:'“Disbursement,in,the,WS&S,and,Housing,Sector,by,Groups,of,International,Organizations,(US$,thousands),,2002,–,2012”.,,


!$1,012!!!$671!! !$498!!

!$1,110!! !$1,306!!!$1,672!!

!$4,325!!

!$9,781!! !$8,733!!

!$12,574!!

!$7,811!!

$446!

$1,072! $3,675!

$12,053!

$6,026! $3,996!

$12,035!

$6,223!$7,632!

$9,415!

$11,100!

$43! $17! $84! $201! $87! $191!$1,458! $1,743!

$4,173!

$13,163!

$7,332!

$5,711!

$16,377! $16,088!$16,566!

$22,076!

$19,102!

2002! 2003! 2004! 2005! 2006! 2007! 2008! 2009! 2010! 2011! 2012!

Bilateral! Mul7lateral! NGO! Total!

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