Bhole Final

8/6/2019 Bhole Final

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Name:Jibran Rarh

PGDBM-A

ROLL NO -35

ERGONOMICS


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ContentsI. How Ergonomics CanHelp ...........................................................A Proactive Approach to ProblemSolving ...............................................II. Ergonomics and YourWorkplace ..................................................Workplace ContributingFactors ................................................................Ergonomics Job AnalysisMethods ..........................................................Ergonomics AwarenessChecklist ............................................................III. Improving YourWorkplace...........................................................What Are ErgonomicImprovements? ..................................................... EngineeringImprovements .................................................................. Administrative Improvements .............................................................

Safety Gear...........................................................................................A Word AboutTraining ............................................................................Which Tasks Should We Improve First?

How Do We Make Informed Choices About ErgonomicImprovements?

How Do We Know if Our Improvements Are Working?

Additional Thoughts on Ergonomics


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WHAT IS ERGONOMICS?

Ergonomics, also known as human factors, is the scientific disciplinethat seeks to understand and improve human interactions with

products, equipment, environments and systems. Drawing uponhuman biology, psychology, engineering and design, ergonomicsaims to develop and apply knowledge and techniques to optimise

system performance, whilst protecting the health, safety and well-being of individuals involved. The attention of ergonomics extendsacross work, leisure and other aspects of our daily lives.

How ErgonomicsCan HelpSECTION I

2 Section IIfwork is performed in awkward postures or with excessive effort,fatigue and discomfort may be the result. Under these conditionsmuscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels can bedamaged.Injuries of this type are known as musculoskeletal disorders, orMSDs. MSDs can increase the cost of doing business both directlyand


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indirectly. Direct costs may include medical services and higherworkerscompensation premiums. Indirect costs from increased employeeturnover,absenteeism, and retraining may also occur. Productivity, productquality,and employee morale may also suffer. Estimates indicate that theindirectcosts associated with MSDs may be four to ten times higher than thedirectcosts.1You may ask, What can our organization do to reduce or prevent

costlyMSDs and avoid the other problems mentioned above? One answeris touse ergonomics in your workplace. Ergonomics is the study of how toimprovethefitbetween the physical demands of the workplace and theemployeeswho perform the work. That means considering the variability in

human capabilities when selecting, designing, or modifyingequipment,tools, work tasks, and the work environment. Employees abilities to

performphysical tasks may vary because of differences in age, physicalcondition,strength, gender, stature, and other factors.Differences in stature can mean the job is awkward

for one employee but comfortable for the other .

How Ergonomics Can HelpIImproving thefitoften involves a process of trial and error until amore effective and appropriate improvement is found. More oftenthannot, maximizing the fit reduces injuries, increases productivity, saves

money, and improves product quality and job satisfaction.


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A Proactive Approach to Problem SolvingYou dont have to wait for a problem to find you before you addressit.Being proactive helps you get a jump on solving problems. Takinga

proactive approach in your workplace can be as simple as taking alookaround, talking to employees, and asking questions such as these: Do employees have ideas about how to improve products and maketheir jobs less physically demanding and more efficient?

Are employees working in comfortable posturesthat is, with nosignificant fatigue and discomfort?Remember, it is always best to: Take action as soon as you become aware of early warning signs(employee fatigue or discomfort, reports of problems, or high levelsofabsenteeism, etc.). Minimize factors that may contribute to musculoskeletal disorders at

the design stage of the work process, if possible.Early action is particularly important when addressing MSDs becausethey tend to be treatable and less expensive in the early stages butirreversibleand very expensive later. For example, medical costs and workerscompensation claims forone serious back injury case can run up to oreven exceed $85,000.Employees discuss potential workplace

improvements.A pallet elevated by an employee makesmoving the product easier. Be proactive. Promote a healthyworkplace. Save money.


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4 Section IThe following pictures illustrate some practical ways proactiveemployersand employees in California have improved their workplaces.Height-adjustable computer monitorstand under the microscope allowscomfortable, upright work posture forshorter and taller employeesAFTERMicroscope workstationleadsto uncomfortable work posturewith bendingLarger, more comfortable adjustableseat with improved back supportSeat too small with poor backsupportleads to poor backand neck posture

A pull chain makes opening thevalve easier

A physically demanding task in anawkward posture with a heavy toolMaximizing thefitreduces injuries,increases productivity,saves money, andimproves productquality and jobsatisfaction.BEFOREHow Ergonomics Can Help 5BEFORE AFTERManual lifting of drums leads toforceful exertionsLift gate eliminates manual lifting andincreases productivityallows loading


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several drums at onceLifting and carryingleads to forcefulexertions, awkward posture, andblocked visionScissors lift replaces lifting and carryingwith sliding and rollingExtended handle on tool allowsupright, comfortable postureShort handle on tool leads to bendingand squattinguncomfortableworking posture

Ergonomics andYour Workplace

Jobs are made up of tasks. Tasks are the things employees must doto accomplish their jobs. Put simply, tasks are the parts of a job.Some jobs may contain only a single task, but many jobs are madeup of multiple tasks. Below are some examples:

Job TasksCabinet shop worker Retrieving wood, feeding saw,stacking cut woodCustodial worker Emptying trash, dusting, vacuuming

Jewelry manufacturer Waxing, cutting, finishingMetal fabricator Shaping bar stock, cutting, threadingSupermarket clerk Stocking shelves, checking outgroceriesWarehouse worker Filling containers, shrink-wrapping,loading trucksMost work tasks involve movement and physical exertion. But howdoyou know When repeated movements, forceful exertions, and other aspects ofwork tasks may lead to fatigue, symptoms of MSDs, and injuries? Why workplace problems are occurring (i.e., the reasons or rootcauses)?


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In short, how do you find out which work tasks may be causingproblemsand what to do about them? One possible way to help answer thesequestions is to become aware of workplace contributing factors.

JErgonomics and Your Workplace 9Dont forget toconsider the durationof work tasks.Workplace Contributing FactorsContributing factors are aspects of work tasks which can lead tofatigue, musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) symptoms and injuries, orothertypes of problems. These factors may be present in one or more of thetasks employees must perform to accomplish their jobs. Thecontributingfactors you and your employees should be aware of include: Awkward postures Repetitive motions Forceful exertions

Pressure points (e.g., local contact stress) VibrationThere are also environmental factors associated with the workplacewhich can cause problems. Extreme high temperatures can increasetherate at which the body will fatigue. Alternatively, exposure of thehandsand feet to cold temperatures can decrease blood flow, muscle

strength,and manual dexterity. These conditions can also cause excessive gripforce to be applied to tool handles or objects. Another problem may

becaused by tools or equipment that exhaust cold or hot air directly ontotheoperator. In addition, the lighting in a workplace may be too dark ortoo


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bright for the work task. This may result in employees assumingawkward

postures to accomplish work tasks and a loss of product quality.You should also be aware of the amount of time in a workday thatemployees spend performing physically demanding or repetitive tasks(i.e., the duration of tasks). Both the total time per work shift and thelength of uninterrupted periods of work can be significant incontributingto problems. As repetitive motions, forceful exertions, and othercontributingfactors increase in work tasks, so does the recovery time (i.e., thelength and frequency of muscle relaxation breaks) needed to help

reducefatigue and prevent injury.Finally, remember that it is important to uncoverwhy (i.e., the reasonsor root causes) the contributing factors are occurring in work tasks.Thewhy is important because it allows you to fully understand the natureofthe problem and eventually to come up with effective improvement

options.10 Section IIThe employee pictured here is bending andreaching to retrieve a part. The contributing factoris awkward posture (i.e., bending and reaching).The employee is bending and reaching becausethere is limited access. But why is the accesslimited? If you look closely, you will see that

access is limited because a pallet was left on theshelf. The part the employee needs to retrieve was

pushed behind the box on the pallet. Therefore, thereal why for the awkward posture is improperstorage of a pallet loaded with boxes.

Ergonomics and Your Workplace 11

Awkward Postures


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Posture affects which muscle groups are active during physicalactivity.Awkward postures can make work tasks more physically demanding,

byincreasing the exertion required from smaller muscle groups, and

preventingthe stronger, larger muscle groups from working at maximumefficiencies.The increased exertion from the weaker, smaller muscle groupsimpairs blood flow and increases the rate of fatigue.Awkward postures typically include repeated or prolongedreaching,

twisting, bending, working overhead, kneeling, squatting, and holdingfixed positions or pinch grips. They may affect various areas of the

bodysuch as the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders, neck, back, and knees. Theeffects of awkward postures are worse if work tasks also involverepetitivemotions or forceful exertions. Awkward postures may be caused byusing

poorly designed or arranged workstations, tools, and equipment andpoorwork practices.Work too lowbending, reaching, and twistingWork too far awayextended reachLack of access or clearancebending and awkwardupper body posture

Awkward posturesinclude repeated orprolonged: Reaching Twisting Bending Working overhead Kneeling

Squatting


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Holding of fixedpositions Pinch gripsContributing factors:

Awkward postures Repetitive motions Forceful exertions Pressure points Vibration12 Section IIWork too highextended reachPinch gripsUsing a hand toolbentwristUsing a hand toolgripspan too wideAwkward postures(Continued)Visual Effort

Sometimes employees assume awkward postures or experience eyestrain and fatigue because it is hard for them to see their work. Forexample,when the lighting is bad, the work is too far away, or materials are

blocking the field of vision, employees may have to bend, reach,twist, orhold fixed positions. Similarly, handling or assembling very small

partsand materials or performing extremely precise tasks may contribute toeyestrain and awkward postures.Using a pistol grip tool on ahorizontal surfaceawkwardupper body posture andbent wristsAwkward postures maybe caused by: Poorly designed or


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arranged workstations,tools, and equipment Poor work practicesErgonomics and Your Workplace 13Visual effort from precision taskfixed

posture with bent neckVisual effortbent andtwisted upper body postureRepetitive MotionsIn repetitive work the same types of motions are performed over andover again using the same muscles, tendons, or joints. The amount ofrepetition can be affected by the pace of work, the recovery time

provided(i.e., number and length of muscle relaxation breaks), and the amountofvariety in work tasks. The pace of work may be controlled by theemployee

performing the task, machines, other employees, or administrativeprocedures. Examples of jobs involving machine-controlled paceincludeworking on assembly, packaging, or quality-control lines. Work taskslinked to performance or incentives are examples of administrativelycontrolled pace.Repetitive work tasksContributing factors: Awkward posturesRepetitive motions Forceful exertions Pressure points Vibration14 Section IIThe risk of injury is greater when repetitious jobs involve awkward

posture or forceful exertions. Injuries may also develop when highlyrepetitive jobs are combined with low-force exertions, such as in lightassembly tasks involving the hands, wrists, elbows, and shoulders.For


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example, having to grip a cutting or trimming tool throughout theentirework task without being able to set it down momentarily to rest thehand.

Forceful ExertionsForce is the amount of muscular effort expended to perform work.Exerting large amounts of force can result in fatigue and physicaldamageto the body. The amount of force exerted when moving or handlingmaterials,tools, or objects depends on a combination of factors, including the: Load shape, weight, dimensions, and bulkiness

Grip type, position, and friction characteristics Amount of effort required to start and stop the load when moving it(i.e., how physically demanding it is to accelerate or decelerate theload) Length of time continuous force is applied by the muscles (e.g., theamount of time the load or object is held, carried, or handled withoutamuscle relaxation break)

Number of times the load is handled per hour or work shift Amount of associated vibration Body posture used Resistance associated with moving the load (e.g., over roughflooringor with poorly maintained equipment) Duration of the task over the work shift Environmental temperature

Amount of rotational force (e.g., torque from tools or equipment)Machine controlled pacingContributing factors: Awkward postures Repetitive motionsForceful exertions Pressure points Vibration

Ergonomics and Your Workplace 15


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exposures may result in fatigue, pain, numbness, tingling, increasedsensitivityto cold, and decreased sensitivity to touch in the fingers, hands, andarms.Resting the forearms or wrists against sharp edgeson a work piece or tableKneeling on hard surfaces Tool handles digging into the

palm and fingersContributing factors: Awkward postures Repetitive motions Forceful exertions Pressure pointsVibrationPressure pointsinclude: Sides of the fingers Palms Wrists Forearms Elbows KneesErgonomics and Your Workplace 17Whole-body vibration commonly results from sitting or standing onwork surfaces that vibrate. Examples of such surfaces includevibratingvehicles, equipment, and platforms. Whole-body vibration may beassociatedwith general discomfort and lower back pain.Final Thoughts on Contributing FactorsAs you and your employees become aware of contributing factors inyour work tasks, keep in mind that it is still not known precisely: How many repetitions are too many. What degree of awkward posture is harmful. What duration of a task is too long. How much force is too much.


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What the effects are on individuals from combinations of thesefactors.Contributing factors are similar to speed limits. No one knows exactlyat what speed people will get into accidents. We do know, however,thatafter a certain point, the faster you drive the more likely you are tohavean accident and the more severe that accident is likely to be.Similarly,with workplace contributing factors we do not know exactly howmuch istoo much. Therefore, contributing factors should be minimized inwork tasks as much as possible to prevent fatigue, pain, and

disability.

Finally, remember that activities outside the workplace can alsocontributeto the development or aggravation of MSDs.Hand-arm vibrationvibrating sanderHand-arm vibration Whole-body vibration

pneumatic chisle18 Section IIActivities Outside the WorkplaceOur bodies do not stop functioning when we go homefrom work. Home andrecreational activities may also contain factors thatcontribute to MSDs or makethem worse. These activities may be different fromthose at work, but the types ofeffects they have on the body (e.g., awkward postures,forceful exertions, or repetitivemotions) may be the same. Activities that maycontribute to MSDs include: Knitting Using home computers Crocheting Doing other work involving hard Playing musical instruments physical labor Playing recreational sports


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Personal FactorsKeep in mind that personal factors, such as level ofphysical fitness, weight, diet,habits, and lifestyle, may also affect the developmentof MSDs. Also, various medicalconditions may predispose individuals to MSDs or makethe disorders worse. Examplesinclude: Arthritis Pregnancy Bone and muscle conditions Previous trauma Contraceptive use Thyroid problems Diabetes mellitusIn addition, psychosocial factors may have an impacton MSDs. These factorsinclude: Level of stress Level of job security and satisfaction Amount of autonomy on the job (e.g., degree ofcontrol over the arrangementof work areas or the pace of work)Develop Your Ergo Eye

You and your employees may feel you want somepractice atidentifying contributing factors before you go into yourworkplace to address potential problems. If you wouldlikesome practice, review Section III, Improving YourWorkplace, then trythe Problem-Solving Exercise in the Resources section(pp. 5671).Ergonomics and Your Workplace 19Ergonomics Job Analysis MethodsThere are many different types of ergonomics job analysis methods.These methods consist of various techniques for taking a systematiclookat jobs and work tasks. They help you decide which jobs and specifictasks


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may contribute to problems. Once you know where problems mayexist, itis easier to come up with ideas for making improvements.Some methods are relatively simple, and others require detailedanalysisand sophisticated equipment. Checklists are generally a simpler, lesscomprehensive type of ergonomics job analysis method. Morecomprehensivemethods break jobs down into specific movements (e.g., reach, grasp,

place) or use other complicated techniques.Ergonomics job analysis methods also vary according to what typesof

work activities they address. Some focus on workstation design.Othersare more specific to certain types of work (e.g., manual materialshandlingor the office environment) or focus on the work environment (e.g.,lighting,cold exposures). See the Resources section (pp. 7682) for referenceson methods that are more comprehensive than the checklist provided

here.Ergonomics Awareness ChecklistThe purpose of this checklist is to increase yourbasic awareness of

potential problems associated with jobs and their tasks. Thisawarenesscan help provide clues on how to make effective improvements. Besure toread through the following information completely (including A

Note ofCaution) before trying to use the Ergonomics Awareness Checklistinyour workplace.20 Section IIUsing the Ergonomics Awareness ChecklistAs Easy as 1, 2, 3

The Ergonomics Awareness Checklist was designed to be easy touse.

Just follow three simple steps:


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1. Look for clues.2. Prioritize the tasks in each job.3. Observe the work.Look for clues. Try to find out whichjobs may be causing problems.You can do this by looking around your workplace, talking toemployees,and becoming aware of early warning signs, such as: Employee fatigue or discomfort Employees restricting their movements or range of motion becauseoffatigue or discomfort (e.g., a stiff neck, sore shoulder, or backache) Employees modifying tools, equipment, or workstations on their

own High absenteeism or employee turnover rates Poor product or service quality High error rates or waste of materials Customer complaints Production bottlenecks Employee reports of problemsYou can also review your written records (e.g., OSHA Log 200, past

employee reports, and workers compensation information).Examples of employee-modified workstationsfootrests(i.e., boxes) help relieve back strain and pressure ontheback of the kneesExamples of employee-modified tools or equipmentpadded handles (i.e., tape added) reduce pressure

points on the palms and fingersBased on the clues you found, list thejobs you want to look at on aseparate piece of paper.1Ergonomics and Your Workplace 21x =2Score for Score for Total score

Tasks how hard how often for the task


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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Prioritize the tasks in each job. For each job you noted in step 1, usethe work sheets on this page to list and prioritize the tasks in that job.Make additional copies for each job you plan to look at.

Job title:__________________________________________________The tasks in this job are:_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Now, foreach taskyou have noted for this job, ask the employee(s)performing the work the following questions:How hard is this task? Score How often is thistask done? ScoreVery easy 1 Seasonally (a few times a year) 1Easy 2 Occasionally (a few times a shift or week) 2Somewhat hard 3 Frequently (up to 4 hours per shift) 3Hard 4 Constantly (more than 4 hours per shift) 4Very hard 5 Extended hours (more than 8 hours pershift) 5

Next, give each tasklisted a score and multiply the two scorestogetherto get a total for the task.Make copies as needed.22 Section IIObserve the work. The Ergonomics Awareness Checklist provided on


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page 25 is designed for use while observing employees performingtheir work. Observe only one job at a time, using one complete copyof

the checklist for each job. Use additional sheets if there are more thanfivetasks in any one job. Make copies of the checklist for as many jobs asyou

plan to observe.Look at each task in the job separately. Begin with those tasksassignedthe highest total score. Any tasks that are very hard (i.e., score of5) should automatically be looked at because they might contribute to

fatigue and injury even if they are performed very rarely (e.g., on aseasonal

basis). For each task, list the contributing factors you observe andthe reasons for them.3Example

In this photo the employee is experiencing neckstrain from bending his neck backward. Why is

the employee bending his neck backward? Youcan see that the monitor he is looking at is toohigh. But why is the monitor too high? A closelook at the situation provides the answer. Youwill notice that equipment is located below theshelf holding the monitor; therefore, the shelfcannot be lowered. The real why for the visualeffort and awkward neck posture is a lack of

workspace for equipment at this workstation.Note: If you look closely, you will also see a pressure point fromrestingthe right elbow on the work surface.Talking to the employees who actually perform the work can often

provide valuable information about why tasks are hard and how theymay

be improved. Also, remember it is important to carefully observe all

of the


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tasks in a given job because each of them may contain contributingfactors.Musculoskeletal disorders can be associated with a combination ofcontributingfactors in multiple tasks.Ergonomics and Your Workplace 23When you have finished looking at your work tasks, save thechecklistresults. These results can be useful when considering ergonomicimprovementsand evaluating the effectiveness of changes you decide to make.A Note of Caution

The Ergonomics Awareness Checklist may not be the best methodforaddressing your particular workplace problem. You may need moresophisticatedmethods for addressing your workplace MSDs. If you feeluncomfortable using the checklist, or if problems seem complicated,severe, or widespread, you probably need additional help. You maycontact

the following sources: Cal/OSHA Consultation Service Ergonomics consultants or other outside experts Ergonomics equipment vendors Peers in your industry Trade associations/industry groups Unions or employee organizationsFor more help, see the Resources section (pp. 5582). Finally,

rememberthat the Ergonomics Awareness Checklist was not designed to beused for jobs at computer workstations.Notes

Job Title: ____________________________________________Job Location: _____________________________Name of Employee:

________________________________________________________

_____________________


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Name of Observer:_________________________________________ Date:______________________________Contributing Factor DescriptionsAwkward posturesRepeated or prolongedreaching, twisting, bending, working overhead,kneeling, squatting,holding fixed position, or pinch grips RepetitionPerforming the same types of motionsover and over again using the same muscles, tendons,or joints Forceful exertionThe amount of muscular effortexpended to perform work Pressure points (local contact stress)The bodypressing against hard or sharp surfaces VibrationContinuous or high-intensity handarm orwhole-body vibration Other factorsExtreme high or low temperatures;lighting too dark or too brightFor each task list the contributing factor(s) you observeand the reasons for them.Contributing Factors (CF) Reason for CF CommentsErgonomics Awareness ChecklistMake copies as needed.Task 2_______________________________________________________________ Total score ____________Task 1_______________________________________________________________ Total score ____________Make copies as needed.Task 3_______________________________________________________________ Total score ____________Ergonomics Awareness Checklist (Continued)

Contributing Factors (CF) Reason for CF Comments


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Task 4_______________________________________________________________ Total score ____________Task 5_______________________________________________________________ Total score ____________ImprovingYour WorkplaceSECTION IIISection III28 Section IIIImproving YourWorkplaceW ith your Ergonomics Awareness Checklist results in hand, youmay decide to improve your workplace. Before you begin, look atthe following basic information designed to help you and youremployees answer some relevant questions: What are ergonomic improvements? Which tasks should we try to improve first? How do we make informed choices about ergonomic improvements? How do we know if our improvements are working?What Are Ergonomic Improvements?Ergonomic improvements are changes made to improve the fit

between a job and the capabilities of the employees performing it.Theyare commonly grouped into three categories: Engineering improvements Administrative improvements Safety gearEngineering ImprovementsEngineering improvements include rearranging, modifying,redesigning,or replacing tools, equipment, workstations, packaging, parts, or

products. These improvements can be very effective because theymayreduce or eliminate the underlying reasons for contributing factors.

The


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best time to select engineering improvements is when new facilities,processes, or work procedures are being planned. For examples ofengineeringimprovements, look at the following pictures (pp. 2939) and thereferences in the Resources section (pp. 7682).Engineeringimprovements includerearranging, modifying,redesigning, or replacing: Tools, Equipment, Workstations, Packaging, Parts, or Products.Improving Your Workplace 29Raise or lower the work surface or the employeereducesbending, reaching, and awkward postures.

Adjustable work surfaceScissors lift

Adjustable work platformsA rule of thumbA rule of thumb is to try to keep your handsat about elbow height when working.Suggested heights (in inches) above the floorfor the hands while working are as follows:Seated Work Light assembly tasks, 2428 Writing and reading, 2631 Fine visual work, 3144Standing Work Heavy work, 2837 Light assembly, 3438 Precision work, 3846Improvement Options for WorkstationsRaise the work surface


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30 Section IIIUse cut-out work surfacesallows employees to getcloser totheir work, reducing visual effort and awkwardpostures.Seated work Standing workReposition the workreduces bending and reaching.Reconfigure the workstationsliding and rollingreplaceslifting and carrying.Roller conveyor and roller ball tablesPop-up table A-frameRoller ball tablesImprovement Options for WorkstationsImproving Your Workplace 31Use adjustable equipmentallows comfortable, uprightworking posture.Microscope adjusts horizontallyand vertically.Work surface, chair, andshelves all adjust easily.Provide close, convenient storage for frequently usedmaterials,parts, or toolsreduces reaching and awkwardpostures.A rule of thumbA rule of thumb for maximum reachdistances for frequently used items isas follows:Seated Work 15 inches from the employee 10 inches above the work surfaceStanding Work 14 inches from the employee fortwo-handed tasks

18 inches from the employee forone-handed tasks


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Note: Reach distances for standing workapply to tasks (other than lifting) performedwithin the general safety zonebetween the hips and shoulders. Forlifting tasks see pages 41 and 42.Improvement Options for Workstations32 Section IIIProvide comfort.Foot rests reduce pressurebehind the knees and reducestrain on the lower back.Padding reduces pressure points on theforearm and knees.Good task lighting reduces eyestrain and makes worktasks easier.Slippery coatings on worksurfaces (ultra-high molecularweight polyethylene) reduce theforce necessary to slide materialsor products. Note clamps forholding material or parts in placewhen needed.Improvement Options for WorkstationsBe innovative.Improving Your Workplace 33LiftingLifting aids reduce force, repetition, and awkwardposturesin lifting or handling tasksVacuum-assist devices ManipulatorsPowered mechanical liftMobile scissors liftWorkstation crane for heavy loads

Automatic feed systems reducelifting and materials handling

Improvement Options for Movement of Materials34 Section III


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TransportingMechanical aids reduce force, repetition, and awkwardpostures intransporting materials and products around theworkplace.

Adjustable carts and carriersRoller conveyors on a cart andscissors liftreplaces lifting andcarrying with rolling and slidingPowered conveyorsPortable roller conveyoreliminates carrying of productsbetween workstationsHeight-adjustable cartfor heavy loadsImprovement Options for Movement of MaterialsImproving Your Workplace 35Provide adequate, well-lit storage with easy access foremployeesreduces repetitive reaching, bending, twisting, andforceful exertions.Powered transport for longer distancesMobile, lightweight storage carts with adjustable traysTilted container with stepfor easier accessLift adjusted to waist heightfor easy loading of containersonto a gravity flow rackTransporting (Continued)Improvement Options for Storage and Retrievalof Materials36 Section III Rounded, soft, and paddedno sharp edges or deep grooves(reduces

pressure points on fingers and hands) At least 1 to 2.5 inches in diameter (allows a power grip) and 5inches


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metal shot)reducesimpact and contact stressfrom metal-on-metalhammeringIn-line toolcan be usedwith a straight wrist onhorizontal surfacesPistol-grip toolcan beused with a straight wriston vertical surfacesLook for tools with the appropriate design, such as: The right orientation for the work (e.g., horizontal versus verticalsurfaces) Reduced weight, impact, and vibration Padding or other useful additions to the handles (e.g., extensions) The cold or hot air exhausted away from the operator Torque shock controls (torque arms, reaction bars, etc.)Improving Your Workplace 39 Routine maintenance Vibration-dampening wraps on handles Isolating the tool from the operator Properly fitting vibration-dampening gloves Good design of an alternate or low-vibration tool Suspending or supporting tools (e.g., by a fixture) Providing vibration isolators (e.g., springs or pads) for seated worktasks Providing cushioned floor mats for standing work tasks Mounting equipment and work platforms on vibration-dampening

pads or springs Altering the speed or motion of tools and equipmentPadded handlesreduce pinch gripand pressure points on the fingersDisk added to handlereduces grip force needed tohold and use the rollerExtended handle reduces

bending and reaching to


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move partsFoam tool pad on adjustable trayemployees cut outthe foam and arrangetheir own tools. Reduces reaching for frequently usedtools and eases

pressure points on the hands and fingersToolsOther Ideas(Continued)Ways to reduce hand-arm and whole-body vibrationVibration ReductionStorage

40 Section IIIAdministrative ImprovementsAdministrative improvements include changing work practices orthe way work is organized. They may not address the reasons for thecontributing factors or other problems. Administrative improvementsusually require continual management and employee feedback toensurethat the new practices and policies are effective.Administrative Improvement Options Providing variety in jobs Adjusting work schedules and work pace Providing recovery time (i.e., muscle relaxation time) Modifying work practices Ensuring regular housekeeping and maintenance of work spaces,tools, and equipment Encouraging exerciseProviding variety in jobsThere are a couple of ways to increase variety in jobs.Job rotationmeans rotating employees through different jobs.Job enlargementmeans increasing the variety by combining two or more jobs oraddingtasks to a particular job. To be effective, both of these improvementsrelyon rotating through or combining jobs and tasks which differ in the: Muscles or body parts used

Working postures


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Amount of repetition Pace of work Amount of physical exertion required Visual and mental demands Environmental conditionsAdjusting work schedules and work paceTry to limit the amount of time any employee has to spend

performinga problem job. If you have new employees or employees returningfrom long absences, introduce them to a normal work pace andworkload gradually, like an athlete in spring training.Improving Your Workplace 41Encourage a midrange,comfortable posture byensuring that: Materials, tools, andequipment for all workactivities (excluding liftingtasks) are kept in thegeneral safety zone(between the hips andshoulders and close tothe body). Lifting tasks are performedwithin the lifting safetyzone(between theknuckles and midchest andclose to the body).Recovery periods (i.e., muscle relaxation breaks) can help preventthe accumulation of fatigue and injury to muscles and their associatedstructures. Try to break up workwith frequent, short recoveryperiods.Even recovery periods as short as a few seconds on a regular basis arehelpful. For example, providing a fixture for a tool can allow thehandsto relax momentarily between uses.

Maintaining comfortable, midrange working postures


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Providing recovery timeModifying work practicesPay close attention to how the work is being performed. Our bodiesare stronger, more efficient, and less injury prone when we work inmidrangepostures. Maintaining midrange working postures simplymeans sitting or standing upright and not bending the joints intoextreme

positions. This can be done by trying to keep the neck, back,arms, and wrists within a range of neutral positions. Employeesshould

be encouraged to be comfortable, to change positions, and to stretchwhen working.

SAFETY ZONESShoulderKnucklesLiftingGeneralMidchestHip42 Section IIIImproving work practices for manual lifting,

carrying, pushing, and pulling

Ask yourself: Does the load need tobe moved at all?IfYES: Can it be donemechanically or rolled orslid instead of lifted?If it is necessary to handlethe load manually: Use good liftingtechniques. Get help. Know your personal limits. Maintain equipment. Warm up and stretch.


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Keep the load or container close to the body (not morethan a few inches away when lifting or carrying) andwithin the lifting safety zone (between the knucklesandmidchest).Maintain an upright postureby avoiding bending ortwisting at the waist. If youmust bend, bend the hips andknees, not the waist.Use teams or get help for bulky materials and difficultwork tasks; know your personal limitsExercise, warm up, andstretch regularlyReplace lifting with pushing or pulling when possibleImproving Your Workplace 43Other work practice improvements for work tasks involving manualhandling include encouraging employees to: Minimize carry, push, or pull distances. Try to carry roughly equal amounts of weight in each hand. Turn or pivot the entire body instead of twisting at the waist. Avoid jerking by using smooth, even motions. Use their legs to do the work, not the upper body or back. Plan by making sure paths are clear, even-surfaced, and free ofobstructions. Organize their work to provide gradual increases in exertion or pace. Make sure their shoes have the appropriate soles for the surfaces inthe workplace.Tags can be used to identify loads that may be unstable and heavy.Before moving or handling loads you have tagged, consider: Testing for stability Reconfiguring or repackaging Using mechanical or other alternate means to move or handle themCAUTION!HEAVY LOADLOAD MAYSHIFT


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TEST BEFORE LIFTINGLoad tagEnsuring regular housekeeping and maintenanceof workspaces, tools, and equipmentRegular housekeeping to eliminate clutter can reduce reaching,

bending, or twisting when handling materials, tools, or objects. Floorsurfaces kept dry and free of obstructions help eliminate slipping andtripping hazards.Regular maintenance of tools and equipment can help reduce or

prevent problems in work tasks. For example, keeping cutting ordrilling tools sharpened and in good condition can reduce the amountofforce and repetition required when using the tools. Fixing brokenhandles or replacing worn padding can help reduce vibration andawkward postures when performing work tasks. Making sure thatcartsand other equipment are in good working condition can reduce theamount of force required to move materials.44 Section IIILong-term, sensible exercise has many benefits, which may include

better health and reduced injuries. Individuals in good physicalconditionare generally more productive and less injury prone. Regularexercise can increase an individuals energy level, alertness, andcoordination.The range of motion of joints and the circulation may alsoimprove with regular exercise. Remember to encourage youremployees

to warm up, perform gentle stretching (e.g., without bouncing), andincrease their physical exertion gradually. New, returning, or injuredemployees should gradually increase their physical activity.Encouraging exerciseSafety GearSafety gear, or personal protective equipment (PPE), includesgloves, knee and elbow pads, footwear, and other items thatemployees

wear.


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Gloves can protect hands from cold or injury. However, gloves maydecrease manual dexterity and make it harder to grip if they do notfit correctly. Proper footwear and antifatigue soles can prevent employees fromslipping and prevent fatigue from long hours of standing on hardsurfaces. Knee and elbow pads can protect the body from pressure pointswhen pressing against hard or sharp surfaces.Improving Your Workplace 45Back Belts

Back belts are not typically considered to be personal protectiveequipment. They may help maintain the proper curvature of the spine

during lifting or physical exertion and may also provide comfort andconfidence while performing work tasks. Rigid or nonelastic back

beltsmay serve as an awareness tool by helping to remind employees toreduce bending and twisting when lifting or handling materials.Whether back belts are effective in preventing injuries remains anopen question (see Workplace Use of Back Belts, Review andRecommendations,

by NIOSH Back Belts Working Group, May 1994). Somestudies have suggested that back belts, when accompanied by otherimprovements, may reduce low back injuries (see Reduction ofAcuteLow Back Injuries by Use of Back Supports, by Kraus et al.,International

Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 2, October-December 1996).

A Note of Caution: Safety gear and back belts are not a substitutefor other kinds of ergonomic improvement options. Splints are notsafety gear and should be used only under a physicians direction as

part of an injured employees treatment for a diagnosed MSD.Develop YourErgo Eye

You and your employees mayfeel you want some practice at

selecting ergonomic improvements


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before you go into your workplace to addresspotential problems. If you would like some practice, trythe Problem-Solving Exercise in the Resources section(pp. 5671).46 Section IIIA Word About TrainingFor improvements to be effective, employees need to be trainedthoroughly and given opportunities for hands-on practice with anynewtools, equipment, or work procedures. The goals for training shouldinclude a mix of the knowledge and the skills needed to work safely.Employees should always be informed of any workplace changes.Remember that you have gathered a lot of good information inlooking at your work tasks and in considering improvements. Sharethisinformation and the materials in this booklet with your employees.Inform employees about the: Factors that may contribute to the development of MSDs and waysof identifying these factors (Section II) Types of improvement options and the process of implementing

themin your workplace (Section III) Nature of musculoskeletal disorders (Resources section)Give some thought to how employees are trained. The most effectiveapproaches for adult learners are interactive and involve combining: Multiple types of visual aids (e.g., pictures, charts, graphs, andvideosof actual jobs or tasks at your workplace)

Hands-on exercises with new tools, equipment, or procedures Case studies that focus on problem solving in similar operations Small group discussions, brainstorming, and problem-solvingsessionsTry to provide ample opportunity for questions and answers, andlimit the use of traditional lectures or printed materials. Considerlanguageand literacy issues among your employees when you train them.


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Finally, remember that videos may be used as a training aid but theyarenot sufficient if used alone. Can you imagine how effective it would

beto try to teach someone to drive or play baseball by just showing themavideo?Improving Your Workplace 47

Job Title:______________________________________________________Task Priority Comment(s)

_______________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Which Tasks Should We Improve First?You may want to choose some specific improvement options to try inyour workplace. Setting your priorities will help you sort out whichtasksyou want to work on first.To determine which tasks you want to address first, consider thefollowing:

Frequency and severity of complaints, symptoms, and injuries Contributing factors or other problems you have identified in a

particular task Ideas your employees have for improvements Difficulty of implementing various improvements Your time frame for making improvements Potential effects on productivity, efficiency, and product or servicequality

Technical and financial resources at your disposal


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Improvement Priority ListTaking into account the relevant and important factors in yourworkplace, use the space provided

below toprioritize the tasks within each job you plan to improve.Make additional copiesfor each job you want to address.Make copies as needed.48 Section IIIHow Do We Make Informed ChoicesAbout Ergonomic Improvements?Look at your Ergonomics Awareness Checklist (or other methodsyou used) and the suggestions noted below. These may help you whenconsidering improvement options for your workplace.1. Use in-house human resources. Brainstorming or holdingdiscussionswith engineers, maintenance personnel, managers, and productionemployees are great ways to generate ideas. Involving everybody canhelp produce good ideas and increase everyones acceptance of anychanges.2.Review original design specifications. You may find that the job,

equipment, tools, raw materials, or other aspects of the work havechanged in unexpected ways. A return to the original specifications orconditions may help improve the situation.3.Look through equipment catalogs. Focus on those dealing with thetypes of problems you are addressing.4. Talk to equipment vendors. They may be able to share ideas fromoperations similar to yours. It may be useful to develop a partnershipwith a vendor to resolve the problem.

5. Contact trade associations or labor unions. These groups mayserveas focal points for efforts to initiate changes within an industry.6. Contact others in your industry. They may have already addressedsome of the same types of problems or analyzed similar operations.They may have identified improvement options that could also applytoyour problem. You could save a lot of time, money, and effort by

taking


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advantage of tested improvement options in similar operations.7. Consult an expert in ergonomics. An expert can provide insightsintoavailable improvements, their cost, and their potential value.Remember,the expert can provide third party credibility and may have experienceregarding your particular problem job(s).8.Review this booklet. See the information on improvement optionsthroughout this section (pp. 2753). Also look in the Resourcessectionfor ergonomics references and web sites (pp. 7682).Effectivebrainstorming includes: Involving everyoneaffected by the problem Listening to all ideaswithout criticism or

judgment Encouraging creativityand new ideasthemore ideas the betterImproving Your Workplace 49Ergonomic Improvements for Your Workplace

Next, foreach tasklisted on your Improvement Priority Listuse the space provided below to write down several potentialergonomicimprovements. Make additional copies for each task you plan toimprove.

Start with those tasks you have given the highest priority. For eachtask,focus on listing improvements you think will most effectively addressthereasons for the contributing factor(s) and other problems you have

identified. Remember, a single ergonomic improvement may reduceoreliminate multiple contributing factors. Always ask your employees

which


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improvements they think will work best.Job Title:_________________________________________________Task: ________________________________________________Priority: _______________________________Potential Improvements for This Task

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Once you have listed potential improvements for each task, evaluateeach one separatelybyasking yourself the questions listed below. Then mark or highlight thespecific improvement(s) youhave selected to try out in your workplace.Will this improvement: Reduce or eliminate most or all of the identifiedcontributing factors and the reasons for thosefactors? Add contributing factors that have not beenpreviouslyidentified? Reduce or eliminate any other problems identifiedand the reasons for them? Increase or decrease productivity and efficiency? Be feasible from an engineering standpoint? Handle the required volume of work (e.g., throughputrequirements) for the operation, job, or task? Be affordable for this organization (e.g., is there aless


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expensive alternative that could be equally aseffective)? Increase or decrease the pace or volume of the work? Be accepted by employees? Positively affect employee morale? Be able to be fully implemented in a reasonableamount of time? Affect the rate of pay or a collective bargainingagreement? Require an excessive amount of training toimplementproperly (e.g.,is there a simpler alternative)? Require training this organization can provide (eitherin-house or through outside experts)?Improvement CriteriaMake copies as needed.50 Section III

Now that you have selected specific improvements, it is time to trythem in your workplace. Consider setting up a trial periodto test newtools, equipment, or work procedures. You may want to use one ormoreof the following arrangements: Mock-up of an improved workstation Single modified workstation first (put in full-scale changes tomultiple workstations later) Off-line workstation or training line Extra workstation inserted on a full-speed production line Practice or demonstration periods

How Do We Know if OurImprovements Are Working?During the trial period, improvement(s) you have selected should belooked at to determine how effective they are. Do not make finaldecisionson their effectiveness until enough time has passed for people toadjust to the changes. Employees should have a break-in period inwhich they have a chance to practice using the new work-station, tool,

piece of equipment or work method. Providing this adjustment period


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52 Section IIIAdditional Thoughts on ErgonomicsYou may hear people say that a job has been fixed or thatergonomicsolutions have been found. This implies that a given job cannot

be further improved. Ergonomics in the workplace should be thoughtofin a relative sense. Therefore, improvement from an ergonomicsstandpoint depends on what you are comparing it to.For example, at a tool repair shop, an employee is required to takeapart, repair, and reassemble small power tools. To complete thesetasks, the employee loosens and tightens fasteners by using a manualscrewdriver. He works on a horizontal surface. After a period of time,the employee notices the tool he uses digs into the palm of his handandit hurts. He also notices that by the end of the day his right arm andwrist begin to ache.The employee convinces his supervisor he could do this job moreefficiently and with less discomfort if he were to use a power drillwith

a screwdriver tip. The supervisor agrees and an extra power drill isfound in the maintenance shop. Changing to a power tool allows theemployee to become much more efficient. However, by the end of theworkday, the employee notices that his arm and wrist are tired fromusing this new pistol-grip tool on the horizontal surface.The employee remembers seeing an example of a powered, in-linescrewdriver in a magazine. He shows the picture of the tool to hissupervisor. He tells the supervisor that this new tool should allow him

towork even more efficiently and comfortably than the power drill. Thesupervisor agrees to let him try out the new tool and contacts avendor.With the new in-line tool, the employees productivity increases andhenotices that at the end of the work shift his right arm and wrist are nottired. Use of the new in-line tool on the horizontal work surface has


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turned out to be a betterfitbetween the employee and his jobdemands.The new tool has helped reduce awkward posture, repetition, and

pressure points in the employees work tasks. Most important, thissuccessful experience has motivated the employee to continue to lookfor ways to improve his work tasks.Improving Your Workplace 53The example presented on the previous page illustrates the processof making improvements a little at a time compared with identifying afix or a solution. The point is that ergonomics can provide a

processto help you continue to improve your workplace. This may mean

lookingat work tasks, selecting improvements and trying them out, lookingagain to see if they are working, making needed modifications, and soon. Some people refer to this process as continuous improvement.A final thought. Some employers and employees have found thatone effective way to improve their workplace is to put an ergonomics

program in place. Ergonomics programs can create a structure forlooking at jobs, providing training, and trying out improvements. If

youare interested in an ergonomics program for your workplace, see thereferences in the Resources section, page 78.P.54 blank

Resources1. Problem-Solving Exercise2. Musculoskeletal Disorder Basics3. Getting Help from a Health Care Provider

4. References ArticlesWorkplace Contributing Factors and Ergonomics

Job Analysis MethodsWorkplace Improvement OptionsErgonomics Programs Books and Manuals Case Studies

Web Sites


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5. Other Educational Resources from Cal/OSHA6. Questionnaire: We Want to Hear from YouSECTION IVSection IV56 Section IVYOU and your employees may want to build your awareness andobservational skills by trying the following exercise. It was designedto give you practice at identifying contributing factors andergonomic improvement options. First review the information inSectionII (pp. 726). Then, for each task pictured below, try to identify thecontributing factors and the reasons for them. Remember, tasks arethethings employees do to accomplish their jobs. Some jobs contain asingletask but many jobs are made up of multiple tasks. Each task anemployee

performs may contain contributing factors.After you have identified contributing factors for each of the tasks,list some ergonomic improvements that you feel would address these

factors. For ideas, brainstorm with your employees or look backthroughSection III (pp. 2753). Remember, there is no one right answer.Keep anopen mind and dont limit your choices when doing this exercise. Toassist you we have done job #1 for you. Review this information firstandthen try doing the rest of the exercise.

I. Problem-Solving ExerciseDevelop Your Ergo EyeProblem-Solving Exercise 57This job involves loading lapping plates on a cart (task #1) andtransporting them to a resurfacingarea (task #2). Carts must hold 10 plates because the plates are

processed in groups of 10. Eachemployee loads and transports 40 to 60 carts per day. The carts weigh

150 pounds.


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Task #1Loading Lapping Plates on the Cart1Job # 1. Lapping Plate HandlerContributing Factors

The top of the cart is 38 inches high. However, the poor design of thecart and the need to hold 10 plates means that some of the 25-pound

plates that employees must handle are as low as 9 inches from thefloor.This results in forceful exertions and bending at the waist (or a deepsquat) whenhandling the lapping plates on the lower shelves. Employees havereported leg and

back discomfort from performing this task.Potential Ergonomic Improvements

The cart must still be able to carry 10 lapping plates. It must bestable and have adequate space between shelves for the fingers andhands to grasp the plates. The design could be improved by raisingthe overall height of the cart and getting rid of the shelves lower than24inches from the floor. In addition, narrowing the thickness of eachshelf

and reducing the space between shelves would help improve thedesign of thecart. In the example shown, the top of the cart is raised from 38 to 45inches.The shelf thickness is reduced from 1 1/4 inches to 1/2 inch, and thespace

between shelves is reduced from 2 inches to 1 1/2 inches.This reconfigured cart will reduce bending, squatting, and forceful

exertionswhen loading and unloading lapping plates.Before After58 Section IVContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsAwkward posture Poor cart design Reconfigurecart


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Bent back or full leg squat Bottom shelves too low 9 inches from floor Raise overall height from38 to 45 inches Reset lowest shelf at24 inches above floor Narrow each shelf from11/4 inches to 1/2 inch Reduce space betweenshelves from 2 inches to1 1/2 inches Keep10 shelvesForceful exertion Back and legs Up to 25 lb load handled Awkwardposture (Same as above)in awkward posture makes lifting the lappingplates more physicallydemandingTask #2 Transporting the Plates to theResurfacing AreaContributing Factors

The resurfacing area is 100 feet away. When pushing the old-stylecartto this area, the fixed-height, horizontal handle can cause the wrists to

be bent backwards and taller employees to bend at the waist.Employeeshave noticed that the casters on the cart are worn. In addition, in some

places inthe facility, the floor is cracked and rough and the aisles are crowded.Theseconditions cause large amounts of force to be exerted whentransporting andmaneuvering the heavy, loaded cart (total weight of 400 pounds: 150

pounds forthe cart and 10 plates at 25 pounds each). Employees have reportedwrist, shoulder,and back discomfort while pushing and turning the cart.Potential Ergonomic Improvements


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This task cannot easily be improved by reducing thedistance pushed. However, the fixed-height, horizontalhandle could be replaced by two vertical handles. Individualsof different statures would then have options for

placing their hands at comfortable heights without bending theirwrists back. Improving the handles, along with raising the overallcart height to 45 inches, helps employees maintain an upright

posture without bending at the waist. Replacing worn casters andpatching and smoothing out the floor would also reduce theworkload when transporting and maneuvering the cart.Problem-Solving Exercise 59Awkward posture Poor cart design Reconfigurecart Bent wrists Horizontal, fixed-height Limits optionsfor wrist Change to two verticalhandle position and hand height handleswhen pushing cart Bending at waist Cart too low Taller employeesmust Raise cart height frombend at the waist 38 to 45 inchesForceful exertionWrists or shoulders or Worn casters Increasesrequired force Replace castersbackFacility condition/layout Facility improvements Cracked, uneven floor Increases required force Patch and smooth floors Sustained pushing Distance cart has to be Location of resurfacing Cannot change locationpushed area is determined byexisting plumbing andwaste-disposal systems Crowded aisles near Causes excess Clean andrearrange aisleresurfacing area maneuvering and turningof heavy, loaded cart


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Now look at the following pages and try to do jobs 2 through 5 onyour own. The tasks in each jobare described for you. Can you identify contributing factors, thereasons for them, and some ergonomicimprovements? After you have completed each job, look on thesubsequent pages for someanswers. Remember, there is not one right answer! You may havemany good ideas that are notlisted.Contributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic Improvements60 Section IVA furniture manufacturing job on an assembly line involves liftingoffice chairs from aconveyor and placing them in shipping cases (task #1). Afterstrapping, the cases are transferredfrom a conveyor onto flat carts (task #2) for transport to the shippingarea. Approximately 200chairs are handled each shift by each employee. Employees havereported low back and shoulder

discomfort for both tasks. Also, this point in the process has oftenbeen a production bottleneckcausing shutdowns of the assembly line.2Job # 2. Chair Casing and HandlingTask #1Placing Chairs in Shipping CasesThe chairs are 35 inches tall, weigh 40 pounds each and are bulky.Their weight is not evenly distributed. The shipping case is 36inches high and weighs 5 pounds. Chairs must be carried a short

distance. Before being set in the case, the chairs must be lifted abovethe caseand turned as they are lowered so they will fit in. The height of thehands whenlifting and carrying the chairs ranges from 55 to 75 inches above thefloor. The

pace of handling the chairs is controlled by the speed of the assemblyline.


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Contributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsProblem-Solving Exercise 61Task #2Pulling Strapped Cases to a TransferCartThe loaded shipping cases weigh 45 pounds each (i.e., chair pluscase).Employees pull (by the strapping) two loaded cases at a time ontocartsto keep up with the assembly line. Carts have non-locking casters sothey shift around when the loaded cases are pulled onto them.Contributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic Improvements62 Section IVTask #1Placing Chairs in Shipping Cases2Job # 2AnswersAwkward posture Lifting and carrying above Chair height - 35 inches Height of hands from 55 Place case over chair whileshoulders Case height - 36 inches to 75 inches abovefloor still on the line, or use sideopeningcase, or use liftassist device Twisting back Chairs turned to fit Same as aboveand positionin case employees directly in frontof chairs on the lineForceful exertion Back and shoulders Chairs bulky and uneven Awkward posture (Same as above)weight distribution increases exertion bysmaller muscle groups Plastic around chairsmakes them hard to graspRepetitive motions Back and shoulders Pace controlled by Employeemust keep up Rotate employees or use lift


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assembly line or risk shutting down assist devicethe assembly lineContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsImprovements should address awkward postures and forcefulexertions.These include lifting and carrying chairs above shoulder height andtwisting to lower them into the cases. These factors could beaddressed by

placing cases over chairs or sliding side-opening cases onto chairswhilethey are still on the assembly line. These options would eliminate theneedto lift and carry chairs and place them in cases. The lighter weight ofcases (only 5

pounds) would greatly reduce the force on the back and shoulders.Positioning casesand employees directly in front of the chairs would eliminate twisting.If shorteremployees find the case lift or slide too high, they could stand on a

floor platform.Alternatively, a lift assist device (see task #2) could be used to placecases over thechairs or move the chairs into cases. Employees could be rotatedthrough the chair casing job every few hoursto reduce repetitive motions.Before AfterProblem-Solving Exercise 63Contributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsTask #2Pulling Strapped Cases to a TransferCartImprovements should reduce or eliminate the extended reaching and

pulling and the forceful exertions. A vacuum lift assist couldeffectivelyaddress these factors by moving the cases with very little operator


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effort. An added benefit could be increased productivity. The samelift assistdevice could be used for task #1.If a lift assist device is not feasible, improvements could be made byincreasingthe stability of the cart and modifying the work practices. Cartstability could beimproved by installing locking casters, angle iron, or tracks on thefloor or by usingchocks for the casters. Then employees standing on a heightadjustable platform onthe opposite side of the conveyor could use both hands to push the

cases onto thestable cart. Pushing against the flat cardboard shipping cases insteadof pulling by the strapping would eliminatethe pressure points on the fingers. A roller-ball table added to the endof the conveyor would reduceforceful exertions and make the cases easier to push. Slipping andfalling hazards could also be reduced bythese measures. A less desirable option is continuing to allow

employees to pull the cases. They could stand onthe stable cart, get closer to the cases, and pull with both feet

positioned at equal heights. Whichever set ofimprovement options is selected, employees could be rotated everyfew hours to reduce repetitive motions.Awkward posture Back bent and extended Reaching across shifting Employee cannot stand Lift assist device or push

reach cart on cart to pull cases instead of pull andimprovecart stability (i.e., locking Casters do not lock Legs at different heights castersor chocks)Forceful exertion Back and shoulders Pulling two cases in an Slipping and falling hazard if (Same as above)

awkward posture strap breaks or cart moves


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Legs Employee must steady (Same hazard asabove) (Same as above)cart while pulling casesPressure points Fingers Pulling cases using (Same as above)strappingRepetitive motions Back and shoulders Pace controlled by Employeemust keep up Rotate employees or use liftassembly line or risk shutting down line assist deviceBefore After64 Section IVIn a single-task job, assembled filing cabinets are lifted and carriedfrom a conveyor and placedon a cart for transfer to the finishing department. Approximately twohundred cabinets are handled

per employee in an 8-hour shift. Employees have reported back, leg,arm and shoulder discomfort.Some employees with a history of back or shoulder problems have not

been able to keep up the paceand have been moved to other jobs.Moving Filing Cabinets from a Conveyor to a CartThe conveyor is 28 inches high. The transfer cart sits parallel to theconveyor. Work space is limited and moving the cart closer to theconveyor would block the aisles. The cabinets are open on top and donot have useable handholds on the sides. They are bulky (24 incheshigh, 15inches wide, 26 inches deep, 40 pounds each). Employees cannot gettheir armsaround the cabinets when handling them, so they grip them inside thetop edges(putting their hands at least 52 inches above the floor). Employees arerequired towear leather work gloves. Because of the cabinets height, weight,

bulkiness andlack of handholds, employees swing and twist as they move them

from the conveyor


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to the cart. They do this to try to take advantage of momentum tomake thetask easier. Cabinets are stacked on the cart two deep, so employeesmust eitherreach across the cart to place the back cabinets or carry them aroundthe cart.3Job # 3. Filing Cabinet HandlerContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic Improvements

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Problem-Solving Exercise 65Moving Filing Cabinets from a Roller Conveyor toa CartImprovements should address the awkward postures (e.g., lifting andcarrying at or above shoulder height, twisting the back), poor grasping

points and the forceful exertions from repeated handling. A lift assistmanipulator would make moving the cabinets much less physicallydemandingand more efficient. It could also reduce the chances of the product

being damaged


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or dropped while being moved.If a manipulator is not feasible the task could still be improved byusing a rollerballtable or team lifting. The roller-ball table should be installed at theend of theconveyor with its surface slightly higher than the transfer carts.Cabinets on theirindividual skids could be pushed or slid onto carts located at the endof the conveyor.The wheels on the carts must be locked or stabilized to keep the cartsfrom moving. The grip on the cabinetscould be improved with hand tool assists such as hooks, straps,

suction cups or magnets which could be attachedto the cabinets or their skids. Alternatively, team lifting could be usedto transfer the cabinets. With two employeesthe high lifting and forceful exertions could be reduced by graspingthe cabinets from the bottom (at thefront and back or on each side) and moving them as a team. Finally, ifa higher-volume assembly line production

process is required, it would be best to move the assembled product to

the finishing department by conveyorrather than transporting it by cart.Rotating employees through the task on a regular basis could helpreduce repetitive motions from the pace ofthe assembly line.3Job # 3AnswersAwkward posture Lifting and carrying at or Conveyer 28 inches high

Height of hands at least Lift assist manipulator orabove shoulder height Cabinet 24 inches high 52inches above floor roller-ball table at end of No good handholds so Cannot get arms aroundconveyor (replaces liftingcabinet gripped on top cabinet to lift with sliding) orteam lift Elbows out from body (Same as above) (Same as

above) (Same as above)


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Twisting back Cart parallel to conveyor Movingcart closer (Same as above)and swing lift used would block aisleForceful exertion Back and upper body Cabinets heavy, bulky, (Same as above)and no good hand holds Hands and fingers Pinch grip at top of Glovesdecrease pressure Same as above andcabinet points but also can improve grip with hooks ordecrease grip strength straps or magnetsRepetitive motions Back, upper body, and Pace controlled by Employee must keep up Rotate employees or use lifthands assembly line or risk shutting down line assistmanipulatorContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic Improvements66 Section IVLow Work on a ConveyorA maintenance task underneath a 27-inch-high conveyor systemrequires mechanics to work lying down on the floor. They may spendseveral hours a day performing this type of work around the facility.Mechanics have been observed using cardboard to insulatethemselves from thecold, hard floor surface. Their work usually involves using hand toolsto loosenand tighten fasteners and adjust controls. They must reach up andextend theirarms and shoulders to perform the work. At times fasteners becomefrozen andare difficult to turn and loosen. In addition, some of the fasteners andcontrols aresmall and painted the same color as the conveyor. It is dark under theconveyors.These factors often cause the mechanics to elevate their heads andnecks to get


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closer to the work to see what they are doing. Sometimes they supporttheir headsand necks with a hand to reduce fatigue. When they do this they areleft with only one hand to use tools.Mechanics have reported neck, shoulder, forearm and handdiscomfort.4Job # 4. Maintenance MechanicContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic Improvements

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Problem-Solving Exercise 67Low Work on a ConveyorThe maintenance task can be improved by reducing the awkward

postures and the amount of exertion required. Creepers or variable


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Awkward fixed posture Arms and shoulders Need to reach work Conveyordesign requires Raise mechanic withextended with proper tool access from below creeper orpositioner withorientation adjustable head and necksupport and locking wheels,or use pads Retrofit conveyor, movingfrequently maintainedfasteners and controlsto side or top Back on cold, hard surface Cramped work space 27 inches from floor to (Same as above)must lie on floor bottom of conveyor Conveyor design requiresaccess from below Neck bentneed to see Poor lighting Same asabove and usework (visual effort) portable lights and larger ordifferent colored fastenersand controls Fasteners and controlshard to see Mechanic lying on floor68 Section IVContributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsLow Work on a ConveyorJob #4Answers (Continued)Repetition Hands, arms, and Use of hand tools Varies, basedon tool Use powered hand tools orshoulders used and type, size, and better tool designsto reduce

condition of fastener or repetitive torquing andcontrol turning of tools


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5Job # 5AnswersMotherboard Inspection and RepairImprovements should address the repeated twisting and reachingwhen the motherboards are retrieved from and returned tothe conveyor. Reorienting the worktable 90 degrees so itssurface is parallel to the conveyor eliminates the repetitive twisting.Providing a cutout in the newly oriented worktable reducesreach distances and the overall movement required to perform the job.The worktable surface should be the same height as the conveyor andlocated as close as possible to the assembly line. Employees couldthensimply slide the boards a few inches onto the worktable for theinspectionand any needed repairs. To help reduce reaches for employees ofdifferentstature, a height-adjustable chair could be provided.Other factors to address include the repetitive hand and fingermovements required to manipulate the motherboards duringtheir inspection and repair on the worktable. A light-weight,adjustable fixture could be added to the workstation. The fixture

would eliminate the need to hold the motherboards and could beused to adjust the position of the boards during the inspections. Thatwould free both hands to repair defects or perform other work onthose

boards needing special attention. The fixture would also raise theboardscloser to the employees, making the work easier to see. A light-weight,

powered hand tool could be used to further reduce repetitive hand andfinger movements when making minor repairs to the boards.The combination of improvements mentioned above should reducethe effort and time needed toinspect and repair individual boards as they come down the conveyor.The improvements could helpreduce the number of times the assembly line needs to be stopped. Inaddition, rotating employees


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through the job every few hours could reduce repetitive shoulder,arm, hand, and finger movements.

A light-weight, adjustable fixture holdsthe motherboard during inspectionor repair.Problem-Solving Exercise 71Contributing Factors (CF) Reasons for CF CommentsErgonomic ImprovementsBeforeBefore After

AfterAwkward posture Twisting back and upper Worktable oriented 90 Reorient worktablebody degrees from conveyor parallel to conveyor Extended reachhands, Distance from conveyor Long reach, even for Locate worktable at edgearms and shoulders to worktable (retrieving biggerindividuals of conveyor and use cut-outand returning mother- worktable (also equalize heightboards) of work surface and conveyor) Provide height-adjustablechairRepetition Twisting and extended (Same as above) (Same asabove)reach Pace controlled by Frequent twisting (two Rotateemployees every fewassembly line twists per board) hours Hand and finger Employees hold and Provideadjustable fixturemanipulations to inspect manipulate boards byand occasionally repair handboards

Manual nut driver used Use powered hand toolfor occasional minor


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Musculoskeletal Disorder Basics 73Common Terms for MSDsMany MSD conditions are grouped under the terms cumulative orrepeated traumas, repetitive motion injuries, orrepetitive strainsyndrome.

(On your OSHA Log 200, you may see cases of muscle strains,ligamentsprains, back, wrist, or shoulder pain.) Other terms, such as thosenoted

below, may be found on the Cal/OSHA Log 200 or on the EmployersandDoctors First Reports of Occupational Injury and Illness.

Medical TermsThe general term musculoskeletal disorderis not a medical diagnosis.Musculoskeletal disorders primarily affect muscles, tendons,ligaments,nerves, and small blood vessels. Examples of specific types ofdisordersinclude:myalgiamuscle pain

chronic myofascial pain syndromechronic pain in the musclestendinitisinflammation of a tendon (e.g., shoulder tendinitis, tenniselbow, de Quervains disease)tenosynovitisinflammation of a tendon and its sheath (e.g., in thewrists,hands, or fingers)carpal tunnel syndromeswelling and entrapment of the mediannerve in

the wristthoracic outlet syndromesqueezing of the nerves and blood vessels

between the neck and shoulderhand-arm vibration syndromedamage to blood vessels and nervesin thehands and armsdegenerated, bulging, or ruptured (herniated) disks in the neck or

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disks that wear or dry out, bulge, lose elasticity, or rupture, causingpainand pressure on other structures of the neck or backsciaticabulging or ruptured disks in the lower back causing lowerbackpain that also extends to the legs and feetdegenerative orosteoarthritiswear and tear on the spine, joints,vertebrae,and disks, associated with long-term physical loads on spinalstructures74 Section IVhen dealing with a potentially complicated or severe MSD, youmay decide that you want help from a health care provider (HCP).Alternatively, the employee may have seen an HCP on his or her own.Sometimes, company policies or workers compensation carriersrequirethat an HCP get involved. However the situation has evolved, themoreyou know about what a good HCP can do to help you, the better offyou

and your employees will be.What Can a Good Health Care Provider Do toHelp?A good health care provider can be a partner to you and youremployees

by helping to confirm if an MSD is present and whether it may beconnected to the individuals work tasks. Also, if the HCP isknowledgeable

about the employees work tasks and other activities, he or she canhelp come up with effective improvement options.What Can You and Your Employees Do?Try to choose an HCP who is familiar with work-related MSDs. Makesure to supply the HCP with detailed information describing the workactivities of the individual being evaluated. Ask the HCP to reviewthisinformation as a part of the medical evaluation. Potential problems

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addressed most effectively when the HCP is familiar with yourworkplaceand employees work tasks. When interacting with a health care

provider,ask for his or her opinion on the following types of questions: Is an MSD really present? What is the nature of the physical problem? If present, which specific work task(s) is the MSD connected to ? What kind of specific work-related improvements may help?3. Getting Help froma Health Care ProviderWGetting Help from a Health Care Provider 75Throughout the situation, stay in communication with the HCP. Donothesitate to ask questions or get more information if you feel you needit.Follow up with the health care provider and let him or her knowwhetherthe improvement options you are trying are working effectively. If

youthink further workplace modifications may be needed, consult withtheHCP before making any more changes.The Penny Wise, Pound Foolish SyndromeFinally, remember that it is better for several employees to beevaluatedand found free of injury than for a single employee not to be

evaluatedand later develop an irreversible MSD. Why? Just look at thenumbers.Medical examinations can cost as little as $100. However, medicalcosts and workers compensation claims for serious MSDs may runanywherefrom $15,000 to $85,000 or more. Talk about this potential withyour insurance carrier. You may find they are willing to encourage

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evaluations because of their long-term value.Early intervention is anopportunity to use health care resources to the benefit of both you

and

your employees.

76 Section IVhe following references provide further information on contributingfactors, ergonomics job analysis methods, workplace improvementoptions, and ergonomics programs. These references includeselected articles, books and manuals, case studies, and Web sites(whichalso provide sources for products and vendor information).Note: The references are listed alphabetically by title, rather than byauthor, to help readers find information on issues of particularconcern.

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