Bibliographic guide to issues of national and international government information policies

Government Publications Review, Vol. 11, pp. l-39, 1984

Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.

0277-9390/84 $3.00 + .OO Copyright 0 1984 Pergamon Press LLd

BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO ISSUES OF NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT INFORMATION POLICIES

HUGH REYNOLDS Government Publications Department, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405

INTRODUCTION

This bibliographic review is intended to serve librarians, researchers, information managers, communications planners, public and corporate officials, university professors, students, and citizens whose interests fall under the broad umbrella of information and communications management and policy. It is designed to serve two purposes. First, it provides readers with a sampling of citations on a variety of topics within these areas. Second, it provides an introduction to and an outline of some of the major issues comprising information policy.

The interdisciplinary nature of information policy

The term “information policy” is relatively new and unfamiliar, even to experienced academics and specialists in a variety of information and communications fields. The subject matter of information policy, however, fills countless pages in the professional literature indexes to public affairs, law, business, telecommunications, journalism, the humanities and social sciences, and library and information sciences. Only in Library Literature has the term been adopted as a permanent subject heading-and there only since 1980.

Information policy means many things to many people. A concept this broad and diffuse runs the risk of defining so many things that it may fail to mean anything precise or useful. It may therefore be constructive to break information policy into its components by spotlight- ing individual issues and then to reassemble the parts into a logical and coherent outline. This “skeleton key” allows students and practitioners in many disciplines to recognize their particular interests in a much broader and interconnected scheme.

For example, communications researchers for the cable television industry will find that they need to become familiar with areas as diverse as broadcasting content, telecommunications regulation, satellite technology, spectrum and orbital allocation, and an expanding array of related social, economic, and political issues. A cable TV operator who is ignorant of the promise and problems of direct broadcast satellites will find his business soon at considerable risk. Just as the information technologies of computers and telecommunications have converged into a mega-industry, so also are the public policy issues generated by this technological revolution converging.

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and encouragement of Bernard M. Fry and Michael Parrish of Indiana University.

2 HUGH REYNOLDS

Organization and format

The structure of this guide represents an attempt to construct a systematic outline of the “social fallout” from this technological explosion. The issues and categories are necessarily selective and occasionally redundant due to the complex and overlapping nature of informa-

tion management, data processing, telecommunications, and public policy. The selections are representative rather than comprehensive since a complete literature survey on many of

the topics could run to book length. The majority of entries are government publications- federal, foreign, and international.

Hundreds of thousands of governmentally produced or sponsored documents, technical studies, and research reports are freely available for anyone to use, but public awareness, even among academicians, concerning their existence and access is low.

United States documents are generally available from the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C. or most depository libraries. All federal publications listed are published by GPO unless otherwise indicated. Superintendent of Documents call numbers are provided

for U.S. publications. The publications in each category are divided into U.S. documents first, followed by

foreign and international materials. Whenever appropriate, non-government books and articles are arranged after documents. Arrangement within each group is alphabetical by author, issuing agency or organization, or title main entry.

Many of the entries refer to the series title as well as to the individual title of the publication. This directs the reader to many related items. For example, the UNESCO series Reports and Papers on Mass Communication has over 90 titles, only a few of which are referred to in this guide. Several entries with particularly useful or extensive bibliographies of their own

are identified. For convenience, the number of pages in each publication is also indicated. In a few

documents with irregular paging, the abbreviations v.p., app., and ann. are used to indicate

variously numbered pages, appendix pages, and annex pages, respectively. In the case of words with variant spelling (e.g. organization, organisation), the spelling that appears in the

publication is used.

Note on annotations

This guide is annotated by section rather than by item. A literature review of such a wide- ranging and diverse area as information policy should integrate the numerous and overlapping aspects of the field. Each section and subsection is briefly discussed with reference to closely related categories. Occasional notations on major works will supplement the narra- tive portion of the guide.

SELECTED ISSUES IN INFORMATION POLICY

The categories in the first section reflect the diversity of concerns covered by information and communications policy. Many additional issues could be added to this list, including computer crime, copyright and patent law, data security, management information systems, mass media, national security and intelligence, and paperwork reduction to name a few. The categories chosen, however, illustrate the broad range of national and international problems generated by the rise and development of information systems and communications

technology.

Bibliographic guide to national and international government information 3

1. Freedom of Information

Freedom of information is a vague and loosely defined concept. Card catalogs and indexes cross-reference the term with a variety of related subject headings, including the following:

Executive Privilege Free Press, Fair Trial Freedom of Speech Government Information

Liberty of the Press Libraries - Censorship Official Secrets Security Classification

For purposes of this guide, the term focuses primarily on the national legislation enacted in the United States and other industrialized nations to provide greater citizen access to government documents and administrative records. In this context, freedom of information is an instrument by which the public can enforce government openness. In the U.S. the original Freedom of Information Act of 1966 (which was itself an amendment to the Public Information Section of the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946) was so weak and ineffec- tive that it had to be reinforced in 1967 and completely overhauled in 1974 to counteract bureaucratic inertia and resistance. President Ford in fact vetoed the 1974 amendments, but congressional support was extensive enough to override his veto.

The U.S. was not the first nation to incorporate the principle of public access to government information into law. Sweden has had such a law since 1766, two full centuries before the FOIA of 1966. Finland enacted a similar measure in 1951 [ 11. Nonetheless, the U.S. law has served as a model for public debates and emerging legislation in a dozen other industrialized countries. Other nations with freedom of information statutes as of 1983 are Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and Norway.

The notion of the worldwide free flow of information is a related phenomenon that has been taken up with considerable fanfare by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The distinction between these conceptually similar principles will be examined more thoroughly in the final section in which the New World lnfor- mation Order is discussed.

U. S. Documents

Clark, Ramsey. Attorney General’s Memorandum on the Public Information Section of the Administrative Procedure Act. 1967. (J1.2:In3) 47~.

Levi, Edward H. Attorney General’s Memorandum on the 1974 Amendments to the Free- dom of Information Act. 1975. (J1.2:In3/2) 26~. + 35 app.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Citizen’s Guide on How to Use the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act in Requesting Government Documents. Thirteenth Report. House Report 95-793. 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y 1.1/8:95-793) 59~.

---. FBI Compliance with the Freedom of Information Act. Hearing. 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1978. (Y4.G74/7:F31/32) 78~.

--. Freedom of Information Act and Amendments of 1974 (P.L. 93-502); Source Book: Legislative History, Texts, and Other Documents. Joint Committee Print. 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 1975. (Y4.G74/7: In3/16) 571~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Executive Privilege, Secrecy in Government, Freedom of Information. Hearings. 93rd Cong., 1st Sess. 1973., 3 ~01s. (Y4.G74/6:Ex3/4/vols. l-3) 537p., 325p., 620~.

4 HUGH REYNOLDS

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Freedom of Information. Hearings. 88th Cong., 1st Sess. 1964. (Y4.J89/2:In 3/4/963) 322~.

--- . Freedom of Information: A Compilation of State Laws. Committee Print. 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1978. (Y4.J89/2:In3/14) 475~.

-- . Freedom of Information Act. Hearings. 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 1978. (Y4.58912: In3/13) 1042~. --- . Freedom of Information Act Source Book: Legislative Materials, Cases, Articles.

Committee Print. 93rd Cong., 2nd Sess. (Also issued as Senate Document 93-82, Serial Set vol. 13067-3) 1974. (Y4.J89/2:In 3/10) 432~.

--. The Freedom of information Act (Ten Months Revietit). Committee Print. 90th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1968. (Y4.J89/2:In 318) 252~.

--. Freedom of Information and Secrecy in Government. Hearing. 86th Cong., 1st Sess. 1959. (Y4.J89/2:In3/4) 64~.

U.S. General Accounting Office. Data on Privacy Act and Freedom of Information Act Provided by Federal Law Enforcen~ent Agencies. Washington, DC: U.S. General Ac- counting Office, 1978. (GAl.l3:LCD-78-119) 23~.

--- . Government Field Offices Should Better Implement the Freedom of Information Act. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1978. (GAl.l3:LCD-78-120)

47p. --- . Impact of the Freedom of fnformation and Privacy Acts on Law Enforcement

Agencies. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1978. (GAl.l3:GGD- 78- 108) 36~.

-- . Timeliness and Completeness of FBI Responses to Requests under Freedom of Information and Privacy Acts Have Improved. Washington, DC: U.S. General Account- ing Office, 1978. (GAl. 13:GGD-78-51) 93~.

Foreign and international Doc~~ments

Australia. Parliament. Parliamentary Papers, 1979, No. 272. Freedom of Information. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1979. 526~.

Eichmanis, John. Freedom of Information and the Policymaking Process. Research Publi- cation No. 13. Toronto: Ontario Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy, 1980. 169~.

Fox, Larry M. Freedom of information and the Admin~strafive Process. Research Publica- tion No. 10. Toronto: Ontario Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy, 1979. 271~.

Franson, Robert T. Access to Information: Independent Administrative Agencies. Ad- ministrative Law Series. Ottawa: Canada Law Reform Commission, 1979. 80~.

Freedon~ of information and individual Privacy: A Selective Bibliography. Research Publi- cation No. 12. Toronto: Ontario Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy, 1979. 230~.

Great Britain. Civil Service Department. Disclosure of Official Information: A Report on Overseas Practice. London: HMSO, 1979. 54~. fapp.

Mitchell, Heather. Access to information and Policy Making: A Comparative Study. Re- search Publication No. 16. Toronto: Ontario Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy, 1980. 223~.

Public Government for Private People. Toronto: Ontario Commission on Freedom of Information and Individual Privacy, 1980. 3 ~01s. 812~.

United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 19. 1948.


United Nations. Economic and Social Council Resolution 756 (XXIX). Draft Declaration on Freedom of Information. 1960.

United Nations. General Assembly. Draft Convention on Freedom of Information, As Adopted by the Third Committee. 1973.

United Nations. General Assembly Resolution 59(I). Calling of an International Conference on Freedom of Information. 1946.

United Nations. General Assembly Resolution 2448 (XXIII). Freedom of Information. 1968.

Articles

Brown, George E., Jr. “Restricting Information: National Security Versus Rights of Citi- zens.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 8 (April 1982): 35-36.

“Controversy over the Freedom of Information Act: Pro and Con.” Congressional Digest 61 (Feb. 1982): 35-64.

Coxon, Howard. “The Freedom of Information Debate in Australia.” Government Publica- tions Review 8A (1981): 373-379.

“Freedom of Information Developments Around the World.” Special Section of Govern- ment Publications Review 10 (Jan./Feb. 1983), Harold C. Relyea and Tom Riley, guest editors. Ten articles on freedom of information in the U.S., Sweden, France, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Japan, and Nigeria.

Theoharis, Athan G. “FBI Files, the National Archives, and the Issue of Access.” Govern- ment Publications Review 9 (Jan./Feb. 1982): 29-35.

--. “The Freedom of Information Act and the Intelligence Agencies.” Government Publications Review 9 (Jan./Feb. 1982): 37-44.

Books

Berninghausen, David K. The Flight from Reason: Essays on Intellectual Freedom in the Academy, the Press, and the Library. Chicago: American Library Association, 1975. 175p.

Freedom of Information Trends in the Information Age. Tom Riley and Harold C. Relyea, Eds. Totowa, N.J.: Frank Cass, 1983. 172~.

Government Secrecy in Democracies. Itzhak Galnoor, Ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. 317p.

Wessel, Andrew E. The Social Use of Information-Ownership and Access. New York: Wiley, 1976. 244~.

2. Privacy

The right of privacy is perhaps the most pervasive, widely recognized, and emotional information issue of all, touching almost every individual living in any organized society. As a nation becomes more highly developed and technologically complex, the threats to personal privacy become increasingly intrusive and sinister. In this anti-utopian year 1984, the Or- wellian nightmare looms large in the public imagination.

In a uniquely American way, the right of privacy was summed up neatly by Louis Brandeis and Samuel Warren almost a century ago as “the right to be let alone” [2]. Privacy as a modern concept, however, has undergone a fundamental transformation since the nineteenth century. The individual of the late twentieth century is subjected to infinitely more

6 HUGH REYNOLDS

scrutiny in his personal life than his counterpart of 100 or even 50 years ago. This is an in- escapable fact of living in a highly organized and technological society, which depends on elaborate and extensive record-keeping to maintain its functions and operations related to health care, education, banking, credit, and countless other areas.

Privacy is juxtaposed with freedom of information purposefully. In a sense, the two principles are two sides of the same coin. There is an innate tension between the two concepts, and they frequently work at cross-purposes to one another. The drafters of the federal statutes recognized this contrary tendency and attempted to build into the laws provisions for reconciling these differences. The dividing line between one man’s right to privacy and another’s right to freedom of information may never become fully clear, and the laws continue to evolve in response to human needs and technological imperatives.

To compound the problem, the idea of privacy rights has long been applied to organizations, institutions, governments, and-more recently-entire nations. The principle of census confidentiality, for example, was granted to business firms 30 years before it began to apply to individual citizens- 1850 and 1880, respectively. The claims of government agencies to privacy created conflicts that eventually led to the need for freedom of information legislation.

The more recent concept of national “information sovereignty” at the international level is a major component in the global debate over the New World Information Order. National laws to protect individual privacy have become inextricably linked to efforts to erect legal barriers to “transborder data flows,” an emerging international phenomenon discussed in section 5.

The sources of information on the many aspects of privacy are voluminous. In addition to the citations listed in this section, the miscellaneous issues detailed in section 6 are largely concerned with privacy protection for specific subject areas.

U. S. Documents

Greenawalt, Kent. Legal Protections of Privacy. Final Report to the Office of Telecom- munications Policy, Executive Office of the President. 1976. (PrEx18.2:P93) 76~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Legislative History of the Privacy Act of 1974, S. 3418 (Public Law 93-579); Source Book on Privacy. Joint Com- mittee Print. 94th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1976. (Y4.G74/6:L52/33) 1458p.-Major compilation of legislative background materials on Senate Bill 3418 and other privacy bills, legal articles, cases, and commentary.

--- . Privacy and Protection of Personal Information in Europe: Privacy Developments in Europe and Their Implications for United States Policy. Staff Report. 93rd Cong., 2nd Sess. 1975. (Y4.G74/6:P93/5?) 436~.

--- . Privacy: The Collection, Use, and Computerization of Personal Data. Joint Hear- ings. 93rd Cong., 2nd Sess. 1974. (Y4.G74/6:P93/2/pts.l-2) 2 ~01s. 2335~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Executive Order on Security Classification. Hearings. 97-2. 1982. (Y4.G74/7:Ex3/11) 364~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Freedom of Information Act. Hear-

ings. 97-l. Vol. 1. 1982. 1147~. Freedom of Information Act- Appendix. Hearings. 97-l. Vol. 2. 1982. (Y4.J89:2:J-97-50/v. l-2) 880~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Freedom of Information Reform Act. Senate Report 97-690. 97-2. 1982. (Y1.1/5:97/690) 17 p.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Privacy, the Census and Federal Ques- tionnaires. Hearings. 91st Cong., 2nd Sess. 1970. (Y4.J89/2:P93/17) 1085~.

bibliographic guide to national and international government information 7

-. Right of Privacy Act of 1967. Hearings. 90th Cong., 1st Sess. 1967. (Y4.J89/2:P93/ 16/pts.l-2) 2 ~01s. 753~.

U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Telecommunications. Seiected Foreign National Data Protection Laws and Bills. Charles K. Wilk, Ed. OT Special Publication 78-19. 1978. (C1.60/2:78-19) 201~.

U.S. National Bureau of Standards. Approaches to Privacy and Security in Computer Systems. Proceedings of a Conference Held at the National Bureau of Standards, March 4-5, 1974. Clark R. Renninger, Ed. 1974. (C13.10:404) 71~.

U.S. National Commission for the Review of Federal and State Laws Relating to Wire- tapping and Electronic Surveillance. E~e~tronic Su~eiilance: Report of the commission. 1976. (Y3.W74/2:2 EL2) 272~.

U.S. Privacy Protection Study Commission. Personal Privacy in an Information Society. Final Report. 1977. (Y3.P93/5:1 1977) 654~. + 5 Appendix volumes: 1. Privacy Law in the States. 1978. 85~. 2. The Citizen as Taxpayer. 1977. 57~. 3. Employment Records. 1978. 100~. 4. The Privacy Act of 1974: An Assessment. 1977. 173~. 5. Technology and Privacy. 1977. 88~.

Foreign and ~nternationa~ Documents

Canada. Department of Communications. Conference Report- Computers: Privacy and Freedom of Information. Telecommission Study 5(b). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 108~. + 79 app.

--. Privacy and Computers. A Report of a Task Force Established Jointly by Depart- ment of Communications/Department of Justice. Ottawa: Information Canada, 1972. 236~.

Council of Europe. Protection of the Privacy of IndividuaLs Vis-a- Vis Electronic Data Banks in the Private Sector; Resolution (73) 22 Adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 26 September 1973 and Explanatory Report. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1974. 20~.

- . Protection of the Privacy of individuals Vi&i- Vis E~eetroni~ Data Banks in the Pubhc Sector; Resolution (74) 29 Adopted by the Committee of ministers of the Council of Europe on 20 September 1974 and Explanatory Report. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1975. 19p.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Policy Issues in Data Protec- tion and Privacy: Concepts and Perspectives; Proceedings of the UECD Seminar 24th to 26th June, 2974. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 10. Paris: OECD, 1976. 324~.

United Nations. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 17. 1966. United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 12. 1948.

A rticles

Evans, Andrew C. “Computers and Privacy: The New Council of Europe Convention.” New Law Journal 130 (Nov. 13, 1980): 1067-1068.

Laudon, K.C. “Privacy and Federal Data Banks.” Society 17 (Jan./Feb. 1980): 50-56. Nash, D.C. and Bollier, D.A. “Protecting Privacy in the Age of Hometech.” Technology

Review 83 (Aug./Sept. 1981): 66-70.

8 HUGH REYNOLDS

Pipe, G. Russell. “Privacy: Establishing Restrictions on Government Inquiry.” American University Law Review 18 (June 1969): 516-552.

Warren, Samuel D. and Brandeis, Louis D. “The Right to Privacy.” Harvard Law Review 4 (Dec. 15, 1890): 193-220.

Books

Miller, Arthur R. The Assault on Privacy: Computers, Data Banks, and Dossiers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1971. 333~. (Bibliography-pp. 261-269.)

O’Brien, David M. Privacy, Law, and Public Policy. New York: Praeger, 1979.262~. (Bibli- ography-pp. 239-248.)

Westin, Alan F. and Baker, Michael A. Databanks in a Free Society: Computers, Record- Keeping and Privacy. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. 522~.

Westin, Alan F. Information Technology in a Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1971. 499p.

I_. Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum Press, 1967. 487~. A definitive study of privacy, information technology, and personal surveillance methods by a man considered by many scholars to be the primary authority on the subject.

3. Satellite Technologies

In an article published in Great Britain in 1945, Arthur C. Clarke described the technical specifications necessary to achieve global television coverage from space. It would require only three orbiting space transmitters, or “extraterrestrial relays,” positioned at equidistant points at an altitude of approximately 22,000 miles. At this height, he had calculated, an ob- ject in orbit above the equator would circle the planet at precisely the same speed as the spin of the earth, thus locking into a permanent orbit above a single point on the surface of the earth. It would be in “geostationary orbit” [3].

When Clarke foresaw the rise of a satellite culture, he did not anticipate that it would become a reality before the end of the century. He was regarded at the time of his article as a utopian visionary, but in retrospect it is evident that he had erred on the conservative side. By the late 197Os, the satellite industry had grown into a multi-billion dollar enterprise, and most observers agree that it is still in its infancy.

Satellites have not only developed much more rapidly than anyone-including Clarke-could have foreseen, they have also been applied in many ways never envisioned by the early proponents of orbital communications. Satellites are providing a multiplying number of services each year for more people. Radio, television, and telephone services are now routine in many countries. Governments and multinational corporations have become dependent on orbital transmission of data processing, administrative records, and international communication. Rural development projects using communication satellites have been underway for years in Appalachia, remote native Alaskan villages, and a number of developing countries. Sessions of the House of Representatives are even televised via satellite links.

In addition to communications, satellites are used for a variety of observation purposes. Organized under the general heading of “remote sensing,” these applications include atmo- spheric, surface, and subsurface detection of natural and man-made conditions and resources. Meteorological satellites provide weather and climatic information. High-altitude scanners chart agricultural crop yields, forestry resources, and ocean phenomena. Military “spy-in-the-sky” satellites observe the movement of troops and the deployment of military


hardware in minute detail. Sophisticated techniques of infrared photography and computer image-enhancement can detect mineral and petroleum deposits beneath the surface of the planet.

This section focuses on these two broad areas of satellite technologies: communications broadcasting and remote sensing. In addition to these two areas, satellites have a variety of other uses. One of these, which is discussed in section 9, is the application of satellite technology to development problems in the third world.

Broadcasting: U. S. Documents

Akima, H. et al. Fixed-Satellite and Broadcasting Satellite Service Considerations for 1979 GWARC Planning. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. NTIA Special Publication 78-2. 1978. (C60.9:78-2) 94~.

Degnan, K.E. et al. Direct Broadcast Satellites: Policies, Prospects, and Potential Compe- tition. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Telecommunications and Information Administration. NTIA Special Publication 81-11. 1981. (C60.9:81-11) 137~.

Schlafly, H. J. et al. The Initial Growth and Expanding Opportunities of U.S. Domestic Satellite Service. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Telecommunications and In- formation Administration. NTIA Contractor Report 79-3. 1979. (C60.12:79-3) 149~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Broadcast Reform Proposals. Hearing. 97th Cong. 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.En2/3:97-76) 189~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Foreign Policy Implications of Satellite Communications. Hearings. 91st Cong., 2nd Sess. 1970. (Y4.F76/1:Sa8/2) 212~.

- . Satellite Broadcasting: Implications for Foreign Policy. Hearings. 91st Cong., 1st Sess. 1969. (Y4.F76/1:Sa8) 317~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Direct Broadcast Satellites: International Representation and Domestic Regulation. House Report 97-730. 97th Cong., 2nd Sess. (Y 1.1/8:97-730) 27~.

--- . International Broadcasting: Direct Broadcast Satellites. Hearing. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.G74/7:B78) 129~.

-- . Satellite Communication/Direct Broadcast Satellites. Hearing. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1982. (Y4.En2/3:97-81) 369~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Astronautics. Satellites for World Com- munication. Hearings. 86th Cong., 1st Sess. 1959. (Y4.Sci2:86/9) 122~.

Broadcasting: Foreign and International Documents

Australia. Commonwealth Government Task Force. National Communications Satellite System: Report, July 1978. Parliamentary Paper No. 3 17. Canberra: Australian Govern- ment Publishing Service, 1979. 238~.

Canada. Department of Communications. International Implications of Telecommunica- tions: The Role of Canada in Intelsat and Other Relevant International Organizations. Telecommission Study 3(a). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 22~. + 131 ann.

Commonwealth Secretariat. On Site in India: A Report of the Commonwealth Study Visit to India’s Satellite Instructional Television Experiment 4-17 April 1976, by the Common- wealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Broadcasting Association. London: The Com- monwealth Secretariat, 1976. 53~.

International Telecommunication Union. From Semaphore to Satellite. Geneva: Interna- tional Telecommunication Union, 1965. 343~.

10 HUGH REYNOLDS

--- .3rd Symposium on Space and Radiocommunication, Paris, 28 May 1974. ITU Book- let No. 14. Geneva, ITU, 1974. 87~.

-_ Twenty-First Report by the ITU on TeIecommunication and the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. ITU Booklet No. 30. Geneva: 1982. 244~.

“The Sky’s the Limit.” Uh%XO Courier 36 (March 1983): 30, UNESCO. International Conference of States on the Distribution of Programme-Carrying

Signals Transmitted by Satellite, Palais d’Egmont, Brussels, 6-21 May 1974. UNESCO/World Intellectual Property Organization, 1974. 41~.

UNESCO. Mass Communication Department. Broadcasting from Space. Reports and Pa- pers on Mass Communication No. 60. Paris: UNESCO, 1972. 65~.

-- . Communication Satellites for Education, Science, and Culture. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No. 53. Paris: UNESCO, 1967. 23~.

--- . A Guide to Satellite Communication. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No. 66. Paris: UNESCO, 1972. 35~.

--. Planning for Satellite Broadcasting. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No. 78. Paris: UNESCO, 1977. 71~.

-- . Space Communication and the Mass Media. Reports and Papers on Mass Communi- cation No. 41. Paris: UNESCO, 1964. 24~.

Broadcasting: A rtictes

Ferris, Charles D. “Direct Broadcast Satellites: A Piece of the Video Puzzle.” Federal Com- munications Law Journal 33 (Spring 1981): 169-184.

Freeman, Jennifer. “Toward the Free Flow of Information: Direct Television Broadcasting Via Satellite.” Journal of international Law and Economics 13 (1979): 329-366.

Laskin, Paul and Chayes, Abram. “International Satellite Controversy.” Society 12 (Sept./ Oct. 1975): 30-40.

Littunen, Yrjo. “Cultural Problems of Direct Satellite Broadcasting.” Internationaf Social Science Journal 32 (1980): 283-303.

Nesgos, P.D. “Canadian Copyright Law and Satellite Transmissions.” Osgoode Hall Law Journal 20 (June 1982): 232-249.

Pool, Ithiel de Sola. “Direct Broadcast Satellites and Cultural Integrity.” Society 12 (Sept./Ott. 1975): 47-56.

Rothblatt, Martin A. “ITU Regulation of Satellite Communication.” Stanford Journal of International Law 18 (Spring 1982): l-25.

Remote Sensing: U. S. Documents

Colwell, Robert N. et al. ~oniforing Earth Resources from Aircraft and Spacecraft. Wash- ington, DC: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1971. (NAS1.21:275) 170p.

Lyons, Thomas R. and Avery, Thomas E. Remote Sensing: A Handbook for Archeologists and Cultural Resource Managers. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service, Cultural Resources Management Division, 1977. (129.912:SeS) 109~.

Planning for a Civil Operationat Land Remote Sensing Satellite: A Discussion of Issues and Options. Rockville MD: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and At- mospheric Administration, Satellite Task Force, 1980. (C55.2:Sa8) 130~.

Short, Nicholas M. The Landsat Tutorial Workbook: Basics of Satellite Remote Sensing. NASA Reference Publication 1078. U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion, 1982. (NAS1.61:1078) 553~.


U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Remote Sensing Applications Guide. Looseleaf. 1979. (D101.43:70-l-l) 858~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Astronautics. Remote Sensing of Earth Resources: A Compilaiion of Papers. 1972. (Y4Sci2:R28) 224~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. Civil Land Remote Sensing Systems, Joint Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.Sci2:97-40) 366~.

-. Earth Resources Data and Information Service. Hearings. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.Sci2:96/24) 219~.

__. Earth Resourcesrnformation System. Hearings. 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y4.Sci2: 95,’ 18) 672~.

--. Operationaf Civil Remote Sensing Systems. Hearings. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.Sci2:96/131) 315~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Civil Re- mote Sensing Satellite System. Hearings. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.C73/7:96-111) 237~.

-. Earth Resources and Environmenia~ Information System Act of 1977. Hearings. 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y4.C73/7:95-30) 352~.

U.S. Department of State. Remote Sensing: Satellites and Aircraft; Agreement between the United States of America and Canada Extending the Agreement of May 14, 1971, as Amended and Extended. Treaties and Other International Acts Series 9934. 1981. (S9.10:9934) 5p.

U.S. National Park Service. Cultural Resources Management Division. Cultural Resources Remote Sensing. Thomas R. Lyons and Frances Joan Mathien. 1980. (129.2:C89) 390~.

Remote Sensing: International Documents

CENT0 Workshop on Applications of Remote Sensing Data and methods: Proceedings, Istanbul, Turkey, October S-12, 1976. U.S. Geological Survey, n-d. “Printed by the U.S. Geological Survey in Collaboration with the Agency for International Development for the Central Treaty Organization, Ankara, Turkey.” 233~.

Germain Jean-Rem& “Weather Eye- and More.” CERES (FAO Review) 11 (Nov./Dee. 1978): 26-30.

“New Look at the Earth’s Resources.” (Symposium) Impact ofscience on Society (UNESCO~ 24 (July 1974): 195-266.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Remote Sensing: A New Source of Environmental Information. n.d. Dot. #ENV/SE/77.7. 20~.

Remote Sensing: Articles

Ambrosetti, Eleonora. “The Relevance of Remote Sensing to Third World Economic Devel- opment: Some Legal and Political Aspects.” New York University Journal of Interna- tional Law and Politics 12 (Winter 1980): 569-595.

Christol, Carl Q. “Remote Sensing and International Law.” Annals of Air and Space Law (1980 annual): 375-426.

Hahn, Joseph John. “Developments Toward a Regime for Control of Remote Sensing from Outer Space.” Journal of International Law and Economics 12 (1978): 421-458.

Harman, D.M. et al. “Economic Implications of a Management-Oriented Remote Sensing Program.” Coastal Zone Management Journal 8 (No. 2, 1980): 105-122.

Higgs, G.K. “Remote Sensing: Dawn of the Age of Application.” Geographical Review 66 (Jan. 1976): 95-96.

12 HUGH REYNOLDS

Jensen, J.R. et al. “Remote Sensing of Water Demand Information.” Geographical Review 67 (July 1977): 322-334.

Krafft, Stephen P. “In Search of a Legal Framework for the Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space.” Boston College ~~ternationai and Comparative Law Review 4 (Fall 1981): 453-476.

Magdenalat, Jean-Louis. “The Major Issues in the Agreed Principles on Remote Sensing.” Journal of Space Law 9 (Spring-Fall 1981): 11 l-120.

Morgan, Susan M. “The Law Relating to the Use of Remote Sensing Techniques in Mineral Exploration.” Australian Law Journal 56 (Jan. 1982): 30-38.

Mossinghoff, Gerald J. and Fuqua, Laura D. “United Nations Principles on Remote-Sens-

ing: Report on Developments, 1970-1980.” Journal of Spuce Law 8 (Fall 1980): 103-155.

Remote Sensing: Books

Bryan, M. Leonard. Remote Sensing of Earth Resources: A Guide to rnforination Sources. Detroit: Gale, 1979. 188~.

Reining, Priscilla. Challenging Desertification in West Africa: Insights from Landsat into Carrying Capacity, Cultivation, and Settlement Sites in Upper Voita and Niger. Momence, Ill.: Publishers Marketing Group, 1980. 165~.

Schneider, William G. Jr. Integrated Use of Landsat Data for State Resource Management. Lexington, Ky.: Council of State Governments, 1980. 36~.

4. Scientific and Technical Information issues

The worldwide proliferation of scientific and technical information has generated a need for new methods of bibliographic control capable of handling the exponential growth of research knowledge. Corresponding systems to manage the distribution and accessibility of this deluge have been evolving throughout the technological countries in the form of computerized information banks, data processing networks, and abstracting and indexing ser-

vices. Traditional libraries and documentation centers have taken up the challenge by developing new applications of information technology to problems of cataloging, processing, acquisitions, and reference and referral services.

The United States government has issued a number of studies over the past two decades, starting with the Weinberg Report of 1963, proposing improved methods for managing this flood of information. The role of the federal government has increased in this area since it is not only the largest single producer of information but also the largest consumer.

Two primary agencies responsible for the management and dissemination of scientific and technical contract reports are the National Technical information Service (NTIS) of the Commerce Department and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The former is the publisher of the biweekly Government Reports Announcements and Index, which indexes, abstracts, and makes available for purchase tens of thousands of technical research reports each year. NASA produces the Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports (STAR), an indexing and abstracting system similar in format and purpose to the NTIS service.

At the international level, a number of organizations and professional associations have developed new technological systems and organizational arrangements to meet increasing information supply and demand. It should be noted that the primary objective in the management of scientific and technical information is not the generation but the reduction of the


quantity of information. There are absolute limits to the amount of data that any individual

can absorb in a given period of time. Speed, precision, and summarization thus become the primary virtues in the control process.

UNESCO has put forward proposals for a global scientific information system since the early 1970s. Although these attempts to coordinate and standardize the worldwide flow of scientific and technical information have thus far met with little success, the recognition of the need for such a system is widely shared among scientists in many countries. Resistance to the free exchange of scientific research arises out of political considerations more than from scientific objections. Perhaps the greatest obstacles to the establishment of a unified scientific information network are the political sensitivity surrounding high technology- especially military and space research-and the generalized fears of the public towards governmental control over vital scientific and technical information.

U.S. Documents

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Federal Management of Scientific Information (STZNFO) Activities: The Role of the National Science Founda- tion. Committee Print. 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 1975. (Y4.L11/2:Sci2/3) 104~.

U.S. General Accounting Office. Better Information Management Policies Needed: A Study of Scientific and Technical Bibliographic Services. Washington, DC: U.S. General Ac- counting Office, 1979. (GAl. 13:PSAD-79-62) 61~.

-- . Observations on Collection and Dissemination of Scientific, Technical, and En- gineering Information: National Technical Information Service, Department of Com- merce. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 1976. (GA1 .13:GGD-76- 66) 9p.

U.S. President’s Science Advisory Committee. Science, Government, and Information: The Responsibilities of the Technical Community and the Government in the Transfer of Information. Weinberg Report. 1963. (Pr35.8:Sci2/Sci2) 52~.

Whalen, Bruce G. and Joyce, Charles C. Scientific and Technical Information: Options for National Action. (Report prepared for the National Science Foundation.) McLean, VA: The MITRE Corporation, 1976. (NS1.2:1n3/3) 68~.

International Documents

Brawne, Michael and Schwarz, Stephan. Development of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ZSTZC); People’s Republic of China. Paris: UNESCO, 1981. 84~.

Coblans, H. et al. Science and Technology Policies Information Exchange System (SPINES) Feasibility Study. Science Policy Studies and Documents, No. 33 (1). Paris: UNESCO, 1974. 115p.

International Organization for Standardization. Information Centre. Information Transfer: Handbook on International Standards Governing Information Transfer (Texts of IS0 Standards). 1st ed. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization, UNESCO, 1977. 516~.

Mehta, Siddarth S. Background Paper on Creation of a Technological Information Ex- change Network for Development Finance Institutions. United Nations Industrial De- velopment Organization, 1982. Dot #ID/WG.362/4. 35~.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Directorate for Scientific

14 HUGH REYNOLDS

Affairs. Government Responsibilities in Information for Industry; Seminar Held at Jouy- en-Josas (France) 2-5 March, 1970. Paris: OECD, 1971. 1 lop.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Information Policy Group. Review of National Scienti~c and Technical rnformation Policy: Canada. Paris: OECD, 1971. 161~.

--. Review of National Scientific and Technicai Information Policy: Spain. Paris: OECD, 1974. 170~.

-. Review of National Scientific and Technical Information Policy: Ireland. Paris: OECD, 1974. 82~.

- . Review of National Scientific and Technical information Policy: Germany. Paris: OECD, 1977. 122~.

Romerio, G.F. A Teiedocumentation System for the National Information and Documenta- tion Centre: Arab Republic of Egypt. Paris: UNESCO, 1977. 33~.

Schwarz, Stephan. Kenya: A National Documentation and Information Centre of the Kenya Nationat Council for Science and Technology. Paris: UNESCO, 1980. 5 1 p_

UNESCO. information Policy objectives (U~rSIST Proposals). Paris: UNESCO, 1974. 26~.

-- . Indonesia: Network of Scientific Information and Documentation: Project Findings and Recommendations. Paris: UNESCO, 1980. 40~.

- . UNISIST: Intergovernmental Conference for the Establishment of a Worid Science information System, Final Report. Paris: UNESCO, 197 1. 60~.

- . UNISIST: Study Report on the Feasibility of a World Science information System. Paris: UNESCO, 1971. 161~.

-- . World Guide to Technical Information and Documentation Services. 2nd ed., revised and enlarged. Documentation, Libraries, and Archives: Bibliographies and Reference Works, No. 2. Paris: UNESCO, 1975. 515~.

5. Transborder Data Flow

In contrast to the highly publicized issues already discussed, there is another aspect of international information transfer that has been almost invisible to the general public. This issue, commonly know-n as transborder data flow, refers to governmental and corporate data stored in vast computer banks and transmitted across national boundaries via telecommunication links. This process has enormous implications for personal privacy, economic security, and political sovereignty among nations.

The convergence of computers and telecommunications has led to global dependence on information technology. This dependence, which underlies the international tension surrounding transborder data flow, leads to information vuInerability. Nations, institutions, and individuals find themselves at the mercy of decisions and systems beyond their jurisdic- tion or control.

The potential for transborder data flows to undermine privacy protection, international trade, and national sovereignty has been the subject of worldwide debate for more than a decade. Countries of the industrialized world are increasingly concerned about the immense quantities of personally identifiable records related to health, finance, employment, law enforcement and other sensitive matters that are routinely transmitted across national borders beyond the reach of national privacy legislation. In reaction, many nations have enacted legal “data barriers” to enforce confidentiality standards which have become in effect “non- tariff trade barriers.”

In the third world, this issue represents one of the most intrusive and sinister aspects of


“information imperialism” because it is seen as a means of perpetuating and increasing domination of political institutions and world markets by advanced nations and multinational corporations. Some developing nations have made no effort to hide their “information protectionism” behind privacy legislation. Brazil, for example, has established a national . “informatics authority” to restrict the entry of foreign information goods and services in order to protect its internal computer and communication industries.

Dependence on foreign data processing and communication services threatens political regimes as well. But this problem cannot be solved at the national level. International cooperation is essential to prevent chaos in the world’s commercial, legal, and political com- munities. Efforts to standardize data legislation in the industrialized world have been taking place in the Council of Europe and the OECD. In the developing world, various agencies of the U.N. and the Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics have taken the lead to address the problems of the poorer countries.

U.S. documents on transborder data flow have been issued primarily by congressional committees. Most of the literature on this topic, however, is found in legal, business, and computer journals.

U. S. Documents

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. International Data Flow. Hearings. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.G74/7:D26/2) 843~.

-- . International Information Flow: Forging a New Framework. House Report 96-1535. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y1.1/8:96-1535) 61~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. International Barriers to Data Flows: Background Report. Committee Print. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.In8/4:B27) 19p.

U.S. Library of Congress. The International Flow of Information: A Transpacific Perspec- tive. John Y. Cole, Ed. The Center for the Book Viewpoint Series, No. 7. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1981. (LC1.38:7) 47~.


Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics. Issues on Transborder Data Flow Policies. Rome: IBI, n.d.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data. Paris: OECD, 1979. 41~.

- . Transborder Data Flows: Access to the International On-line Data-base Market. New York: United Nations, 1983.

- . Transborder Data Flows and the Protection of Privacy: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Vienna, Austria 20th-23rd September 1977. Information, Computer and Com- munications Policy, No. 1. Paris: OECD, 1979. 33513.

United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations. Transborder Data Flows and Bra- zil: Brazilian Case Study. New York: United Nations, 1983.

- . Transnational Corporations and Transborder Data Flows: A Technical Paper. New York: United Nations, 1982. 149p.

Articles

Bach, Gabriel. “Law and Politics in Transborder Data Flow.” Law-Technology 14 (Spring 1981): l-24.

16 HUGH REYNOLDS

Bigelow, Robert P. “Transborder Data Flow Barriers.” Jurimetrics Journal 20 (Fall 1979): 8-17.

Eger, John M. “Emerging Restrictions on Transnational Data Flows: Privacy Protection or Non-Tariff Trade Barriers?” Law and Policy in International Business 10 (1978): 10.55-1103.

Eger, John M. “Transnational Data Flow: The Need for Action.” computer World(Feb. 1.5, 1978): 15.

Feldman, Mark B. “National Regulation of Transborder Data Flows.” North Carofina Journal of International Law and Commericial Regulation 7 (Winter 1982): l-25.

Gotlieb, Allan et al. “The Transborder Transfer of Information by Communications and Computer Systems: Issues and Approaches to Guiding Principles.” American Journal of International Law 68 (April 1974): 227-257.

Groshan, Robert M. “Transnational Data Flows: Is the Idea of an international Legal Re- gime Relevant in Establishing MultilateraI Controls and Legal Norms?” (2 parts) Part 1: Lag-Technology 14 (Fall 1981): l-30. Part 2: Law-Technology 15 (Winter 1982): l-37.

Markoski, Joseph P. “Telecommunications Regulations as Barriers to the Transborder Flow of Information.” Cornell International Law Journal 14 (Summer 1981): 287-331.

McGuire, Richard P. “The Information Age: An Introduction to Transborder Data Flow.” Jztrimetrics Journal 20 (Fall 1979): 1-7.

Novotny, Eric J. “Transborder Data Flow Regulation: Technical Issues of Legal Concern.” computer Law Journa/ 3 (Winter 1982): 105-124.

Patrick, P. Howard. “Privacy Restrictions on Transnational Data Flows: A Comparison of the Council of Europe Draft Convention and OECD Guidelines.” Jurimetrics Journal 21 (Summer 1981): 405-420.

Riddle, Kay. “Debating the Merits of Transborder Data Flow.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 5 (April 1979): 20.

Veith, Richard H. “Transborder Data Traffic: U.S. Unpredictability is Unsettling.” Bulletin qf the American Society for Information Science 5 (August 1979): 24-25.

In addition to these citations, the entire issue of the Stanford Journal of international Law, 16 (Summer 1980), is devoted to the legal problems associated with transborder data flows. There are six articles on the subject plus a 19-page bibliography of related legal articles and national and international documents (pp. 181-199.)

6. ~is~e~~uneo~s Issues

The public policy problems associated with information and communications affect the daily lives of most people living in organized societies around the world. These problems are most acute, however, in the advanced industrial nations, where record-keeping systems and administrative functions are becoming universally automated.

As discussed in the previous section, the transfer of computerized records containing medical, banking, credit, criminal justice and other types of data raises serious questions concerning rights of privacy. The four areas listed-electronic mail, electronic banking, medical information systems, and the National Crime Information Center of the U.S. De- partment of Justice-illustrate the scope and magnitude of information management problems and the complexity of data security and confidential communications.

Related issues in this context include economic questions such as employment disloca- tions, declining productivity, and computer crime. The first issue is evident in the massive


layoffs in the workforce as older industries shrink or disintegrate before the rising tide of new technology. Next, the nature of the newer information occupations depresses worker productivity since the tangible results of such work are not easily measured by traditional economic methods. Finally, the use of computers to illegally transfer funds, violate confidentiality, and alter records can be extremely difficult to detect and prosecute.

Electronic Mail: U.S. Documents

Ewing, Donald R. and Salaman, Roger K. The Postal Crisis: The Postal Function as a Com- munications Service. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Telecommunications. OT Special Publication 77-13. 1977. (C1.60/2:77-13) 79~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. Government Provision of Information Services in Competition with the Private Sector. Hearing. 97th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1982. (Y4.G74/7:G74/6) 190~.

---. Postal Service Electronic Mail: The Price Isn’t Right. House Report 97-919. 97th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1982. (Y1.1/8:97-919) 21~.

---. Should the Postal Service Offer Electronic Mail? Hearing. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1982. (Y4.G74/7:P84/7) 308~.

U.S. Congress. Committee on Post Office and Civil Service. Electronic Message Service Systems. Hearings. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.P84/10:96-78) 317~.

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Implications of Electronic Mail and Mes- sage Systems for the U.S. Postal Service. U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, 1982. (Y3.T22/2:2 EL 2/2) 113~.

Electronic Mail: Books

Connell, Stephen and Galbraith, Ian A. Electronic Mail: A Revolution in Business Commu- nications. White Plains, New York: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1982. 141~.

Electronic Funds Transfer: U.S. Documents

Rule, James B. Value Choices in Electronic Funds Transfer Policy. Office of Telecom- munications Policy, Executive Office of the President. 1975. (PrEx18.2:El 2) 87~.

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Selected Electronic Funds Transfer Issues: Privacy, Security, and Equity. 1982. (Y3.T22/2:2 El 2) 77~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. Consumer Protection Aspects of EFT Systems. Hearing. 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1978. (Y4.B22/3:El 2/4) 218~.

--- . Electronic Funds Transfer and Financial Privacy. Hearings. 95th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1978. (Y4.B22/El 2/5) 644~.

---. Electronic Funds Transfer Consumer Protection Act. Hearings. 95th Gong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y4.B22/3:El 2/3) 384~.

---. Electronic Funds Transfer Moratorium Act of 1975. Hearing. 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 1975. (Y4.B22/3:El 2) 221~.

---. Electronic Funds Transfer Systems. Hearings. 95th Gong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y4.B22/ 3:El 2/2) 537~.

U.S. National Commission on Electronic Funds Transfers. EFT and the Public Interest. 1977. (Y3.El 2/4:2 P96) 149~.

--- . EFT in the United States: Policy Recommendations and the Public Interest; Final

18 HUGH REYNOLDS

Report. Washington, DC: National Commission on Electronic Funds Transfers, 1977. (Y3.El 2/4: 1 1977) 389~.

E~e~troni~ Funds Transfer: Books

Baxter, William F. et al. Retail Banking in the Electronic Age: The Law and Economics of Electronic Funds Transfer. Montclair, NJ: Allanheld, Osmun, 1977. 189p.

Bequai, August. The Cashless Society: EFTS at the Crossroads. New York: Wiley, 198 1. 298~.

Richardson, Dennis W. Electronic Money: Evoiution of an E[ectroni~ Fronds-Transfer System. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970. 18tp.

Medical Information Systems: U.S. Documents

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Policy implications of Medical Informa- tion Systems. 1977. (Y3.T22/2:2 M4612) 79~.

Westin, Alan F. Computers, Health Records, and Citizen Rights. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards. NBS Monograph 157. 1976. (C13.44:157) 381~.

-- . A Policy Analysis of Citizen Rights Issues in Health Data Systems. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards. NBS Special Publication 469. 1977. (Cl3.10:469~ 41~.

Medical Information Systems: Articles

Gordis, L. and Gold, E. “Privacy, Confidentiality, and the Use of Medical Records in Research.” Science 207 (Jan. 11, 1980): 153-156.

Odening, G. “Protecting Medical Records.” Forbes 126 (Dec. 8, 1980): 165 + . “Your Medical Records: Not So Private Anymore.” Changing Times 35 (July 1981): 41-43.

National Crime Information Center: U.S. Documents

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. An Assessment of Alternatives for a National Computerized Criminal History System. 1982. (Y3.T22/2:2 C86/2) 208~.

--- . A Preliminary Assessment of the National Crime Information Center and the Com- puterized Criminal History System. 1978. (Y3.T22/2:2 C86) 84~.

U.S. Department of Justice. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. Privacy and Security of Criminal History rnformation: A Compendium of State Legislation. 1978. (J26_2:P93) 858~.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION POLICY

The four categories in this section identify various aspects of information management and policy at the national and international levels. The first part introduces the evolving concept of “knowledge management” and its applications to social problems and government processes. The second part deals with government-wide efforts to define and implement information policies and the corresponding emergence of a body of related international law.

The last two categories in this section focus on more specific topical areas. The third part is concerned with the application of information systems and technologies to the massive


problems of the developing world. Finally, the fourth part examines and lists publications in the field of telecommunications policy and regulation.

7. Management of Information and Knowledge

The idea that information and knowledge have social and political value is not new. All forms of social organization and political structure depend on information collection and corresponding channels of communication to inform, instruct, command, and control. What is new in late 20th century industrial society is the marriage between these information channels and technology, or what sociologist Daniel Bell has called “the new intellectual

technology” [4]. During the past generation, there has been a growing recognition by social scientists that

the management of information has emerged as a major concern for public adrrinistration. Knowledge-information that has been distilled and organized into useful forms- is now regarded by many social theorists as a basic resource that needs to be managed in a systematic and deliberate fashion.

One manifestation of this process at work in the U.S. is the rise and development of the research field since the end of World War II. Paul Dickson’s 1971 book, Think Tanks, provides a broad overview of the proliferation of independent research organizations and in- stitutes ranging from the conservative RAND Corporation to the liberal Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions with futurist think tanks of all social and political persuasions in between.

Within the U.S. Congress, the same process has been at work on a large scale. In addition to the substantial information handling and research work done by the staffs and committees, there are currently four major research arms of the Congress providing specialized information analysis and research reports: the General Accounting Office, the Office of Tech- nology Assessment, the Congressional Budget Office, and the Congressional Research Service.

In an era characterized by such terms as “the information age,” “the communications revolution,” and “the knowledge society,” it is useful to keep in mind that the unchecked flood of information, or even usable knowledge, is more likely to engulf us than to ease our way in the management of public policy problems. In the words of Lynton Caldwell: “Knowledge may be power when effectively organized, and the organization and management of knowledge becomes, in part, the control of power. The power of wisely applied knowledge is essential to moving society through its present transition” [5].

U.S. Documents

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Astronautics. The Management of Zn- formation and Knowledge: A Compilation of Papers. 1970. (Y4.Sci2:In3) 130~.

--. The Management of Information and Knowledge: Proceedings of the Panel on Science and Technology, Eleventh Meeting. 1970. (Y4.Sci2:91-2/ 15) 231~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. H.R. 3137, The Information Science and Technology Act. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.Sci2:97/25) 371~.


Anderla, Georges. Information in 1985: A Forecasting Study of Information Needs and Resources. Paris: OECD, 1973. 131~.

20 HUGH REYNOLDS

de Grolier, Eric. The Organization of Information Systems for Government and Public Administration. Documentation, Libraries, and Archives: Studies and Research, No. 8. Paris: OECD, 1980. 235~.

Gassman, Hans Peter. “Data Networks: New Information Infrastructure.” OECL3 Ob- server 95 (Nov. 1978): 10-16.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Applications of Computer/ Telecommunications Systems; Proceedings of the OECD Seminar November 13-15, 1972. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 8. Paris: OECD, 1975. 271~.

-- I Automated Information Management in Public Administration: Present Develop- ments and impacts. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 4. Paris: OECD, 1973. 124~.

--- . Handbook of information, Computer and Communications Activities of Major Znternational Organizations. Information, Computer and Communications Policy, NO 4. Paris: OECD, 1980. 235~.

Articles:

Caldwell, Lynton K. “Managing the Techno Scientific Super-Culture: The Task of Educa- tional Preparation.” Public Administration Review 27 (June 1967): 128-133.

Henry, Nicholas L. “Knowledge Management: A New Concern for Public Administration.” Public Administration Review 34 (May/June 1974): 189-196.

Lane, Robert E. “The Decline of Politics and Ideology in a Knowledgeable Society.” Ameri- can Sociological Review 31 (Oct. 1966): 649-662.

“Symposium on Knowledge Management.” James D. Carroll and Nicholas L. Henry, Eds. Public Administration Review 35 (Nov./Dee. 1975): 567-602. Seven articles on various aspects of the management of knowledge in public administration and policy formulation.

Books

Beer, Stafford. Platform for Change. London: Wiley, 1975. 457~. Bell, Daniel. The Coming of Post-industrial Society: A Venture in Sociaf Forecasting. New

York: Basic Books, 1973. 507~. Boulding, Kenneth E. The Meaning of the 20th Century: The Great Transition. New York:

Harper & Row, 1964. 208~. Communications for Tomorrow: Policy Perspectives for the 1980s. Glen 0. Robinson, Ed.

New York: Praeger, 1978. 526~. Dickson, Paul. Think Tanks. New York: Ballantine Books, 1971. 397~. Information Management in Public Administration: An Introduction and Resource Guide to

Government in the Information Age. Forest W. Horton and Donald A. Marchand, Eds. Arlington, VA: Information Resources Press, 1982. 588~.

Information Societies: Comparing the Japanese and American Experiences. Alex S. Edel- stein et al., Eds. Seattle: International communication Center, School of Communica- tions, University of Washington, 1978. 293~.

Michael, Donald N. The Unprepared Society: Planning for a Precarious Future. New York: Basic Books, 1968. 132~.

Wilensky, Harold L. Organizational Intelligence: Knowledge and Policy in Government and Industry. New York: Basic Books, 1967. 226~.


8. National Policy and International Law

Most industrial nations are now devoting a great deal of attention to information policy considerations. The United States government is an exception in this regard. It has resisted a centralized approach to this area, preferring to allow market forces and evolving technologies to shape policy in specific areas. In domestic information issues, there is a wide- spread attitude that a comprehensive national policy on all aspects of information would amount to a “Big Brother” intrusion into matters that are frequently of local concern.

A report issued in 1976 by the Domestic Council Committee on the Right of Privacy entitled National Information Policy takes a different view. In its recommendations, the report states: “To debate whether there should be a national information policy is pointless. There will be such a policy . . . arrived at consciously or unconsciously, by commission or omis- sion, carefully or haphazardly, in a comprehensive or in a piecemeal fashion” [6].

Other critics of the decentralized approach of the federal government charge that, in fact, the U.S. government is neglecting its responsibilities in this area and that the situation borders on chaos, especially in foreign relations. Writing in Foreign Policy in 1982, Joan Edelman Spero argues that there are, at a minimum, fifteen different agencies dealing with various aspects of foreign commercial and political information policy and that these agencies frequently work at cross-purposes with each other. She sums up: “Despite the growing significance of information policy, authority for policy analysis and formulation in the United States remains at a relatively low level. . . . Overall, the organizational fragmenta- tion, the scarcity of resources, and the absence of high-level attention have resulted in a greatly dispersed accountability, which has led to no accountability at all” [7].

As the debate within the government continues, the private sector has been developing its own approach in this area. The Information Industry Association, the industry lobby organization, has a vital interest in these matters and has recently published a major four- volume handbook detailing the multitude of issues related to their commercial operations and government-liaison activities. This publication, Understanding U.S. Information Policy: The Infostructure Handbook, is an exhaustive compilation of issues organized into a detailed outline centered around three principal components: the participants, the resources, and the assets of the information society.

Other nations have taken a more centralized and systematic approach. Canada, for example, has focused attention on comprehensive, government-wide policy development for over a decade. France and Japan have issued major policy studies detailing their national plans to direct the role of computers and telecommunications in their respective societies. The Western European countries have discussed their common concerns and attempted to shape continental policies in such forums as the Council of Europe and the OECD.

The problems of the developing countries in information and communications have been addressed by various regional and international organizations. UNESCO has assumed the leadership in this role based on its mandate from the United Nations to promote world peace, harmony, and understanding by fostering the development of communications capabilities throughout the third world.

The extension of information policy into the field of international law is still in an early stage of development. According to one authority on the subject, Edward W. Plowman: “In international law there is at present no generally recognized or agreed category known as ‘information law”’ [8]. Plowman has organized the diversity of international legal instruments and conventions into a spectrum of categories related to information and communications, including human rights, telecommunications law, postal law, space law, intellectual property rights, and other associated areas. His compilation is a primary source for researchers in a variety of international legal fields.

22 HUGH REYNOLDS

U. S. Documents

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on House Administration. Information Policy: Public Laws from fhe 95th Congress. Committee Print. 96th Gong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.H81/3: In3/2) 22p.

---. Information Policy: Public Laws from the 96th Congress. Committee Print. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.H81/3:ln3/2/981) 14~.

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Computer-Based National Information Systems: Technology and Public Policy Issues. 1981. (Y3.T22/2:2 C73/6) 166~.

U.S. Domestic Council Committee on the Right of Privacy. National information Policy: Report to the President of the United States. Washington, DC: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, 1976. (Y3.L61:2 In3/2) 233~. Bibliography: pp. 215-233.

U.S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. Library and Information Service Needs of the Nation: Proceedings of a Conference on the Needs of Occupational, Ethnic, and Other Groups in the United States. 1974. (Y3.L61:2 N28) 314~.

-- . Toward a National Programfor Library Services: Goaisfor Action. 1975. (Y3.L61:2 In3/975) 106~.

US. White House Conference on Library and Information Services. Information for the 1980’s: Final Report of the White House Conference, 1979. 1980. (Y3.W58/20:2 L61/ 979ffinal) 808~.

Yurow, Jane H. et al. Issues in Informafio~ Policy. U.S. Department of Commerce, Na- tional Telecommunications and Information Administration. NTIA Special Publication 80-9. 1981. (C60.9:80-9) 102~.

Foreign and International Documents

Aucoin, Peter and French, Richard. ~nowIedge, Power and Public Policy. Science Council of Canada Background Study No. 31. Ottawa: Information Canada, 1974. 95p.

Canada. Science Council. Planning Now for an Information Society; Tomorrow Is Too Late. Ottawa: Canada, Science Council, 1982. 77~.

Japan Computer Usage Development Institute. The Information Society: A Year 2000 Japanese National Goal. Tokyo, Japan, 1970.

Japan. Ministry of International Trade and Industry. The Vision of MIT1 Policies in the 1980s. Tokyo, Japan, 1980.

Nora, Simon and Mint, Alain. L’informatisation de la Societe. Paris: 1978. 162~. Major French government computer policy development study also published in English as: Nora, Simon and Mint, Alain. The Computerization of Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980. 186~.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. information for a Changing Society: Some Policy Considerations. Paris: OECD, 1971. 48~.

Serafini, Shirley and Andrieu, Michel. The Information Revolution and Its Implications for Canada. Quebec: Canada, Department of Communications, 1980. 113~.

UNESCO. Design and Planning of National Information Systems (NATIS): A Paper for Government Planners. Paris: UNESCO, 1976. 58~.

UNESCO. National Information Policy; (NA TIS: Nationai Information Systems.} Paris: UNESCO, 1976. 26~.

-- . National Information Systems: Establishing a Legislative Framework for the Imple- mentation of NATIS. Paris: UNESCO, 1977. 60~.


-. National Information Systems: Objectives for National and International Action. Paris: UNESCO, 1975. 30~.

Articles

Anthony, L. J. “National Information Policy.” ASLIB Proceedings 34 ( June/ July 1982): 310-316.

Becker, Joseph. “U.S. Information Policy.” Bulletin of the American Society for Informa- tion Science 4 (Aug. 1978): 14-15.

Brown, Royston. “Towards a National Information Policy.” ASLZB Proceedings 34 (June/ July 1982): 3 17-324.

Bushkin, Arthur A. and Yurow, Jane H. “Developing National Information Policies.” Library Journal 104 (Sept. 15, 1979): 1752-1756.

Canisius, P. “Information Policies in Western Europe-Some Remarks about the Present Situation.” ASLZB Proceedings 34 (June/July 1982): 13-24.

Dunn, Donald A. “Developing Information Policy.” Telecommunications Policy 6 (March 1982): 21-38.

Gell, Marilyn K. “Information and Public Policy.” Library Journal 106 (July 1981): 1357. Kaser, David et al. “Toward a Conceptual Foundation for a National Information Policy.”

Wilson Library Bulletin 52 (March 1978): 545-549. Lamberton, Donald M. “National Information Policy.” Annals of the American Academy

of Political and Social Science 412 (March 1974): 145-151. (Special volume on “The In- formation Revolution.“)

Neustadt, Richard M. “Information Policy: Progress and Prospects.” Library Journal 104 (Sept. 15, 1979): 1742-1746.

--. “Information Policy- What Next ?” Bulletin of the American Society for Informa- tion Science 7 (Feb. 1981): 16-19.

Rosenberg, Victor. “National Information Policies.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 17 (1982): 3-32. Detailed literature review with 13-page bibliography pp. 20-32.

Spero, Joan Edelman. “Information: The Policy Void.” Foreign Policy 48 (Fall 1982): 139- 156.

Books

Plowman, Edward W. International Law Governing Communications and Information: A Collection of Basic Documents. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982. 367~.

Understanding U.S. Information Policy: The Znfostructure Handbook. Forest Woody Hor- ton, Jr., Ed. 4 ~01s. Washington, DC: Information Industry Association, 1982. 133p., 369p., 355p., 429~.

9. Information Systems for Developing Countries

The application of advanced information technologies - computers, telecommunications, and satellites- to the economic and social problems of the developing regions of the world is a subject that has received increasing attention in recent years. As indicated in section 3, satellites have been used for years in rural areas and third world nations for a variety of purposes: educational and health information networks, population planning programs, exten-

24 HUGH REYNOLDS

sion of telephone and television services, and responses to emergencies and natural disasters, to name a few.

Computers and telecommunication systems are also being extended into poorer areas as part of foreign aid programs of many advanced nations. Canada, as a case in point, has linked communications and information technology to its foreign assistance programs to developing countries as well as to its own remote northern territories.

At the international level, UNESCO has again taken the initiative to promote greater awareness and action in the development of information and communications capabilities throughout the third world. In 1980, the UNESCO General Conference established an am- bitious new program to foster national and regional communications development with cooperation between the developed and the developing nations. This effort, the Interna- tional Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), has yet to prove itself and is still hampered by the lack of funds as well as the magnitude of the problems of nar- rowing the enormous technological gap between nations.

The IPDC represents a positive and hopeful development, however, insofar as it has the potential for defusing the animosity that has arisen between the United States and UNESCO over various mass media and information flow controversies during the past decade. Elliot Abrams, an official in the U.S. Department of State, articulated the attitude of the U.S. government in 1981 when he said: “The IPDC would be a fresh start for UNESCO, with emphasis on technology transfer and deemphasis on ideology and politics. . . . If the IPDC is sidetracked into the political arena, it will fail” [9].


Canada Department of Communications. Communications and Regional Development. Telecommission Study 2(d). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 65~.

-- . Communications and the Canadian Assistance Program for Developing Countries. Telecommission Study 3(b). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 53~. + 79 app.

Deboeck, Guido and Kinsey, Bill. Managing Information for Rural Development: Lessons from Eastern Africa. World Bank Working Paper No. 379. Washington, DC: Interna- tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Economics Department, 1980. 70~.

Hancock, Alan. ~o?nmuni~ation Planning for Development: An Operational Framework, Monographs on Communication Planning, No. 2. Paris: UNESCO, 1981. 198p.

Imboden, Nicolas. Managing Information for Rural Development Projects. Development Centre Studies. Paris: OECD, Development Centre, 1980. 97p.

International Telecommunication Union. PANAFTEL - The Pan-African Telecommunica- tion Network. ITU Booklet No. 13. Geneva: ITU, 1974. (Includes map) 15~.

-- . Tefecomnzunication and Deve~op~~ent. ITU Booklet No. 22. Geneva: ITU, 1978. Latin American Centre for Economic and Social Documentation. Report on the Latin

American Information Infrastructure for Development, with Special Reference to the Caribbean. (E/CEPAL/CLADES/L.9) Santiago, Chile: Economic Commission for Latin America, 1981. 202~.

Massil, S.W. Establishment of a National Documentation Centre: Greece. Development of Information Infrastructures. Paris: UNESCO, 1977. 31~.

Middleton, John. Approaches to Communication Planning. Monographs on Communica- tion Planning, No. 1. Paris: UNESCO, 1980. 300~.

Pool, Ithiel de Sola. “Communications Technology and Development.” UNESCO Courier 36 (March 1983): 26-29.

Bibliographic guide to national aild international government information 25

Schramm, Wilbur. Mass Media and National Development: The Role of Information in the Developing Countries. Paris: UNESCO, 1964. 33313.

Schutz, Harald et al. Function and Organization of a National Documentation Centre in a Developing Country. Documentation, Libraries and Archives: Studies and Research 7. Paris: UNESCO, 1975. 218~.

United Nations. Economic and Social Affairs Department. The Application of Space Tech- nology to Development. New York: United Nations, 1973. 78~.

UNESCO. Information Policy for Development: National and International Responsi- bilities. Paris: UNESCO, 1976. 15~. + v.p. ann.

- . Report of the Seminar on Regional Co-operation for Education and Development in Africa Using Space Communication, Addis Ababa, 27 September - I October 1976. (COM.76/CONF.712/9) Paris: UNESCO, 1976.

UNESCO. International Programme for the Development of Communication. Collection of Basic Texts. Paris: UNESCO, 1981. 15~.

UNESCO. Mass Communication Department. Mass Media in an African Context: An Evaluation of Senegal’s Pilot Project. Reports and Papers on Mass Communication, No. 69. Paris: UNESCO, 1974. 53~.

Articles

Bortnick, Jane. “Notes on Nigeria.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 7 (Dec. 1981): 27-29.

Jakhu, Ram S. and Trecroce, Riccardo. “International Satellite Monitoring for Disarma- ment and Development.” Annals of Air and Space Law 5 (1980 annual): 509-527.

Keren, Carl and Harmon, Larry. “Information Services Issues in Less Developed Countries.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 15 (1980): 289-310. Bibliography, pp. 310-324.

Rosenberg, Victor. “Information Policies of Developing Countries: The Case of Brazil.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science 33 (July 1982): 204-207.

Saracevic, Tefko et al. “Information Systems in Latin America.” Annual Review of Znforma- tion Science and Technology 14 (1979): 249-269. Bibliography, pp. 269-282.

Sweeney, Gerry P. “Telematics and Development.” Information Society 1 (1981): 113-132. von Ledebur, Ernst-Joachim. “The German Experiment in Third World Countries.” Bul-

letin of the American Society for Information Science 7 (Dec. 1981): 24-26. Also, the entire issue of Information Society, volume 2, No. 1, 1983, is devoted to the

theme “Information Technology and Development.” There are six articles dealing with various aspects of information and communication technology and policy as they apply to problems of developing countries.

Books

Clippinger, John H. Who Gains by Communications Development?: Studies of Informa- tion Technologies in Developing Countries. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976. 120~.

Hudson, Heather E. et al. The Role of Telecommunications in Socio-Economic Develop- ment: A Review of the Literature with Guidelines for Further Investigations. Keewatin Communications, 1979. 97p.

Miller, James G. Alternative Communications Systems for Education in the Less Developed Countries. New York: Academy for Educational Development, 1973. 340~.

10. Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Issues

The transmission of information by electronic means has been a major public policy issue since the middle of the nineteenth eenrury beginning with the invention of the telegraph and, shortly thereafter, the telephone. ‘*Telecommunications law is one of the oldest branches of modern functional international law” [lo]. In the twentieth century, it has also become one of the most complex and turbulent areas of law due to the rapid pace of technological change.

It is not possible in a short space to do more than briefly sketch a few llighlights of the development of United States teIe&ommu~~~ation law and regulation over the last century. The late nineteenth century can be characterized as the period of invention and industry creation. Between 1876 and 1888, Western Union and the Beli Company engaged in bitter patent and legal battles and finally agreed to confine themselves to the telegraph and telephone businesses respectively. During the great struggle for common carrier control around the turn of the century, Bell’s subsidiary American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) was reorganized into the parent company of the vast Be11 system [l I].

By the beginning of the 193Os, AT&T had achieved virtual monopoly control of the telephone industry and was granted status as a public utility by the federal government. The landmark Communications Act of 1934 created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and gave it authority to regulate and oversee all telecommunications services, including telegraph, telephone, and radio f12].

The 1934 Act has served as the basis for teIe~ommuni&ations regulation for the past 50 years, with major amendments in 1952, 1960, 1978, and 1981 to accommodate such new ad- vancements as television, satellites, and cable systems. The rapidly accelerating rate of technological innovation, however, has rendered the regulated monopoly status of AT&T ob- solete, and the consent decree of 1982 ordering the company to divest itself of its local operating companies is a reflection of this new technological reality. The outlook for the future of the converging telecommunications, computer, and allied industries is uncertain. But it is clear that the law must continue to develop in response to the evolving technologies, the industry giants and newcomers, and the needs of the public.

Regulation of telecommunications at the international level is the function of the Inter- national Telecommunication Union (ITU), the oldest continuous international organization in existence. Founded in 1865 as the International Telegraphic Union, this intergovernmenta1 agency merged with the Radio~Telegraphi~ Union in I932 to become the ITU. Fifteen years later, the ITU was incorporated into the United Nations system as a specialized agency f13]. The basic purposes of the ITU include the allocation, coordination, and management of the radiofrequency spectrum and the development of technical and operational standards for global and regional telecommunications. A more recent function, which emerged with the advent of sateltite ~OI~munications~ is the assignment of slots in the geostationary orbit fi4f.

Other international bodies concerned with tele~ommu~~~ations include UNESCO, the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and the Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics, UNESCO has been active in a variety of mass communications activities in the Third World. The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) develops policy over space communications, particularly the development of the controversial direct broadcast satellites and the spread of the arms race into outer space,

The Intergovernmental Bureau for informatics (IBI), based in Rome, is an outgrowth Of

the International Computation Center created in the U.N. in the late 1940s. In its present form the IBI is an autonomous organization charged with the task of aiding developing countries in the acquisition, installation, and use of information and telecommunications


technologies [ 151. During the 197Os, the IBI broadened its scope and became an international forum for the discussion of the economic, social, and legal impacts of computer and communications systems on the poorer nations. IBI members are primarily from the third world, although France has been active in both participation and financial support [16].

U. S. Documents

Bobroff, Sara A. United States Treaties and Other International Agreements Pertaining to Telecommunications. U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Telecommunications. OT Report 74-26. 1974. (Cl .60/3:74-26) 175~.

Cole, Jack E. et al. A Review of International Telecommunications Industry Issues, Structure, and Regulatory Problems. U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Tele- communications. OT Special Publication 77-16. 1977. (C1.60/2:77-16) 141~.

Crombie, Douglass D. Lowering Barriers to Telecommunications Growth. U.S. Department of Commerce Office of Telecommunications. OT Special Publication 76-9. 1976. (Cl .60/ 2:79-9) 119~. + v.p. app.

Emard, Jean-Paul. Information and Telecommunications: An Overview of Issues, Tech- nologies, and Applications. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Tech- nology. Committee Print. 1981. (Y4.Sci2:97/J) 138~. + 14 page bibliography.

Fackleman, Mary P. and Krekel, Kimberly A. International Telecommunications Bibli- ography. U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Telecommunications. OT Special Publication 76-7. 1976. (C1.50/2:76-7) v.p. (176p.)

Rothstein, Larry. New Directions in Mass Communications Policy: Implications for Citizen Education and Participation. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Office of Education. 1978. (HE19.102:C49/4) 34~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Diversity of Information. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.En2/3:97-57) 280~.

--- . Telecommunications and Information Products and Services in International Trade. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.En2/3:97-59) 207~.

--. Proposed Antitrust Settlement of U.S. v. A. T.&T. Joint Hearings. 97th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1982. (Y4.En2/3:97-116) 141~.

--- . Telecommunications in Transition: The Status of Competition in the Telecommuni- cations Industry. Committee Print. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981, (Y4.En2/3:97-V) 435~.

---. Telecommunications Miscellaneous, Part 1. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.En2/3:97-64) 684~.

---. User Needs and Concerns in Telecommunications Marketplace. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1982. (Y4.En2/3:97-60) 646~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. International Telecommuni- cations and Information Policy. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st and 2nd Sessions. 1982. (Y4&74/7:T23/3) 309~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Communications Act of 1934, Section 214: Legislative Background. Committee Print. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.In8/4:C73/25) 90~.

--- . H.R. 3333, “The Communications Act of 1979” Section-by-Section Analysis. Com- mittee Print 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.In8/4:C73/24) 85~.

--- . Telecommunications Research and Policy Development Overview. Hearings. 94th Cong., 1st Sess. 1975. (Y4.In8/4:94-46) 165~.

U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. Communications Research and Development. Committee Print. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.Sci2:96-III) 34~.

28 HUGH REYNOLDS

- - . Communications Research and Development. Hearings. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1980. (Y4.Sci2:96/130) 481~.

U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Radiofrequency Use and Management: Impacts from the World Administrative Radio Conference of 1979. 1982. (Y3.T22/2:2 Rll) 163~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Amend- ments to the Communications Act of 1934. Hearings. 4 ~01s. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.C73/7: 96-45/pts. l-4) 3369~.

-- . Cable Telecommunications Act of 1983. Hearing. 98th Cong., 1st Sess. 1983. (Y4.C73/7:S.Hrg. 98-26) 215~.

--- . Long-Range Goals in International Telecommunications and Information: An Outline for United States Policy. Committee Print. 98th Cong., 1st Sess. 1983. (Y4.C73/7:S.Prt. 98-22) 288~.

__. Telecommunications Competition and Deregulation Act of 1981. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1981. (Y4.C73/7:97-61) 650~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. DOJ Oversight: U.S. v. A. T.&T. Hearings. Part 1. 97th Cong., 1st and 2nd Sessions. 1982. (Y4.J89/2:J-97-53/pt.l) 253~.

--- . DOJ Oversight: U.S. v. A.T.&T. (The Effect on Local Rates). Hearing. Part 2. 97th Cong., 2nd Sess. 1982. (Y4.J89/2:J-97-53/pt.2) 325~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. Monopolization and Competition in the Telecommunications Industry. Hearings. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1982. (Y4. J89/2: J-97-47) 769~.

U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. World Administrative Radio Con- ference. Special Report No. 57. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 1979. (Sl .129:57) 5p.


Canada. Consultative Committee on the Implications of Telecommunications for Canadian Sovereignty. Telecommunications and Canada. (Clyne Report) Ottawa: Department of Communications, 1979. 98~.

Canada. Department of Communications. The Future of Communications Technology. Telecommission Study 4(a). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 233~.

--. International Legal Problems Concerning the Transfer and Storage of Information. Telecommission Study 3(c). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 17~.

--- . The International Role of Canadian Telecommunications Companies. Telecommis- sion Study 3(d). Ottawa: Information Canada, 197 1. 46~.

-- . Re-appraisal of the Present Management of the Radio Spectrum. Telecommission Study 2(h). Ottawa: Information Canada, 1971. 39~.

__. Research and Development Policies and Programs. Telecommission Study 4(b). Ottawa: Information Canada, 197 1. 99~.

Council of Europe. Council for Cultural Co-operation. New Communications Technologies and Their Uses. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 1973. 47~.

International Telecommunication Union. WCY Bulletin. World Communications Year Secretariat News Bulletin. Vol. 1, No. l- March 1982- Geneva: World Communications Year Secretariat, International Telecommunication Union, 1982-

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Computers and Telecommuni- cations: Economic, Technical and Organisational Issues. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 3. Paris: OECD, 1973. 222~.


- . Conference on Computer/Telecommunications Policy: Proceedings of the OECD Conference February 4-6, 1975. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 11. Paris: OECD, 1976. 336~.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Information Activities, Elec- tronics, and Telecommunications Technologies: Impact on Employment, Growth and Trade. Information, Computer and Communications Policy, No. 6, Vol. 1. Paris: OECD, 1981. 140~.

__. Microelectronics, Productivity and Employment. Information. Computer and Com- munications Policy, No. 5. Paris: OECD, 1980. 290~.

-- . Policy Implications of Data Network Developments in the OECD Area. Information, Computer and Communications Policy. No. 3. Paris: OECD, 1979. 206~.

--. Telecommunications: Pressures and Policies for Change. Paris: OECD, 1983. 142~. ---. Towards Central Government Computer Policies: Data Base Developments and

International Dimensions. OECD Informatics Studies, No. 5. Paris: OECD, 1973. 215~. -- . The Usage of International Data Networks in Europe. Information, Computer and

Communications Policy, No. 2. Paris: OECD, 1979. 287~. Pelletier, Gerard. Computer/Communications Policy: A Position Statement by the Govern-

ment of Canada. Ottawa: Information Canada, 1973. 17~. English, 17~. French. __. Proposals for a Communications Policy for Canada: A Position Paper of the Gov-

ernment of Canada. Ottawa: Information Canada, 1973. 35~. English, 35~. French. Segal, Brian. The 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference: International Negotiations

and Canadian Telecommunications Policy. Ottawa: Department of Communications, 1980. 49~. English, 49~. French.

UNESCO. Telecommunication Tariffs for the Mass Media. New Communication Order, No. 8. Paris: UNESCO, n.d. 80~.

Articles

Eger, John M. “The Global Phenomenon of Teleinformatics: An Introduction.” Cornell International Law Journal 14 (Summer 1981):203-236.

Frey, Louis et al. “Telecommunications Policy in the 1980’s and Beyond.” Florida Bar Journal 56 (March 1982): 219-223.

Hondius, Fritz W. “Data Law in Europe.” Stanford Journal of International Law 16 (Sum- mer 1980): 87-111.

Kokalis, Peter J. “Updating the Communications Act: New Electronics, Old Economics, and the Demise of the Public Interest.” COMMENT 3 (Spring 1981): 455-501.

Krasnow, Erwin G. et al. “Rewriting the 1934 Communications Act, 1976-1980: A Case Study of the Formulation of Communications Policy.” COMM-ENT 3 (Spring 1981): 345-378.

Lambert, R. Bradley. “The Effect of the Second Computer Inquiry on Telecommunications and Data Processing.” Wayne Law Review 27 (Summer 1981): 1537-1573.

Noam, Eli M. “Towards an Integrated Communications Market: Overcoming the Local Monopoly of Cable Television.” Federal Communications Law Journal 34 (Spring 1982): 209-257.

Parker, Edwin B. “Telecommunication Policy and Information Services.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 4 (Aug. 1978): 16-17.

Rutkowski, A.M. “United States Policymaking for the Public International Forums on Communication.” Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce 8 (Summer 1980): 95-157.

30 HUGH REYNOLDS

Soroos, Marvin S. “The Commons in the Sky: The Radio Spectrum and the Geostationary Orbit As Issues in Global Policy.” International Organization 36 (Summer 1982): 665-677 e

Tomberg, Alex. “European Information Networks.” An~ua~~eview of Information Science and Technology 12 (1977): 219-236. (Bibliography: pp. 236-246.)

“U.S. Telecommunications Policy: Position Paper of the Information Industry Associa- tion.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 8 (June 1982): 10.

Books

Documents in American Te~ecomm~ni&ations Policy. John M. Kittross, Ed. New York: Arno Press, 1977. 2 ~01s. v.p.

Nelson, Harold L. and Teeter, Dwight L. Jr. Law of Mass Communications: Freedom and Control of Print and Broadcast Media, 4th ed. Mineola, NY: Foundation Press, 1982. 718~.

Pool, Ithiel de Sofa. Te&hnologies of Freedom. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1983. 299~. SchiIler, Dan. Telematics and Government. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corp., 1982.

237~. (Bibliography: pp. 217-227.) Zuckman, Harvey L. and Gaynes, Martin J. Mass Communications Law in a Nutshell. St.

Paul: West Publishing Co., 1977. 431~.

THE GLOBAL INFORMATION WAR

During the 1970s the accelerating advance and convergence of computer and telecommunication technologies gave rise to new sources of international tension. The long-heralded information and communications revolution produced a complex and frequently intractable set of issues that spilled over from the technological and economic areas into the social, cultural, legal, and political spheres. These technological forces have prompted many observers to refer to the emergence of an international information war [17].

The issues and categories outlined in the previous sections of this guide can be seen as some of the many fronts in this worldwide conflict. The information battle lines are drawn between the rich north and the poor south as well as between the ideological camps of east and west. Eruptions are also occurring at the regional level- involving otherwise friendly nations among the industrial democracies-and at the national and sub-national levels, forcing confrontations between public and private sectors, between governments and citizens, and among competing economic, social, and cultural groups.

Two dimensions of this war merit special attention: information economics and information politics. The most significant and far-reaching effects of the information and communications revolution have taken place in these two areas. While many of the issues already discussed have had economic and political consequences, it is increasingly recognized that these activities are radically altering the nature of economics and politics. In the final section, all the diverse elements of the global information war are brought together in the concept of the New World Information Order proposed by UNESCO and other international and regional organizations.

11. The Economics of Information

There are numerous studies and analyses of the massive structural changes in the econo- mies of advanced industrial nations. These changes are attributable to the growing service

bibliographic guide to national and international government information 31

and information sectors of the economy, which have largely supplanted the older agricultural and industrial foundations of industrialized societies. The work of the late economist Fritz Machlup is generally cited by other writers as the first systematic attempt to measure the extent of knowledge-related activities as a percentage of gross national product. Based on his calculations of total spending for knowledge in all sectors of the economy, Machlup computed that about 29% of the GNP in 1958 was derived from what he called the “knowledge industries” [ 181.

The work of Peter Drucker, Daniel Bell, and others has extended and modified the findings of Machlup. Drucker has argued that in 1955 one-quarter of the U.S. GNP was derived from the “knowledge industries,” but just ten years later “the knowledge sector was taking one-third of a much bigger national product” f19]. Bell acknowledges Machlup’s “heroic effort” and contribution to mapping the knowledge-based economy but criticizes the work as being overly broad in its definitions, methods, and conclusions [20].

In 1977 Marc Porat produced a nine-volume study for the U.S. Office of Telecommuni- cations detailing the nature and composition of the information sectors of the U.S. economy. Using 1967 as the benchmark year and basing his calculations on the national income and product accounts of the Commerce Department, Porat concluded that 46% of the GNP and 53% of labor income is “based primarily in knowledge, communication and information” [21]. This seminal work provides the most powerful evidence yet that the United States has moved a long way towards a post-industrial economy.

The scale of this fundamental economic shift resulting from the accumulation and cod- ification of knowledge portends major changes in all other aspects of society. In the words of Kenneth Boulding: “The growth of knowledge is one of the most irreversible forces known to mankind” [22].

The preceding discussion of the “information economy” examines information at the macroeconomic level, i.e. the totality of information activities within the economy. At the other end of the economic scale, the measurement of particular information goods and services presents a number of problems for economists. The primary problem is that there is no standard unit of measurement for information. The economic concept of a commodity cannot be precisely applied since information can be transferred from one point to another with no loss at the origin and no gain at the end unless the receiver has some use for it. Its value to the user is hard to ascertain because it tends to be subjective and non-quantifiable. The majority of citations in this section deal with this emerging field of the “economics of information” at the microeconomic level.

U.S. Documents

Porat, Marc Uri. The Infor~~~~on Economy: Definition and ~g~sur~men~. U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce, Office of Telecommunications. 071‘ Special Publication 77-12 (I). 1977. (Volume 1 of a nine-volume study completed with the assistance of Michael R. Rubin.) (C1.60/2:77-12(l)) 250~.

Porat, Marc Uri and Rubin, Michael R. The Input-Output Structure of the Information Economy. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Telecommunications. 1977. (Col- ored poster, 104 x 147 cm.) (C1.2:In3).

Articles

Broadbent, H.E. III. “Pricing Information Products and Services.” Drexel Library Quar- terly 17 (Spring 1981): 99-107.

32 HUGH REYNOLDS

Cooper, Michael D. “The Economics of Information.” Annual Review of Znformation Science and Technology 8 (1973): 5-32. (Bibliography: pp. 32-40.

Halina, J.W. “Communications and the Economy: A North American Perspective.” Znter- national Social Science Journal 32 (no. 2, 1980): 264-282. (Slightly revised version of a paper written for the International Commission for the Study of Communication Prob- lems: CIC Document No. 62.)

Hall, Kent. “The Economic Nature of Information.” Information Society 1 (no. 2, 1981): 143-166.

Havrilesky, Thomas M. “Information and Economic Analysis.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 412 (March 1974): 64-79.

Hindle, Anthony and Raper, Diane. “The Economics of Information.” Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 11 (1976): 27-43. (Bibliography: pp. 43-54.)

Oettinger, Anthony and Shapiro, Peter. “Information Industries in the United States.”

1975 Britannica Book of the Year, pp. 18-22. Parker, Edwin B. “Information Services and Economic Growth.” Znformation Society

1 (1981): 71-78. Spence, A. Michael. “An Economist’s View of Information.” Annual Review of Znformation

Science and Technology 9 (1974): 57-74. (Bibliography: pp. 75-78.) Urquhart, D.J. “Economic Analysis of Information Services.” Journal of Documentation

32 (June 1976): 123-125.

Books

Bell, Daniel. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books, 1973. 507~. (Listed also in section 7)

Boulding, Kenneth. The Meaning of the Twentieth Century: The Great Transition. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. 208~. (Listed also in section 7)

Drucker, Peter. The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society. New York: Harper & Row, 1969. 394~.

The Economics of Information. Jana Varlejs, Ed. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1982. 92~.

Economics of Information and Knowledge: Selected Readings. Donald A. Lamberton, Ed. Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1971. 384~.

Information Services: Economics, Management, and Technology. Robert M. Mason and John E. Creps, Jr., Eds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981. 211~.

Key Papers in the Economics of Information. Donald W. King, Nancy K. Roderer, and Harold A. Olsen, Eds. White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1983. 372~.

Machlup, Fritz. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Prince- ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962. 416~.

__. The Brunches of Learning. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982. 205~. -- . Knowledge and Knowledge Production. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1980. 272~. Machlup, Fritz, Leeson, Kenneth and associates. Information Through the Printed Word:

The Dissemination of Scholarly, Scientific, and Intellectual Knowledge. New York: Praeger, 1978. 3 ~01s.

Theil, Henri. Economics and Information Theory. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967. 488~.

12. The Politics of Information

The political dimensions of information and communications arising from the multitude of issues already discussed have received considerable attention in recent years. Information


is now regarded as a basic resource much as natural resources, energy, and economic power have been throughout history. As such it has become a political force in its own right.

In a number of developed countries, legislation has been enacted and national strategies adopted to secure maximum political advantage in the global information battles. In addition to laws on freedom of information, privacy, transborder data flow, and other issues examined earlier, several industrialized nations have incorporated long-range information planning goals into the highest levels of their governmental operations. A brief review of several reports will illustrate the degree to which information resources and technologies have become political weapons.

France. In 1978 a report was submitted to the government of France by Simon Nora and Alain Mint entitled L’informatisation de la Societe (The Computerization of Society). The gist of the Nora-Mint Report stated that the merger of telecommunications and computer systems (“telematics”) was having an increasingly serious impact on all of French society with significant social, cultural, economic, and political consequences for the nation. In order for France to regain control over its future, the report recommended the reorganization of the Ministry of Posts, Telephones, and Telegraphs (PTTs) to blunt the growing dominance of foreign information companies such as IBM. The report also called for a major drive toward technological self-sufficiency and leadership to ensure economic independence and national sovereignty. These goals were presented as part of an overall strategy of social and economic mobilization [23].

Canada. Similarly, the Canadian Department of Communications has sponsored a series of reports during the last decade exploring the relationships among telecommunications, computers, foreign trade, employment, and international political affairs. The most famous of these is Telecommunications and Canada, or the Clyne Report as it is more widely known. Issued in 1979, the Clyne Report begins with the same premise as the French document and recommends the limitation of foreign competition in the communication and information industries and stricter regulation of transborder data flows. Otherwise, the study warns, Canada would continue to lose control over its cultural, commercial, and political sovereignty [24].

Japan. The Japanese have been shaping long-range national information strategy since at least 1970 based on the economic power of the “knowledge-intensive industries.” In that year, the Japanese Computer Usage Development Institute produced a 30-year economic development plan entitled The Information Society: A Year 2000 Japanese National Goal. The premise of this report was that information and communications goods and services provided the basis for many other related industries as well and thus were becoming the foundation for a new economic base and, in fact, a new type of society. The objectives and policy recommendations of the 1970 report were recently reaffirmed and updated in a new national economic plan issued by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry called The Vision of MZTZ Policies in the 1980’s [25].

United States. As noted in section 8, the U.S. government has been criticized for failing to respond in a systematic fashion to the rising challenges to American preeminence in information and telecommunications technology and commerce. A recent report issued by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation provides a comprehensive discussion of the problems and outlines the policy options that the United States can implement to counter these threats. This detailed study, Long-Range Goals in International Telecom- munications and Information: An Outline for United States Policy, underscores both the

34 HUGH REYNOLDS

complexity and the urgency of these issues and serves as a blueprint for long-term planning and policymaking 1261.

U. S. Lhcumen ts

Buckley, James L. International Communications and Information Objectives. Current Policy, No. 377. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, 1982. (S1.71/4:377) 4p.

Power, Sarah Goddard. The Communications Revolution. Current Policy, No. 254. Wash- ington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, 1980. (Sl.71/4:254) 4p.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Long-Range Goals in International Telecommunications and Information: An Outline for United States Policy. Committee Print. 98th Cong., 1st Sess. 1983. (Y4.C73/7:S.Prt.98-22) 288~.

U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Internfftionaf Communications and rnform~tion. Hearings. 95th Cong., 1st Sess. 1977. (Y4.F76/2:C73/7) 286~.


Engberg, Ole. “Who Will Lead the Way to the ‘Information Society’?” Zmpact of Science on Society (UNESCO) 28 (1978): 283-295.

Japan Computer Usage Development Institute. The information Society: A Year 2000 Japanese National Goal. Tokyo, Japan, 1970.

Japan. Ministry of International Trade and Industry. The Vision of MITI Policies in the 1980s. Tokyo, Japan, 1980.

Nora, Simon and Mint, Alain. L’informatisation de la Societe. Paris: 1978. 162~. Nora, Simon and Mint, Alain. The Computerization of Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT

Press, 1980. 186~. Tourtellot, Jonathan B. “A World Information War ?‘, European Community. (Jan./Feb.

1978): 11-15.

Articles

Atwood, William. “The Politics of Information.” Political Communication and Persuasion 1 (1982): 321-327.

Bearman, Toni Carbo. “Economic Implications of Policy.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 8 (Feb. 1982): 6.

Dizard, Wilson P., Jr. “The Coming Information Age.” information Society 1 (1981): 91-l 12.

Eger, John M. “The Coming Information War.” Washington Post (Jan. 15, 1978): Bl-B2. Ganley, Oswald. “Political Aspects of Communications and Information Resources in

Canada.” Information Society 1 (1981): 79-89. Gell, Marilyn K. “The Politics of Information.” Library Journal 104 (Sept. 15, 1979): 1735-

1738, Huebner, Albert. “The Worldwide Struggle Over Information.” Business and Society Re-

view (Summer 1980): 59-62. Marks, Leonard H. “Politics of World Information.” Society 12 (Sept./Ott. 1975): 26-29. McGovern, George. “The Information Age.” New York Times (June 9, 1977): A21.


Menou, Michael J. “The North-South Information Gap.” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 8 (June 1982): 28.

Oettinger, Anthony G. “Information Resources: Knowledge and Power in the 21st Century.” Science 209 (July 4, 1980): 191-198.

Porat, Marc Uri. “Global Implications of the Information Society.” Journal of Communi- cation 28 (Winter 1978): 70-80.

Prendergast, Curtis. “The Global First Amendment War.” Time (Oct. 6, 1980): 62-63. Werdel, Judith A. and Steele, Richard A. “The Information Age: Worldwide Data War-

fare?” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science 4 (Aug. 1978): 10-12.

Books

Ganley, Oswald. The United States-Canadian Communications and Information Resources Relationship and Its Possible Significance for Worldwide Diplomacy. Cambridge, MA: Program on Information Resources Policy, Harvard University and Center for Informa- tion Policy Research, 1980. 98~.

Oettinger, Anthony G. et al. High and Low Politics: Information Resources for the 80s. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1977. 264~.

Schiller, Herbert I. Communication and Cultural Domination. White Plains, NY: Inter- national Arts and Sciences Press, 1976. 127~.

13. UNESCO’s New World Information Order

The spectrum of information and communications policy questions- social, cultural, technological, legal, and especially economic and political- finds its most comprehensive ex- pression in the call for a New World Information Order (NWIO). During the past two decades, the non-aligned movement of developing nations has combined forces with UNESCO to counter Western supremacy in the world’s mass media, communications, and data processing technologies. UNESCO has positioned itself squarely in the center of the global information battleground.

In section 1 the distinction between the notion of freedom of information and the worldwide free flow of information was introduced. It is appropriate at this point to further delineate these two concepts. Freedom of information is primarily concerned with public access to static information whereas the free flow of information emphasizes the dynamic aspects of communication within and among nations. In a sense, this difference is built into the structure and the mandate of UNESCO. In the words of Edward Plowman:

The distinction between these two concepts is to some extent arbitrary since they are often seen as not only overlapping but inseparable. However, this distinction has provided the basis for the traditional division of work between the UN and UNESCO. [27]

In its broader context, the NW10 Is regarded by its third world proponents as a compan- ion to the New International Economic Order, a series of proposals set forth in various U.N. specialized agencies and non-aligned organizations [28]. The massive imbalance of economic resources is reflected also in the concentration of information and communications wealth. From the standpoint of the developing world, this is a political problem of global proportions that must be addressed in the political arenas of the international community.

36 HUGH REYNOLDS

In the various debates over the worldwide flow of information, the most controversial and the most publicized conflict has been centered around the mass media and the role of international journalism. The Mass Media Declaration adopted at the twentieth session of the UNESCO General Conference in Paris in 1978 provides a focal point. This resolution represented a compromise between Western advocates of a free press and third world pressures for a more balanced flow of news and information.

Earlier drafts of the declaration had included language endorsing government controls over print and broadcasting as well as the licensing and “protection” of journalists - propo- sitions totally unacceptable to Western delegates to the UNESCO conferences. Elie Abel, professor of communications and American observer at UNESCO proceedings, was un- equivocal in his opposition to any special treatment for journalists working abroad:

In order to qualify for this promised protection, journalists would have to be certi- fied and licensed by some public body . no journalist I know of wants to see a planetary code of behavior imposed, nor any licensing scheme. As Gerald Long, the managing director of Reuters said the other day, “I am afraid that in the matter of the protection of journalists, I see under the hem of the cassock the cloven hoof of regimentation.” [29]

The 1978 compromise declaration was purged of its most objectionable proposals and was accepted by acclamation during the Paris conference. The controversy, however, was not resolved to the satisfaction of free press advocates. Western newspapers, particularly in the United States, denounced UNESCO as a global news censor and urged the U.S. government to withdraw all financial support for and participation in UNESCO.

On the other side of the controversy, advocates of the third world position argued that the “free press” of the capitalist nations is a fiction. Frank Campbell, information minister of Guyana, has stated:

By a free press, in the West, you mean a press owned by a few people who have a commercial monopoly, really a monopoly of the conscience of mankind. . . . You don’t have a free press at all. You have a press imprisoned by commercial interests.

1301

At the heart of the mass media debate is the question of whether governments have a legiti- mate role to play in the regulation of communication in a free society. The United States is unique in its constitutional ban on government interference in the press and its privately owned broadcasting networks. But even this country has a long-standing history of regulation over electronic media. Thus the arguments for a free press are not absolute.

The variety and complexity of information and communication problems work against satisfactory resolution of the issues covered under the very broad umbrella known as the New World Information Order. It is difficult to even provide a definition for such a wide- ranging and dynamic cluster of ideas and controversies. At a symposium in Sweden several years ago, a participant was overheard exclaiming “The New International Information Order-it is a slogan in search of an idea” [31]!

In the politically charged atmosphere of the meetings and conferences in UNESCO, the ITU, the U.N. committees, and numerous other forums concerned with communications issues, the NW10 debates have frequently descended into simplistic political posturing and sabre-rattling. The foregoing review of issues, however, should provide convincing evidence that the NW10 is far more than a piece of political propaganda. The developing nations are not uniformly aligned against U.S. interests and policies, and many moderate third world


leaders would welcome the support in money, technical assistance, and advice that the U.S. can afford to give. From this perspective, the NW10 controversy can be seen as an oppor- tunity to promote a worldwide dialogue on vital information and communication issues.

U. S. Documents

Abrams, Elliot and Buckley, James F. “New World Information Order.” Department of State Bulletin 81 (Oct. 1981): 66-71.

U.S. Congress. House, Committee on Foreign Affairs. Review of U.S. Participation in UNESCO. Hearings and Markup. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. 1982. (Y4.F76/1:Un35/38) 288~.

-- . UNESCO and Freedom of Information. Hearing. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. 1979. (Y4.F76/1:UN35/10). 69~.


Abel, Elie. Communication for an Interdependent, Pluralistic World. UNESCO. Inter- national Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. (CIC Document #33) n.d. 15~.

El-Oteifi, Gamal. Call for a New International Information Order: Preliminary Remarks. UNESCO. International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. (CIC Document #33bis) n.d. 17~.

Hester, Al. North American and Western European Perspectives on Free and Balanced Flow of News and Information. (UNESCO Mimeodoc #CC-78/WS/36) Paris: UNESCO, 1978. 34~.

MacBride, Sean. The Protection of Journalists. UNESCO. International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. (CIC Document #90) n.d.

Masmoudi, Mustapha. The New World Information Order. UNESCO. International Com- mission for the Study of Communication Problems. (CIC Document #31) n.d.

UNESCO. Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War; adopted by Acclamation on 22 November 1978 at the Twentieth Session of the General Conference of UNESCO held in Paris. Paris: UNESCO, 1979. (Mass Media Declaration) 15~.

UNESCO. For the Free Flow of ideas. Paris: UNESCO, 1978. 24~. UNESCO. Historical Background of the Mass Media Declaration. New Communication

Order, No. 9. Paris: UNESCO, n.d. 279~. UNESCO. The Protection of Journalists. New Communication Order, No. 4. Paris:

UNESCO, n.d. 142~. UNESCO. Reporting of International News and the Roles of the Gate-Keepers: Summary

Reports of Two UNESCO Meetings. UNESCO, n.d. 18~. UNESCO. International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. Many

Voices, One World, Communication and Society Today and Tomorrow: Towards a New, More Just and More Efficient World Information and Communication Order. (MacBride Commission Report) Paris: UNESCO; London: Kogan Page; New York: Unipub, 1980. 312~. (Includes list of 100 CIC Documents.)

“A World Debate on Information: Flood Tide or Balanced Flow?” UNESCO Courier 30 (April 1977): l-36.

38 HUGH REYNOLDS

Articles

Abel, Elie. “Global Information: The New Battleground.” Political Communication and Pers~Qsion 1 (No. 4, 1982): 347-357.

Aines, Andrew A. “The World Information Order.” EuIletin of the American Society for Information Science 5 (April 1979): 5.

Argumedo, Alcira. “The New World Information Order and International Power.” Journal of Znternationaf Affairs 35 (Fall-Winter 1981-82): 179-188.

Atwood, Gary Dean. “Warts, Waves, and World Orders-the Politics of the ITU in the Search for a New World Information Order.” journal of Znternfftionffi Affairs 35 {Fall- Winter 1981-82): 267-272.

Cioffi-Revilla, Claudio and Merritt, Richard L. “Communications Research and the New World Information Order.” Journal of International Affairs 35 (Fall-Winter 1981-82): 225-245.

Fore, William F. “A New World Order in Communication.” Christian Century 99 (Aprit 14, 1982): 442-446.

Horner, Charles. “Outer Space and Earthly Politics: How the Communist and Third World Advocates of a ‘New World Information Order’ Are Seeking Control of Satellite Com- munications.” American Spectator 12 (Feb. 1979): 1 l-14.

Masha, F. Lwanyantika. “Decolonizing Information: Toward a New World Information and Communization Order (NWICO).” Pofiticai Cornrn~n~c~tio~ and Persuasion 1 (No. 4, 1982): 337-342.

O’Brien, Rita Cruise and Helleiner, G.K. “The Political Economy of Information in a Changing International Economic Order.” International Organization 34 (Autumn 1980): 445-470.

Powell, William C. “The New World Information Order.” Political Communication and Persuasion 1 (No. 4, 1982): 329-335.

“Symposium: International Satellite Communications and the New Information Order.” (5 articles) Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce 8 (Summer 1981): 321-396.

Unpubiis~ed Reports

Academy for Educational Development, Inc. “The United States and the Debate on the World ‘Information Order.“’ Jonathan F. Gunter, Senior Project Director. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development, Inc., n.d. 172~. (Includes bibliography, pp. 154-172.)

Kroloff, George and Cohen, Scott. “The New World Information Order.” Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, November 1977. 38~.

REFERENCES

1. Relyea, Harold C. “The Rise and Pause of the U.S. Freedom of Information Act,” Government Publications Review 10 (Jan./Feb. 1983), p. 19.

2. Warren, Samuel D. and Brandeis, Louis D. “The Right to Privacy,” Harvard Law Review 4 (Dec. 15, 1890), p. 193.

3. Clarke, Arthur C. Profiks of the Future. New York: Bantam, 1967, p. 188. 4. Bell, Daniel. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books,

1973, pp. 14, 27-33. 5. Caldwell, Lynton K. “Managing the Transition to Post-Modern Society.” Public Administration Review

35 (Nov./Dee. 1975), p. 572.


6. U.S. Domestic Council Committee on the Right of Privacy. National Information Policy: Report to the Presi- dent of the United States. Washington, DC: National Commission on Libraries and Information Science, 1976, pp. 182-183.

7. Spero; Joan Edelman. “Information: The Policy Void.” Foreign Policy 48 (Fall 1982), p. 151. 8. Plowman, Edward W. International Law Governing Communications and Information: A Collection of Basic

Documents. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982, p. 125. 9. Abrams, Elliot. “New World Information Order.” Department of State Bulletin 81 (Oct. 1981), p. 67.

10. Plowman. International Law Governing Communications and Information: A Collection of Basic Documents, p. 227.

11. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Telecommunications in Transition: The Status of Competition in the Telecommunications Industry. Committee Print 97-V. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981, pp. XI, 69-70.

12. Ibid., pp. 1, 71. 13. Academy for Educational Development, Inc. The United States and the Debate on the World ‘information

Order”. Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development, Inc., nd., pp. 26-27. 14. U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment. Radiofrequency Use and Management: Impacts from the

War/d Administrative Radio Conference of 1979. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Technology Assessment, 1982, pp. 3-4.

15. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Long-Range Goals in Inter- national Telecommunications and Information: An Outline for United States Policy. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983, p. 247.

16. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Operations. International Information Flow: Forging a New Framework. House Report 96-1535. 96th Cong., 2nd Sess. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980, pp. 28-29.

17. See for example: Eger, John M., “The Coming Information War,” Washington Post, January 15, 1978, pp. Bl-B2; Prendergast, Curtis, “The Global First Amendment War,” Time, October 6, 1980, pp. 62-63; Tourtellot, Jonathan B., “A World Information War?” European Community, January-February 1978, pp. 11-15.

18. Machlup, Fritz, The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962, p. 44.

19. Drucker, Peter, The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society. New York: Harper and Row, 1969, p. 263.

20. Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, p. 212. 21. Porat. Marc Uri. The Information Economy: Definition and Measurement. U.S. Department of Commerce,

Office of Telecommunications, OT Special Publication 77-12(l). Washington, DC: U.-S. Government Printing Office, 1977, vol. 1, p. 1.

22. Boulding, Kenneth, The Meaning of the Twentieth Century: The Great Transition. New York: Harper & Row, 1964, p. 23.

23. Nora, Simon, and Mint, Alain. L’informatisation de la Societe. (Nora-Mint Report) Paris: Inspection Generale des Finances, 1978. Also published in English as: The Computerization of Society. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1980.

24. Canada Consultative Committee on the Implications of Telecommunications for Canadian Sovereignty. Tele- communications and Canada. (Clyne Report) Ottawa: Department of Communications, 1979.

25. Japan Computer Usage Development Institute. The Information Society: A Year 2000 Japanese Goal. Tokyo, Japan, 1970; Japan. Ministry of International Trade and Industry. The Vision of MITI Policies in the 1980s. Tokyo, Japan, 1980.

26. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Long-Range Goals in Interna- tional Telecommunications and Information: An Outline for United States Policy. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983.

27. Plowman. International Law Governing Communications and Information, p. 125. 28. United Nations Institute for Training and Research. A New International Economic Order: Selected Docu-

ments 1945-1975. 2 volumes compiled by Alfred George Moss and Harry N.M. Winton. UNITAR Document Service No. 1. New York: UNITAR, n.d.

29. U.S. Conaress. House. Committee on Foreian Affairs. UNESCO and Freedom of Information. Hearing. 96th Cong., 1st Sess. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979, p. 33. ”

30. Fore, William F. “A New World Order in Communication.” Christian Century 99 (April 14, 1982): 445. 31. Powell, William C. “The New World Information Order.” Political Communication and Persuasion 1 (No. 4,

1982): 330.

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