Bio Science Unit-1

8/12/2019 Bio Science Unit-1

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BASICS

BIOLOGYGreek word-Bios Life Plants, Animals, Micro

Organisms{Bacteria, Virus}

Logos Study Of Biology:- Study of Lives of plants, animals,

micro orgaisms


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Aristotle Father Of Biology Father Of Zoology

Theophraste Father Of Botany (Plants)Louis Pasteur Father Of Microbiology

Microbiology Study Of MicroOrganisms

1 He developed vaccine against Rabies 2 Rabies is a viral disease 3 Pasteurisation technology is used to

kill micro organisms


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Mendel Father of GeneticS1865 he died no one accepting his

principle Atavision or Reversion is

reappearance of Ancestral Character& Gene is basic unit of heredityHe performed his experiment on

Garden Pea also called Pisum Sativum


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SN Branch Relevant

1 Molecular Biology Study of DNA, RNA,GENE

2 Anthology Study of Flower

3 Palynology Study of Pollen Grains4 Pomology Study of Fruits5 Paleobotany Study of Ancient

Fossil Plants6 Silviculture Forests7 Agrostology Study of Grasses


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8 Horticulture Garden Plants

9 Olericulture Vegetable10 Sericulture Silk

11 Pharmacology Action of Drugs

12 Pharmacognosy Medical Plants

13 Hydroponics Soillers Culture

14 Phycology/Algology

Study of Algae

15 Mycology Study of Fungi


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16 Oncology Study of Cancer

17 Ornithology Study of Birds

18 Entomology Study of Insects

19 Herpetology Amphibians & Reptiles

20 Ichthyology Study of Fishes21 Serpentology /

OphiologyStudy of Snakes

22 Biotech Plants+Animals+MicroOrganisms+GeneticEngg


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23 Eugenics Study of Human Genetics

24 Euphenics Improvement of human racewith the help of techniques ofgenetic engg.

25 Euthenics Improvement of human racewith the help of better

conditions &or facilities26 Dysgenics Study of unwanted character

found in a given race


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The Development of Cell TheorySpontaneous Generation Idea that livingthings come from non living sources.

Ex: maggots appear on meat if left out too long

After it rains frogsInsects and plants seem to come out of mud inponds.

Aristotle (334 BC)

Put forward theidea of spontaneous generation.He classified all organisms as plants or

animals.


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Thomas Henry Huxley (1870) Used theterm abiogenesis to describe the concept of

spontaneous generation.Francesco Redi (l668) Challenged theidea of spontaneous generation. Helped

proposed the idea known as biogenesis Lifecomes from Life. Did the First controlled experiment.

He hypothesized that if maggots comefrom fly eggs, then maggots will appear onlyin open jars where flies can deposit eggs on

meat.


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When testing, he placed some meat samples incovered jars and some in uncovered jars.

He found that maggots appeared only inuncovered containers.He tested many times and obtained the same

results even with different meats.Leeuwenhoek (1675) > discovers and invents

the simple microscope.

Using his microscope, he saw microorganisms.


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John Needham (1748) > performed anexperiment similar to Redi's.

He boiled a meat broth (to kill microbes);sealed one container (not airtight --- sterile)and left another open.

The result was, microbes were present. Thissupported spontaneous generation.

Spallanzani (1776) > Repeated Needhams

experiment.He boiled the containers for one hour; then,sealed the flasks tightly.


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No microbes were present.The microbes appeared hours after the sealswere broken.He believed that microorganisms were carriedin air and multiplies when they had a food

supply.Pasteur (1861)> Repeated Spallanzanis work.

He used S - shaped necked flasks (heat flaskand bend into an S-shaped curve) whichallowed air and microbes in.


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When he boiled the solution in the baseof the flask this created steam whichcondensed and formed water dropletswhich trapped microbes in the neck ofthe flask.The broth remained clear. He broke thenecks of the flasks. The broth turnedcloudy. Flasks were tipped and themicrobes mixed with the broth. Thebroth turned cloudy. Some of his flasks

are still sterile today.


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The Cell TheoryRobert Hooke (1665) Studied slices of corkand saw hollow sacs he called Cells.

Schleiden (1838) Cells were present inplant tissue.

Schwann (1839) Cells were present inanimal tissue.

This suggested that all organisms were composed ofmore cells.


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The Cell TheoryRobert Brown Discovered the

center of the cell. He called it theNucleus.Virchow (1858) Observeddividing cells and concluded thatcells can arise only from other cells.


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CellsCell Basic Structural Unit of Life.Greek Word > kytos= Cells

Logos= Study of

Cell Biology / CytologyCell is the basic unit of lifeCell is basic unit of structure & function oflifeRobert Hooke discovered the cellRobert Brown discovered the nucleous


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CellsR. Virchow States that ``All living cellsarises from preexisting cells``

Schleiden & Schwan Cell Theory/CellDoctrine All living cells follow this cell theory,except virus {as it is connecting linkbetween living & non living}


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CellsNote Smallest Cell PPLO {PleuroPneumonia Like Organisms} Microplasma Joker Of Cell Bio

Largest Cell Ostrich EggLargest Human Cell Ovum Smallest Human Cell Sperm


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SN VariousElements

Plant Cell Animal Cell

1 Cell Wall Present Absent

Note >

Higher Plants

>Cell wall is made up ofCelluloseVascular Plant- Any of various plants that have the

vascular tissues xylem and phloem. The vascular plants

include all seed-bearing plants Fungi > Cell wall is made up of Chitin Bacteria > Cell wall is made up of Murein

Structural Polysaccharide Carbohydrate Cellulose, Chitin, Murein


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SN

VariousElements


2 Plastid Present AbsentCells are larger insize

Smaller in size

3 Vacudes/Vacuoles wall

Well developed Either absent orreduced

4 Reservedfood

Starch Glycogene

Starch is stored inPlastid

Glycogene isstored in Lever &

Muscles

Storage Polysacchride


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SN VariousElements


5 Suicide Bag{Lysosome} Absent Present

6 Centrosome Absent Present

S Spherosome Present Absent

G Glyoxysome Present Absent

L Lomosome Present Absent7 Cytokinesis

{Division of

cytoplasm}

Cell plateformation

Cell Cleavage, alsocalled furrow


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Karyon Nucleous { Karyology Study ofNucleous }

PLASTIDPlastids are major organelles found in the cells of

plants and algae. They are the site of manufacture and

storage of important chemical compounds used by thecell. Plastids often contain pigments usedin photosynthesis


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LysosomesLysosomes are cellular organelles that

contain acid hydrolase enzymes that break downwaste materials and cellular debris. These arenonspecific. They can be described as thestomach of the cell.


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They are frequently nick named "suicide-bags" or"suicide-sacs" by cell biologists due to

their autolysis. autolysis , more commonly known as self-

digestion, refers to the destruction ofa cell through the action of its own enzymes.

CentrosomeCentrosome is an organelle that serves as

the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC)of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.


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CytokinesisCytokinesis , from the greek cyto- (cell)

and kinesis (division), is the process in whichthe cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell isdivided to form two daughter cells.


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Pl M b (C ll M b )


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Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane) The plasma membrane (cell membrane) is

made of two layers of phospholipids. Themembrane has many proteins embedded in it.

The plasma membrane regulates what enters andleaves the cell. Many molecules cross the cellmembrane b diffusion and osmosis

ll b


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Cell Membrane The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a

biological membrane that separates theinterior of all cells from the outside

environment.The cell membrane is selectively permeable to

ions and organic molecules and controls themovement of substances in and out of cells. It

basically protects the cell from outside forces.


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Cell Membrane It consists of the lipid bilayer with embedded

proteins. Cell membranes are involved in avariety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion,

ion conductivity and cell signaling. Cellmembranes can be artificially reassembled.

Although all cells have membranes. Organelles areinvolved in specialized metabolic activities. The

movements of molecules from one side ofmembrane to the other, the identification of

molecules & many other activities.


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Organelles composed ofmembranes

The endomembrane system is the system ofinternal membranes within eukaryotic cells

that divide the cell into functional and

structural compartments, or organelles.Prokaryotes do not have an endomembranesystem and thus lack most organelles.

The endomembrane system also provides atransport system, for moving moleculesthrough the interior of the cell, as well asinteractive surfaces for lipid and protein

s nthesis.


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The membranes that make up theendomembrane system are made of a lipidbilayer, with proteins attached to either side ortraversing them.


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Ribosome Protein Factory {Common inboth}

Rough Endoplastic Reticulum (RER) areinvolved in the synthesis of proteins & Smooth

Endoplastic Reticulum (SER) are involved inthe synthesis of lipids, including oils,phospholipids and steroids, metabolism of

carbohydrates, regulation of calciumconcentration and detoxification of drugs andpoisons Traffic Police of Cell {Common inboth}


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Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the gel-likesubstance residing within the cell membrane holding

all the cell's internal sub-structures (calledorganelles), except for the nucleus.

Vesicle A vesicle is a small bubble enclosedby lipid bilayer.

Mitochondrion described as "cellular powerplants" because they generate most of the cell'ssupply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) , used as asource of chemical energy.


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In addition to supplying cellular energy,mitochondria are involved in a range of other

processes, such as signaling, cellulardifferentiation, cell death, as well as the control ofthe cell cycle and cell growth.

Vacuole A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present inall plant and fungal cells and some protist, animaland bacterial cells . Vacuoles are essentially enclosedcompartments which are filled with watercontaining inorganic and organic moleculesincluding enzymes in solution.


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The central vacuole in plant cells is enclosed by amembrane termed the tonoplast.

The chemical palette of the vacuole solution termedthe cell sap


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Isolating materials that might be harmful or athreat to the cell

Containing waste productsContaining water in plant cellsMaintaining internal hydrostatic pressure within

the cellMaintaining an acidic internal pHContaining small moleculesExporting unwanted substances from the cellAllows plants to support structures such as leaves

and flowers due to the pressure of the centralvacuole


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Golgi Apparatus Cells synthesize a largenumber of different macromolecules. The Golgi

apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting, andpackaging these macromolecules for cellsecretion (exocytosis) or use within the cell.

in plants it is called as Dictyosome & Golgibody in animals. Chloroplast are organelles found in plants

cells and other eukaryotic organisms thatconduct photosynthesis. Chloroplastscapture light energy, store it in the energy storagemolecules ATP


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Nucleus Controller Tower of the cell {commonin both}

In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Itcontains most of the cell's genetic material,

organized as multiple long linear DNA moleculesin complex with a large variety of proteins, suchas histones, to form chromosomes.

The genes within these chromosomes arethe cell's nuclear genome. The function of thenucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genesand to control the activities of the cell byregulating gene expression.


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Peroxisomes Peroxisomes (also called micro bodies) are

organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells.They are involved in the catabolism of very longchain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-

amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis ofplasmalogens.

N l b


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Nuclear membrane A nuclear membrane (also known as the nuclear

envelope, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a doublelipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material ineukaryotic cells.

The nuclear membrane also serves as the physicalbarrier, separating the contents of the nucleus (DNA

in particular) from the cytoplasm.

C ll N l


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Cell NucleusIn cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei,

from Latin nucleus or, meaning kernel) is amembrane-enclosed organelle foundin eukaryotic cells.

It contains most of the cell's genetic material,organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules incomplex with a large variety of proteins, such

as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes withinthese chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.


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ProkaryoticCell

Eukaryotic Cell

Organism Bacteria, Archaea Plants, Animals, Fungi

Nucleus Absent Well developed

DNA Present Present

ds Circular DNADouble strandedcircular DNA

dsHelical DNA +Histone Protein

Chromosome Is not welldeveloped

Well developed


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Ribosome Present (70S) Present (80S)All membranes bound structure :-Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Golgibody, Lysosome Allmembranes

Absent Present

In Prokaryotestranscription &translation both occurs

simultaneously

In Eukaryotestranscription occursinside nucleus &

translation in cytoplasmwith the help of ribosome


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CELL SIZECells of different kinds vary greatly in size. In

general, the cells of Bacteria are much smaller thanthose of eukaryotic cells are typically 12

micrometers in diameter, whereas eukaryotic cells

are typically 10100 times larger.Some basic physical principles determine how largea cell can be. A cell must transport all of its nutrients

and all of its wastes through its outer membrane tostay alive.Cells are limited in size because, as a cell becomeslarger, adequate transport of materials through the

membrane become more difficult.

The difficulty arises because as the size of a cell


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The difficulty arises because, as the size of a cellincreases the amount of living material (the cell`s

volume) increases more quickly than the size of theouter membrane (the cell`s surface area).

As cells grow, the amount of surface area increasesby the square (X2), but volume increases by cube

(X3).This mathematical relationship between the surface

area & volume is called Surface area-to-volume

ratio. As the cell becomes larger, both surface area 7volume increase.

Volume increases more quickly than surface area.

Causing the surface area to volume ratio to decrease


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Causing the surface area to volume ratio to decrease.As the cell`s volume increases, the cell`s metabolic

requirements increase, but its ability to satisfy thoserequirements is limited by the surface area through

which the needed materials must pass. Consequentlymost cells are very small.

Bacteria Cells generally about 12 micrometerEukaryotic Cells generally range between 10 to

100 micrometer

Some of largest eukaryotic cells are visible to nakedeye.


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M b li i i


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Metabolic engineeringMetabolic engineering is the practice of

optimizing genetic and regulatory processes within cells toincrease the cells' production of a certain substance.These processes are chemical networks that use a series of

biochemical reactions and enzymes that allow cells to convert

raw materials into molecules necessary for the cells survival. Metabolic Engineering specifically seeks to mathematicallymodel these networks, calculate a production of useful

products, and pin point parts of the network that constrain

the production of these products.The ultimate goal of metabolic engineering is to be able to use

these organisms to produce valuable substances on anindustrial scale in a cost effective manner.

Current examples include


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Current examples includeproducing beer, wine, cheese, pharmaceuticals, and

other biotechnology products.

Since cells use these metabolic networks for their survival,changes can have drastic effects on the cells' ability to survive.

The first step in the process is to identify a desired goal toachieve through the improvement or modification of an

organism's metabolism.Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the

cells of living organisms to sustain life.An organism is chosen that will be used to create the desired

product or result.If the organism does not contain the complete pathway forthe desired product or result, then genes that produce the

missing enzymes must be incorporated into the organism.

The completed metabolic pathway is modeled mathematically


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The completed metabolic pathway is modeled mathematicallyto find the theoretical production of the product or the

reaction fluxes in the cell.

A flux is the rate at which a given reaction in the networkoccurs.

After solving for the fluxes of reactions in the network, it isnecessary to determine which reactions may be altered inorder to maximize the production of the desired product.

To determine what specific genetic manipulations to perform,it is necessary to use computational algorithms, such as

OptGene or OptFlux.They provide recommendations for which genes should be

over expressed, knocked out, or introduced in a cell to allowincreased production of the desired product.

BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS


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BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYSBiochemical pathways or metabolic pathways are series

of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway,a principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical

reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions.This collection of pathways is called the metabolic network.

A biochemical pathway involves the step-by-stepmodification of an initial molecule to form another

product. The resulting product can be used in one of three ways.

To be used immediately To initiate another metabolic pathway, called a fluxgenerating step

To be stored by the cell

Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and


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Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions andprocesses that take place in the cells of organisms to

convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine

triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions,

which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasingenergy in the process as they break high-energy bonds.

RespirationGlucose {Hexose C6H12O6} (1 Molecule)

Glycolysis (occurs in cytoplasm)

Product 2 Pyruvic Acid {C3H4O6 }+ 2ATP moleculesGlycolysis Common path way

Plants & Animals Oxygen+ (Aerobic)

Oxygen- (Anaerobic)

Anaerobic Phase


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Anaerobic Phase Animals 2 ATP + Lactic Acid

Plants 2ATP + Ethyl AlcohalAerobic Phase

Both (plants & animals) Pyruvic Acidenters in mitochondrianResult ETS/C, 36/38 ATPETS Electron Transport System or chain

Respiration Photosynthesis


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Respiration Photosynthesis

Respiration occurs 24hours

Only during day

Respiration is

catabolic ordestructive Process

Anabolic or

constructive process

Respiration releasesCO2

Releases O2

Oxydative process Redox process

Cell lar Respiration


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Cellular RespirationWe all need energy to function and we get this energy fromthe foods we eat. The most efficient way for cells to harvest

energy stored in food is through cellular respiration, acatabolic pathway for the production of adenosine

triphosphate (ATP). ATP, a high energy molecule, is expended

by working cells.Cellular respiration occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryoticcells. It has three main stages glycolysis, the citric acid cycle,

and electron transport.

Aerobic Phase


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Aerobic PhaseAerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to

generate energy (ATP). Although carbohydrates, fats,and proteins can all be processed and consumed asreactants, it is the preferred method

of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires thatpyruvate enter the mitochondrion in order to be fully

oxidized by the Krebs cycle .The product of this process is energy in the form of

ATPC 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O+ heat


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Gl col sis


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GlycolysisGlycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in

the cytoplasm of cells in all living organisms. This pathwaydoes not require oxygen, and can therefore function underanaerobic conditions.

The process converts one molecule of glucose into two

molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in theform of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP perglucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed as

part of the preparatory phase.

Glucose {Hexose C6H12O6} (1 Molecule)Glycolysis (occurs in cytoplasm)

Product 2 Pyruvic Acid {C3H4O6 }, 2 ATPmolecules

Glycolysis literally means "splitting sugars."


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y y y p g gGlucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into two

molecules of a three carbon sugar. In theprocess, two molecules of ATP, two moleculesof pyruvic acid and two "high energy" electron

carrying molecules of NADH are produced.Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular

respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows

cells to make small amounts of ATP. Thisprocess is called fermentation.

KREBS CYCLE


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KREBS CYCLE{The Citric Acid Cycle}

The Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle begins after the twomolecules of the three carbon sugar produced in glycolysis are

converted to a slightly different compound ( acetyl CoA ).Acetyl coenzyme A or acetyl-CoA is an important molecule

in metabolism, used in many biochemical reactions. Its mainfunction is to convey the carbon atoms withinthe acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to

be oxidized for energy production.

The acetyl coenzyme A acts only as a transporter of acetic acidfrom one enzyme to another.Through a series of intermediate steps, several compounds

capable of storing "high energy" electrons, are produced alongwith two ATP molecules.

These compounds, known as nicotinamide adenine


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dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide(FAD), are reduced in the process.

These reduced forms carry the "high energy" electrons to thenext stage. The Citric Acid Cycle occurs only when oxygen ispresent but it doesn't use oxygen directly.

After the glycolysis takes place in the cell's cytoplasm, the

pyruvic acid molecules travel into the interior ofthe mitochondrion. Carbon dioxide is enzymatically removed from each

three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule to form acetic acid . Acetic acid combines with an enzyme, coenzyme A, to

produce acetyl coenzyme A. Krebs cycle begins. The cycle is split into eight steps.

Step 1


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Acetic acid subunit of acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate citrate

The coenzyme is released by hydrolysis so that itmay combine with another acetic acid molecule.

Step 2

Isomerisation of citrate . Hydrogen molecules are removed from the citratestructure in the form of water .

Isocitrate is formed.Step 3

Isocitrate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule.(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)

This structure is very unstable


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y A molecule of CO2 is released creating

-ketoglutarate .Step 4

Our friend, coenzyme A, returns to oxidizethe alpha-ketoglutarate molecule

NAD is reduced again to form NADH &leaves with another hydrogen ie unstability

Released carbon dioxide and a thioester bondis formed in its place between the former alpha-ketoglutarate and coenzyme A to create a

molecule ofsuccinyl-coenzyme A Step 5


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A water molecule sheds its hydrogen atoms tocoenzyme A. Then, a free-floating phosphate groupdisplaces coenzyme A and forms a bond with thesuccinyl complex.

The phosphate is then transferred to a molecule of

GDP to produce an energy molecule of GTP. It leavesbehind a molecule of succinate .Step 6

Succinate is oxidized by a molecule of FAD (Flavinadenine dinucleotide).

The FAD removes two hydrogen atoms from thesuccinate and thus creating fumarate .

Step 7


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An enzyme adds water to the fumarate molecule toform malate.

Step 8 Malate is oxidized by a NAD The end product is oxaloacetate which can then

combine with acetyl-coenzyme A and begin the Krebscycle all over again.

Summary


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SummaryIn summary, three major events occur during the

Krebs cycle. One GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is produced which

eventually donates a phosphate group to ADP to form oneATP

Three molecules of NAD are reducedOne molecule of FAD is reduced. Although one molecule ofGTP leads to the production of one ATP

The production of the reduced NAD and FAD are far more

significant in the cell's energy-generating process. This isbecause NADH and FADH2 donate their electrons to anelectron transport system that generates large amounts ofenergy by forming many molecules of ATP.


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