SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 141
BIOCHEMICAL ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES IN
ESTIMATIONS OF ZINC, LEAD AND CADMIUM IN GHEE. B.G.A. Fahmy* and S. A. Abd El-Fatah **
Biochemistry, Nutritional Deficiency Diseases and Toxicology Department*-
Giza Lab** Animal Health Institute –Dokki-Cairo
ABSTRACT Ghee is a dairy ingredient widely used in the food industry because of its
emulsifying capacity and its positive impact on flavor and its nutritive values.
The Ghee was collected from different regions of areas around Cairo city in
clouding industrial and farm landing areas.
The zinc, lead and cadmium were determined the in ghee samples. The zinc
concentrations were ranged between (80.56 ± 6.84 - 89.56 ± 4.05) (μgm/kg).
The lead concentrations were ranged between (99.07 ± 1.45 - 108.68 ± 3.67)
(μgm/kg). The cadmium concentrations were ranged between (81.4 4± 6.34 -
88.35 ± 7.87) (μgm /kg). Heat treatment trials were done to decrease or/and
eliminate the lead, cadmium concentrations in ghee but it was accompanied by
changes in sensory and physical properties. It was demonstrated that no sign-
ificant differences the Ghee composition between different regions and areas.
The concentrations of zinc, lead and cadmium were lower both international and
Egyptian permissible rules. It is concluded that the contribution from ghee to the
total intake of lead and cadmium is toxicologically insignificant and that ghee
product is only a minor source of the essential element zinc.
INTRODUCTION
Ghee is a dairy ingredient alm-
ost manufacture in Middle East and
Asia. Commercial ghee is sweet butt-
er, a by-product from churning sweet
cream, into butter into ghee (Sodini et
al., 2006). Top-selling supermarket
food products included full-fat milk,
white bread, sugar, butter and ghee
(Hamilton et al., 2007). The ghee ca-
ke products were differentiated by tex-
tural acceptability (overall texture, so-
ftness, and moistness); Odor, Overall
liking and taste influenced overall
acceptance and purchase intent (Sae-
Eaw et al., 2007).
Ghee "Butter", causes too high
energy contribution taken from dietary
fats of whole daily energy, a high
dietary fat contribution (37-38% even
40% of total energy) with over-cons-
umption of saturated fatty acids (Raz-
anamahefa et al., 2005). Ghee (clarif-
ied butter) has generally been assumed
to be hypercholestrolaemic on the ba-
sis of its composition (Shankar et al.,
142 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
2005). Ghee depends mainly on its
constituents on the food compositions
of fat (Baer et al, 2001).The nutriti-
onal and rheological properties of bu-
tter depend on the fatty acid compos-
ition of milk. Therefore, feeding oil
seeds rich in unsaturated fatty acids is
likely to affect butter properties and in
consequence to ghee (Hurtaud and
Peyraud 2007).
Several disadvantage of butter
and ghee consumptions, compared to
animals fed the "butter" diet, exhibited
lower plasma and liver triglyceride
concentration (Bayindir et al., 2002),
increased beta-oxidation, decreased
hepatic lipogenesis (Morise et al., 2006),
changes in leukocyte membrane fatty
acid composition (Erman et al., 2006),
lowered postprandial concentrations of
factor VII coagulant activity (Delgado-
Lista et al 2008), increased positively
risks associated with benign prostatic
hyperplasia (BPH) risk (Hurtaud and
Peyraud, 2007) and observe an assoc-
iation of increase cancer risk (Pan et
al., 2004). The highest percentage of afl-
atoxin contamination was found in
butter and vegetable oil which may
reach to (42.5%) (Koirala et al.,
2005). Chemical residues in food were
problem faced the Egyptian consumer.
The nutritional habits are quite diff-
erent with past fifty years. Animal
Butter is past was a principle food
staff in Egyptian feeding, but with
new modern concept of life, this nut-
ritional system was changed due to se-
veral factors, either due economical
purpose or nutritional disadvantage of
animal butter. These changes were rel-
ated to changes in the consumption of
certain key foods (Marhol et al., 2007),
such as the increased consumption of
fruit and vegetables with trends are in
line with accepted nutritional guide-
lines (Prynne et al., 2005). Butter and
ghee were long stands food staffs
either put into daily temperature or
frozen (-20 °C) or refrigerated storage
(5 °C) (Krause et al., 2008).
Epidemiologic studies have su-
ggested that some dietary factors may
play a role in the etiology of appearing
the effect of polluted materials, but the
findings have been inconsistent.
However, the relationship bet-
ween the presence of trace element
like zinc element and environmental
polluted like lead and cadmium in the
ghee and these properties is still unk-
nown. The implication is that it might
be worthwhile monitoring, with sele-
ction of the least contaminated comm-
odities, to reduce the lead, cadmium
and usefulness of zinc exposure of the
general population. This could have
health consequences, because daily
intakes are higher than the tolerable
levels for a considerable part of the
human population. Heavy metals like
lead and cadmium and trace element
like zinc, it presence and concentr-
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 143
ations were not fully covered in the
Egyptian Ghee (animal butter).
Aim and the objectives of the
study were to: 1. Determine these ele-
ment presence and its concentrations
in ghee butter. 2. Trials to eliminated
and/or decrease it is content in the
butter and the properties of butter and
determine the effect of heat treatment
on this residue.
MATERIAL & METHODS
Among 345 of ghee samples
from buffalo milk source (250- 500
gm), twenty samples/region of animal
ghee were collected, different sources
(industrial manufacture factory (F) and
farm, manual product privet (P) and
different region of Cairo with total 120
samples (Table 1). The chosen sam-
ples were selectively chosen as acce-
ptable and insured source productions
of animal butter, farmers and producer
with good repetitions. Many samples
were refused and denied as either
cheated with foreign oils plant or mar-
garine from plant source or other
unusual purpose of cheating.
The samples were packed into
500-g capacity opaque plastic Rexcel
containers. A total of 20 butters sam-
ples (eight from each region) were
stored at 4°C. All analyses were perf-
ormed in duplicate. In procedures, the
butter was sampled after purchased
split into three aliquots. One aliquot
was used to test the effect of direct
detections of selected variables and
the other two were used to test the
effect of thermal (heat) regime (trea-
tment) in at least two regimes on sele-
cted variables composition of ghee.
Ghee (Butter) was washed
twice with cold water (10°C) in the
churn. Washed butter was worked in
the churn into a homogeneous mass.
Butter was packaged by hand with a
spatula into 500-mL cream plastic
cups (diameter: 10 cm, depth: 8 cm).
Four cups were conserved at -20°C
for heavy metals extraction, and ther-
mal properties of butter fat; 10 cups
were conserved at 4°C for rheological
properties and sensory analysis.
Physicochemical Properties of Butter:
1. Sensory analysis:
5 cups of butter per manuf-
actured butter (n = 5) stored at 4°C
were sent to Milk and Dairy product
laboratory – Animal Health Research
Institute – Egypt by refrigerated
transport (4°C) 2 wk after manuf-
acture.
Butters were subjected to the
sensory analysis panel composed of 10
trained panelists. In single sessions,
each panel member had to evaluate
spread-ability at 4°C, odor (total inte-
nsity, rancid, cream, milk, grass, hay,
and hazelnut). Flavor (total intensity,
rancid, acidity, bitterness, cream, milk,
grass, hazelnut, and metal), firmness
and melting in the mouth giving a
score between 0 and 10 (the more
intense the criteria was, the greater the
144 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
score). Spread-ability consisted in
scoring the ease to spread with a knife
a homogeneous sample of butter at
4°C on a Rusk.
2. Determination of Moisture: Moisture was determined by
drying each sample for 5 h in a vac-
uum oven at 100°C (AOAC, 1995).
3. Determination of Fat Content:
Fat content was determined by
the ether extraction method as desc-
ribed by Guzman-Gonzalez et al.
(1999). Extracted lipids were then dil-
uted to 10 mg of lipids per mL with
1:2 chloroform methanols and kept in
a freezer (−20°C) until analysis.
4. Determination of Ash:
Ash content was determined by
ignition for 16 h at 550°C in an elec-
tric muffle furnace (AOAC, 1995).
Dry matter was measured by
recording the mass lost by a sample of
ghee butter of 5 g during drying in an
oven at 102°C for 15 h. Fat was extr-
acted from dry butter previously obta-
ined using 60mLof n-hexane. The
extraction residue (nonfat DM) was
dried at 102 °C ± °C until it
reached a constant mass. Butter DM
was calc-ulated by dividing the
difference betw-een the original
sample mass and wa-ter mass by the
original sample mass. Butter fat
content was calculated as follows:
Fat content = [m butter m water + m
nonfat)]m butter
All measurements were carried
out in triplicate.
5. Determination of lead, cadmium
and zinc in the butter:
From the preliminary proce-
dures, one aliquot was used to test the
effect of direct detections of selected
variables Zinc was determined in bu-
tter as follows: Organic matter in the
sample was destroyed by alternately
heating for 2 d at 450 °C and adding
concentrated nitric acid (Baker Instra
Analyzed, J. T. Baker Chemical), whi-
ch was evaporated to dryness on a hot
plate.
For lead and cadmium determi-
nations: after injection of the sample
into the graphite furnace, the sample
was ashed in a stream of oxygen at
650 ° C and then further ashed at
1,100 °C with argon as the purge gas.
The detection limit was 0.7 ng/g
(Hayashi et al, 1982).
For Zn determinations: The re-
sulting ash was diluted with 2% nitric
acid to a concentration between 0.1
and 1.0 μg Zn/ml, and the zinc was
measured using an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (Model 5000, Pe-
rkin-Elmer, Norwalk, CT). Analytical
accuracy was monitored intermittently
by assaying zinc in bovine liver sam-
ples (Standard Reference Material)
(Saito et al., 1988). A screening method for deter-
mination of lead and cadmium in bu-
tter food was developed. The sample
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 145
(5 g) is digested with HNO3-H2SO4-
HClO4 in a centrifuge tube attached to
a straight glass tube that prevents loss
of HNO3 by volatilization. After dige-
stion, potassium iodide, H2SO4, and
MIBK (4-methyl 2-pentanone) are ad-
ded, and the metals are extracted with
MIBK as metal iodides (Saito et al.,
1988).
The MIBK solution is injected
and the metals are determined by
flame polarized Zeeman atomic absor-
ption spectrometry. Recoveries of
metals from butter were satisfactory.
The analytical results agreed with
certified and/or reference values. This
method is simple and safe for routine
analysis of cadmium (Hayashi et al,
1982), lead, and zinc in foods (Saito et
al., 1988).
5. Effect of heat treatment on lead,
cadmium and zinc on butter:
The heat procedures, two ali-
quots were used to test the effect of
heat treatment in at least two regimes
on selected variables composition of
butter.
Regime 1: The oven temperature was
programmed for 40°C for 5 min, then
increased from 40 to 60 °C at 3°C
/min, held at 60°C for 10 min, raised
to 70°C at 5°C /min, and finally held
at 70°C for 20 min.
Regime 2: The oven temperature was
programmed for 45°C for 5 min, then
increased from 45 to 65 °C at 5°C
/min, held at 65°C for 10 min, raised
to 75°C at 5°C /min, and finally held
at 80°C for 20 min.
Regime 3: The oven temperature was
programmed for 50°C for 5 min, then
increased from 50 to 75°C at 5°C
/min, held at 75°C for 10 min, raised
to 85°C at 5°C /min, and finally held
at 90°C for 20 min.
Regime 4: The oven temperature was
programmed for 60°C for 5 min, then
increased from 60 to 80°C at 3°C
/min, held at 80°C for 10 min, raised
to 90°C at 5°C /min, and finally held
at 90°C for 20 min.
Regime 5: The samples were heated at
60°C for 5 min, cooled at 2°C /min
from 60 to -40°C, and then heated at
2°C/min from -40 to 60°C (Midda-
ugh et al.,1988).
6. Statistical analysis:
Statistical analysis was perf-
ormed according to methods and for-
mula of Snedecor and Cochran (1980).
RESULTS
No statistical difference betw-
een the industrial ghee butter manu-
facture factories and privet farms in its
content of lead, cadmium and zinc
observed.
146 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
Table (1): The butter samples distributions in Cairo city.
Region
North Cairo South Cairo
Shoubra el
kima Kalioub
Shibin el
kanater
El
Moniuoub
El
Hawamdia El Aiate
Source F P F P F P F P F P F P
Sample 10 60 20 30 5 46 10 41 20 32 5 65
% 14.28 85.72 39.21 58.89 9.81 90.19 19.62 80.38 39.91 58.89 7.15 92.85
Butter
% 20% 15% 15% 15% 15% 20%
345 70 51 51 51 52 70
Sample
% 28.57% 40% 40% 40% 40% 28.57%
Total number: 345 butter sample. Selected samples: 20 samples/ region.
Total selections: 240. F = farm or industrial production. P = local or private
producer.
Table (2): Fat% and T. solid % Composition of butter samples.
Region
North Cairo South Cairo
Shoubra el
kima Kalioub
Shibin el
kanater
El
Moniuoub
El
Hawamdia El Aiate
Fat %
81.36 81.00 82.89 81.91 83.98 80.91
± 4.06 ±4.05 ±4.14 ±4.09 ±4.19 ±4.04
T. Solid
%
83.43 84.31 83.66 83.85 84.19 83.41
±4.17 ±4.21 ±4.18 ±4.19 ±4.21 ±4.17
Mean ± standard error.
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 147
Table (3): Lead, zinc and cadmium concentrations (μg/Kg) were in animal
butter samples in Cairo city.
Region
North Cairo South Cairo
Shoubra
el kima Kalioub
Shibin el
kanater
El
Moniuoub
El
Hawamdia El Aiate
Zinc
(μg/Kg)
84.78 88.50 89.56 80.56 84.36 86.89
±8.78 ±6.88 ±4.05 ±6.84 ±5.77 ±5.67
Lead
(μg/Kg)
*** ***
108.68 106.58 104.00 103.34 99.07 100.15
±3.67 ±2.53 ±7.44 ±8.45 ±1.56 ±0.88
Cadmium
(μg/Kg)
83.35 87.65 88.35 81.44 84.10 85.89
±9.87 ±8.77 ±7.76 ±6.34 ±9.88 ±8.59
Mean ± standard error.
*, **, *** significant level at different level of probability P<0.05, 0.01
and 0.001.
Table 3 demonstrated no sign-
ificant difference between different
locality of Cairo city of its content of
measured items (lead, zinc and cadm-
ium). The zinc concentrations were
ranged between 80.56 ± 6.84 (μg/Kg)
in El Moniuoub region (South Cairo)
to 89.56 ± 4.05 (μg/Kg) in Shibin el
kanater (north Cairo). No significant
difference between either south Cairo
(El Aiate; El Hawamdia and El Mon-
iuoub regions)(86.89± 5.67; 84.36 ±
5.77 and 86.89 ± 5.67 (μg/Kg), respe-
ctively) and north Cairo (Shoubra el
kima; Kalioub and Shibin el kanater
region)( 84.78 ± 8.78; 88.50 ± 6.88
and 89.56 ± 1.05 (μg/Kg), respect-
ively). The lead concentrations were
ranged between 99.07±1.56 (μg/Kg) in
El Hawamdia region (South Cairo) to 108.68 ± 3.67(μg/Kg) in Shoubra el kima (north Cairo). Lower in south Cairo (El Hawamdia, El Aiate and El Moniuoub regions) (99.07±1.56; 100.15 ± 0.88 and 103.34 ± 8.45(μg/Kg), respectively) than in north Cairo (Sh-ibin el kanater, Kalioub and Shoubra el kima)(104.00±7.44;106.58 ± 2.53 and 108.68±3.67(μg/Kg), respectively).
The cadmium concentrations
were ranged between 81.44±6.34
(μg/Kg) in El Moniuoub region (South
Cairo) to 88.35 ± 7.87 (μg/Kg) in Shi-
bin el kanater (north Cairo). Lower in
south Cairo (El Aiate; El Moniuoub
and El Hawamdia regions) (85.89±8.59;
84.10± 9.88 and 81.44 ± 6.34 (μg/Kg),
respectively) than in north Cairo (Sho-
ubra el kima; Kalioub and Shibin el
kanater region)(83.35±9.87; 87.65±
142 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
8.77 and 88.35 ± 7.76 (μg/Kg), respectively).
Table (4): Effects of different thermal treatments (heat) of animal butter
were on the concentrations of different measured items (lead,
zinc and cadmium) concentrations. Regime Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 3 Regime 4 Regime 5
Zinc
(μg/Kg)
*** ***
88.50 89.56 76.56 74.36 86.89
±5.88 ±4.05 ±4.84 ± 6.77 ±5.67
Lead
(μg/Kg)
*** ***
105.68 106.58 89.00 88.73 104.07
±3.67 ±2.53 ±4.44 ±3.45 ±4.56
Cadmium
(μg/Kg)
** *
87.65 88.35 77.44 79.10 87.89
±8.77 ±7.76 ±6.34 ±9.88 ±8.59
Mean ± standard error.
*, **, *** significant level at different level of probability P<0.05, 0.01
and 0.001.
The concentrations of lead,
cadmium and zinc different according
to the different heat regimes (Table 4);
the regime 1 and 2 and 5 is much hig-
her concentrations of the lead, cadm-
ium concentrations (105.68 ± 3.67; 87.65
± 8.77 and 88.50 ± 5.88 (μg/Kg),
respectively) in regime 1; (106.58±2.53;
88.35±7.76 and 89.56 ±4.05 (μg/Kg) ,
respectively ) in regime 2 and (104.07
± 4.56; 87.89 ± 8.59 and 86.89 ± 5.67
(μg/Kg) , respectively) in regime 5 than
regime 3 (89.00 ± 4.44 (P<0.001); 77.44
± 6.34 (P<0.01) and 76.56 ± 4.84
(P<0.001) (μg/Kg),respectively) and in
regime 4 (87.34 ± 3.45 (P<0.001);
79.10 ± 9.88 (P<0.05) and 74.36 ±
6.77 (P<0.001) (μg/Kg), respectively).
Table (5): Sensor and physical properties observed of fresh and after
different thermal treatments (heat) of animal ghee butter.
Spread ability Firmness and
melting Flavor odor Ghee
8 7 Creamy Slight rancid Fresh ghee
10 9 Slight brownish Rancid Heat treated
ghee
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 149
DISCUSSION
Ghee by definitions is a pro-
ducts obtained extensively from milk
and/or fat enriched milk products of
varies animal species by means of pro-
cess that result in the near removal of
water and non fat solids (similar to
anhydrous milk fat) and in the deve-
lopment of characteristics flavor and
texture (Francis, 2000). Even so most
ghee contains some non-fat solids to
enhance the flavor typically. Ghee is
manufacture by fretting butter to tem-
perature well above those during anh-
ydrous milk fat (AMF) manufacture.
The high temperature treatment of the
non-fat milk solids and milk fats lead
to development of strong buttery fla-
vor. However traditional ghee, as pro-
duced in Middle East and Asia has a
more rancid taste due to less-soph-
isticated methods of manufacture. in
the European countries community are
also producing ghee by adding ethyl
butyrate to AMF (Rajah and Burgess,
1991). Alternative synthetic flavors
have been developed to added ghee
flavor notes to butter oil (Wadhwa
and Jain 1992).
Ghee manufacture in Cairo city
Ghee diets rich in saturated
fatty acids ("butter" diet) (Morise A, et
al., 2006). Ghee butter is often crit-
icized for its poor nutritional value and
spread-ability compared with marga-
rines (Brodin, 1989). In Cairo, Egypt,
The most animal butter producer
(ghee) were local or private farmers
(58.89 - 92.85%) than farm or ind-
ustrial producer (7.15 - 39.21%)
(Table 1), easily it can arranged the
butter (Ghee) industrial producer as
Kalioub (north Cairo); El Hawamdia
(south Cairo) followed by El Moni-
uoub (south Cairo); Shoubra el kima
(north Cairo); Shibin el kanater (north
Cairo) and El Aiate (south Cairo),
respectively. Most of them depend on
its local productions experience with
low regulatory industrials procedures
and protocols. In the other side, can
easily determined how taken manage-
ment the health in its protocols and
procedures. The result of (Table 1)
indicated the ghee butter productions
still at local or farmer producer or low
educated and trained people more than
the industrial productions in Egypt.
Fat % and total solid % of ghee:
No differences between the fat
% and total solid % between different
ghee samples (Table 2) observed. No
significant difference between differ-
ent regions in the ghee and butter fat
and total solid % composition between
different regions and locality on either
north or south Cairo. The previous
150 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
result can be explained that ghee prod-
uctions depend mainly on local cow
breed or buffalo with the same genetic
and productions ability. However, the
relationship between the proportion of
grass in the diet and/or ration type and
these properties of butter or ghee is
still unknown. In Egypt, the relation-
ship between the proportion of grass in
the diet or/and ration type and the
properties of milk and butter were
undetermined. Milk yield linearly inc-
reased with the proportion of fresh
grass in the diet and induced a linear
decrease in fat content with decrease
milk fat globule size (Couvreur et al.,
2006) which will surly affect ghee
production.
On the other hand, low creative
ability in the producers which loss the
motive and economical ability to dev-
elop a new technique or create a new
market to distribute. Ghee (clarified
butter) has generally been assumed to
be hypercholesterolaemic on the basis
of its composition but any study fall to
support or refute the assumption why
old Egyptians was trained to consume
ghee in its native character every mor-
ning with health and long living prop-
erties. The high total cholesterol/HDL
cholesterol ratio (Shankar et al., 2005)
in ghee which may due to only three
(lauric, myristic, and palmitic) content
have been associated with raising total
cholesterol levels in plasma (German
and Dillard., 2006), with their indivi-
dual variable effects towards raising
low-density lipoproteins and raising
the level of beneficial high-density
lipoproteins. With noting that the cho-
lesterol-modifying response of indivi-
duals to consuming saturated fats is
also variable, and therefore the comp-
osition, functions and biological prop-
erties of ghee fat will need to be re-
evaluated as the food marketplace mo-
ves increasingly towards more person-
alized diets with affect it is modern
concept of live and the atherogenicity
index.
On the other hand, triacylg-
lycerols, fatty acid, and polycyclic trit-
erpene compositions (Di Vincenzo et
al., 2005) of ghee butter may another
source and difference between Oleic
acid in one area and stearic acid in
other may affect compositions but not
affect total fat% which fat compo-
sition need further geographic study.
Zinc, Lead and cadmium concentra-
tions in ghee:
The study does not indicate
any adverse effect of ghee manuf-
acture on trace minerals or heavy
metals content. Table 3 demonstrated
no significant difference between diff-
erent locality of Cairo city of its con-
tent of measured items (lead, cadmium
and zinc) except in tow regions.
The zinc concentrations were
narrow ranged between 80.56 ± 6.84
(μgm/kg) in El Moniuoub region (So-
uth Cairo) to 89.56 ± 4.05 (μgm/kg) in
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 151
Shibin el kanater (north Cairo). No
significant difference between either
south Cairo (El Aiate; El Hawamdia
and El Moniuoub regions) and north
Cairo (Shoubra el kima; Kalioub and
Shibin el kanater region) but decr-
eased in industrial regions (El Hawa-
mdia and Kalioub regions) than land
farming regions (El Aiat and Shibin el
kanater) but in manner different than
that of lead and cadmium concentr-
ations. Zinc concentrations in Ghee
were between the ranges of zinc
availability in similar foods of plant
and animal origin. In the present art-
icle, we cannot examined ghee-zinc
characteristics for possible relation-
ships with zinc availability, including
the solubility or molecular size of zinc
compounds after an in vitro enzymatic
digestion and the contents of phytic
acid, minerals, amino acids, carboh-
ydrate and fatty acids relative to the
zinc content of the ghee. In butter, the
amounts of the foods (dry weight)
required to provide (0.25 mmol zinc)
was 0.702 g. Relative to availability
from zinc chloride, zinc availability
from foods such as chicken, milk, and
peanut butter was greater when dete-
rmined using 98 rather than 16
micrograms zinc in the meal (Hunt et
al.,1989). In other studies amino acids
(tyrosine, methionine, histidine and
tryptophan) appeared to be positively
associated with zinc availability may
due to differences in zinc binding or
peptides containing these amino acids
through zinc-binding properties and/or
specific sites facilitating peptide abso-
rption. Phytic acid, Copper Fe/Zn
molar ratios has long been recognized
as an inhibitor of zinc availability
(Solomons et al 1983 and Sandstrom
et al 1984).
In comparing with the present
studies, our data below that listed,
16.7 - 66.7 μg/g (Holak, 1980), Zn/g
and the coefficient of variation for 20
independent analyses was 8% with
recoveries was 96 +/- 3 μg /g (Solc-
haga et al.,1986). The Zn concentra-
tions in ghee is higher than Zn(II)
content in olive oil samples and the
repeatability was 98.92% and obtained
recoveries were 83.35 +/- 1.72 with
theoretic detection limits were 14.3 ng
g(-1) and concentrations range were
157.00-385.22 ng g (-1) (La Pera et
al., 2002).
The lead concentrations were
ranged between low in El Hawamdia
region (South Cairo) to high in
Shoubra el kima (north Cairo). Lower
in south Cairo (El Hawamdia, El Aiate
and El Moniuoub regions) than in
north Cairo (Shibin el kanater, Kali-
oub and Shoubra el kima), respec-
tively). Increased in industrial regions
(El Moniuoub regions; Kalioub and
Shoubra el kima) than land farming
regions (El Aiat and Shibin el kan-
ater). The result was blow the legal
rules or limits. There was statistical
difference between the different regi-
ons of Cairo present especially present
152 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
in El Hawamdia and El Aiat, two
explanations in attendance observed
first increase lead concentrations in
the Cairo air due to automotive atten-
dance increase and industrial waste
products which is problem to Cairo city.
Rapid and direct procedures
for determining lead in dairy products
by atomic absorption spectrometry
were described. The reliability of the
procedure was checked by comparison
with the acid mineralization procedure
and by analyzing 3 certified reference
milk samples (Vias et al., 1999). Other
several methods for the determination
of lead were presented (Wong et al.,
1978). Mainly it involves atomic abs-
orption spectrophotometry digesting a
food sample with nitric acid under
pressure and using aliquots of the
solution for analysis by suitable tech-
niques. Our tabulated data were below
0.3-3.0 microgram/gm that reported by
Holak, (1980), 10.0 ng/g salt (Alvarez
et al.,1986),0.7 microgram Pb/gm
(Solchaga et al.,1986).
The tabulated result also was
below results (Szłyk et al., 2004) and
using different methods (Mounicou et
al., 2003); concentrations range was
32.64-156.48 ng g(-1) Pb (II) content
in olive oil (La Pera L, et al., 2002).The
contents of lead in various milk and
dairy products consumed in Turkey
was rages 0.19-2.94 mg/L (p < 0.01)
for Pb (Tokutoglu et al., 2004).
The bioavailability of Pb was
generally below 10% and the concent-
rations measured in ghee were in
lower range. Virtually most of Pb was
found in the ghee after the manu-
facture which indicates either it's lev-
els milk and dairy product or polluted
from air or careless handling.
Since the 1960s a massive dec-
line in the land volume of the Egypt
has occurred as a result of the dive-
rsion of the supplying Nile River by
high dam and industrial development
schemes. The contaminated sediment
of the industrial former has been disse-
minated over the surrounding area by
winds or through water. This deterior-
ation of the ecosystem has created a
hazardous situation for the health of
approximately 22 million people live
in Cairo and 80 million in Egypt. This
study was undertaken to assist in
investigating the degree of exposure to
metals, especially persistent heavy
metals, the most vulnerable period and
to provide guidelines for future res-
earch.
The cadmium concentrations
were ranged between low in El Mon-
iuoub region (South Cairo) to high in
Shibin el kanater (north Cairo). Lower
in south Cairo (El Aiate; El Moniuoub
and El Hawamdia regions) than in
north Cairo (Shoubra el kima; Kalioub
and Shibin el kanater region).
Increased in industrial regions (El Ha-
wamdia and Kalioub regions) were
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 153
than land farming regions (El Aiat and
Shibin el kanater) but in manner diff-
erent than that of lead concentrations.
These values were lower than the
maximum permitted concentration for
cadmium in milk and butter in Egypt,
which is currently set at 0.05 mg/kg.
Our result below the cadmium
results determined in other food pro-
duct (0.10-1.0 microgram/g) (Holak,
1980 and Marletta and Favretto
1983), 0.4 ppb (Alvarez et al., 1986),
0.7 microgram Cd/g (Solchaga et al.,
1986). These value lower than samples
of peanut products (peanut butter, raw,
roasted and crushed peanuts from vari-
ous commercial producers) (Tinggi,
1998); butter (Ataniyazova et al., 2001)
and cocoa powders and related pro-
ducts (Mounicou et al.,2003); Cd (II)
concentrations range were 15.94-58.51
ng g(-1) in olive oil (La Pera et al.,
2002) and the contents of potentially
toxic elements cadmium in various
milk and dairy products consumed in
Turkey was ranges were 0.00-674.28
microg/L for Cd (Tokutoglu et al.2004).
All samples came from areas
located within 5-10 km of the southern
border of factories in north Cairo (Sh-
oubra el kima region) where car batt-
eries factors were hold. Further epide-
miological research is needed to
elucidate the health implications of
these pollutants on perinatal and mate-
rnal health, including lactation. More
importantly, an investigation should
be initiated to identify the emission
sources of persistent organic pollutants
in Cairo city and adjacent regions.
Although Concentrations only was
measured but bioavailability of cadm-
ium (Cd) were determined in different
geographical origins in indirect dire-
ctions. Particular attention must paid
to the fractionation of these metals,
which was investigated by determ-
ining the metal fraction soluble in
extracting solutions acting selectively
with regard to the different classes of
legends. The targeted classes of Cd
species included: water-soluble comp-
ounds, polypeptide and polysaccharide
complexes, and compounds soluble in
simulated gastrointestinal conditions.
The bioavailability of Cd was unme-
asured in ghee. The data obtained as a
function of the geographical origin of
the samples indicated strong differ-
ences not only in terms of the total Cd
and concentrations, but also with
regard to the bioavailability of these
metals. The Cd concentrations in ghee
as (Table 2) demonstrated, of which
10-50% was potentially bioavailability
(Mounicou et al., 2003). It result indi-
cted the dangers of these elements.
Virtually all the Cd presented in ghee
was became bioavilable which Excee-
dation of permissible tolerable weekly
intake (PTWI) of cadmium as it was
stated, in (26%) of estimated in 1997
year, and (14%) in 1998 diets were
above PTWI (Stopnicka et al., 1999
and Kumar et al., 2006). Other impor-
tant point was the nutrition of adoles-
154 Fahmy & Abd El-Fatah.
cent and in boarding schools. In
addition to the major constituent ele-
ment found at % level, several other
essential elements such as Na, K, Ca,
Mg, V, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn have also
been found in microg/g amounts and
ultratrace (ng/g) amounts of Au and
Co. These seem to remain chelated
with organic ligands derived. The cad-
mium is biologically produced non-
particles and are taken along with
milk, butter, honey, or ghee (a prep-
aration from milk); thus, this makes
these elements easily assailable, elimi-
nating their harmful effects and enha-
ncing their biocompatibility.
Effect of thermal regime (treatm-
ents) on measured minerals in ghee:
The concentrations of lead, ca-
dmium and zinc different according to
the different heat regimes (Table 4);
the regime 1 and 2 and 5 is much hi-
gher concentrations of the lead, cad-
mium concentrations (105.68 ± 3.67;
87.65 ± 8.77 and 88.50 ± 5.88, respe-
ctively) in regime 1; (106.58±2.53;
88.35±7.76 and 89.56 ±4.05, respec-
tively ) in regime 2 and (104.07 ±
4.56; 87.89 ± 8.59 and 86.89 ± 5.67,
respectively) in regime 5 than regime
3 (89.00 ± 4.44 (P<0.001); 77.44 ±
6.34 (P<0.01) and 76.56 ± 4.84
(P<0.001) ,respectively) and in regime
4 (87.34 ± 3.45 (P<0.001); 79.10 ±
9.88 (P<0.05) and 74.36 ± 6.77
(P<0.001), respectively).
Although scientific explanat-
ions of the decrease the lead; cadmium
and zinc concentrations were unavai-
lable. It may due to aggressive metals
extraction procedure or due Lead and
cadmium were determined with graph-
ite furnace on a solution of the ashed
sample. This decrease associated with
changes in rheological and thermal
Properties of ghee (Table 5).
Sensor, Rheological and thermal
Properties of ghee
The heat treatment affect on
the Sensor and physical properties
(Table 5) with increasing rancid odor
with change in color and affecting
firmness and melting properties and
spread ability which may affect the
consumer and it is buying ability. The
only explanations to changes in this
property due to change in butter flavo-
ring components such as diacetyl, but-
yric acid, acetoin, propylene glycol, 2-
nonanone, and triacetin and bag comp-
onents such as p-xylene and perfluo-
rinated alcohol 8:2 telomer (Rosati et
al.,2007).
The increase in the melting
enthalpy of the ghee and in the final
melting temperature with the increa-
sing proportion of temperature can
also be explained by the modifications
of the crystalline structure formation
and their stability to heating caused by
triglycerides and thus FA composi-
tions (Lagiou et al.,1999) (MMF frac-
tion would be correlated to the cont-
SCVMJ, XIII (1) 2008 155
ents of C4:0-C16:0-C16:0 and C16:0-
C16:0-C18:1 triglycerides, and to the
C4:0/C18:1 and C16:0/C18:1 ratios
and linear decrease in palmitic acid),
associated with decrease in butter
hardness and the texture improvement
and the increase in moisture content
(Goude´dranche et al., 2000). Also,
changes had higher concentrations of
conjugated linoleic acid, transvaccenic
acid, and unsaturated fatty acids (Baer
et al., 2001; Hurtaud et al. 2002;
Desroches et al, 2005; Couvreur et
al.,2006 and Schmid et al., 2008) wh-
ich need further examinations .
Conclusion: 1. Little studies have recently been
devoted to the determination of lead
and cadmium in ghee, in view of the
toxicity of these metals and the impo-
rtance of ghee in the diet of human.
2. The range of the lead and cadmium
content found in these products (ghee)
is comparable with recent literature
data concerning uncontaminated sam-
ples. 3. The method used is a rapid, repr-
oducible, and accurate determination
of lead, cadmium and zinc in dairy
products (ghee) and can be used in the
analysis of marketed formulations in
the milk and dairy industry.
4. The variability that can expect
generally was high for ghee.
5. The results for lead, cadmium and
zinc in ghee product were in the parts
per billion range and compare well
with literature data.
6. The intake of lead, cadmium and
zinc from milk and milk products and
ghee is less than 1% of the total
Egyptian food intake of these elem-
ents.
7. It is concluded that the contribution
from ghee to the total intake of lead
and cadmium is toxicologically insig-
nificant and that ghee product is only a
minor source of the essential element
zinc.
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الملخص العربى
خطوات كيميائيه تحليله فى تقدير الزنك والرصا ص و الكا دميوم فى السمن البلدى
عبد الفتاح. فهمى و شها ب ا.ا.با سم ج
–معهد بحوث صحه الحيوان –قسم الكيمياء الحيويه وامراض النقص الغذائى والسموم ومعمل الجيزه القاهره –الدقى
االضا فات الغذائيه المميزه التى تستخدم فى الطعا م لما له من الفوائد يعتبر السمن البلدى من
.الكثيره واحتوائه على الدهون فى صوره نقيه وبتركيزات عاليه
تم تجميع العينات من منا طق مختلفه فى شما ل وجنوب القاهره الكبرى وتم قياس وتقدير كل
وكا ن تركيز . ا من الفالحين والمصانع المحليهمن الزنك والرصا ص والكا دميوم من عينات تم تجمعه
وكان تركيز الرصا ص (. كجم/ ميكروجرام ) 6.50 ± 65.08الى 8.66 ± 65.08الزنك بين
اما الكادميوم فكان تركيزه فى السمن (. كجم/ ميكروجرام )7.89 ± 556.86الى 5.60 ± 55.59
المعا مله الحراريه قد (. كجم/ رام ميكروج) 9.69 ± 66.70الى 8.76 ± 65.66البلدى بين
استخدمت لكى يتم االقالل تركيزات الرصاص والكادميوم ولكنها كانت مصاحبه بتغير فى الصفا ت
.الفيزيقيه والطبيعيه للسمن
بالرغم من ان تركيزات كل من الرصا ص والكا دميوم كانت اقل من تلك المسموح بها بالنسبه
ريه االان يساعد فى ذلك ان السمن البلدى قد تراجع فى اولويا ت البيت الى اللوائح الدوليه والمص
. المصرى وال يعتبر من مصادر امداد المستهلك بعنصر حيوي مثل الزنك